*
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Compiledfnm the writings °ftbe UJl Authors, in feveral languages ; the mojl approved DiSionaries, as well of general fcience as of its parti*
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V O L. VII.
INDOCTI DISCANT, ET AMENT MRMINISS E PEKITI.
EDI N BURG Hs
PRISTED FOR A. BELL AND C. MACFAR<1UHAIL
MDCCXCVil.
Cnterea in Stationer# in ef tte aa of Parliament
Encyclopedia Britannica
E T M
Ethlops T7 THIOPS ANTIMONIAL, MARTIAL, End MINERAL.
R rj See Pharmacy-A^x.
>Etmuller ETHMOIDES, In anatomy, a bone fituated in
' vthe middle of the bafis of the forehead or os frontis,
and at the top of the root of the nofe, filling almoft
the whole cavity of the noftrils. It has its name from
cribrum, “ fieve,” and ‘<*»f “ form,” becaufe all
fpongy and porous. See Anatomy, n1 17.
ETHNARCHA. Ethnarch, (formed of na¬
tion, and atX} command), a governor or ruler of a na¬
tion.
There are fome medals of Herod I. furnamed the
Great, on one fide whereof is found 'Hpatou, and on the
other EBvyp rev, q. d. Herod the Ethnarch. After the
battle of Philippi, we read that Antony, palling over
into Syria, conftituted Herod and Phafael his brother
tetrarchs, and in th%t quality committed to them the
admin llration of the affairs of Judea. ( Jof. Ant. lib. xiv.
cap. 23.) Herod therefore had the govrnment of the
province before ever the Parthians entered Syria, or
before Antigonus’s invafion, which did not happen till
fix or feven years after Herod was commander in Ga¬
lilee. (Jof. lib. xiv. cap. 24, 25.) Confequently He¬
rod was then truly ethnarch, for he can be no other-
wife denominated; fo that it muff have been in that
fpace of time that the medals were ftruck, which only
give him this title : which medals are a confirmation
of what we read in hiftory of the government which
that prince was intrufted with before he was raifed to
the royalty.
Joiephus gives Herod the appellation of tetrarch in
lieu of that of ethnarch; but the two terms come fo
near to each other, that it is eafy to confound them
together.
Though Herod the Great left by will to Archelaus
all Judea, Samaria, and Idumea, yet Jofephus tells us he
was then only called ethnarch.
ETHNi. Pi i RONES, in antiquity, a fee! of he¬
retics in the feventh century, who made a profeffion of
Chriftianity, but joined thereto all the ceremonies and
follies of paganifm, as judicial aftrology, fortileges, au¬
guries, and other divinations.
ETIQUETTE, a French term, primarily denoting
a ticket or title affixed to a bag or bundle of papers,
expreffing its contents. It is alfo ufed, when applied
to the Spanifh and fome other courts, to fignify a
articula-r account of what is to be done daily in the
ing’s houfehold, and in the chief ceremonies relating
to it- It likewife denotes thofe forms that regulate
the decorum of conduit towards peifons of various
ranks and ffations.
ETMULLER (Michael), a moft eminent phvfi-
Vot.VII. Parti.
E T N
cian, born at Leipfic in 1646. After having travelled Etna,
through the greateft part of Europe, he became pro- *
feflbr of botany, chemittry, and anatomy, at Leipfic;
where he died in 1683. He was a very voluminous
writer; his works making no lefs than 5 vols folio, as
printed at Naples in 1728. His fon Michael Erneff:
Etmuller was alfo an ingenious phyfician, who publilh-
ed feveral pieces, and died in 1732. r
ETNA, or .Etna, a famous burning mountain of HouePsoV
Sicily, and the largefl: in Europe ; of which an accountferratious.
has been already given under the latter fpelling .Etna.
The following additional particulars relating to the
eruptions, fize, feenery, and products, of this cele¬
brated volcano, are collefted from the Voyage Pittorefque
of M. Houel, who appears to have furveyed it»with
greater accuracy than any former traveller.
The form of mount Etna is that 'of a cone, very
broa 1 at the bafe, which is more than 40 miles in cir¬
cumference. From the bottom you afeend ten leagues
before reaching its fummit on the fouth fi-ie ; and on
any of the other fides, the way being not fo ftraight,
would be confiderably longer. Etna is entirely com-
pofed of fubftances that have been difeharged from the
volcano in its various explofions.
It appears from the quantities of marine bodies de-
pofited all over the under part of Etna, that it muff;
have been once covered by the lea to at leaft one
half of its prefent height. The whole ifland of Sicily,
and the greateft psirt of mount Etna, have been, in our
author’s opinion, iormed under water. But the period
when the eruptions from this volcano firft commenced,
the manner in which the fea fubfided, and the precife
time at which it fell fo low as its prefent level on the
Ihores of Sicily, are fadls concerning of which we
have no certain knowledge.
The general principle, however, M. Houel thinks
may be regarded as undeniable. When this mountain
ttood half under water, the currents of the ocean
would gradually accumulate upon it large mafles, both
of its own productions, fuch as ftiells, and bones of
filhes, and of various other matters, which would be
intermixed with the volcanic matters difeharged from
the focus of the burning mount. In a long feries of
ages thefe ftrata of heterogeneous matters would na¬
turally become fo confiderable as to form the enor¬
mous mafs of mountains with which the volcano is
now furrounded. The currents of the ocean migl«| of¬
ten convey the volcanic matters to a confiderable
diftance from the volcanic focus. And there are
mountains at* no fmall diftance from Etna, which feem
to have been produced in this manner. Thofe of
Carlintini, at the diftance of 15 leagues, confift chiefly
A of
E T N [ 2 ] E T N
of a mixture of pozzolana with calcareous matters.
' At Lintini, and in places around it, there are diftinft
beds of pozzolana, fcorias, and real lava, as well as
others in which all thefe matters are blended together
in a mafs of calcareous matter. At Palazzolo, about
24 miles from the city of Syracufe, the fides of the
hills having been cut by the ftreams which run down
them, in many places to a confiderable depth, difplay
huge mafles of lava, and extenfive beds of pozzolana.
In the neighbourhood of Noto there are alfo volcanic
productions to be found.
At Pachino, where the ifland of Sicily forms an
angle, there are a range of hills extending for feveral
miles, which confift all of pozzolana.
The province of Val de Noto ft more homogene¬
ous in the matters of which its foil confifts, than the
two other dales of Sicily. Thefe, in every hill which
they contain, exhibit a vaft variety of different matters.
So amazing, indeed, is that variety, that they may be
confidered as exhibiting a collection of fpecimens of
all the different materials which enter into the compo-
fition of the globe. In thefe two dales few volcanic
productions have been yet obferved. But it is not to
be inferred for this reafon, that they contain but few.
They may be hereafter difcovered in great plenty. In
the volcano of water at Maccalubbe, between Ara-
gona and Girginti; in the baths of Caftellamare, near
Alcamo and Segefte ; in the baths of Termini, in the
ifles of Lipari; in the hot waters of AH, between
Meffina and Taormina, by the lake in the valley of
Caltagirone ; in all thefe places, which comprehend the
whole circumference of Sicily, the influence of the
volcano of Etna is, in fome meafure, felt. Nay, it
would even feem, that in thefe places there are fo riaany
volcanic craters. All of thefe are fo difpofed as to
fhow that they exifted f>rior not only to the volcanic
matters, but to the other fubftances intermixed with
them.
The waters of the fea have, in former times, rifen
much higher than at. prefent. But how they retreated,
or whether they are to continue ftationary at their
prefent height, we know not. For more than 2000
years, during which Sicily has been inhabited, and has
had cities and harbours, the fea has not been ob¬
ferved either to recede or encroach in any confiderable
degree.
When the fea fubfided from mount Etna, the moun¬
tain muft have been covered over with fuch matters as
the fea ufually depofits; confequently with calcare¬
ous matters. A part of thofe matters would be in¬
durated by the adtion of the atmofphere, while the
reft would be carried down by the rain-waters, and
again conveyed into the ocean. The torrents of rain¬
water which pour down the fides of mount Etna have
furrowed its fides, by cutting out for themfelves chan¬
nels ; and they have removed from its fummit, and are
ftill removing to a farther diftance, all the extraneous
bodies upon it. In many places, they flow at prefent
over a channel of lava, having cut through all tire
matters which lay above it: ftill, however, there re¬
main in many places both calcareous matter and other
marine productions, which fhow that this volcano has
been once covered by the waters of the ocean. But
thefe are daily wafting awayj, not only the rains, but
men likewife, who carry them off as materials for lime Etna-
and for building, confpire to deface them. v *
No fewer than 77 cities, towns, and villages, are
feattered over the fides of Etna. They are moft nu¬
merous on the fouth fide, where the temperature of
the air is milder than on the north. Reckoning thofe
cities, towns, and villages, one with another, to con¬
tain each 1200 or 1500 fouls, the whole number of
the inhabitants of mount Etna will then be 92,400,
or 115,500. But it is certainly much more confiderable.
On plate CLXXXIV. is exhibited a view of the Fig. r.
north-eaft fide of the mountain, taken at fea. The 1
lower part prefents to the eye very extenfive plains en- Atrcoimt^oF
tirely covered with lava of different thicknefs, on which
vegetation has not yet made any prqgrefs. The the moun-
nearer the fhore the more barren is the ground-; whiletain.
the fertility of the foil increafes as we advance farther
inwards. The mountain is every where full of vaft
excavations; which our author confiders as a proof,
that inftead of increafmg in bulk, it is actually in a 3
ftate of decay and diminution. The vaft torrents ofSuppofeff
lava, which overfpread the fides of it from time ta^° be
time, he confiders as infufficient to repair the wafteCaye °
occafioned by rains, rivulets, and torrents flowing down
from the fummit. Unlefs the eruptions, therefore, be¬
come more frequent than, they have been for fome
time paft, he fuppofes that, by degrees, the height of
the mountain muft be reduced to that of the furround¬
ing beds of lava. He had not an opportunity of mea-
furing the altitude of Etna himfelf; but he obferves
that it had been done by the celebrated M. de Sauf- 4
fure, who found the elevation to be 10,036 feet. This Sau flu re’s
was done on the 5th of June 1773, at 20 minutes af-a£co“n.t °£
ter feven in the morning. The height of the barome- 0££t^ *"
ter on the moft eL/ated part at the brink of the cra¬
ter was 18 inches 1 ij: lines ; which, by the neceffary
correftions, is reduced to 18 inches loj-y lines. At
the fame time the mercury at Catania, placed only one
foot above the level of the fea, ftood at 28 inches 2-fe¬
lines; which muft be reduced to 28 inches lines, on
account of the neceffary corredtions for the thermo¬
meter. ?
From Giana our author had an opportunity of con- Mountains
templating the vaft number of calcareous, mountsof caicare'
fcattered over that part of Etna; which (he fays)ous IBatter*
“ are nothing more than fragments, the flender re¬
mains of thofe enormous maffes which have been de-
pofited all around tke bafe of mount Etna ; and are a
very curious monument of the revolutions which this
mountain has undergone.*’ They are of a true calca¬
reous nature ; and the inhabitants are accuftomed to
fupply themfelves with limeftone from them. They
alfo ufe the ftones of which thefe mounts are com-
pofed for the purpofes of building ; as the lava is
fo hard that it cannot be cut without the greateft
difficulty, and they have no other ftone in thefe parts.
Leaving this place, our author travelled over leveral
extenfive plains of lava, covered on each fide of the
way with ftunted trees, but without any cultivation ;
the lava being of that kind which is very unfavourable
to the growth of vegetables. Arriving at St Le¬
onardo, he observed the courfe of the eruption of wa¬
ter in 1755, and which is mentioned under the former
article -L r:,'.v,
This
Plate C L X X XXV
E T N [3
ttna. This water took its courfe down the weft Tide of the
mountain ; and the channel which it cut for itfelf
6 ]s ftill vifible. The eruption of water from burning
'ccoimt of 's ftift much lefs frequent than that of lava
tViiTrup- or half vitrified folid matters, allies, &c. though that
tion of wa- of water, and even mixed with the (h^ils of marine
>*er in i • animals (though we are not told whether it was fait
•or not), has fometimes been obferved in other volca¬
noes, particularly Vefuvius. The eruption we now
fpeak of happened in the month of February 1775*
It was preceded by an exceedingly thick black fmoke<
iffuing from the crater, intermixed with flafnes of fire.
This fmoke gradually became thicker, and the burfts of
flame more frequent. Earthquakes and fubterraneoUs
thutider convulfed the mountain, and ftruck the in¬
habitants of the.adjacent parts with the utmoft terror.
On Sunday, the fecond of March, the mountain was
Teen to emit a huge column of fmoke exceedingly
denfe and black, with a dreadful noife in the bowels'
of the earth? accompanied alfo with violent flalhes
of lightning.'. From time to time there were loud
‘cracks, like the explofions of cannon; the mountain ap¬
peared to (hake from its foundations; the air on that
fide next M^fcali became very dark, and loud peals of
thunder were heard. Thefe feemed to iffue from two
caverns, confiderably below the fummit, on the fide of
the mountain, and were accompanied with violent blalls
of wind like a tempeft.
Thefe terrible phenomena continued and increafed ;
Etna feemed ready to fwallow up at once all thofe ma¬
terials which it had been for fo many years difgorging,
or rather about to fink at once into the bowels of the
earth from whence it appeared to have been elevated.
The profpeft was far beyond any idea that can be
given by defcription of this tremendous fcene. The
inhabitants were alarmed beyond meafure ; the fight
of the flames driven by the wind againft the fides of
the mountain, the (hockfc of the earthquake, and the
fall of rocks, ftruck the imagination with a horror not
\ to be conceived. During this dreadful Commotion
an immenfe torrent of water was emitted from the
higheft crater of the mountain. The whole fummit
of Etna was at that time covered with a thick coating
of fnow. Through this the boiling water directed its
courfe eaftward; and, in its pafiage, met with fright¬
ful precipices. Over thefe it dallied with the utmoft
violence, adding its tremendous roaring to the com¬
plicated horrors of this awful fcene. The fnow, melt¬
ing inftantaneoufly as the boiling torrent advanced, in¬
creafed its deftrutftive power by augmenting its quan¬
tity, while the mischievous effefts of the heat were
fcarce diminiftitci oy reafon of the immenfe quantity of
boiling liquid which continued to pour from the fum¬
mit of the mountain.
This boiling torrent having dafhed its awful catara&s
from one chain of rocks to another, at length reached
the cultivated plains, which it overflowed for a num¬
ber of miles. Here it divided itfelf into feveral branches,
forming as many deep and rapid rivers; which, after
feveral other (ubdiviiions, difcharged themfelves into
the fea.
Though the mountain continued to difcharge wa¬
ter in this manner only for half an hour, the ravages
of it were very terrible. Not only thofe of common
inundations, fuch as tearing up trees, hurrying along
] £ T M
rocks and large ftones, took place here, but the ftill E'n4
more dreadful effects of boiling water were felt. Every
cultivated fpot was laid wafte, and every thing touch¬
ed by it was deftroyed. Even thofe who were placed
beyond the reach of the torrent, beheld with inex-
prefiible horror the deftru&ion occafioned by itand
though the alarming noifes which had fo long iflued
from the mountain now ceafed in a great meafure, the
(hocks of earthquakes, and the violent fmoke which
continued to iffue from the mountain, (bowed that the
danger was not over. Two new openings were now
obferved, and two torrents of lava began to make their
way through the fnow.
On the 7th of March a dreadful noife was again
heard in the bowels of the mountain, and a new co¬
lumn of very thick and black fmoke began to iffue
from it. A horrid explofion of fmall ftones fucceed-
ed ; fame of which were carried as far as the hills of
Mafcali, and great quantities of black fand to Medina,
and even quite over the ftrait to Reggio in Calabria.
On the drifting of the wind to the northward this
fand reached as far as the plains of Agofta. Two days
after the mountain opened again, and a new torrent
of lava was difcharged ; which, however, advanced
very flowly towards the plain, moving only at the
rate of a mile in a day. It continued to flow in this
manner for fix days, when every thing appeared fo quiet,
that the Canon Recupero fet out to view the changes
which had taken place. ^
That gentleman’s defign was to trace the courfe of Courfe of
the dreadful torrent of water above mentioned. This the torrent
he was very eafily enabled to do by the ravages it had “ ace<1 ^
made; and, by following the channel it had cut all ■
the way from the fea to the fummit of the volcano,
he found that this immenfe quantity of water had
iffued from the very bowels of the mountain. After
iffuing from the crater, and increafing its ftream by
paffing through and melting the fnow which lay imme¬
diately below the fummit, it deftroyed in an inftant a
fine and extenfive foreft of fir-trees. All of thefe were
torn up by the violence of the current, though many
were no lefs than 24 or 30 inches in diameter. He
obferved that the great ftream had, in its defcent, di¬
vided itfelf into four branches; and thefe had again
fubdivided themfelves into feveral fmaller ones, eafily
diftinguiftiable by the quantity of fand they had de-
pofited. Afterwards reuniting their dreams, they
formed many iflands, and rivers 900 feet in breadth,
and of a depth which could not eafily be determined.
Proceeding farther down, and ftill forcing its way
among the beds of old lava, the channel of the waters
was widened to 1500 feet, until it was again contraft-
ed in the valleys as before. Every object which ftood
. in the way of this tremendous torrent was moved from
its place. Enormous rocks were not only hurried
down, but feveral of them moved to more elevated
fituations than thofe they formerly occupied. Whole
hills of lava had been removed and broken to pie¬
ces, and their fragments fcattered along the courfe
of the river, and the valleys were filled up by vaft
quantities of fand which the waters had depofited.
Our author obferved, that even at the time he vifited
the mountain, about 10 years after the eruption, the
whole fide of it ftill bore the marks of this deluge.
On M. Houel’s arrival at Jaci Catena, he inquired
A 2 ht
E T N [4
Etna, for the phyficlan of the place ; it being cuftomary for
to do f0 who want to learn any thing con¬
cerning the curiofities of the country, as the phy-
8 ficians there are generally thofe who have any preten-
Account of fions to literature. By this guide he was fhown a
?'ema,j5- well which they call Holy Water. There is a flight
able well. o£ ^£pS from t]ie furface of the ground to that of the
water. The well itfelf is 20 feet wide and 40 feet
deep. It is fupplied by three diffeient fprings, each
of which is faid to have a peculiar tafte. The phy-
fician informed our author, that one of them reiem-
bled milk in its tatte ; another tafted like foap; and
the third had the tafte of common water: but om.au¬
thor, after tailing each of them, could not finJTatiy
9 remarkable difference.
In his way to La Trizza, our outhor difcovered
1
^ome very anc’ent baths -with ftoves. They had been
Bafaltic
Tfiicks abo
Trizza.
Rocks of
Slops.1
built here on account of a fpring of warm fulphureous
water, fuppofed to be excellent for the cure of cuta-
10 neous diforders; and for which purpofe they are ftiil
StVenera nia^e u^e They are now called the Springs of St
Venera, of whom there is an image here. The foun¬
tain from which they flow is on a level with the furface
of the ground. The water taftes very difagreeably of
fulphur; and depofits a quantity of white impalpable
powder, adhering to herbs and Hones, over which it
paffes. This fubftance our author calls the cream of
fulphur; though it is probably a felenitic fubftance
formed by the decompolition of the fulphur, and the
union of its acid with fume calcareous matter which
held it in folution before.
From this place our author proceeded to the fea-port
of Trizza,a fmall place, which with the adjacent country
contains only about 300 inhabitants. ■ Off the harbour
of this place is a bafaltic rock, which feems to be on¬
ly the remains of a much larger one deftrpyed by the
aftion of the air. All around are long ranges of ba-
faltes, the fpecies of which are very various.
The rocks of the Cyclops {land round the fmall har¬
bour of La Trizza; and from this view we perceive a
number of rocks of very different heights. All of them
appear more or-lefs above water, though fome are fo
low that they cannot be feen without approaching
very near ; and this circumftance renders the harbour
inacceffible to veffels of any confiderable burden, at the
fame time that, by reafon of the depth of the fea, it
is impoffible either to cut or unite them by a mole.
The principal of thefe rocks is the extremity of an
ifland, One half of which is compofed of lava placed on
a bafaltic bafe ; over this is a cruft of pozzolano, com¬
bined with a kind of white calcareous matter of. a
pretty hard and compadl confiftence; and which, by
the aelion of the air, affumes the appearance of knot¬
ty porous wood. On this fubject our author obferves,
that “ the rock, at fome former period, had become
fo hard as to fplit, and the clefts were then filled up
with a very hard matter which was porous on all fides
like fcorise. That matter afterwards fplit alfo ; lea
ving large interftices, which in their turn have been
filled up with a kind of compound yellow matter. The
.ifland appears to have been formerly inhabited, but is
at prefent deftitute both of inhabitants and of cul¬
ture, only the people of La Trizza feed a few goats
ppon it.”
To the fouthward of the harbour of La Trizza w,e
E T N
obferve feveral fragments of bafaltes, both in the form 'Etna.
of needles and in that of prifmatic columns of a very mt
regular form, and which may be ealily feparated from different
one another. From the pofition in which thefe frag-ki ds^of
ments are difpofed, it appears that the mafs to which bafaltes.
they belong muft have fuffer'ed fome very violent fhock;
otherwife fuch huge rocks could never have been bro¬
ken, overturned, and fcattered in dire&ions fo very dif¬
ferent from their original pofitions. In one of thefe
ruins there are fome parts harder than the reft, which
withftand the aftion of the air, while the intervening
fpaces yield to it, and appear to be thus deftroyed. In
fome others this effect is much more remarkable ; be-
caufe the column happens to b*much farther advanced
towards a tlate of diffolution, the parts of which they
confift being already disjoined; and in each of thofe
which projedt we perceive a fiffure : which {hows that '
each of thefe parts may be divided into two. “ They
are indeed (fays our author) actually divided, and
difplay a convexity iffuing from a concavity, like a
pile of hats placed pne upon another, when they are
removed one by one ; which is a very curious fingu-
larity.” I4
Continuing his journey ftiil fouthward, our author Promon-
arrived at the promontory of the Caftel d’Aci. This tory of the
is the moft Angularly curious of all that are in the
neighbourhood of Etna. The ancient mafs of it is in- e cn e<‘
clofed between two bodies of lava of a more modern
origin. Thefe compofe the rocks on which Caftel
d’Aci is fituated, and which lie under the foil of the
adjacent country. Beyond that city are the immenfe
plains of the lower part of Etna. Thefe gradually
rife till they reach the fummit, which is hid among
the clouds. The promontory is almbft entirely com¬
pofed of bafaltes, the interftices. of which are filled up
with a yellowifli matter, which feems-to be a clay
nearly of the fame nature with that formerly taken no¬
tice of in the ifland of La Trizza It alfo covers the
mafs of bafaltes, and has produced both the fuperior
and anterior parts of the promontory. Here our author
faw a number of women employed in wafliing webs of
cloth in the fea; and takes notice of the dexterous me¬
thod they have of lifting it up in folds, and packing it
on their heads in bundles without receiving any affift-
ance., At the foot of this promontory are many cu¬
rious bafaltic rocks. 15
All along the eaftern fide of Mount Etna the foil igGreatquan-
broken, but filled with beautiful varieties of bafaltes, found,
highly worthy of obfervation. Indeed, according to on Etna,
our author’s opinion, there is no volcano in Europe fo
rich as Etna in bafaltes, nor where fo many curious fi¬
gures of it are to be feen.
Mr Houel having fpent fome more time in vifiting Mr HoudV
the bafaltic columns around the foot of the mountain, journey to
fet out from Aci to vifit the famous chefnut-tree, men-
tioned under the article ./Etna, and which is known tree
in that country by the name of “The chefnut-tree for an
hundred horfes. In his way thither he paffed through
the villages of Fortezza, Mangamo, St Leonardo, St
Matteo, aad La Macchia. The landfcapes of each of
thefe places by itfelf are extremely beautiful; but the
country between them is a frightful wild defart, pre-
fenting to the eye nothing but extenfive plains of black
lava, which at a diftance have the appearance of vaft
quantities of pit-coal. The roads became rougher as
they
E T INT^.
Plate CLXXXV.
E T N
Etna, they advanced; but the adjoining fields aflumed a more
**■*""*—“-' fmiling afpedt. The reafon of this is, that the tor¬
rents of lava (by which the plains are rendered unfit
for vegetation for a great number of years) have rolled
rapidly down the more fteep fides of the mountain
without deftroying the fertility sf the foil.
Travelling through very difficult roads, and often
incommoded with dangerous precipices, our author at
jy laft. arrived at the celebrated chefnut-tree, which was
Great num-the chief objedt of this j®urney. He obferves, that
tier-of chef-all over this fide of the mountain the chefnut trees
nuts trees ^iirjTC very well, and are carefully cultivated by the in-
on this fide habitants. They are worked into hoops for calks, and
of Ktna. a confiderable trade is carried on in this article. The
[ 5 1
E T N
which has fome flight refemblance to a ffiip. Its dia- Etntv
meter is 25 feet, fo that the circumference cannot' be  * mmmJ
lefs than 75. In thefe extenfive forefls, however, there
are chefnut trees of every age and fize. 2s
Out* Author’s next vifit was paid to a fnow grotto, ®tK’w
being one of thofe magazines where that article, fo ne-^e cri”
cefiary in the hot climate of Sicily, is preferved for ufe. 23
In his way thither he vifited the foreft of pines ; which Fore ft of
is fo much furrounded by rocks and precipices, that it Ptnesm.th®
is fcarce acceffible ; and vail numbers of the trees are *
dying of old age^ Some of the neighbouring peafants,
however, will now and then attempt to cayry them off.
Our author faw one of them at this work. It was
draws by oxen, who were yoked to it by a chain con-
18 great one which he came to vifit, exceeds the fize of nedled with the beam by art iron cramp. But the ex-
^c'mntof other trees fo much that it cannot fail to excite the
tfee great admiration. It has its name from the follow,
tree. ing circumftance. Jean of Arragon fpent fome time
in Sicily on her way from Spain to Naples: While
here, Ihe vifited Mount Etna, attended by her princi¬
pal nobility ; and happening to be overtaken by a
ftorm, they took Ihelter under this tree, whofe
branches were fufficiently extenfive to cover them all.
By others, however, this ftory is treated as a mere
fable.
According to our author’s account, this chefnut
tree is 160 feet in circumference, but quite hollow
within • which, however, affedls not its verdure ; for
the chefnut tree, like the willow, depends upon its
bark for fubfiftence, and by age lofes its internal part.
As the cavity of this enormous mafs is very confider¬
able, the people have built an houfe in it, where they
n thehave an oven for drying nuts, almonds, and chefnuts,
*9
An houfe
built 11
hollow of
&c. of which they make conferves. They frequently
fupply themfelves with wood from the tree which in¬
circles their houfe, fo .that it feems likely, in a Ihort
time, to go to ruin through the ingratitude and
thoughtleflhefs of its inhabitants.
Is not com- h3S been thought that this tree was compofed of a
pofed of a number of others grown together; but our author is of
number of a different opinion. In deferibing it particularly, how-
{’™wnever, we mult feparate it from the trunks i, /, (on the
plan), which properly belong to three other trees. The
together.
treme roughnefs of the road made the tree leap and
bound in fuch a manner, that the poor creatures were
every moment in danger of having their legs broken, or
being hurried over precipices along with their driver ;
accidents which happen not unfrequently, and which
render this occupation lefs generally pradlifed than o~
therwife it would be.
The fnow grotto is but lately formed by the aftion
of the waters under the beds of lava, and carrying away
the ftratum of pozzolana below them. It is fituated
on a mount named Finocchio, which, though of very
confiderable fize, is only a protuberance on the fide of
Etna. It has been repaired in the infide at the ex¬
pence of the knights of Malta, who have hired this
as well as feveral other caverns‘in the mountain for the
purpofe of holding fnow, which they have Hill more
occafion for in their ifland than the inhabitants of Si¬
cily. There are two openings above, at which they
throw in the fnow ; .and flights of Heps have been cut
to thefe as well as'in the internal parts. A confider¬
able extent of ground is levelled and inclofed with high
walls above the grotto ; fo that when the wind, which
at this elevation blows with great violence, carries the
fnow down from the higher parts of the mountain, it
is Hopped and detained by the walls of this inclofure.
It is then thrown into the grotto, where the thicknefs
of the beds of lava which cover it prevents any impref-
fion from the fummer-heat. When the feafon for ex- How the
CLXXXV. dotted line, and the letters a, b, c, d, e,f,g, mark out portation comes on, the fnow is put into large bagf,
Other tre:
of vaft di-
aaejifions.
the tyue circumference of the tree we fpeak of. The
parts of that circumference are not all contiguous, fe¬
veral pieces having been taken away from the places
marked g and s, between which the houfe Hands. In
other places the bark is rent afunder ; but, fays our
author, “by a natural motion, the divided parts,
feeking to reunite, or rather to {belter themfelves from
the adlion of the external air, are bent inwards fo as to
form the circular arcs a, b} c, d, which may indeed be
taken for fo many different trees, though they appear
properly to belong to the fame trunk,
s Befides this, there are abundance of other trees in
the neighbourhood very remarkable* for their fize.
Our traveller was fiiown a number of young trees of
the fame fpecies, all very beautiful and Hraight, and
almoH as fmooth as polifhed marble. One of thefe
was 38 feet in circumference, and there were a num¬
ber of others neatly of the fame fize. Among thefe
there were feven Handing together, which have recei¬
ved the name of the ftven brethren. Another is deno¬
minated the (hip} from the general figure of its top,
and preffed into them as clofe as poffible. Thus it is™eJtjng
rendered compadl and heavy, and likewife runs lefs rilk jurina; ex-
of being affedted Isy the heat. It is then carried out portatiosu
upon mens fhoulders, and conveyed to the fiiore on
mules. Before it is put into the bags, the lumps of
fnow are carefully wrapped up in leaves, which is ano¬
ther prefervative ; at the fame time that the frefh con¬
gelation of the little which melts, unites the maffes
fo together, that our author infonns us he has* feen
pieces of the fnow preferved in this manner which look¬
ed like the faireH and moH tranfparent cryfial. 25
Our author’s next excurfion was to Mount Roffo, Ace mot¬
or the Red Mountain, which is one of the mouths of
Etna, and through which it difeharges from time to
time great quantities of lava, fand, allies, &c. It is
the moH celebrated of all the numerous mouths which
have opened on the fide of the mountain, though it has
become fo noted only for having poured forth the
matter of the great eruption in 1669, and which is the
moH remarkable of any recorded in hifiory.
“ When a new crater (fays our author) is formed!
E T N [ '
'■Sms. on mount Etna, it is always in confequence of fome
fhock that is powerful enough to break the arches of
New^cra *ts caverns* Doubtlefs it is inconceivable that there
tershow" Should be any ?gent endowed with fudi force; but
farmed. when fuch a fracture is once made, it is neceffarily
very large, and the furface of the ground above cannot
but be broken in feveral different places at confiderable
diftances from one another. The matter which is dif-
charged always iffues from the principal opening and
thofe adjoining to it. None of thefe mouths, however,
continue open, excepting that which is dire&ly in
the line in which the matter is difeharged ; the lava
foon choaking up thofe which are in a more oblique
dire&ion.”
Our author went down one of thefe openings with
torches; but could not reach the bottom, and was
obliged to return on account of the extreme cold. The
defeent was extremely difficult, and became more fo in
proportion as he advanced. This crater is of an oval
form, and the opening through which he defeended
was in one extremity.; but he was tempted to think
that the crater which rifes above it had been formed
of matter difeharged by another mouth ; or perhaps it
might have had a more centrical opening, through
which the ftones, fend, &c. which form the crater,
•were difeharged.
Four of the mouths of this mount appear to be
- compofed of a reddifh pozzolano, which has procured
it the name of the Red Mountain; but when we afeend
the pyramids, or rather funnels which they form, we
find them compofed of different coloured layers of fend.
Some of thefe are of a bluifh grey colour, others of a
fine yellow, and fome of a kind of green formed by a
mixture of grey and yellow, while others are of a red
- colour. A great number of fmall cry Hals, black fchoerls,
and granites, are found among them, as well as pieces
of fcoria, which had been difeharged by the volcano in
the form of a thick and glutinous matter. All thefe
mouths have internally the form of a funnel, and their
lhape is nearly that of a mutilated cone or round py¬
ramid. This is the natural and unavoidable confe-
quence of the perpendicular fall of the pulverifed mat¬
ter which the volcano difeharges from the orifice at
the bottom. The fides of the craters are not all of
one height; the parts to the eaft and weft being con-
fiderably higher than the intermediate fummits, be-
caufe the currents of the afhes paffed alternately from
eaft to weft, and fell upon thefe fides in greater quan¬
tities than on the others; which circumftance has given
to this volcano the appearance of having two fummits.
■Convent of M. Hdiiel, having finilhed his obfervations on Monte
ilicolofi de- R0ffo, returned to the convent of Nicolofi, which is
icribed now onjy an houfe for the entertainment of travellers.
The Benedi&ines of Catana, to whom it belongs, vifit
this place only when in an ill ftatc of health, as the pu¬
rity of the air renders it very felutary to the human
conftitution. A folitary brother, however, refides
here to take care of the houfe, and to fuperintend the
cultivation of the neighbouring plains. Thofe fathers
once poffeffed an extenfive and very fertile traift of
land in this neighbourhood ; but the eruptions of Etna
have rendered it totally incapable of cultivation. This
houfe {lands at a very confiderable height; being no
•lefs than 2496 feet above the level of the fea. Set¬
ting out from this' place three hours before day, our
5 ] E T N
traveller direfled his courfe towards the grotto of the Etna,
goats. In his way thither, he pafled over feveral —
plains of lava, fome of them ancient and others more 13
modern ; but the roads were extremely rough and dan-
gerous; or rather, as our author exprelfes himfelfidcicnberf.
there was no track or path meriting the name of a
road. In two hours they reached the Regione Sylvofe, Regina'
where an immenfe foreft furrounds the mountain, and Sylvofa de-
which has undoubtedly been planted by the hand offend-
nature : for the ground there is fo high, fo full of
precipices, and fo entirely uninhabitable, that no hu¬
man being could ever think of making plantations on
it; nor is it to be fuppofed that the winds could take
up feeds from the plains to fow £hem on fuch a lofty
fituation. ^
Thefe majeftic forefts of Etna afford a fingular fpec- Beautiful
tacle, and bear no refemblance to thofe of other coun- appearance
tries. Their verdure is more lively, and the trees ofof the
which they confift are of a greater height. Thefe-ad- '.fof
vantages they owe to the foil whereon they grow; forJitaa*
the foil produced by volcanoes is particularly favour¬
able to vegetation, and every fpecies of plants grows
here with great luxuriance. In feveral places where
we can view their interior parts, the moft enchanting
profpefts are difplayed. The hawthorn trees are of an
immenfe fize. Our author few feveral of them of a
regular form, and which he was almoft tempted to take
for large orange-trees cut artificially into the figures
they reprefented. The beeches appear like as many
ramified pillars, and the tufted branches of the oak
like clofe buffies impenetrable to the rays of the fun.
The appearance of the woods in general is exceedingly
pi&urefque, both by reafon of the great number and
variety of the trees, and the inequality of the ground,
which makes them rife like the feats in an amphitheatre,
one row alrove another; difpofing them alfo in groups
and glades, fo that their appearance changes to the eye
at every ftep: and this variety is augmented by acci¬
dental circumftances, as the fituation of young trees
among others venerable for their antiquity; the effedls
of ftorms, which have often over-turned large trees,
while Hems ffiooting up from their roots, like the Ler-
naean hydra, (how a number of heads newly fprung to
make up that which was cut off.
About three hours after the departure of our tra-Grotto of
vellers from St Nicholas, they reached the grotto of the goat?,
the goats. It is formed by a bed of lava, which ha-how forI*'
ving flowed over a pile of fend and pozzolana while in ed‘
a fluid ftate, fettled and cooled in that fituation; and
the fend or pozzolana being afterwards carried off by
the filtration of water through the lava, a void fpace has
been left, which the torrents have gradually enlarged
to its prefent fize.
This grotto Hands about 5054 feet above the level
of the fea, according to the calculations of M. de
Sauffure. It affords a retreat for thofe travellers who
vifit the fummit of Etna, who generally refreffi them-
felves by taking a repaft and making a fire at the en¬
try, for which there is plenty of dry wood at hand ;
■while the fend ferves for a bed to repofe on. Here our
author and his company fupped, and about midnight
fet off for the fummit. They had the advantage of
the moon-light; and our author advifes all thofe who
intend to vifit the top of Etna to take fuch a time for
their journey as may enable them to enjoy this advan¬
tage.
E T N f
Etna. tage. As Aey advanced bejrond the grotto of the
goats, the trees became gradually thinner. In a Ihort
32 ^ ^ time they were fo thin, that they might readily be
ttahi-dieft counte^ i and» proceeding ftill farther, only a very few
parts of were feen fcattered here and there, whofe beauty and
Etna. fize were diminifhed feemingly in proportion to their
numbers. A few clumps of trees and fome tufts of
odoriferous herbs were now only to be feen ; and in a
little time thefe alfo became thinner, affuming a wi¬
thered or Hunted appearance. Then they are nothing
but the languilhing remains of an abortive vegetation;
and a few paces further not even this appeared, the eye
33 being prefented only with barren fand.
Snowy and Having now goi above the region of the trees, they
''iond/6* entered the third, which our author denominates the re-
bribed." gion of fnow and fterility. The wind became more briflc
and keen as they advanced, fo that they could fcarce
keep their hats upon their heads ; and cur author loft
his, though tied on with an handkerchief. Here they
were frequently obliged to crofs confiderable itreams of
w'ater formed by the melting of the fnow. In general
the furface was fufliciently hard to bear them; but our
author’s mule once funk up to her belly, and was not
extricated without great difficulty.
Plain on. Having at laft overcome all difficulties, they arrived
the fummitat the large plain on the fummit of Etna, and in the
of Etna. m;dft of which is the crater of the volcano. It is en¬
tirely compofed of lava, cinders, ice, and fnow ; never-
33 thelefs is ftyled* ironically as our author thinks, Monte
Wind ex- Friumente. Here the wind continued to blow with
etffively exceffive violence y and our author informs us, that in
lienfUt or^er to have any notion of its keennefs, we muft be
accuftomed to feel it on fome very elevated ftation, as
it is impoffible to judge from what we feel at inferior
altitudes. They took ftielter behind a lump of lava,
the only one which appeared in the whole plain, and,
which our author fays, would feem defigned exprefsly for
the (helter of travellers. Here they lay, wrapped up in
their cloaks, for an hour ; but as foon as it was day,
fo that they could diftinguifh the place where the fun
was to rife, they got up and advanced towards the
ruins of the building known by the name of the Phi-
lofopher’s Tower. The wind ftill blew, fo violently,
that after an effort of four minutes they fell down ex-
haufted : but the extreme cold obliging them again to
get up, they made a fccond attempt; and after feveral
intermifficn^of this kind, at laft. accomplifhed their de-
fign. They were furprifed, however, to find nothing
but the corner of a wall not more than two feet high,
confifting of twm rows of unpolilhed ftones ; great part
of it having been probably buried by the fand and
other matters difeharged by the mountain. Here, be¬
ing fheltered from the wind, and the day advancing,
they began to enjoy the glorious profpeft which every
moment became more extenfive. At the rifing of the
37 fun, the horizon was ferene, without a Angle cloud.
Exteniiye «< The coaft of Calabria (fays our author) was as yet
and gl°n' undiftinguiffiable from the adjoining fea; but in a ftiort
from'the6 t*me a ^eiT radiance began to appear from behind the
tummit. Italian hills, which bounded the eaftern part of the pro-
fpedt. The fleecy clouds, which generally appear early in
the morning, were tinged with purple!; the atmofphere
became fhongly illuminated, and, refleAing the rays of
the rifing fun, appeared filled with a bright effulgence
ef flame. The immenfe elevation of the fummit of Et-
7 7 E T N
na made it catch the firft rays of the fun’s light, whofe Etna*
vaft fplendor, while it dazzled the eyes, diffufed a moft  
cheriihing and enlivening heat, reviving the fpirits,
and diffufing a pleafant fenfation throughout the foul.
But though the heavens were thus enlightened, the
fea ftill retained its dark azure, and the fields and fo-
refts did not yet refledt the rays of the fun. The gra¬
dual rifing of this luminary, however, foon diffufed
his light over the hills which lie below the peak of Et¬
na. This laft flood like an ifland in the midft of the
ocean, with luminous points every moment multiplying
around, and fpreading over a wider extent with the
greateft rapidity. It was as if the univerfe had been
•obferved fuddenly fpringing from the night of non-
exiftence. The tall forefts, the lofty hills, and exten¬
five plains of Etna, now prefented themfelves to view-
Its Safe, the vaft traftsof level ground which lie adja¬
cent, the cities of Sicily, its parched fliores, with the
dafhing waves and vaft expanfe of the ocean, gradual¬
ly prefenttd themfelves, while fome fleeting vapours,.
which moved fwiftly before the wind, fometimes veiled
part of this vaft and magnificent profped.” In a fhort
time every thing was difplayed fo diftindtly, that they
could plainly recognize all thofe places with which they
were Sefore acquainted. On the fouth were feen the
hills of Camerata and Trapani ; on the north, the
mounts Pelegrino and Thermini, with the celebrated
Enna once crowned with the temples of Ceres and
Proferpine. Among thefe mountains were feen a great
many rivers running down, and appearing.like as many
lines of glittering filver winding through a variety of
rich and fertile fields, wafhing the walls of 20 cities,
while their banks were otherwife filled with villages,.
hamlets, &c. rifing among the ruins of the moft illu-
ftrlous republics of antiquity. On the fouth and north
were obferved the rivers which bound by their courfe
the vaft bafe of mount Etna, and afford a delightful
profpeft to the eye ; while at a much greater diftance
were feen the ifles of Lipari, Alicudi, Felicocide, Pa-
rinacia, and Stromboli.
Having enjoyed for fome time the beauty of this
magnificent profpedl, our author fet about making a
draught of the place from which the view was taken ;
and at length accomplilhed it, notwithilanding the 3g
great impediments he met with from the wind. A- Piuiofo-
mong the objects which he delineated on this occafion,Piier,stf.,Wl*
the Philofopher’s Tower was one. It feems, he fays,^^ efca~
not to be very ancient; neither the materials of which
it confifts, nor the mode of archifedture, bearing any re-
femblance to thofe of the Greeks and Romans. The
furrounding plain feems to confiff entirely of a black
fand intermixed with pieces of fcoria, which have been
formerly thrown out by the volcano.. Beyond that
plain, which rifes gently, appears a cone, the fummit
of which is the volcanic crater. When viewed from Defer:ptim*.
the fouth fide, on which they flood, this crater feems of thegreafti
to confift of a number of fmall hills. Into thefe it wascrater-
broken by the emiffion of the boiling torrent in thie
tyear 1755. When difeharged from the crater, thefe
waters fpread towards the right, and at the diftance
of a mile eaftward fell in a cafcade ftom a prodigious
height.
The violence of the wind beginning now to abate a
little, .the travellers fet out for the very fummit, in or¬
der to take aview of the great crater; in which journey.
’ (pur.-
E T N [ 8 ]
Etna. (our author fays) it would be difficult to make people,
who have never engaged in fuch enterprifes, compre¬
hend all the obftacles they had to encounter. This
cone (the little mountain mentioned by Sir William
Hamilton) is compofed of afhes, fand, and pozzolano,
thrown up at different times by the volcano. The ma¬
terials are fo loofe, that the adventurous traveller finks
about mid-leg at every ftep, and is in conftant terror
of being fwallowed up. At laft, when the fummit is
reached, the fulphureous exhalations, which are con¬
tinually emitted from the pores of the mountain, threa¬
ten fuffocation, and irritate the fauces and lungs in fuch
a manner as to produce a very troublefome and incef-
fant cough. The loofenefs of the foil, which gives
way under the feet, obliges the traveller, -every now
and then, to throw himfelf flat on his belly, that fo he
may be in lefs danger of finking. In this pollute our
author viewed the wide unfathomable gulph in the
middle of the crater; but could difcover nothing ex¬
cept a cloud of fmoke, which iffued from a number of
40' fmall apertures fcattered all around, and accompanied
Defcription with a kind of noife. Another and more dreadful
rfdnoifesT ^oun<^’ however, iffues from the bowels of the volcano,
continually an^ which* according to our author, “ ftrikes the heart
jffuingfrom with terror, fo that all the ftrength of reafon is necef-
the burning fary to prevent the obferver from flying with preci-
gulfh* pitation from fuch a dreadful place.” Several travel¬
lers who had vifited this cone before him, wrere fo ter¬
rified by thefe dreadful founds, that they fled with
the utmoft hafte till they arrived at the foot of the
mountain.
Our author compares thefe founds to a difcharge of
cannon in the wide abyfs; the noife of which is re¬
bellowed throughout all the caverns, and produce a
found perhaps the moft alarming that can be imagined;
and during the fhort fpace in which he lifteried, feve-..
ral of thefe difcharges were heard to follow one another
almoft uninterruptedly.
This dreadful noife, our author, with very great
probability, fuppofes to be occafioned by the explo-
lions of the internal fire, or, as he calls it, the focus of
the volcano ; which, finking againft the fides of thefe
immenfe caverns, the founds produced are re-echoed
through their cavities, and probably multiplied in an
extraordinary manner; fo that what would be only a
flight explofion in the open air, occafions a found more
tremendous than the louddl thunder. To fuch as are
convinced of this, and have fufficient courage to re lift
the firft impreflionswhich thefe founds muft unavoidably
occafion, they will in a fhort time not only appear
exceedingly fublime, but, by their variety, even fome-
what agreeable. “ They enable us (fays our author)
to form feme conception of the fpace ijarahgh which
they muft pafs before they reach the ear, and of the
4t vaft extent and width af the hollows of the mountain.”
ImpoffiMe Having for fomc time contemplated this awful fpec-
roirr cUhe tac^e> our auth°ir wifhed to meafure the crater by walk-
crater. ing round it; but found this impofiible. On the north
fide the furfaee is hard and fmooth, the afhes having
been fo far diffolved by the moifture depofited by the
fmoke as to cement into one uniform mafs. This is
fometimes diffolved even into a fluid ftate, in fuch a
manner as to run down the fides of the cone ; fo that
after feveral attempts, he was at laft obliged to abandon
te his defign.
tELXxxiv. F’g- 2- exhibits a view of the crater of Etna taken
N°I2I.
E T N
the brink of the eaft fide. The fore-ground [a a) of Etna,
the figure is one divifion of the crater. Beyond it are —v—™*
two eminences b and c, higher than that on which fome
human ff 'uresare reprefented. All the three form at;*nofths
triangle nearly equilateral; but, when viewed from any figure of the
confiderable diftance, only two of them can befeen; forcrater.
which reafon the Sicilians have termed the mountain
bicorna, or double-horned.
The fmoke, as reprefented in the figure, iffues from
all quarters, either from chinks or holes fcattered over
the whole crater. But the fituation of the principal
mouth is in the midft of the three eminences. Its
diameter, when our author vil'ted this mountain, was
only about 60 feet, and fo fillqj, with fmoke that no¬
thing remarkable could be difeovered. From the height
d, the rock fituated on the left fide of the print, and
on which the human figures are reprefented, all the
way to the rock e on the right, the diftance is no more
than 900 feet. Our author obferted that the cone is
not exaftly in the middle of the plain, but is fituated
more towards the north than the fouth. He did not
attempt to crofs the central valley/, on account of the
loofenefs of the ground, and that there was no objeft
apparently worthy of the riff he muft run in fo doing.
At the neareft view^he took, it was only obferved that
there was fnow lying in feveral parts of it, though the
heat which otherwife prevailed feemed to be very intenfe.
The fmoke which iffues from the crater of Etna is
generally carried in a dire&ion from fouth to north;
and, as it brings along with it a confiderable quantity
of water, the latter, condenfed by the cold winds,
runs down the fide of the mountain in plentiful ftreams,
and often leaves pretty permanent marks of its courfe.
In this manner he accounts for the great eruption Eniption of
of water in 1755, which he fuppofes to have been oc-water in
cafioned only by an unufual quantity of water falling into ao
the burning focus of the mountain, there rarefied into^n c
fleam, and afterwards condenfed by the coldnefs of the
atmofphere. 44
Like other travellers to mount Etna, this gentleman South wind
found the wind blowing from the fouth ; and he is °fg'n£3jl(!|1y
opinion, that a fouthwind blows here more frequently o^theTo'n
than any other, as he did not obferve any channels cut,,i Etna,
by the water on any other fide than the north. He had
feveral opportunities of makine this obfervation, having
frequently vifited the top of Etna, and always paid at¬
tention to the crater. The fand on the eaft and weft
fides was always loofe, while that on the north was
compared into a folid body. The three fummits were
of a later date than the reft of the crater, having been
probably thrown up by fome eruption which had burft
it afunder. The black fpots on the fore-ground repre-
fent a number of hillocks about the fize of mole-hills,
from which a fulphureous vapour conflantly iffues, and
by which the. adjacent ground is tinged of an ochery
colour. This vapour iffues from the crevices with a
kind of hollow whiftling noife ; which with the volca¬
nic thunder, fmoke, and noxious fmell, render it very
difagreeable to (lay here even for a few momeirs.
The fmoke is reprefented in the figure precifely as it
did on the day that he afeended, which was very warm.
But it does not always rife in this manner; for when
the cold is very intenfe, it colle&s into a body, aud
thickens around the edge of the crater: on which oc¬
cafions it is condenfed into water, which diffufes itfelf
around the edge of the crater, and mixing with the
E T N [
Etna. aflies converts them into a kind of clay. The cold
■ V— 1 on the top of this mountain is fo intenfe, that travel-
45 lers very often find their clothes infufficient to protedl
deduced W them; and it is remarkable that fuch intenfe cold is al-
b>°a fouth ways produced by a fouth wind. The day that our
wind. author took his draught, the wind blew faintly from
4<s the north.
theftrata The bafe of mount Etna, according to M. Houel’s
at the"foot obfervations, confifts of alternate layers of lava and ma-
of Mount rine fubftances, which have been depofited fucceffively
Etna. one Upon another. Thefe alternate layers extend to
an unknown depth. They muft indeed go as far down
as the level of the ftratum of lava which was difeharged
by the volcano at its firft origin. The laft depofited
by the fea is a range of calcareous mountains of a con-
fiderable height, and which are placed on a bafis of
lava. Beneath that layer of lava is another of fea-
pebbles, which are well known to be rounded by their
attrition againft one another by the motion of the
waves. This layer is of confiderable depth, and lies
upon a yellowifh rock confifting of a fpecies of indura¬
ted fand. The river Simeto flows over this rock,
which it has cut away confiderably. That part which
is at prefent the bed of the river is much higher than
the bafe of Etna that is op a level with the fea ; and
not the leaft thing occurs to fuggeft an idea of what
has been the primary bafe of the volcano. The marine
fubftances, already taken notice of, lie nearly in an ho¬
rizontal dire&ion, more or lefs fo according to the na-
47 ture of the furface on which they have been depofited.
Great num- Etna abounds very much with fprings, fountains,
ber of and even rivers of confiderable magnitude. Our au¬
thor has computed, that if all the water flowing down
the fides of this mountain were colledied, it would fill
the channel of a river 36 feet broad and 6 in depth.
Many of the fprings afford fine fait; fome are very
pure, and others are impregnated with noxious fub¬
ftances ; while others are remarkable for their ufe in
dyeing particular colours.
J 48 “ ft is worthy of notice (fays our author), that
i fucha'targe ftreams of water, fome of them morecopious, othersmore
, quantity of fcanty, are feen to iffue at all different degrees of height,
r water is de-from the bafe to the fummit of the mountain. Even
1 rived. *n fummerj when very little rain falls for three or four
months, or when perhaps for that fpace there is no
rain at all, and for three of which at leaft there is not
an ounce of fnow melted ; even then a great number
of rivulets continue to flow down the fides of Etna;
and at the fame time a number of ftreams, external and
fubterraneous, each of them feveral feet wide, are, ac¬
cording to the accounts of the country people, plenti-
tifully fupplied with water.
“ As the trifling quantity of fnow which is melt¬
ed here even in the midft of fummer, and the ftill
fmaller quantity depofited by the clouds, would be
totally infufficient to fupply thofe ftreams, and muft
be all abforbed by the earth for the fupport of vege¬
tation, thofe ftreams muft proceed from fome other
1 caufe, whofe effe&s are more copious and perma¬
nent. This caufe is the evaporation of thofe aque¬
ous particles which arife from the conftant ebulli¬
tion at the bottom of the volcanic focus. Thefe if-
fuing out at the great crater, and at innumerable chinks
■ poration of in the fides of the mountain, are foon condenfed by
the moun- the cold of that elevated region of the atmofphere,
Vol.VII. Parti.
fprings o:
Mount
Etna.
Produced
by the in
ternal
9 1 E T N
and, percolating through the earth, give birth to thofe Etna,
numerous ftreams in queftion.  y— J
“ A volcano, according to my ideas, cannnot fubfift
without water; nor can water occupy a place in any
volcanic focus without being changed into vapour. But
before that water can make its appearance, except in
the form of fmoke, it muft have filled the whole vol¬
canic cavern, and muft have been forcibly preffed by
the a&ion of the fire againft its fides: it muft next
have condenfed, and affumed the form of water; in
which ftate it muft have penetrated through the in¬
clined layers of fand and pozzolano which intervene
betwixt the different ftrata of lava; for thefe ftrata lie
one above another, and are full of chinks, in fuch a
manner as to prefent to the eye an appearance pretty
much refembling that of the infide of a tiled roof.” ,.0
It has been a queftion, Whether the eruptions of Eruptions
mount Etna were more frequent in ancient than in mo-of Etna
dern times ? At firft it feems impoffible to give a pre-more fre"
cife anfwer to fuch a queftion; but when we confider,Slytiia*
that the matter in the volcanic focus was then greater naw. *
in quantity than at prefent, in proportion to the fpace
which it occupied; that the cavities were then fooner
filled with vapour; and that the centre of the focus
was then lefs remote, we will not hefitate to pronounce,
that in earlier times the eruptions were more frequent
as well as more copious.
We ftrall clofe this article with an enumeration of
all the different eruptions from mount Etna which are
found upon record.
1. The firft mentioned in hiftory, is that of which r
Diodorus Siculus fpeaks, but without fixing the pe- eruptions
riod at which it happened. That eruption, fays he, from the
obliged the Sicani, who then inhabited Sicily, to for- earlieft pe-
fake the eaftern, and retire to the fouthern, part ofriod*
the ifland. A long time after that, the Sicilians, a
people of Italy, migrated into Sicily, and took up
their abode in that part of the ifland which had been left
defert by the Sicani.
2. The fecond eruption known to have iffued from
this volcano, is the firft of the three mentioned by
Thucydides ; of none of which he fixes the date,
mentioning only in general, that from the arrival of
the firft Greek colonies that fettled in Sicily (which
was in the 1 ith Olympiad, and correfponds to the
734th year before the Chriftian era), to the 88th
Olympiad, or the year 425 before Chrift, Etna at
three different times difeharged torrents of fire. Thi*
fecond eruption happened, according to Eufebius, in
the days of Phalaris, in the 565th year before the
Chriftian era. The affertion of Eufebius is confirmed
by a letter from that tyrant to the citizens of Catania,
and the anfwer of the Catanians (if, after Bentley’*
Differtations againft. their authenticity, any credit be
due to the Epiftles of Phalaris). But Diodorus give*
both thefe pieces.
3. The third, which is the fecond of the three men¬
tioned by Thucydides, happened in the 65th Olym¬
piad, in the 47 7th year before the Chriftian era, when
Xantippus was archon at Athens. It was in this fame
year the Athenians gained their boafted victory over
Xerxes’s general Mardonius near Platasa. Both the
eruption of the volcano and the victory of the Athe¬
nians are commemorated in an ancient infeription on
a marble table which ftill remains. An ancient medd
E T N [ tc
exhitits a reprefentation of an aflonifbuig deed to whicli
that eruption gave occafion, Two heroic, youths
boldly ventured into the midtl of the-flames t.o fave
their parents.. Tlieir names, which. well: defer,ved tp be
tranfmitted to future, ages, were Amphiuomus. and
Anapius. The citizens of Catania rewarded fp noble
a deed with a temple and. divine honours. §eneca,
Silius Italicus, Valerius Maximus, and other ancient
authors, mention the, herpifm of the youths, with juft
applaufe.
4. The fourth eruption, the third and laft, of thofe
mentioned.by Thucydides, broke, out in the 88th. O-
lympiad, in the 425th year before, the Chriftia.q erai.
It laid wafte the territory of Catania..
5. The fifth is mentioned; by Juliua Obfeqjnens.and
Orofius, who date it in the confulfhip of Sergius Ful-
vius Flaccus and Quintus Calpurnius thfo,. nearly 133
years before the Chriftian era. It was confiderable ;
but no peculiar fadhs are related! concerning it.
6. In the confulflup of Imcius Emilius L.epid.us and
Lucius Aurelius Oreftes, in the 125th year before the
Chriftian era, Sicily fuffere.d, by, a violent earthquake.
Such a deluge of fire ftreamed from Etna as to. render
the adjoining fea. into which.it poured abfolutely hot,
Orofius fays, that a prodigious quantity of fifties were
deftroyed by it. Julius Obfequens relates, that the
inhabitants of the ifles of Lipari eat fueh a, number- of
thbfe fifties, as to.fuffer,. in oonfequ.ence of it, by a dif-
temper which ■proved very generally mprtal.
7. Four years after the laft mentioned, the city of
Catania ivas defolated by another eruption not, lefs
violent. Orofius relates, that the roofs of the houfes
were broken down by the burning gftjes which, fell
upon them. It was fo dreadfully ravaged,, that the
Romans found it neceffary tp grant the inhabitants, an
exemption from all taxes for the fpa.ce of ten years, to
enable them to repair it.
8. A ftiort time before the death of Casfar, in the
43d year before Jefus Chrift, there was an eruption
from mount Etna. Livy mentions it. It was not
diftinguiftred by any thing extraordjnaty. It was af¬
terwards confidered as an omen of the death of Casfar.
9. Suetonius, in the life of Caligula, mentions an
eruption froip mount Etna which happened in the
40th year after the Chriftian era. The emperor fled
on the very night on which it happened, from Medina,
where he at that time happened to be.
10. Carrera relates, that in the year 253, there was
an eruption from mount Etna..
11. He fpsaks of another in the year 420; which is
alfo mentioned by Photius.
12. In the reign of Charlemagne, in the year 812,
there was an eruption from Etna. Geoffroy of Viter¬
bo mentions it in his Chronicle.
13. In the year 1169, on the 4th of February, about
day break, there was an earthquake in Sicily, which
was felt as far as Reggio, on the oppofite fide of the
ftrait. Catania was reduced by it to rujns; and in
that city more than 15,000 fouls periflied. The bi-
fliop, with 44 monks of the order of St Benedict, were
buried under the ruins of the roof of the church of
:St Agatha. Many caftles in the territories of Catania
and Syracufe were overturned; new riversburft forth,
and ancient rivers difappeared. The ridge of the
mountain was obferved to fink in, on the fide next
> ] E T N
Taormina. The fpring of Arethufa, fo, famous for the Etna,
purity and fweetnefsof its waters,, then became muddy -v—
and- brackifti. The fountain of Ajo,. which, rifes from,
the village of Saracqni, ceafed to flow for two hours,^
at the end, of which the water, guftied. out more copi¬
ously than before* Its waters afiTuroed a blood colour^
and retained it for about an hour. At Meffina, the
fea,: without any. confiderable agitation, retired a good
way within, its ordinary limits ; hut foc.n after return¬
ing,.it rofie beypnd. them,, advanced, to. the wafts, of'the
city, and entered; the ftr.eets through, the. gates. A
number of people, who had fled’ to the ft)ore for fafety
were fwgllowed, up. by the-waves. Ludovico Aurclio
relates, that the vines,, corn, and trees, of all forts, were,
burnt, up, and the. fields cowed over with fuch a,
quantity of. ft ones, as rendered them, unfit for cultiva¬
tion.
14. Twelve years after this,, in the year 1181, a
dreadful eruption; iffued from Etna, on the call fide.
Streams of fire, ran down, the declivity of the moun¬
tain, and encircled, the church.of St Stephen,,but with¬
out burning it,
Nicolas Specfole, who relates,.though he did not fee,
this event, was witnefs to anp.th.er conflagration on
Etna 48.years after this, in. the year 1329, on the 23d
of June, of which he has given a.defcription.
15, On that day, fays he, about the hour of vef-
pets, Etna, was-ftrongly. cojiyulfed,. apd uttered dr.ead.-
ful npifes.; not only the inhabitants of the moun¬
tain, but all Sicily, werektruck with confternation and
alarm. On a. hidden,, a terrible blaze of fire ifliied
from the fo.uthe.rn fummit, and.fpread over the rocks
of Mazarra,, which are always covered with fnow.
Together with the fire, there appeared a, great deal of
fmoke. After fun-fet, the flames and the flones
that iflued out. with them were feen to. touch the
clouds. The fire making way for itfelf with, the moft
furious impetuofity, burnt up or reduced to ruins aft
thofe ftruftures which the piety of former times had
c.onfecrat.ed.tQ the Deity. The. earth yawning, fwalfow-
up a great many fprings and rivulets. Many of the
rocks on the fliore of Mafcali were ftiaken and dafhed
into the fea, A fucceffion of thefo calamities conti¬
nued till the 15th. of- July, when the bowels of Etna
were again heard to rebellow. The conflagration of
Mazarra ftill went on unextinguifhed. The earth
opened near the church of St John, called II Papari-
necca; on the fouth fide fire iffued from the gap with
great, violence : to add to the horrors of the day, the
fun was obfeured from morning to evening with clouds
of fmoke and allies, as entirely as in an eclipfe. Ni¬
colas Speciale went towards the new-opened crater, to
obferve the fire and the. burning ftones which were
iffuing from the volcano. The earth rebellowed and
tottered under his feet; and he faw red-hot flones
ifiue four times fucceffiyely in a very ftiort fpace from
the crater, with, a thundering noife, the like of which,
he fays, he had never before heard.
In a few days after this, all the adjacent fields were
burnt up by a ftiower of fire and fulphureous afties ;
and both birds and quadrupeds being thus left defti-
tute of food- died in great numbers. A. great quan¬
tity of fifties likewife died in the rivers and the conti¬
guous parts of the fea. “ I cannot think (fays he) that
either Jkbylon or Sodom was deftroyed with fuch aw¬
ful.
E T N [ i
ful feverity.” The north winds, which blew at the
time, carried the afhes as far as Malta. Many -perfons
of both fexes died of terror.
16. Scarce had foilf years elapfed after this terrible
event, when Etna made a new exple/fien, and dif-
charged vollies of ftones, ‘Cabling the ‘neighbouring
fields to tremble. This happened in the year 133S-
17. Forty-eight years after ‘this, bh the 25th bf
Auguft 1381, an eruption from Etna fpread its rava¬
ges over the confines of the territory of Catania, and
burnt up the olive-yards in the neighbourhood of that
city.
18. In the year 1444, 63 years after the laft erup¬
tion, a torrent of lava ilfued from Etna and ran to¬
wards Catania. The mountain Ihook; and fhe lhbcks
were fo violent, that feveral huge maffes of rock were
broken from its fummit, and hurled into the abyfs
with a tremendous noife.
19. After this Etna was fcarce at reft for 18 months
or 2 years. On Sunday the 25th of September 1446,
about an hour after fun-fet, an eruption iffued from
the place called La Pietra di Mazarra. This erup¬
tion was foon over.
20. On the following year, 1447, on the 21ft of
September, there was another, with a good deal of
fire ; but this eruption was likewife of fhort dura¬
tion.
21. Etna now ceafed to emit fife, and that for a
Confiderable time. The neighbouring inhabitants not
only afcended to the fummit of the mountain, but
even, if we may credit accounts, went down info the
fiery gulph, and believed the volcanic matter to be now
exhaufted : But on the 25th of April 1536, near a
century from the flight eruption m 1447, a ftrong
wind arofe from the weft, and a thick cloud, reddilh
in the middle, appeared over the fummit of the moun¬
tain. At the very fame inftant a large body of fire
ifiued from the abyfs, and fell with the noife and rapi¬
dity of a torrent along the eaftern fide of the moun¬
tain, breaking down the rocks, and deftroying the
flocks and every other animal that was expofed to its
fury. From the fame crater, bn the fummit of the
mountain, there ifiued at the fame time a ftfeam of
fire more terrible than the other, and held its eourfe
towards the weft. It run over Bronte, Adrans, and
Caftelli. It confifted entirely of fulphur and bitu¬
men. On the fame day the church of St Leon, Which
flood in a wood, was firft demolifhed by the (hocks
of the earthquake, and its ruins after that confumed
by the fire. Many chafms were opened in the fides
of the mountain ; and from thofe iffued fire and burn¬
ing ftones, which darted up into the air with a noife
like that produced by a fmart difcharge of artillery.
Francis Negro de Piazza, a celebrated phyfician, who
lived at Lentini, wifhing to have a nearer view of the
eruptions, and to make fome obfervations which he
thought might be of confequence, was carried off and
burnt to allies by a volley of the burning ftones. This
conflagration of Etna lafted fome weeks.
22. In lefs than a year, on the 17th of April 1537,
the river Simeto fwelled fo amazingly as to overflow
the adjacent plains, and carry off the country people and
their cattle and other animals. At the fame time, the
country around Paterno, the neighbouring caftles, and
‘more than .500 houfes, were deftroyed by the ravages
1 ] E T N
of the river; and moft df ‘the wood was torn up
by the roots by violent b'lafts of Wind. Thefe rava¬
ges of the elements Were occdfioned by Etna, which
on the nth of the'following month Was rent in
feveral places, difclofing fiery gulphs, -and pouring
out :a deluge of fire in more terrible tdrrents than thofe
of the preceding year. They dire&ed their coutfe to¬
wards the mdnaftery of St Nicholas d’Arena-; deftroy¬
ed the gardens and vineyards; -and proceeding onwards
towards Nicolofi, burnt Montpellieri and Fallica, and
deftreyed the vineyards and moft of the inhabitants.
When the conflagration ceafed, the -fummit of (he
mountain funk inwards with fuch a noife, that all
the people in the iflahd believed the laft day to be
arrived, and prepared for their end by extreme unc¬
tion. Thefe dreadful diftutbances continued through the.
whole year, more efpecially in the months of July and
Auguft, during which all Sicily was in mourning. Thfe
fmoke, the noife, and the (hocks of the earthquake,
affefted the whole ifland; and if Filotes may be be¬
lieved, who relates this event, many of the Sicilian^
were (truck deaf by thte noife. Many ftrudturefc
were demoliftied ; and among others the caftle of
Corleonfe, though more than 25 leagues diftant froift
the volcano.
23. During the fueceeding 30 years there Was no
difturbance of this nature. At the end of that fpace,
Sicily was alarmed by a new eruption from the moun¬
tain. Etna difcharged new ftreafns of fire, and cover¬
ed the adjacent country with volcanic afties, which en¬
tirely ruined the hopes of the hufbandman.
24. In the year 1579, Etna renewed its ravages ;
but no particular account of the damage which it did
upon this occ&fion has been tranfmitted to us.
25. Twenty-five years had elapfed, when Etna, id
the month of June 1603, "flamed with new fury. Pe¬
ter Carrera affirms, that it continued to emit flames
for the fpace of 33 years, till 1636, without'interrup¬
tion, but not always with the fame violence. In 1607,
the dreams of lava which flowed from it deftroyfed the
woods and vineyards on the weft fide of the mountain.
In 1609, they turned their couffe towards Aderfib,
and deftroyed a part of the foreft del Pino, and a part
of the Wood called la Sciawbrlta/ With many vineyards
in the diftrift Coiterna. Thofe torrents of lava con¬
tinued to flow for three months. In the year 1614,
a new effort of the fubterraneous fire opened another
crater, from which fire was difcharged on Randazzo,
in the diftricft called il Pin. The fire Continued to
flame for 1 o or 12 years longer.
26. The fame Peter Carrera relates, that a dreadful
conflagration happened in the year 1664, of which he
himfelf Was witnefs. It happened on the 13th of De¬
cember, and lafted without interruption, but with dif¬
ferent degrees of violence, till the end of May 1678.
But in 1869 the inhabitants of Nicolofi were obli¬
ged to forfake their houfes, which tumbled down foon
after they left them. The crater on the fummit of
Etna had not at this time a threatening dfpeft, and
every thing there continued quiet till the 25th of
March : but on the 8th of that month, an hour be¬
fore night, the air was obferved to become dark over
the village la Pedara and all that neighbourhood;
and the inhabitants of that country thought that an
almoft total eclipfe was taking place. Soon after fun-
£ 2 fet,
E T N [ i:
Etna, fet, frequent (hocks of earthquake began to be felt;
—v  thefe were at firft weak, but continued till day-break
to become more and more terrible. Nicolofi was more
aifefted than any other traft of country on that fide
of Etna : about noon every houfe was thrown to the
ground ; the inhabitants fled in confternation, and in¬
voking the prote£lion of heaven. On the loth of
March a chafm feveral miles in length, and five or fix
feet wide, opened in the fide of the mountain ; from
■which, about two hours before day, there arofe a bright
light, and a very ftrong fulphureous exhalation was dif-
fufed through the atmofphere.
About 11 in the forenoon of the fame day, after
dreadful (hocks of earthquake, a crater was opened on
the hill called des Noifrttes, from which there iflued
huge volumes of fmoke, not accompanied with fire,
afhes, or Hones, but with loud and frequent claps of
thunder, difplaying all the different phenomena with
which thunder is at different times attended. And
what was very remarkable, the chafm was formed on
the fouth fide, between the top and the bottom of the
mountain. On the fame day another chafm was form¬
ed two miles lower, from which iffued a great deal of
fmoke, accompanied with a dreadful noife and earth¬
quake. Towards the evening of the fame day, four
other chafms were opened towards the fouth, in the
fame diredtion, accompanied during their formation
with the fame phenomena, and extending all the way
to the hill called la Fafara.
About 12 paces beyond that, another of the fame
kind was formed. On the fucceeding night, a black
fmoke, involving a quantity of (tones, iffued from
this laft chafm ; it difcharged at the fame time
flakes of a dark earth-coloured fpongy matter, which
became hard after they fell. There iffued from the
fame gulph a ftream of lava, which held its courfe into
a lake called la Hardia, fix miles from Montpellieri,
and on its way thither deftroyed many dwelling-houfes
and other buildings in the neighbouring villages.
On the next day, March 12th, this dream of fire
diredted its courfe towards the tradt of country called
Malpajfo, which was inhabited by 800 people : in the
fpace of 20 hours it was entirely depopulated and laid
wade. The lava then took a new diredtion, in which
it deftroyed fome other villages.
The mount of Montpellieri was next deftroyed with
all the inhabitants upon it.
On the 23d of the fame month the ftream of fire
was in fome places two miles broad. It now attacked
the large village of Mazzalucia ; and on the fame day
a vaft gulph was formed, from which were difcharged
fand or aftres, which produced a hill with two fummits,
two miles in circumference and 150 paces high. It
was obferved to confift of yellow, white, black, grey,
red, and green, Hones.
The new mount of Nicolofi continued to emit aflres
for the fpace of three months; and the quantity dif¬
charged was fo great as to cover all the adjoining tradt
of country for the fpace of 15 miles: fome of thofe
alhes were conveyed by the winds as far as Mtffina
and Calabria; and a north wind arifing, covered all the
fouthern country abput Agofta, Lentini, and even be¬
yond that, in the fame manner.
While at that height on Nicolofi fo many extraor¬
dinary appearances were paffing, the higheft crater
: ] E *T N
on the fummit of Etna dill preferved its ufual tran- Etna.
quillity.  /—■
On the 25th of March, about one in the morning, the
whole mountain, even to the moft elevated peak, was
agitated by a moft violent earthquake. The higheft
crater'of Etna, which was one of the loftieft parts of
the mountain, then funk into the volcanic focus; and
in the place which it had occupied, there now ap¬
peared nothing but a wide gulph more than a mile in
extent, from which there iffued enormous maffes of
fmoke, afties, and (tones. At that period, according
to the hiftorian of this event, the famous block of la¬
va on mount Frumento was difcharged from the volca¬
nic focus.
In a (hort time after, the torrent of fire, which (till
continued to flow, diredted its courfe towards Catania
with redoubled noife, and accompanied with a much
greater quantity of alhes and burning (tones than be¬
fore. For feveral months many moft alarming (hocks
of earthquake were felt; and the city was threatened
with deftrudtion by the torrent of fire. They in vain
attempted to turn or divert its courfe ; the lava rofe
over the walls, and entered by an angle near the Bene-
didtine convent on the nth of June following. This
awful event is related by Francis Monaco, Charles Man»
cius, Vincent Auria, and Thomas Thedefchi.
27. Some years after this conflagration, a new burn¬
ing gulph opened in the month of December 1682 on
the fummit of the riiountain, and fpread its lava over
the hill of Mazarra.
28. On the 24th of May 1686, about ten in the
evening, a new eruption burft out from the fummit
of the mountain, on the fide contiguous to the hill del
Bue. Such a quantity of inflamed matter was thrown
out as confumed woods, vineyards, and crops of grain
for four leagues round. It (lopped its courfe in a
large valley near the caftle of. Mafcali. Several peo¬
ple from the neighbourhood had afcended a hill be¬
tween the wood of Catania and the confines of Cirrita
to obferve the progrefs of the lava: but the hill,.on
a fudden, funk inwards, and they were buried alive.
29. Etna was now long quiet; for no lefs a fpace
of time indeed than one half of the prefent age. In
the year 1755 its eruptions were renewed. It open¬
ed near mount Lepra, and emitted as ufual fire and
fmoke; after which it remained quiet only for eight
years.
30. In the year 1763, there was an eruption which
continued three months, but with intervals. Etna
was at firft heard to rebellow. Flames and clouds of
fmoke were feen to iffue out, fometimes filver-coloured,
and at other times, when the rays of the fun fell upon
them, of a purple radiance : at length they were carried
off by the winds, and rained, as they were driven before,
them, a ftiower of fire all the way to Catania and be¬
yond it. An eruption foon burft out; the principal
torrent divided into two branches, one of which ran
towards the eaft, and fell into a deep and extenfive
valley.
The flames which iffued from this new crater af¬
forded a noble fpettacle. A pyramid of fire was feen to
rife to a prodigious height in the air, like a beautiful ar¬
tificial fire-work, with a conilant and formidable bat¬
tery, which (hook the earth under thofe who were
fpedlators of the fcene. Torrents of melted matter
running
E T O [
running down the Tides of the mountain, diffufed a
light bright as day through the darknefs of night.
At fun-rifing the burning lava was obferved to have
run round feme oaks that were ftill Handing unburnt.
Their leaves were all withered. Some birds had fallen
from their branches, and been burnt to death. Some
people call wood upon the lava, and it was immediate¬
ly burnt. This lava continued hot, and exhaled fmoke
for two years. For five years after this, no fnow ap¬
peared on the fummit of Etna.
31. In the year 1764 a new crater was opened at a
great diftance from mount Etna.
32. In the year 1766 another was opened at the
grotto of Paterno : fire, fmoke, and an inconfiderable
torrent of lava iffued out of it.
33. On the 27th of January 17&0 a new opening
was formed two miles under the laft mentioned crater.
On the 28th of February, and the 14th of March, the
earthquake was renewed on the north fide, and accom¬
panied with terrible noifes.
Between the 6th of April and,the 7th of May the
convulfions were again renewed, accompained with
noife as before ; a quantity of pumice-ftones and fine
fand was difeharged from it.
On the 18th of May the (hocks were renewed : on
the 23d a new crater was formed on the fide of mount
Frumento on the fummit of Etna ; and from it a tor¬
rent of lava difeharged, which fpread through the val¬
ley of Laudunza. It was 200 paces in breadth. Two
other chinks were opened in the mountain near Pa¬
terno, and very near one another. The lava iffuing
from them proceeded in the fpace of feven days fix
miles; on the 25th it had run nine miles.
A new crater was likewife opened on the 25th;
from which a quantity of red-hot ftones continued to
iffue for half aft hour, and fell at a very great diftance:
there proceeded likewife from it a ftream of lava;
which, in the fame fpace of time, ran over a tradt of
country two miles in extent.
Several parts of thofe ftreams of lava were obferved
to be cool on the furface, and formed into folid maffes,
but melted again by a new ftream of burning lava,
which however did not melt the old lava.
34. The laft eruption of Etna happened in 1787,
as deferibed in the former article ./Etna, p. 222,223.
ETOLIA, a country of ancient Greece, compre¬
hending all that trad! now called the Defpotat, or Little
Greece. It was parted on the eaft by the river Evenus,
now the Fidari, from the Locrenfes Ozolas; on the
weft, from Acarnaniaby the Achelous; on the north,
it bordered on the country of the Dorians and part of
Epirus; and, on the fouth, extended to the bay of
Corinth.
The Etolians were a reftlefs and turbulent people ;
feldom at peace among themfelves, and ever at war
with their neighbours; utter ftrangers to all fenfe of
friendlhip or principles of honour ; ready to betray
their friends upon the leaft profpedl of reaping any ad¬
vantage from their treachery.- in (hort, they were look¬
ed upon by the other Hates of Greece no otherwife than
as outlaws and public robbers. On the other hand,
they were bold and enterprifing in war; inured to la¬
bour and hardlhips; undaunted in the greateft dan¬
gers ; jealous defenders of their liberties, for which
they were, on all occafions, willing to venture their
1] e t o
lives, and facrifice all that was moft dear to them.: Etolia
They diftinguiftied themfelves above all the other na- v
tions of Greece, in oppqfing the ambitious defigns of
the Macedonian princes ; who, after having reduced
moft of the other ftates, were forced to grant them a
peace upon very honourable terms. The conftitution
of the Etolian republic was copied from that of the
Achseans, and with a view to form, as it were, a coun¬
ter alliance ; for the Etolians bore an irreconcileable
hatred to the Achaeans, and had conceived no fmall
jealaufy at the growing power of that Hate. The
Cleomenic war, and that of the allies, called the facial
war, were kindled by the Etolians in the heart ofPe-
loponnefus, with no other view but to humble their
antagonifts the Achaeans. In the latter, they held out,
with the affiftance only of the Eleans and Lacedemo¬
nians, for the fpace of three years, againft the united
forces of Achaia and Macedon ; but were obliged at
laft to purchafe a peace, by yielding up to Philip all
Acarnania. As they parted with this province much
againft their will, they watched all opportunities of
wrefting it again out of the Macedonian’s hands ; for
which reafon they entered into an alliance with Rome
againft him, and proved of great fervice to the Ro¬
mans in their war with him : but growing infolent
upon account of their fervices, they made war upon
the Romans themfelves. By that warlike nation they
were overcome, and granted a peace on the following
fevere terms: 1. The majefty of the Roman people
(hall be revered in all Etolia. 2. Etolia (hall not fuf-
fer the armies of fuch as are at war with Rome to pafs
through her territories, and the enemies of Rome Avail
be likewife the enemies of Etolia. 3. She (hall, in
the fpace of 100 days, put into the hands of the ma-
giftrates of Corcyra all the prifoners and deferters (he
has, whether of the Romans or their allies, except
fuch as have been taken twice, or during her alliance
with Rome. 4. The Etolians (hall paydown in ready
money, to the Roman general in Etolia, 200 Euboic
talents, of the fame value as the Athenian talents, and
engage to pay 50 talents more within the fix years fol¬
lowing. 5. They (hall put into the hands of the con-
ful 40 fuch hoftages as he (hall choofe ; none of whom
(hall be under 12, or above 40 years of age : the pre-
tor, the general of the horfe, and fuch as have been
already hoftages at Rome, are excepted out of this
number. 6. Etolia (hall renounce all pretenfions to
the cities and territories which, the Romans have
conquered, though thofe cities and territories had
formerly belonged to the Etolians. 7. The city of
Oenis, and- its diftridt, (hall be fubjeft to the Acar-
nanians.
After the conqueft of Macedon by Paulus iEmilius,,
they were reduced to a much worfe condition; for not
only thofe among them, who had openly declared for
Per feus-, but fuch as were only fufpe&ed to have fa¬
voured him in their hearts, were fent to Rome, in or¬
der to clear themfelves before the fenate. There they
were detained, and never afterwards fuffered to return
into their native country. Five hundred and fifty of
the chief men of the nation were barbaroufly aflafli-
nated by the partifans of Rome, for no other crime
but that of being fufpedted to wi(h well to Perfeus..
The ■ Etolians appeared before Paulus iEmilius in
mourning habits, and made loud complaints of fuch
inhuman i
E T Y [ 14 ] EVA
Etolia inhuman treatment; but could obtain no Tedrefs: nay,
!l. ten corn miiTi-ou era, tvho had been fent by the fen ate to
.’t>mn ogy £-ett|e t^e a{fa;rs fyf Greece, enafted a decree, declaring,
that thofe who were killed had fuffered juftly, finee it
appeared to them that they had favoured the Macedo¬
nian party. From this time thofe only were raifed to
the chief honours and employments inj-the Etolian re¬
public who were known to prefer the intereft of Rome
to that of their country ; and as thefe alone were
countenanced 4t Rome, all the magiftrates of Etolia
were the Creatures and mere tools of the Roman fenate.
In this ftate of fervile fubjeftion they continued till the
deftru&ion of Corinth, and the diffolation of the A-
chtean league ; when Etolia, with the other free dates
of Greece, was reduced to a Roman province, com¬
monly called the province of Achaia. Neverthelefs, each
ftate and city was governed by its own laws, under the
fnperintendency of the pretor whom Rome fent an¬
nually into Achaia. The whole nation paid a certain
tribute, and the rich were forbidden to poffefs lands
any where but in their own country.
In this date, with little alteration, Etolia continued
under the emperors, till the reign of Condantine the
Great, who, in his new partition of the provinces of
the empire, divided the wedern parts of Greece from
the red, calling them New Epirus, and fubjefting the
whole country to the prafedus prMorii for IHyricum.
Under the fucceffors of Condantine, Greece was par¬
celled out into feveral principalities, efpecially after
the taking of Condantinople by the Wedern princes.
At that time, Theodorus Angelus, a noble Grecian,
of the Imperial family, feized on Etolia and Epirus.
The former he left to Michael his fon; who maintain¬
ed it againd Michael Palseologus, the fird emperor of
the Greeks, after the expulfion of the Latins. Charles,
the lad prince of this family, dying in 1430 without
lawful idue, bequeathed Etolia to his brother’s fon,
named alfo Charles; and Acarnania to his natural fons,
Memnon, Turnus, and Hercules. But, great dif-
putes arifing about this divifion, Amurath II. after
the redu&ion of Thedalonica, laid hold of fo favour¬
able an opportunity, and drove them all out in 1432.
The Mahometans were afterwards difpoffeded of this
country by the famous prince of Epirus, George Ca-
driot, commonly called Scanderbeg; who, with a fmall
army, oppofed the whole power of the Ottoman em¬
pire, and defeated thofe barbarians in 22 pitched bat¬
tles. That hero, at his death, left great part of E-
tolia to the Venetians; but, they not being able to
make head againd fuch a mighty power, the whole
country was foon reduced by Mohammed II. whofe
fucceflbrs hold it to this day.
ETRURIA. See HETautuA.
ETYMOLOGY, that part of grammar which con¬
siders and explains the origin and derivation of words,
in order to arrive at their fird and primary fignifica-
tion, whence Quintilian calls it orifmat'w.—Ti 1 e word
is formed of the Greek w.ras, ** true,’, and
>frj dico, “ I fpeakwhence difeourfe, &c.
and thence Cicero calls the etymology notatio and
veriloquium ; though Quintilian choofes rather to call
it originatio.
A- judicious inquiry into etymologies is thought
>by foihe of confulerable ufe; becaufe nations, who va-
iue themfelves upon their antiquity, have always look¬
ed on the antiquity of their language as One of the bed Etymology
titles they could plead ; and the etymologid, by feek- II
ing the true and original reafon of the notions and vjn er'.
ideas fixed to each word and expreflion, may often
furnifli an argument of antiquity, from the traces re¬
maining thereof, compared with the ancient ufes. Add,
that etymologies are neceffary for the thorough under-
danding of a language. For, to explain a term pre-
cifely, there feems a neceffity for recurring to its fird
impofition, in order, to fpeak judly and fatisfatdorily
thereof. The force and extent of a word is generally
better conceived when a perfon knows its origin and
etymology.
It is objwfted, however, tha* the art is arbitrary, and
built altogether on conjectures and appearances; and
the etytnologids are charged with deriving their words
from where they pleafe. And indeed it is no eafy
matter to go back into the ancient Britifh and. Gaulilh
ages, and to follow, as it were, by the track, the Va¬
rious imperceptible alterations a language has under¬
gone from age to age; and as thofe alteration's have
fometimes been merely owing to caprice, it is eafy to
take a mere imagination or conjecture for a regular a-
nalogy: fo that it is no wonder the public fhould be
prejudiced againd a fcience which feems to dand on fo
precarious a footing. It mud certainly be owned, that
etymologies are frequently fo far fetched, that one can
fcarce fee any refemblance or correfpondence therein.
Quintilian has drown, that the ancient etymologids,
notwithdanding all their learning, fell into very ridi¬
culous derivations.
The etymologies of our Englidr words have been de¬
rived from the Saxon, Welch, Walloon, Danidr, La¬
tin, Greek, &c»
In the prefent work the etymologies of terms are ge-
nerally noted, where theirobvioufnefsdoes not render it
unnecefiary, or their dubiety or unimportance ufelefs.
EVACUANTS, in pharmacy, are properly fuch
medicines as diminidr the animal fluids, by throwing
out fome morbid or redundant humour; or fuch as
•thin, attenuate, and promote the motion and circula¬
tion thereof.
EVACUATION, in medicine, the art of diminifh-
ing, emptying, or attenuating, the humours of the body.
EVAGRIUS scholasticus, a famous hidorian,
born at Epiphania, about the year 536. He pracri-
fed the profit fiion of an advocate, from which he was
called Scholajiicus, which name was then given to the
pleaders at the bar. He was alfo tribune and keeper
of the prefect’s difpatches. He wrote an ecclefiadical
.hidory, which begins where Socrates and Theodoret
’ended theirs ; and other works, for which he was re¬
warded by the emperors Tiberius and Mauricius. M.
de Valois publilhed at Paris a good edition of Eva-
grius’s ecclefiadical hidory, in folio ; and it was re*
publilhed at Cambridge in t'620, in folio, by William
Reading, with additional notes of various author's.
EVANDER, a famous Arcadian chief, called tht
fon of mercury, on account of his eloquence, brought
a colony of his people into Italy, about 60 years be¬
fore the taking of Troy ; when Faunus, who then
reigned over the Abongenes, gave him a large extent
of country, in which he fettled with his friends. He
is faid to have taught the Latins the ufe of letters, and
the art of hulbandry. He kindly received Hercules
5 when
EVA [ 15 ] EVA
11 Evanwiifts when he returned from the eonqueft of Geryon, and he moifture was carefully excluded from his apparatus, he Evapor
II wras the firft who. raifed him altars. He gave -/Eneas was never able to produce fuch a quantity of inflam- tlon-
I affiftance againft the Rutuli, and diflinguifhed himfelf niable air by heating charcoal as when a little quantity L
* t‘<’r>' by his hofpitality. It is faid that he firft brought the of water was admitted by moiftening the leather on
; ‘ Greek alphabet into Italy, and introduced there the which the receiver flood. Nor is the elafticity of this
worfhip of the Greek deities. He was honoured as a 1 1 0" '
God after death, and his fubje£ts raifed him an al¬
tar on mount Aventine.
EVANGELISTS, the infpired authors of the go-
fpels. The word is; derived from the Greek tactynxto
formed of i/ene, u well,” and “ angel c
meflenger.”
The denomination &vmgeiyis was likewifo given in
the ancient church to- fuch as preached- the gofpel up
and down, without being attached to any particular
church, being either coinmifSoned by the- apoftl'es to
kind of fleam altogether imperceptible; for in the ba¬
rometer above mentioned,, the accuracy of theinftru-
ment was confid^rably afrl died by the fleam of the
mercury afcending from it, and occupying the void
fpaee in the upper part of the glafs tube.
Evaporation, according to- the experiments of the
Abbe Noltet, appears to be promoted by electricity.
The conclufionsi drawn from them are, 1. Eleflricity
augments the natural evaporation of fluids; all that
were tried, excepting mercury and oil, being found to
fuffer a eonfiderable diminution, greater than what
inilruit the nations, or of their own accord abandoning could be aferibed to any other caufe. 2. Electricity
every worldly attachment and confecrating themfelve* augments tire evaporation of thofe fluids the moft
to the fecred office of preaching the gofpel. In which which are found moft readily to-evaporate fpontaneouf-
fenfefome interpreters think it is that St Philip, why was ly; the volatile fpirit of fa! ammoniac fuffering a great-
one of the feven deacons, is called the evangelijl, in the er lofs than fpirit of wine or oil of turpentine, tliefe
21 ft-chapter of the Ada of the Apoftles, ver. 8. A- two more than common water, and water more than
gain, St Paul writing to Timothy, Ep. ii. cap. iv. vinegar or a folution of nitre. 3. The effefts? feemed
ver. 5. bids him do the work of an evangelift. The always to be greateft when the veflVIs containing the
fame apoftle, Eph. iv. 11. ranks the evangelifts after fluids were non-ele£trics. 4. The increafed e-vapora-
the apoftles and prophets*
EVAN ID, a name-given by fome authors to fuch
colours- as are of no long duration, as thofe in the
rainbow, in clouds before and after fun-fet, &c.
Evanid colours are alfo called fantajlical and empha-
ticali colours.
EVANTES, in antiquity, the priefteffes of Bac¬
chus, thus called, becaufe in celebrating the orgia they
ran about as if diftra&ed, crying, Evan> evan, ohe evan.
See Bacchanalia.
EVAPORATION, in natural'philofophy, fignifies
theconverfionof fluids, principally water, into vapour, fo
that it becomes fpecifically lighter than the atmofphere.
The theory of evaporation, and formation of vapour
by the abforption of heat, is fully difeufled under the
article Chemistry ; it remains only therefore to take
notice of fome of the moft remarkable phenomena at¬
tending it. With regard to water, it is generally al¬
t-ion was more confiderable when the vefiel which con¬
tained the liquor was more open ; but the effeAs did
not increafe in proportion to the apertures. 5. Elec¬
tricity was alfo found to increafe the evaporation from
folid bodies, and of confequence to augment the infen-
lible perfpiration of animals.
Evaporation is one of the great natural proeeffes, Evapora-
and by means of it the whole vegetable: kingdom is tionpro-
fupplied with rain neceflary for its fupport. This e- mo,e; by
vaporation takes place at all times, not only from the e‘eflnaty*
furface of the ocean, but of the earth alfo. Dr Hal¬
ley, by an experiment with a pan of ftaterkept in the
heat of our fummer fun, found, that as much*water
might be reafonably fuppofed to evaporate from the
furface of the Mediterranean fea, as would be fufficient
to fupply all the rivers which run into it. Dr Wat-
fon in his Chemical Effays, has fhown, that the evapo¬
ration is not lefs confiderable from the furface of the
lowed that it evaporates in every degree of heat above land than from that of the fea. By inverting a glafs
32>° to 2120, which is its boiling point, when it is dif- veffel on the ground, in the time of a confiderable
fipated in great quantity, and as fall as poffible. It drought, he found that even then about 1600 gal-
has alfo been fuppofed to evaporate even after its con- Ions of water were raifed from an acre in 24 hours ;
verfion into ice ; but- fome late authors have demied and repeating the experiment after a thunder-{bower,
this to be the cafe. Other liquids, fuch as fpirit of he found that in fuch a. ftate an acre parted with
wine or- ether, continue to evaporate long after they above 1900 gallons of water in 12 hours,
have been cooled down to the freezing point of water; This evaporation is carried on not onty from the Greata
nor is there any experiment by which it has yet been ground itfelf, but from the leaves of trees, grafs, &c. thy ofwa-"
difeovered at what degree their evaporation ceafes. Even with which it is covered; and great part of the water ter evapo-
quickfilver, to appearance a much more heavy and thus raifed falls down again in the night-time in dew, rated natu”
fluggilh fluid, and which does not boil without ap- being abforbed by the fame vegetables which yield- theea^th*1
plying almoft three times the heat neceflary to make ed it before. Thus the earth is not fo foon ex-and fea.
water boil, is found readily to evaporate when the
preffure of the atmofphere is taken off; and hence the
empty parts of barometrical tubes, where the inftru-
ments were made with great accuracy and the tubes
perfe&ly exhaufted, have been covered with mercurial
globules, owing to an invilible vapour afcending from
the furface of the metal In like manner the evapo¬
ration of water is very fenfible in fome experiments
with, the air-pump* Dr Priellley found, that where
haufted of water-, even for a little way below the fur¬
face, as we might be apt to imagine from the quanti¬
ty raifed by evaporation : for if all that was raifed by
the fun’s heat during the time of a long drought, left
the earth not to return to it for perhaps five or fix
weeks, the whole vegetable kingdom, at leaft fuch as
do not ftrike their roots very deeply into the ground,
muft of neceffity be deftroyed ; which yet we fee is-
only the cafe with the moft tender grafs, and even that
Evapora-
Cold pro¬
duced by
evapora-
4
Effedls of
on the hu-
iuan body.
EVA [ i
only on the moft elevated fituations, and when moft
expofed to the fun.
Another great ufe of the natural evaporation is to
cool the earth, and prevent its being too much heated
by the fun. This property of producing cold by eva¬
poration has been but lately obferved by chemifts,
though it has long been employed by thofe who knew
not the reafon of their doing fo. It has been obferved
at Aleppo in Syria, that the water in their jars is al¬
ways the cooleft when the weather is moft warm and
the power of the fun exceffive. The heats in that
part of the world are fometimes almoft intolerable;
and at that time the evaporation from the outfide of
the jars, which are made of porous clay, is very copi¬
ous ; and in proportion to the quantity of water eva¬
porated from without, is the degree of cold in the li¬
quor within. The reafon of this is eafily deduced
from what is faid under the article Chemistry ; where
it is fhown that vapour is compofed of fire and water
united together. The confequence of this is, that
wherever there is any quantity of latent heat above
320 of Fahrenheit contained in any body, the water
in contaft with the furface, or contained in the pores
of the body, will gradually abforb it, and converting
it into latent heat, will thus be rendered fpecifically
lighter than the common atmofphere, and fly off into
it. Thus part of the fenfible heat of the body will be
carried off; and as fubfequent quantities of water al¬
ways fly off with more and more of the fenfible heat,
it is plain, that by continued evaporation of water al¬
moft all the fenfible heat above 320 of Fahrenheit will
be carried off. If inftead of water, fpirit of wine be
made ufe of, which continues to evaporate long after
it is cooled to 320, a much greater degree of cold may
be produced than by the evaporation of mere water;
and if inftead of fpirit of wine, we make ufe of ether,
which is ftill more volatile than fpirit of wine, an
exceffive degree of cold, fcarcely inferior to that which
congeals mercury, may be produced.
This method of producing cold by meahs of the ex-
penfive liquids of ether and fpirit of wine, cannot be
employed excepting merely for the fake of experi¬
ment : but that by the evaporation of water may be
applied to very ufeful purpofes in the warm countries;
and it has ibeen cuftomary with Tailors to cool their
calks of liquors by fprinkling them with fea water.
From the theory of evaporation laid down under the
1 article Chemistry, we may eafily fee the reafon why,
in a very warm temperature, animal bodies have the
power of producing cold. A vapour, called infen-
fible perfpiration, continually iffues from the bodies of
animals, from human bodies efpecially, which, carrying
off great quantities of their fenfible heat, enables them,
according to its quantity, to preferve the fame tempera¬
ture in many different degrees of atmofpherical heat.
For the fame reafon alfo we may fee why the con¬
tinual fprinkling with cold water is fo very powerful
in depriving the human body of the heat neceffary for
the fupport of life, even though the temperature of
the water Ihould not be below .what can be eafily borne.
It has already been Ihown, that by the evaporation of
Water, a degree of cold not much inferior to that of
freezing water may be produced ; and confequently,
by continual fprinkling of the body with water, the
whole might in time be reduced to nearly the degree
12J. ,
6 ] EVA
of cold in which water freezes. But this is what no Evaperv
human body can bear : and hence we may underftand tion-
why ftorms of rain and fnow are often fatal; and like- y J-
wife why, in cafes of fhipwreck, people have died by
being expofed for a few hours to the fpray of the fea.
The theory of the evaporation of water laid down Curious
under the article Chemistry, furnifties us alfo with aphenome-
folution of a very curious phenomenon, inexplicable ,K,n with
on any other principle, vjz. why melting ice will freeze reBa^d
other pieces together more ftrongly; and, if a confide-
rable degree of heat is not continued for fome time,
will again confolidate itfelf into a much harder mafs
than before. The fad was difcovered by Mr Wedge-
wood in an attempt to conned his clay thermometer
with the common mercurial ones. In this attempt he
had occafion to repeat an experiment made by Meffrs.
Lavoifier and de la Place, who had meafured the heat
of bodies by the quantity of ice they are capable of li¬
quefying. Thefe authors obferve, that if rce, cooled
to any degree below the freezing point, be expofed to
a warmer atmofphere, it will be brought up to the
freezing point through its whole mafs before any part
of it begins to liquefy ; and that confequently ice, be¬
ginning to melt on the furface, will be always exaftly
at the fame temperature, viz. at the freezing point;
and that if a heated body be inclofed in a hollow fphere
of fuch ice, the whole of its heat will be occupied
in melting it: fo that if the ice be defended from
external warmth, by furrounding it with other ice in
a proper veffel, the weight of the water produced from
it will be exadly proportional to the heat which the
heated body has loft ; or, in other words, will be a true
phyfical meafure of the heat. For the experiment,
they provide a tin veffel divided by upright concentric
partitions into three compartments, one within ano¬
ther. The innermoft compartment is a wire-cage for
receiving the heated body ; the fecond, furrounding
this cage, is filled with pounded ice, to be melted by
the heat; and the outermoft is filled alfo with pound¬
ed ice, to defend the former from the warmth of the
atmofphere. The firft of thefe ice compartments ter¬
minates at bottom in a ftem like a funnel, through
which the water is conveyed off; and the other ice
compartment terminates in a feparate canal for difehar-
ging the water into that ice which is reduced. As
foon as the heated body is dropped into the cage, a
cover is put on, which goes over both that and the
firft ice compartment ; which cover is itfelf a kind of
(hallow veffel filled with pounded ice, with holes in the
bottom for permitting the water to pafs from this ice
into the fecond compartment; all the liquefadtion that
happens in both being only the effedf of the heated
body. Another cover, with pounded ice, is placed
over the whole as a defence from external warmth.
Mr Wedgewood began by fatisfying himfelf that ice
did really acquire the temperature of 320 throughout
its whole fubftance before it began to melt; but being
apprehenfive that the pounded ice might imbibe and
retain fome water amongft it by capillary attraftion,
he judged it neceffary to attend to this circumftance
alfo. Having therefore pounded fome ice, he laid it
in a conical heap on a plate; and having at hand fome
water coloured with cochineal, he poured it gently in¬
to the plate at fome diftance from the heap. It rofe
haftily to the top, and was retained by the mafs as by
EVA [ i
Evapnra- a fponge ; nor did any part of it begin to drop till the
ti°n. jieat 0f hand began to liquefy the mafs. He far-
ther obferved, that in a conical heap of this kind the
water rofe two inches and a half in the fpace of three
minutes ; and by weighing the water employed, and
what remained upon the plate unabforbed, it appeared
that four ounces of ice had taken up and retained one
ounce of water. To afeertain this abforbing power of
ice more fully, he preffed fix ounces of it into a funnel,
having firft introduced a wooden core, in order to
leave a proper cavity in the middle ; then taking out
the core, and pouring an ounce of water on the ice,
he left the whole for half an hour, during which time
there ran out only^ 12 pennyweights and four grains ;
fo that the ice haS retained feven pennyweights and
20 grains ; nearly one-twelfth of its own weight, and
two-fifths of the weight of the water.
Being now convinced that it would be proper to ufe
folid ice inllead of that which was pounded, he deter¬
mined to congeal a quantity of water into one mafs
by a freezing mixture, and then expofe it to the atmo-
fphere till it began to liquefy. His apparatus for this
purpofe is reprefented Plate CLXXX1X. ^ is a large
funnel filled with a folid mafs of ice. B, a cavity in the
middle of this ice, formed part of the way by fera-
ping with a knife, and for the remaining part by bo¬
ring with a hot i$pn wire. C, one of the thermo¬
meter pieces, ferves for the heated body, and reits on
a coil of brafs-wire: it had been previoufly burnt with
a ftrong fire, that there might be no danger of its fuf-
fering any farther diminution of bulk by being heated
again for thofe experim.ents. Z), a cork Hopped in the
orifice of the funnel. Z, the exterior velfel, having the
fpace between the fides and its included tunnel A filled
with pounded ice as a defence to the ice in the tunnel.
Z, a cover for this exterior veffel, filled with pounded
ice for the fame purpofe. G, a cover for the fun¬
nel, filled alfo with pounded ice, with perforations in
the bottom for allowing the water to pafs from this
ice down to the funnel. The thermometer piece was
heated in boiling water, taken up with a fmail pair of
tongs equally heated, dropped iniiantly into the cavity
Z, and the covers put on as expeditioufly as poffible;
the bottom of the funnel being previoufly corked, that
the water might be detained till it ftiould part with all
its heat, and likewife to prevent the water from the o-
ther ice, which ran down on the outfide of the funnel,
from mingling with it. After Handing about 10 mi¬
nutes the funnel was taken out, wiped dry, and un¬
corked over a weighed cup : the water that ran out
weighed 22 grains. On repeating the experiment the wa¬
ter weighed only 12 grains; and on a third trial, in vvhich
the piece was continued much longer in the cavity, the li¬
quid did not amount to three drops. To his furprife Mr
Wedgewood alfo now found the piece frozen to the ice fo
that it could not eafily be got off, though all the ice was
at the beginning of the experiment in a thawing Hate.
On heating the piece again to 6° of his thermome¬
ter (18157 of Fahrenheit), and throwing fome frag¬
ments of ice over it, he found that in about half an
hour the water amounted to 11 pennyweights. On
ftoppiny: the funnel, replacing the covers, and leaving
the whole about feven hours, he found, that a confi-
derable quantity of water was colle&ed ; but it ran out
fo flowly, that he imagined fomething had flopped the
*arrow end of the funnel: but on examining the Hate
V01..VII. Fart I.
7 ] EVA
of the ice, he found that the fragments he had thrown Evapora*
over the thermometer-piece were entirely frozen to- t,on'
gether, and in fuch a form that it was evident they v *
could not have affumed it without frelh water having
been fuperadded and thrown upon them, the cavities be¬
tween them being partly filled with new ice. This
was fo Hrongly cemented, that he could fcarcely get
it out with the point of a knife, and great part of the
coiled wire was found enveloped in tfie new ice. The
paffage through the ice to the Hem of the funnel,
which had been made pretty wide with a thick iron
wure, was fo nearly fliut up, that the flow draining of
the water was now very eafily accounted for; this
draining of the water indeed being the only fign of
any paff^ge at all. On taking the ice out of the fun¬
nel, and breaking it to examine this canal, he found
it almofl entirely filled up with ice proje&ing from the
folid mafs in cryflalline forms, fimilar in appearance
to the cryflals we often meet with in the cavities of
flints and quartzofe Hones. A coating of ice was
alfo found on the outfide of.the funnel perfectly tranf-
parent, and of a conliderable extent, about the -nyth
of an inch thick: this coating enveloped alfo a part of
the funnel which was not in contaft with the furround¬
ing, ice, the latter being melted to the diflance of an
inch from it. Some of the ice being feraped off from
the infide of the funnel and applied to the bulb "of the
thermometer, the mercury funk from 50° to 32°, and
continued at that point till the ice was melted ; after
which the water being poured off, it rofe in a little
time to 47°.
Aftonifhed at thefe appearances, our author deter¬
mined to repeat the experiment with fome pieces of
ice he had flored up in a cellar; but on going thither,
he found the calk of ice itfelf in a fimilar fituation to
that made ufe of in his experiments. ' Though much
of it was melted, yet the fragments were frozen to¬
gether, fo that it was with difficulty that any pieces
could be broken or got out with an iron fpade; and
when fo broken, it had the appearance of Breccia
marble, or plum pudding Hone ; the fragments having
been broken and rammed into the calk with an iron
mall. A porcelain cup being laid upon fome of this ice
about half an hour, in a room whofe temperature was
50°, it was found pretty firmly adhering; and when
pulled off, the ice exhibited an exadfl impreflion of the
fluted part of the cup with which it had been in con-
ta£t ; fo that the ice muff neceffarily have been lique¬
fied firff, and afterwards congealed. This was feve-
val times repeated with the fame event. Fragments
of the ice were likewife applied to one another, to
fponges, pieces of flannel, and linen cloth, both moiil
and dry : all thefe in a few feconds began to cohere^
and in about a minute were frozen fo as to require
fome force to feparate them. After Handing an hour,
the cohefion was fo firm, that on pulling away the
fragments of ice from the woollen and fponge, they
tore off with them that part of the furface with which
they were in contaft ; though at the fame time both
the fponge and flannel were filled with water which
that very ice had produced.
The power of the congelation was flrofiger on the
fponge and woollen than on linen ; and to effimate its
force, a piece of ice was applied to a bit of dty flan¬
nel weighing two pennyweights and an half, furround¬
ing them at the fame time with other ice. After lying
C together
EVA [ 18 ] E V. A
F.vapora- together three quarters of an hour, he found that a
tion. weight of five ounces was neceffary to feparate them,
v— f0 much of the ice had liquefied that the weight
of the flannel was increafed-by more than it penny¬
weights. The piece of ice was then weighed, put to
the flannel a fecond time, and left in contaft with it
for four hours; at the end of which time they were
found fo firmly frozen together, that 78 ounces were
required for their Yeparation, although from 42 penny¬
weights of the ice 15 more had melted off: the fur-
face of contadf was at this time about a fquare inch.
Continuing them in contact for 7 hours longer, they
only bore 62 ounces, the ice being diminilhed to 14
pennyweights, and the furface of contaif reduced to
g about !%ths of an inch fquare.
Water ah- On trying whether mafles of ice apparently folid
forbed by would abforb water, he found that they did fo in con-
fond ice. fiderable quantity ; for on heating fome of his thermo¬
meter pieces; and laying them on pieces of ice, in
which they made confiderable cavities, he always found
the water abforbed as faft. as it was produced, leaving
both the piece and the cavity dry.
Thus was our author convinced, that, in his expe¬
riments, the two feemingly oppofite procefles of nature,
congelation and liquefaftion, went on together at the
^ fame time, in the fame veflel, and even in the fame
Two diffe- piece of ice. To account for fuch an extraordinary
rent theo- phenomenon, he had recourfe to two different theories,
nesof this Qne was> water, when highly attenuated, and re-
Bon"0 " into vapour, may freeze with a lefs degree of
1 cold than water in its aggregate or grofler form: whence
hoar froft is obferved on grafs, trees, &c. at times
when there is no appearance of ice upon water, and
when the thermometer is above the freezing point ;
which feems alfo to have been the opinion of Boer-
haave, as he places the freezing of vapour, or even of
water when divided by abforption in a linen cloth, 3133°.
“ Now (fays Mr Wedgewood), as the atmofphere a-
boundswith watery vapour, or water diflblved and chemi¬
cally combined, and mud be particularly loaded with it in
the neighbourhood of melting ice ; as the heated body
introduced into the funnel mull neceflarily convert a
portion of the ice or water into vapour; and as ice is
known to melt as foon as the heat begins to exceed
320, or nearly one degree lower than the freezing point
of vapour ; I think we may from hence deduce pretty
fatisfa&orily all the phenomena I have obferved. For
it naturally follows from thefe principles, that vapour
may freeze where ice is melting ; that the vapour may
congeal, even upon the furface of melting ice itfelf;
and that the heat which, according to the ingenious
theory of Dr Black, it emits in freezing, may contri¬
bute to the further liquefadtion of that very ice upon
which the new congelation is formed.
“ I would further obferve, that the freezing of wa¬
ter is attended with plentiful evaporation in a clofe as
well as in an open veffel; the vapour in the former
condenfing into drops on the under fide of the cover,
which either continue in the form of water, or af-
fume that of ice or a kind of fnow, according to
circumftances which evaporation may perhaps be at¬
tributed to the heat, that was combined with the water,
at this moment rapidly making its efcape, and carry-
ing part of the aqueous fluid off with it. We are hence
furniflied with a frelh and continual fource of vapour
as well as heat: fo that the procefies of liqtmfadlron Evwva-
and congelation may go on uninterruptedly together, tiuIi-
and even neccffarily accompany one another; although, n"^
as the freezing muft be in an under proportion to
the melting, the whole of the ice muft ultimately be
confumed.
“ Some other circumllances may be taken notice
of in the coating of ice on the outlide of the throat
of the funnel. Neither the cover of the outer veffel,
nor the aperture in its bottom which the ftem of the
-funnel paffed through, were air-tight ; and the melt¬
ing' of the furrounding ice had left a vacancy about
an inch round that part of the funnel on which the
cruft had formed. As there was therefore a paf-
fage for air through the veffel, a circulation of it would
probably take place ; the cold and denfe air in the
veffel would defcend into the rarer air of the room,
then about 50°, and be replaced by air from above.
The-effect of this circulation and hidden refrigeration
•of the air will be a condenfation of part of the moifture
it contains upon the bodies it is in contadl with ; the
throat of the funnel being one of thefe bodies, muft
receive its (hare ; and the degree of cold in which the
ice thaws being fnppofed fufficient for the freezing of
this moift vapour, the contact, condenfation, and free¬
zing, may happen at the fame inftant. The fame prin-
-ciples apply to every inilance of eondenfation that took
place in thefe experiments; and the congelation was
•evidently ftrongeft in thofe circumftances where vapour
was moil abundant, and on thofe bodies which from their
natural or mechanic ftrudture were capacious of the
greateft quantity of it; ftronger, for inftance, on fponge
than on woollen, ftronger on this than on the clofer
texture of linen, and far ftronger on all of thefe than
on the compaft furface of porcelain.”
The fecond theory propofed by our author for fol-
ving the phenomena in queftion is founded entirely on
the principles of evaporation. “ If neverthelefs (fays
he) the principle I have affumed, that water highly at¬
tenuated will congeal with a lefs degree of cold than wa¬
ter in the mafs, ihould not be admitted; another has
above been hinted at, which experiments have decided¬
ly eftabliihed, from which the phenomena may perhaps
be equally accounted for, and which, even though the
other alfo is received, muft be fuppofed to concur for
fome part of the effedl: I mean, that evaporation pro¬
duces cold; both vapour and fleam carrying of fome
proportion of heat from the body which produces them.
If therefore evaporation be made to take place upon
the furface of ice, the contiguous ice will thereby be
rendered colder; and as it is already at the freezing
point, the fmalleft increafe of cold will be fufficient
for frefh congelation. If ice is producible by evapora¬
tion in the Eaft indies *, where natural ice is never feen, * See Csa-
we need not wonder that congelation ihould take placed0*0**'
where the fame principle operates amidft aftual ice.
“ It has been obi'erved above, that the heat emit¬
ted by the congealing vapour probably unites with
and liquefies contiguous portions of ice : but whether
the whole, either of the heat fo emitted, or of that ori¬
ginally introduced into the funnel, is thus taken up ;:
How often it may unite with other portions of ice, and
be driven out from other new congelations; whether
there exifts any difference in its chemical affinity or
elective attraction to water in different ftates and the
.2
eon-
E VA [
E.ifi )n contiguous bodies; whether part of it may not ulti-
E I V mateIy e^caPe» v/ithout performing the office expefted
u«. '' '■ from it upon the ice ; and to what diftance from the
evaporating furface the refrigerating power may extend;
muft be left for further experiments to determine.”
EVASION, in law, is ufed for any fubtile endea¬
vour to fet afide truth, or to efcape the pnnilhment of
the law, which will not be endured. Thus, if a per-
fon fays to another that he will not ftrike him, but will
give him a pot of aie to ftrike him firft, and accor¬
dingly he ftrikes, the returning of it is puniftiable ;
and if the perfon firft {hiking be killed, it is murder ;
for no man (hall evade the juftice of the law by fuch a
pretence to. cover Eis malice.
EVATES, a branch or divifion of the druids, or
ancient Celtic philofophers. Strabo.divides the Britiih
and Gaulifti philofophers into three fedfs; bards, evates,
and druids. He adds, that the bards were the poets
and muficians ; the evates, the priefts and naturalifts ;
and the druids were mora’ifts as well as naturalifts
But Marcellus and Hornius reduce them all to two
fedls, viz. the Bards and Druids.
EUBAGE'l, an order of priefts or philofophers
among the ancient Celtce or Gauls: fome will have
the cubages to be the fame with the druids and faro-
nidse of Diodorus ;- and others, that they were the
fame with what Strabo calls Evates.
EUBCEA (anc. geog.), an oblong ifland, ftretch-
ing out between Attica and Theflaly, oppofite to Boe-
otia ; from v/hich it is feparated by a narrow ftrait
called Euripus This ifland, never exceeding 40, nor
ever falling fhort of two miles in breadth, is in length
150 miles, and in conipafs 365, according to Pliny.
Now Negropont, from its principal town, which was
anciently called Chalets.
EUCHARIST, the facrament of the Lord’s fupper,
properly fignifies^iwnj thanks.—The word in its original
Greek, EvXapls-ix, literally imports thmhfgiving} being
formed of w, bene, “ well,” and gratia, “ thanks.”
This facrament was inftituted by Chrift himfelf, and
the participation of it is called communion.
As to the manner of celebrating the eucharift a-
mong the ancient Chriftians, after the cuftomary obla¬
tions were made, the deacon brought water to the bi-
fhops and prefbyters, {landing round the table, to wafh
their hands; according to that of the pfalmift, “ I will
wafli my hands in innocency, and fo will I compafs
thy altar, O Lord.” Then the deacon cried out aloud,
4‘ Mutually embrace and kifs each other;” which be¬
ing done, the whole congregation prayed for the uni-
verfal peace and welfare of the church, for the tran¬
quillity and repofe of the world, for the profperity of
the age, for wholefome weather, and for all ranks and
degrees of men. After this follo'wed mutual faluta-
tions of the minifter and people ; and then the biftiop
or prelbyter having fan&ified the elements by a folemn
benediction, he brake the bread, and delivered it to
the deacon, who diftributed it to the communicants,
and after that the cup.- Their facramental wine was
ufually diluted or mixed with water. During the time
of adminiftration, they fang hymns and pfalms ; and
having concluded with prayer and thankfgiving, the
people fainted each other with a kifs of peace, and fo
the affembly broke up.
EUCHITES, or Euchit^, a fed of ancient he-
19 ] E V A
reties, who were firft formed into a religious body to- Eu.-hite*
wards the end of the fourth century, though their doc- 11
trine and difeipline fubfifted in Syria, Egypt, and o- Ellchd.
ther eaftey1 countries before the birth of Chrift; they ‘ v'~”“
were thus called becaufe they prayed without ceafing,
imagining that prayer alone was fufficient to fave them.
Their great foundation w’ere thofe words of St Paul,
(Theffalonians v. 17.), Pray nvithout esajing. The word is
formed of t he Greek, prayer, whence the
fame with the Latin, precatores, “ prayers.” They
were alfo called Enthujiajls and Mejjalians; a term of
Hebrew origin, denoting the fame as Euchites.
The Euchites were a fort of myftics who imagined-,
according to the oriental notion, that two fouls refided
in man, the one good and the other evil; and who
were zealous in expelling the evil foul or dasmon, and
haftening the return of the good fpirit of God, by
contemplation, prayer, and finging of hymns. They
alfo embraced the opinions nearly refembling the Ma-
nichean do6lrine, and which they derived from the te¬
nets of the oriental philofophy. The fame denomina¬
tion w'as ufed in the 12th century, to denote certain
fanatics who infefted the Greek and Eaftern churches,
and who were charged with believing a double Trinity,
rejecting wedlock, abftaining from flefti, treating with
contempt the facraments of baptifm and the Lord’s
fupper, and the various branches of external worftiip,
and placing the efience of religion folely in external
prayer, and maintaining the efficacy of perpetual Ap¬
plications to the fupreme Being for expelling an evil
being or genius, which dwTelt in the breaft of every mor¬
tal. This feft is faid to have been founded by a per¬
fon called Lucopetrus, whofe chief difciple was named
Tychicus. By degrees it became a general and invidious
appellation for perfons of eminent piety and zeal for
genuine Chriftianity, who oppofed the vicious prafti-
ccs and infolent tyranny of the priefthood ; much in
the fame manner as the Latins comprehended all the
adverfaries of the Roman pontiff under the general
terms of Waldenses and Albigenses.
St Cyril of Alexandria, in one of his letters, takes
oecafion to cenfure feveral monks in Egypt, who, un¬
der pretence of refigning themfelves wholly to prayer,
led a lazy, fcandalous life. A cenfure ,likewifc appli¬
cable to monalteries in general.
EUCHOLOGIUM, Eu^oxoyiov, a Greek term, fig-
nifying literally a difeourfe on prayer. The word is form- •
ed of prayer, and difeourfe.
The Euchologium is properly the Greek ritual,
wherein are preferibed the order and manner of every
thing relating to the order and adminiftration of their
ceremonies, facraments, ordinations, &c.
F. Goar has given us an edition of the Greek Eu-
chologium in Greek and Latin, with notes, at Paris.
EUCLID o/'Megara, a celebrated philofopher and
logician, flouriflied about 400 B. C. The Athenians
having prohibited the Megarians from entering their
city on pain of death, this philofopher difguifed him¬
felf in womens clothes to attend the lectures of So¬
crates. After the death of Socrates, Plato and other
philofophers went to Euclid at Megara, to ftielter
themfelves from the tyrants who governed Athens. Eu¬
clid admitted but one chief good; which he fometime*
called God, fometimes Spirit, and fometimes Providence.
Euclid of Alexandria, the celebrated jnathemati-
C a cian,
* See Ae-
roUgy, n°
Dr Priefl*
ley’s eudio¬
meter.
E U D
clan, flourifhed in the reign of Ptolemy Lagi
277. B. C. He reduced all the fundamental principles
of pure mathematics, which had been delivered down
by Thales, Pythagoras, Eudoxus, and other mathe¬
maticians before him, into regularity and order, and
added many others of his own difcovering; on which
account he is faid to be the firft who reduced arithme¬
tic and geometry into the form of a fcience. He like-
wife applied Jiimfelf to the ftudy of mixed mathema¬
tics, and efpecially to aftronomy, in which he alfo ex¬
celled. 'The moft celebrated of his works is his Ele¬
ments of Geometry, of which there have been a great
number of editions in all languages; and a fine edition
of all his works was printed in 1703, by David Gre¬
gory, Savilian profeflbr of aftronomy at Oxford.
EUCRASY, (of well, and temperature),
in* medicine, an agreeable well proportioned mixture
of qualities, whereby a body is faid to be in good or¬
der and difpofed for a good ftate of health.
EUDIOMETER, an^inftrument for obferving the
purity of the atmofpherical air, or the quantity of pure
dephlogifticated or vital air contained in it, chiefly by
means of its diminution on a mixture with nitrous air*.
Several kinds of thefe have been invented, the principal
of which are the following.
I. The eudiometer originally ufed by Dr Pricftley
is a divided glafs tube, into which, after having filled
it with common water, and inverted it into the fame,
onf or more meafures of common air, and. an equal
quantity of the nitrous kind, are introduced by means
of a fmall phial, which is called the meafure ; and thus
[ 20 ] E U D
about eqvtal parts, with two femicircular brafs pieces, by Eudiome-
which it may be eafily applied and kept near the glafs tt:f' .
tube MD, as is fhown at F-, where it muft be kept '
clofe to the neck, or upper extremity of the tube, by
the notch /. In ufing this inftrument, ;we muft firft
remove the ftopple M, after which the inftrument is
to be entirely filled with water by dipping it in the
tub. The ftopple is then to be replaced ; taking care
that no bubble of air may remain either in the tube,
the veflel C, or the two phials Si B. The lower part
of the inftrument, viz. about as far as the middle of
the tube, muft then be kept under water, and one of
the phials /I or B, now filled with water, is to be re¬
moved from the neck of the veflel C, and filled with
the air of which we defign to try the purity, in the
manner direfted Under the article Gas ; after which
it is to be replaced into the neck of the veflel C; and
in like manner the other phial muft be filled with
nitrous air, and replaced in the other neck. Taking
the inftrument then out of the water, the veflel C muft
be turned with the bottom upwards, as reprefented at
F •, in which cafe, the two elaftic fluids contained in
the phials will afcend into the veflel C ; where, mix¬
ing together, the diminution will be effefted. But as
foon as the veflel is turned round, the inftrument muft
be plunged in water as far as about the middle of the
tube, and the ftopple M removed. As the bulk of the
two elaftic fluids diminifties, the water in the tube g
MD defcends. This inftrument is fubjeft to fome er-inaccuracy
rors, arifing from the greater or lefler height of the this in¬
column of water in the tube MD, as it is held more orurutnent.
the diminution of the volume of the mixture, which is lefs perpendicular; it may alfo vary by the very aft of
feen at once by means of the graduations of the tube,
inftantly difcovers the purity of the air required.
II. The difcovery of this property of nitrous air
■’* and the eudioiheter by Dr Prieftley, foon produced
various attempts to improve on the principle, and con-
ftruft more elegant and accurate machines for difco¬
vering the fmalleft inequality in the conftitution of the
atmofphere. The firft of thefe was contrived by Mr
JLandriani; an account of which is pubiiftred in the
fixth volume of M. Rofier’s Journal for the year 1775.
It confifts of a glafs tube, fitted by grinding to a cy¬
lindrical veflel, to which are joined two glafs cocks and
a fmall bafon ; the whole being fitted to a wooden
frame. Quickfilver is ufed in this inftrument inftead
of water ; but the ufe of that fluid occafions an in-
s convenience, becaufe the nitrous air acts upon the me¬
tal, and renders the experiment ambiguous.
putting in the ftopple M. Another and ftiil greater
fault is, that it cannot admit but one meafure of ni¬
trous to one of common air, which is a very uncertain
method of eftimating the purity of a given kind of re-
fpirable air. The divifions on the fcale are likewife too
large, and it does not feem capable of any great accu-
racy. 6
The fecond kind of eudiometer conftru&ed by M. His fecond
Magellan is reprefented fig. 2. and confifts of a glafs eu iiome-
tube TC, two or three feet long, and having a cavity tcr<
as nearly cylindrical as poffible. One of the ends, C,
is bent forwards as reprefented in the figure ; the other
at T is open, and may terminate in a funnel, to ob¬
viate the neceffity of ufing a feparace one. The whole
tube is faftened by means of two loops to the brafs
fcale CIVN. JV is a glafs phial, having its neck V
ground air-tight to the infide of the end of the tube !T;
Magellan’s
firft eudio¬
meter.
III. In 1777 Mr Magellan publilhed an account of the whole phial containing one half of what the tube
three eudiometers invented by himfelf. The firft of YC is capable of containing; but the phial ABC, at
thefe, reprefented Plate CLXXXVI. fig. 1. confifts the other end, muft contain three or four times the
of a glafs tube MD, about 12 or 15 inches long, and
quite cylindrical throughout, having the upper orifice
clofed with a ground-glafs ftopple M. A veflel C is
joined to the lower part of the tube, and likewife well
adapted by grinding. This veflel has three necks, as
reprefented in the figure: one of which ferves to join
k to the tube M; the other two are ground to thofe
of the phials A and B, whofe capacities muft be as
equal as poffible, as, well to each other as to the tube
MD. Z reprefents a brafs ring which Aides up and
down the tube MD, and by a finger-fcrew may be
tightened or llackened at pleafure, and fet to any place
upon it. <? is a brafs or wooden ruler divided into
quantity that N can contain ; and the neck of it muft
a’fo be ground air-tight to the end Cof the tube. The
fcale C/T'TT’is divided into 128 parts, the divifions
being fet from F towards C; and the cavity of the
tube between the firft and laft of them being double
the capacity of the phial N. XR is a tin-vefiel, which
may ferve as a cafe for packing the whole inftrument
and its appendages; as alfo for a trough for holding
water when experiments are to be made. The glafa
tube g h, and the glafs ftopple M, are both ground air¬
tight to the mouth V of the tube, in order to be put
into it occafionally. To ufe this kind of eudiometer;
1st the. inftrument be imnaerfed under water in the tin-
vel&U
. /-‘'Kir//,'A,/?Ky/^,A<r/,W/.
uj uctnjsum'ib' ij.u^ ;
‘ -
■ •■‘'Clydo
. ■ uuqqul s ft < 1 >i ■
■
i1 ■ ■ 1 ^dign^i! ft . rinp
. ik;: oJ qu v q;;! g^j
. v UJ -4^^ qu \ !U ‘Jd <•
1
His third
eudiome-
E U D [
vefTel; then let the phial iV, when filled with water,
be put into CED, the infide focket of the tin-veffel.
Fill it then with nitrous air ; and let this quantity be
thrown into the phial ABC, which is to be fixed fome-
what tight to the mouth C of the eudiometer. The
fame phial N is afterwards filled with the air of wdiich
we wilh to try the quality ; and raifing the end of the
inftrument C, it is then put into the mouth E. The
inftrument is then to be placed upright as in the fi¬
gure, by hanging it on the hook fT; and as foon as
this laft air goes up to the r'phial ABC, the phial N is
to be taken off,, that the diminution of the two mixed
airs may be fupplied from the water in the tin-veffel :
the mouth E o( the eudiometer being all this time held
under water. The bent tube gh, having the brafs
ring K fitted to it, is then put to the lower end E o{
the eudiometer. By obferving the furface of the wa¬
ter in the fmall tube, which thus forms a £rue fyphon
with the tube of the inftrument, and by means of the
brafs ring K, the ftationary ftate of diminution in the
mixture may be diftinguilhed; which being afcertained,
the fmall tube ^ A is taken off from the eudiometer, and
the whole inftmment laid down for fome minutes in
the water of the tin-veffel; after which the mouth E
is to be Ihut up with the glafs-ftopple JU; and, rever-
fing the inftrument, it is hanged up by the end E up¬
on the hook IV. By thispofition the whole diminilh-
ed air of the veffel ABC goes up to the top, where its
real bulk is fhown by the fcale facing the infide furface
of the water. This number being dedu&ed from 128,
gives the comparative wholefomenefs of the air already
tried without any farther calculation. “ But this pro-
cefs (fays Mr Magellan) will be ftill eafier, when the
laft diminution of the two kinds of air is only required
in the obfervation; becaufe no ufe will then be made
of the fyphon. In fuch a cafe the inftrument is left
hanging on the hook IV for 48 hours; after which it
is laid down under the water of the trough in an hori¬
zontal pofition for 8 or 12 minutes, in order to ac¬
quire the fame temperature with the water: the mouth
E is then fhut up with the ftopple M; the inftrument
is hung by the end E in a contrary pofition ; and the
laft real bulk of the good mixed .air will then be fhown
by the number of the brafs fcale anfwering to the infide
furface of the water.
IV. The third eudiometer conftru&ed by Mr Ma¬
gellan is reprefented fig. 3. where EN reprefents an
uniformly cylindrical glafs-tube about two or three
feet long,, with a large ball 5 and a glafs ftopple M,
fitted air-tight to the mouth iV, which ought to be
wide and funnel-lhaped, unlefs ^feparate funnel is made
ufe of. KL is a fmall fyphon with a brafs ring X;
Z admail phial,, the contents of which do not exceed
one third of the ball S, or one half of the glafs tube.
JLaftly, the inftrument has a ruler I, divided and
ftamped like the fcale already mentioned, with a glafs
funnel, which is ground to the mouth N of the inftru¬
ment, when this is not funnel-fhaped as above directed.
When this eudiometer is to be made ufe of, it muft be
filled with water, and fet in a vertical pofition, with
21 ] E U D
the mouth N under the furface of the water in a tub Eudloine-
or trough. The phial Z is to be filled with nitrous ter-
air, and thrown into the tube by means of a glafs fun- -y—**
nel, if the mouth of the eudiometer tube be not fuffi-
ciently wide to anfwer the purpofe. The fame phial
Z is then to be filled with the air to be tried; after
which the fyphon KL is to be immediately added to
the mouth N of the eudiometer under the furface of
the water, fome of which is to be poured into it.
The ftationary moment of the greateft diminution of
the two airs is watched by means of the ring X; and,
when that moment arrives, the fyphon KL is to be
taken off; the eudiometer is laid for fome minutes un¬
der water in an horizontal pofition or nearly fo; but
taking care that none of the inclofed air may efcape:
the mouth N is then fhut up with the glafs ftopple M,
and the inftrument is inverted with the mouth N up¬
wards. Laftly, the fpace occupied by the refiduum
of the diminifhed air is meafured by applying to its
fide the divided ruler or fcale, and the refult is eftima-
ted as has been already explained. g
On all thefe eudiometers it is very obvious to remark, Inconveni-
that they are complicated and difficult to be ufed; and enccs uf all-
it is befides no eafy matter to get them made with the
requifite accuracy. Mr Cavallo obferves alfo, that the
conftruftion of all the three is founded on a fuppofi-
tion that the mixture of nitrous and atmofpherical air,
after having continued for fome time to diminifh, in-
creafes again ; but he informs us that this is a
miftake, and that Mr Magellan himfelf owned it to-
be fo. But the worft of all is, that they are by no
means accurate, as appeared from feveral experiments
made by Mr Magellan in Mr Cavallo’s prefence, with-
air taken out of the window of the room where the
experiments were performed. By the firft trial, the.
diminution was 48 parts out of 132.0!the mixture: on.
a fecond trial, the fame elaftic fluids being ftill ufed».
the diminution was 58 parts out of 132 : on a third,
trial, the diminution was again 48 ; and by a fourth
one, it was 51. Nay, Mr Magellan himfelf owned that,
after many experiments with his eudiometers, he never
could obtain any conftant refult, even when the nitrous
and commpn air which.he made ufe of were precifely
of the fame quality.
V. A preferable method of difcovering the purity Fontana’s
of the air by means of an eudiometer is recommended eudiome-
by M. Fontana; of which Mr Cavallo fays,, that its ac-,er*
curacy is fuch as could fcarce be believed by thofe who-
have not had an opportunity of obferving it. The in¬
ftrument is originally nothing more than a divided glafs
tube, though the inventor afterwards aided to it a
complicated apparatus, which, in Cavallo’s opinion*
was altogether ufelefs. The firft fimple eudiometer*
confifted only of a glafs tube, as uniformly cylindrical
as poffible in its cavity, about 18 inches long, and
^ths of an inch in diameter in the infide, hermetically
fealed at one end (a). The outfide of this tube was.-
marked with a diamond, or had circles drawn round it
at the diftance of three inches from one another, be¬
ginning at the clofed end of the tube ; or at fuch di-
ftances
(a) To obferve whether the cavity of a glafs tube is perfectly cylindrical, pour into it at different times -
equal quantities of mercury or water, one upon the other ; obferving each timej by means of a divided .rulera ,
if thofe equal quantities of liquor fill equal lengths of the tube.
•His inftru-
-Tnent for
meal'uring
a quantity
cf air ex-
®<5Uy.
Method of
ufing this
eudiome-
E U D
fiances as are exa£lly/filled by equal meafures of ela-
ftic fluids. When the parts of thefe divifions were re¬
quired, the edge of a ruler, divided into inches and
fmaller parts, was held againit the tube ; fo that the
firft divifion of the ruler might coincide with one-df the
marks on the tube. The nitrous and atmofpherical air
are introduced into this tube, in order to be diminifli-
ed, and the purity of the atmofpheric air thus afeer-
tained ; but that an equal quantity of elaftic fluid may
always be certainly introduced, M. Fontana contrived
the following inflrument as a meafure, which cannot
be liable to any error. It is reprefented fig. 4. and
confifis ef a glafs tube about two inches long
and one in diameter, clofed at the end ^4, and having
a brafs piece ,Z?CZ).£ cemented on the other, contain¬
ing a Aiding door I); which when puflied into its pro¬
per cavity, flints the mouth of the tube or meafure
yff?; and wdien pulled out, as reprefented in the fi¬
gure, opens it. To prevent it from being pulled out
entirely, a fpring i? is ferewed upon the flat part of
the brafs piece, the extremity of which bears upon
the head of a brafs pin, which palling through a hole,
rubs againft the door Z); and when this is pulled near¬
ly out, the pin, falling into a fmall cavity, prevents it
from coming quite out. The diameter of the brafs
piece is nearly the fame with that of the glafs tube
AB; and 'near its mouth C there are two notches
made with a file.
Under the fame figure the cavity of the brafs piece
and the parts of the meafure are fliown feparately, viz.
a, the glafs tube; b, the brafs piece; c, the Aiding
brafs door inverted in fueh a manner as to exhibit the
cavity for the pin ; d, the pin with the fpring and
finall ferew. 1 he iniide furface of this meafure, as
Well as of the long tube, fhould have the poiifli taken
off by rubbing with emery; as this prevents the water,
when the experiments are made, from adhering to it in
drops, and thus the meafurements will be more exatfi.
To ufe this apparatus, the long tube muff be filled
with welter; and being inverted in the tub of water
deferibed under the article Gas, furnilhed with a
fhelf, the meafure, being alfo filled with water, is in¬
verted over an hole in the fhelf; and in order to fill it
with the elaftic fluid required, a phial containing it is
brought under the hole; where being inclined a little,
pait of the gas efcapes and paffes into the meafure.
The water then efcapes through the notches ss, made
with the file in the mouth of the meafure, as already
mentioned (b). The door of the meafure is then flmt
by pulhing it in as far as it will go ; and the meafure,
being drawn off from the fhelf, but Hill kept under
water, is turned with the mouth upwards; by which
means the fuperfluous quantity of elaftic fluid, remain¬
ing in the cavity of the brafs piece by reafon of its
being feparated by the Aiding piece, efcapes, and has
its place occupied by water. The meafure being then
again inverted with its mouth downwards, is fet any
where on the fhelf of the tub ; the long tube put over
the hole of the fhelf, and the air transferred from the
meafure to this tube, as has already been direded for
filling the meafure itfelf.
i J £' U; E)
When M. Fontana made ufe of this eudiometer, he En,,'<'rn5-
commonly threw in two meafiires of refpirable air into ,
the tube ; then he added one meafure of nitrous air :
but as foon as the latter was entered, he removed the
tube from the fhelf, holding it by the upper end, and
agitating it for about 20 feconds in the water. The
tube was then refted upon the fide of the tub, while
the meafure was again filled with nitrous air; then
putting- the tube upon the fhelf,- and holding it as near¬
ly perpendicular as he could, he applied the divided
edge of the ruler to it, in order to obferve the diminu¬
tion of the two fkiids. After this he threw in a fourth
meafure of nitrous air ; and after fhaking and letting
it reft for fome time, he obfet4cd again the diminution
of the two elaftic fluids. IZ
‘•That this method (fays Mr Cavallo) fhould be very why rh-’»
accurate, may perhaps appear fomewhat myfterious; eudiome- „
but the myftery will foon vanifh, if it be confidered
that the accurate refult depended not fo much on the •
particular conftruftion of the inftrument, as on the re¬
gular management of it and uniformity of the opera¬
tion. The exa&nefs of the rneafure indeed contribu¬
ted a great deal; but M. Fontana obferved, that with
exa&ly the fame quantities of nitrous and common.air,
very different refults could be occafioned by their be¬
ing left a longer or fhorter time before the inftrument
was agitated, or by being agitated much or little, as
well as feveral other circumftances, which to a fuper-
ficial obferver would appear to be of little confequence.
He therefore performed the operation always in a fi-
milar manner, viz. by agitating the tube always for
the fame length of time, and always with equal quick-
riefs; by which means, when the fame elaftic fluids
were ufed, the refults of the experiments were fo near¬
ly the fame, that the difference, if any could be obfer¬
ved, might be negledted without any impropriety.” 13
Notwithftanding the accuracy of this inftrument, liable
however, M. Fontana found that it was itill liable to-S-
fome fmall errors atihng from the following fcmces.
1. The elaftic fluid within the tube, when the greateft
part of it is filled with water, and the tube is kept out
of the water excepting its mouth, is not of the fame
denfity with the outward or atmofpheric air, on ac¬
count of the pillar of water in the tube ; which, ac¬
cording as it is longer or ftiorter, counterbalances more
or lefs the preffure of the atmofphere upon the quan¬
tity of elaftic fluid contained in the upper part of the
tube ; which quantity of elaftic fluid of confequence
occupies a greater or lefs fpace in the tube, accord¬
ing to the greater or lefs preffure it endures. This
error, however, becomes infenfible when the column of
water is very fliort, and the furface of the water on
the outiide coincides nearly with that on the infide
of the tube. 2. The difficulty of keeping the inffru-
ment perpendicular in the att of meafuring the dimi¬
nution. And, 3. The ftill greater difficulty of obfer-
ving with what divifion of the ruler the furface of the
water within the tube coincided. 14
I o avoid thefe errors, M. Fontana made ufe of the Fontana’*
following contrivance. A A A A, fig. 5. reprefents amet.^od ^
ihong glafs tube about 3 inches diameter, and i 8 ^efe er-
inches rors.
becaufe the water coul^Ifot^eafil^gaout.13^^ ^ thoUsh thefe n0tches were not made» but not fo readily,
E U D [
Eudlowe- inches long, with a foot of glafs all made of one piece.
te!'- Within about an inch of the mouth of this tube a
kj-afs ,-;ng ;s fafteued, which contains two brafs rings
moveable upon oppofite centres, in the fame manner
that fea-compafies are ufually fufpended, and which
are commonly called gingles. C C C C reprefents the
meafuring tube or eudiometer; which is exadly the
fame with that already deferibed, having lines marked
upon its outfide furface to ihow .the fpaces occupied by
equal meafures of elaftic fluid. The fcale .5 i? is ad¬
apted to this tube, which is fhown’feparately in fig. 6.
It confifts of two brafs flips jIC, AC, conne&ed by
'two brafs rings A A, C C, through which the eudio-
•meter tube pafles. To the loweft of thefe rings a
■perforated brafs piece B £, furniflied with crofs pins
or pivots, is fere we d ; and, by means of longitudinal
cuts, its lower extremity is rendered fpringy ; Fo that
when all the piece AB is put upon the eudiome¬
ter tube, the latter cannot flip from within the former,
•unlefs the operator .forces it. When the eudiometer
tube, with the fcale, &c. is put together, as reprefented
fig. 5. the crofs pins of the piece B B, fig. 6. reft upon
the inner ring of the gingleat^y^, fig. 5. by which
means the tube C C C C is kept perpendicular within
the tube A A A A, provided this latter be fituated fo
nearly perpendicular that the former may not touch the
;fide pf it, which wamld prevent it from acquiring the
pofition defired. One of the brafs flips AC, fig. 6. is
divided into equal parts ; 100 of w'hich are equivalent
to the fpace between two of the marks on the eudi¬
ometer tube CCCC, fig. 5. and confequently ihow
the parts of a meafure. Thefe divifions are numbered
from the upper edge of the lower ring conncdling the
two brafs flips, AC, AC.
When this inftrument is to be ufed, one or more
meafures of refpirable air are thrown into the eudi¬
ometer tube; a meafure of nitrous air is then added ;
and after (baking the tube for fome time, it muft be
introduced into the large tube A AAA, which for this
purpofe muft be plunged into the water of the tub;
for the mouth of the eudiometer tube muft not at pre-
fent be taken out ,of the w'ater. After it has been
introduced into the large tube, the whole is taken out of
the water, and fet upon the ftielf or a table. Now the
large tube AAAA is filled with water, and the eudi¬
ometer tube fufpended perpendicularly in it by means
of the crofs pins or pivots of the brafs piece annexed
to the fcale, which refts upon the inner ring of the
gingle. The operator muft then Aide the tube CCCC
up and down through the fcale and brafs piece, 8cc.'
till’the furface of the w'ater within the tube coincides
exa&ly with the upper edge of the lower ring that con-
neds the two brafs flips of the fcale piece, which may
he done very accurately by means of a magnifying
glafs. The furface of the water within the eudiome¬
ter is concave; and when viewed horizontally, it ap¬
pears like a dark line or limit exceedingly well de¬
fined ; fo that the middle or lowermoft point of it
may be made to coincide with the edge of the brafs
ring with great precifion, except when fome drops of
water hang on the outfide of the tube, which fhould
therefore be wiped off.
Having afeertained this point, we muft next obferve
which diviiion of the fcale coincides with one of the
circular divifions marked upon the glafs.tube CCCC,.
23 ] E U D
which will fhow the parts of a meafure. Thus fup- Eudiome-
pofe, that when the eudiometer tube is fixed, fo that, ter- ,
the furface of the water in it coincides perfectly with *
the edge of the lower brafs ring, viz. with the begin¬
ning of the divifions ; that the 70th divifion of the
fcale falls upon the firft circular mark, as reprefented
in the figure ; then it is plain, that the quantity of
elaftic fluid contained in the tube is equal to one mea¬
fure and 70 hundredth parts more. This being obferved,
and the large tube again immerfed in the water, the
eudiometer-tube is removed from it, but always taking
care that its mouth be not lifted up above the furface
of the water. Another meafure of nitrous air muft now
be introduced into the eudiometer-tube ; which, after
being agitated as already diredted, is to be put into the
large tube AAA A. The whole is then taken out of the
water, and the diminution of the elaftic fluid obferved
as above diredted.
Thus the eudiometer tube is kept quite perpendicular,,
and the pillar of water in it rendered very fhort, not
exceeding half an inch at moil. It is eafy to perceive,
'.however, that if the operator, when furniflied with the
eudiometer-tube only, keeps it fo far immerged in the
water of the tube when he obferves the divifions, that
the water within the tube may be nearly equal with the
edge of the tub ; the large tube AAAA may be fpa-
red, and the operation will thus become much more
ealy and expeditions. Little difference can happen from
the pofition of the tube; becaufe the brafs ring afeer-
tains the pofition of the water fo well, and the diffe¬
rence occafioned by a few degrees deviation from the
true perpendicular is fo fmall, that it can fcarce be per¬
ceived.
VI. M. Sauffure of Geneva has invented an eudio-j^ g/up
meter, which he fuppofes to be more exadf than any fare’s eudj»
of thofe hitherto deferibed. His apparatus confifts of ometer.
the follow ing parts, j . A cylindrical glafs- bottle with
a ground ftopple, capable of containing about five
ounces and an half, and w'hich ferves as a receiver for
mixing the two airs. 2. A fmall glafs phial, whofe capa¬
city is nearly equal to one third of that of the reci-.
pient, and ferves for a meafure. 3. A fmall pair of
feales w'hich may weigh very exadfly. 4 Several glafs
bottles for containing the nitrous or other air to be
ufed, and which may fupply the. place of the recipient
when broken. The whole of this apparatus may be
eafily packed into a box, and thus tranfported from
place to place, and even to the fummits of very high
mountains. The method of ufing it is as follows.
1. The receiver is to be filled with water, clofed ex¬
actly with its glafs Hopper, wiped on the outfide, and./
weighed very exadtly. Being then immerged in a veL
fel full of water, and held with the mouth downwards,,
the ftopple is removed, and, by means of a funnel,
two. meafures of common and one of nitrous air are
introduced into it one after another : thefe diminifh as
foon as they come into contaft; in confequence of which
the water enters the recipient in proportionable quan¬
tity. After being flopped and well fhaken, to pro¬
mote the diminution the receiver is to be opened un¬
der water; then flopped and (haken, and fo on for
three times fucceflively. At laft the bottle is flopped
under water, taken out, wiped very clean and dry, andi
weighed exaftly as before. It is plain, that now when
the bottle is filled partly with elaftic fluid and partly
witfi'i
errors to
■which this
machine is
liable.
Mr Caval-
la’s eudio¬
meter.
E U D . 1, H
with water, it mull be lighter than when quite full of
water ; the weight of it then being fubtradfed from the
former, the remainder (hows that quantity of water
which would fill the fpace occupied by the diminifhed
elaftic fluid. Now, in making experiments with airs of
different degrees of purity, the above mentioned re¬
mainder will be greater when the diminution is lefs,
or when the air is more impure, and vice verfa ; and
thus the comparative purity between two different kinds
of airs may be determined.
On this method it is obvious to remark, that not-
withflanding the encomiums beftowed on it by the in¬
ventor, it is fubjedt to many inconveniences and er¬
rors, principally arifing from the inaccuracy of the
meafure, and the difficulty of flopping the bottle with¬
out occafioning a preffure upon the contained elattic
fluid, which being variable, muft occafion feme error in
the weight^of the bottle.
VII. To avoid the inconveniences to which all thefe
inftruments are fubjeft, Mr Cavallo employs a glafs
tube with its fcale and meafure, fuch as is reprefented
fig. 5. the length of the tube being about 16 or 17
inches,, and between \ and y of an inch in diameter,
and of as equal a bore as poffible throughout; having
one end fealed hermetically, and the other fhaped like
a funnel, though not very wide. The whole of this
.apparatus is repiefented fig. 7. whereis the glafs
tube, to the upper end of which a loop AEC fhould
be fattened, made of waxed filk-lace, with feveral crofs
threads CC, DD, EE, Sic. in order to fufpend the in-
ftrument to a hook AE, fig 8. which fhould either be
fattened to that fide of the tube oppofite to the fhelf,
or fo conftru&ed that it may be eafily fixed and remo¬
ved again as occafion requires ; or it may be made of
thick brafs wire, the lower extremity of which fits a
bole made in the fide of the tub. The brafs piece with
the fcale, which Aides upon the eudiometer, is formed
of two brafs flips EG, HI (fig. 7.), joined by two brafs
rings, to which they are foldered. One hundred divi-
fions are marked upon one,of thofe brafsflips, beginning
from the upper edge of the lower ring GI, and all
together equal to the fpace contained between two of
the marks or meafures made upon the glafs tube; fo
that they fhow the parts of a meafure. An hundred
flivifions are likewife marked upon the other brafs flip
HI, beginning from the lower edge of the upper ring
FIL—The following direftions are given by Mr Ca¬
vallo for marking thefe divifions. “ When the tube
AB is filled with water, a meafure of air fhould be
thrown into it in the manner already directed : the
tube muft then be fufpended to the hook by the loop,
as reprefented fig. 8, fo high, that the furface of the
water within the tube may be very near the furface of
the water in the tub, two inches, for inftance, above
it; then looking horizontally through the tube, a
mark ftiould be made by flicking a bit of foft wax
upon the tube, juft coinciding with the lower part of
the furface of the water within it; in which place af¬
terwards a circular mark ftiould be made with the
edge of a flint, or with a piece of agate or diamond,
but not fo deep as to endanger the breaking of the
tube. Thus the firft meafure is marked; and in like
manner may any other one be marked. The attentive
praAitioner, however, fhould never venture to mark
the tube with an indelible ftroke after one trial, left
] E U D
he fhould be miftaken. The proper method is to mark Eud'ome-
them firft with wax, and then repeat the operation *er*
once or twice, in order to correct fome errors that r
might efcape the firft time; after which the mark may
be made with a diamond, flint, or perhaps more con¬
veniently with a file. The polifh of the infide of both
tube and meafure fhould be taken off with emery;
which is a very laborious operation, though it is par¬
ticularly neceffary that the meafure fhould be done in
this manner.” jg
To ufe this eudiometer, fill the tube with water, ta- Method of
king care that no bubbles of air remain in it; and in-ufinS A-
verting it with the mouth downwards, leave it in the
water leaning againft the fide of the tub. Fill the
meafure then with the elaftic fluid whofe purity is to
be tried. Put the eudiometer tube upon the fhelf of
the tub, keeping it perpendicular, and with the mouth
exafldy upon the hole of the fhelf, and throw the mea¬
fure of air into it ; fill it again with the fame air, and
throw this likewife into the tube. Then fill it with
nitrous air, and throw this alfo into the tube, which
muft be fhaken immediately after the operation by mo¬
ving it alternately up and down in the water of the
tub for about a quarter of a minute. It is then left a
fhort time at reft and fufpended by the hook formerly
mentioned, fo that the furface of the water in the in¬
fide may be about two inches above that in the tub ;
when the brafs fcale is Aided upon it till the upper
edge of the lower ring coincide with the middle part
of the furface of the water within the tube, and then
wx mayobferve which divifion of the fcale coincides with
any of thofe on the tube; by which means thejfquautity
of elaftic fluid remaining in the tube may be clearly
feen, even to the hundredth-part of a meafure. The
following direftions are given by our author for noting
down the refults in a clear and accurate manner.
“ i. The two meafures firft introduced into the tube Method of
are exprefled by a Roman number ; after which the noting
fingle meafure of nitrous air is exprefled by anotherdown tlie
Roman number; and the meafures, with the parts oferi-
a meafure remaining in the tube after diminution, arementsf6”"
exprefled by common numbers with decimals.—Thus,
fuppofe, that after introducing two meafures of com¬
mon and one of nitrous air, and after fliaking in the
manner above direfled, the quantity of fluid remain¬
ing in the eudiometer is fuch, that when the upper
edge of the lower ring of the fcale coincides with the
lower point of the furface of the water in the tube,
the 56th divifion of the fcale falls againtt the fecond
circular divifion on the tube, then this diminution is
marked jthus II, I, 2,56 ; fignifying that two mea¬
fures of common and one of nitrous air, after dimi¬
nution by being mixed together, occupy the fpace of
two meafures and 56 hundredth-parts of a meafure.—
Laftly, after marking the firft diminution, throw a fe¬
cond meafure of nitrous air into the tube; (hake the
inftrument; and after a little reft, obferve this fecond
diminution : which, fuppoling it to have reduced the
whole bulk to three meafures and feven hundredth-
parts, is thus marked down, II, II, 3,07. Somt t’mes
one, two, or three meafures of nitrous air muft ftill
be added, in order to obferve the diminution of fome
very pure fpecies'of refpirable air. The divifions which
begin from the upper ring of the fcale-piece of the eu¬
diometer are ufeful when the quantity of elaftic fluid
3 «on-
E U D [ ] E U D
Eienc’'
f Eudiome- contained in it is fo fmall, that the edge of the lower hrafs
, ter' ring cannot be raifed fo high as to coincide with the
^ of the water within the tube on account of the
iilk loop: in which cafe the under edge of the upper
ring is brought to that point; and we muft then ob-
ferve which of thofe divifions coincides with the firit
circular divition upon the tube. If it be aflred, Why
the two or more meafures of nitrous air are not thrown
into the tube all at once, and the laft diminution no¬
ted r the anfwer is. That in this method, the effe&s
of fimilar experiments have not been found equally
pniform with thofe tried in the above mentioned man¬
ner.
iPrecautions 2. “ In this operation care Ihould be taken to fhake
ito'bfobfer ^ t!U^e immediately after the nitrous air has been
wed in°ma- tlirown into it> and to leave it at reft afterwards for
fome time; otherwife the refults of fimilar experiments
are far from being alike. It is alfo neceffary to ob-
ferve, that by holding the meafure or the eudiometer
tube with the hand, which is warmer than the water
of the tub, the elaftic fluid undergoes fome degree of
rarefa<flion, fo that the event of the experiments may
often be rendered precarious. For this reafon the in-
ftruments ihould be held only with the extremities of
the fingers and thumb; and before the door of the
meafure be fliut, or the point of the fcale on the eu¬
diometer tube be fixed, thofe inftruments ihould be
left a (hort time by themfelves, keeping the hands and
breath at a fufficientdiftance from them.”
The following are fome particulars neceflary to be
to be obfer Qkkrvet^ *n ma^'ng exPer’ments of this kind,
fced in ex- r' When refpirable air is mixed with nitrous air, their
periments joint hulk is diminiihed, and the diminution is greater
pf this kind, when the air is purer, cateris paribus, and viceverfa.
2. On mixing the two airs together all at once, the
enfuing diminution is greater than if the fame quantity
of nitrous air be added to an equal quantity of refpi¬
rable air at different times : and hence it follows, that
the quicker the ,two forts of elailic fluids are mixed
together, the greater is the diminution, and contrary-
wife.
3. Nitrous air of different quality occafions a diffe-
jent degree of'diminution with refpirable air; and
therefore care fliould be taken to ufe fuch materials as.
afford air always of the fame quality. The mqft pro¬
per fubftance for this purpofe is very pure quickfilver;
a quarter cf an ounce, or even left, with a proper quan¬
tity of diluted nitrous acid, will produce a gre'at deal
of nitrotjs air, which is always of the fame quality,
provided the metal be always of equal purity; but with
other metals, as brafs, copper, &c. the nitrous air made
at one time is often different from that made at ano¬
ther, and therefore occafions a greater or left diminu¬
tion when mixed with common air though precifeiy of
the fame fort.
4. The quality of nitrous air is impaired by keep,
ing, efpecially when in cor,tadf with water; and for
this reafon it ought to be prepared frelh every two or
three days.'
5. In performing thefe experiments, it flioftld be
carefully remarked, that no miftake arife from heat or
cold ; as the elaftic fluids are eafily contradfed or ex¬
panded by any variation of temperature.
6. Though the greateft diminution takes place im¬
mediately after mixing the refpirablc and nitrous airs to-
Vou VII. Part t.
gether, efpecially when they are agitated, yet they con- Cu liome-
tinue to diminifh a little for fome time after; for which ter~ „
reafon the diminution Ihould he obferved always at a
certain time after the mixture is made. The whole pro-
ceft indeed ought always to be performed in an uniform
manner, otherwife the refults will be frequently very
diflimilar.
7. It muft be remarked, that the furface of the wa¬
ter which lies contiguous to the elaftic fluid contained
in a fmall veflel, is very far from being a plane, or eves
from being always of a fimilar figure in the fame veffel,
on account of the attradlion or repulfion between the
fubftance of the glaft and water. This is altered by
many circumftances, particularly by the adhefion of
extraneous bodies ; whence it is very improper to ufe
common open phials for this purpoie. We muft alfa
take into confideration the drops of water adhering t»
the iides of the veffel, and the quality of the water i«
which the operation is performed.
8. In cafe the experiment is to take up fome hours,
in order to obferve the laft diminution, it will be pro¬
per to notice, by a good barometer, if the gravity of
the atmofphere has fuffered any alteration during that
time ; for a difference in its preffure may oecafion fome
difference in the refult of the experiments.
9. A fimple apparatus is always to be preferred to
a more complicated one, even though the latter fhould
appear to have fome advantage over it in point of ac¬
curacy. Complex machines are not only expenfive,.
and fubjeft to be eafily put out of order, but occafiott
frequent miftakes, on account of the operator having
generally many things to do and keep in proper order;
whence it is eafy to overlook fome of them. ^
It has already been remarked, that one fource of of the
error in the experiments made with eudiometers is the four ces of
inequality of the cplumn of water in the tube by which eTor !n
the mixture of elaftic fluids is confined. For example, ^ kin4
if a cubic inch of air, taken near the apparatus where^e^ierl>
the experiment is to be performed, be introduced into
a long tube previoufly filled and inverted in water, fo
that the furface of the water in the tube may be 20
inches higher than that in the bafon, the air in the
upper part will then be found to occupy a confiderably
larger fpace than if the column of water was (horter;
becaufe in the former cafe the preffure of the water
in the tube partly counterbalances the preffure of the
atmofphere, fo that the latter is left able to refill the
elafticity of the confined air. The difference will be
much greater if quickfilver be made ufe of inftead of
water, as the weight of that fluid is much greater than
that of water. To avoid this, it has been directed to
manage matters fo that the furface of the fluid on the
outfide may nearly correfpond with that in the infide
of the tube 5 but ibis is fometimes impradlicable, e-
fpecially where quickfilver is ufed, with which the er¬
ror is more confiderable than with water : in fuch cafes,
therefore, we muft have recourfe to calculation, and
deduce the real quantity of elaftic fluid from the ap¬
parent fpace it occupies in a receiver, which is partly
filled with it and partly with water or fome other grofs
fluid. For this purpofe it muft be remembered, that
the fpaces into which air or any other elaftic fluid is con¬
tracted, are to one another in the inverfe ratio of the pref-
fures which confine thefe elaftic fluids: hence the fpace
occupied by a quantity of elaftic fluid 4 £, (fig. 9.)
D confined
E U D [ 26 ] E U D
Eudicme- confined in the tube A C iaverted in quickfilver, and ther at the inftant it mixes with the common air, or at Eudiome-
,er* filled with it as far as £, is to the fpace which the fame leaft immediately after ; and it feems that the water, by ter-
quantity of fluid occupies out of the tube, as the pref-
fure which afts upon it when out of the tube is to the
preifure which a&s upon it in the tube ; that is, as the
height of the barometer, to the fame height of the ba¬
rometer deducting the height Z? C of the quickfilver
abforbing the nitrous acid the moment it is formed, '
greatly contributes to the quicknefs of the diminu¬
tion, as well as to the quantity of it. Hence Mr *5
Cavendifh w'as induced to try whether the diminution ^
would not be more certain and regular, if one of the one of the
in the tube. Thus, fuppofe that the length A B of airs were added to the other flowly and in fmall airs flowly
the tube occupied by an elaftic fluid is three inches,
and that the length B C, filled with quickfilver, is 20
inches ; it is required to determine the length of the
fame tube, which the fame quantity of elaftic fluid
would occupy if the furface of the quickfilver in the
bafon was brought even with B, viz. if the faid
elaftic fluid was only afted upon by the preffure of the
atmofphere. Firft obferve the height of the barome¬
ter at that time, which fuppofe to be 30 inches; then
fay, As the height of the barometer is to the fame
height deducing the height of the quickfilver C B in
the inverted tube A B; fo is the fpace A B to the real
fpace required ; that is, 30 : 30—20 : : 3
30
“ 1 ; fo that one inch is the length of the tube A C
which the quantity of elaftic flu'd A B would occupy,
if the furface B of the quickfilver in it was brought
even with that of the quickfilver in the bafon. Here,
however, we muft fuppofe the tube vZ C to be perfeft-
ly cylindrical; otherwife the calculation would become
very intricate by being adapted to the form of the
veffel.
Mr Caver- VIII. In the 73d volume of the Philofophical Tranf-
difli’s eu- aftions, we have an account of a new eudiometer by
diameter. ^jr Cavendiih. He prefers the Abbe Fontana’s to all
the reft : the great improvement in which (he fays) is,
bubbles, the veffel being kept fhaking all the while tlie
that the mixture was made : and on trial he found
that this method fully anfwered his expedlations.
The apparatus ufed by our author is, 1. A cylindrical Mr ^aver>
glafs veffel(fig. 10.), with brafs caps at top and bot- difli’s ap-
tom. To the upper cap a brafs cock B is fitted : paratus de-
the bottom cap is open, but made to fit clofe into the
brafs focket Dd, and is fixed into it in the fame man¬
ner as a bayonet is on a mulket. This focket has a
fmall hole E in its bottom, and is faftencd to the board
of the tub by the bent brafs FfG, in fuch a manner
that b, the top of the cock, may be about half an inch
under water : confequently, if the veffel A is placed
in its focket with any quantity of air in it, and 'the
cock is then opened, the air will run out by the cock ;
but will do fo very flowly, as it can efcape no fafter
than the water can enter by the fmall hole E to fup-
ply its place.
2. Befides this veffel, there are three glafs bottles
like J/, fig. 11. having each a flat brafs cap at bottom
to make it Hand fteady, and a ring at top to fufpend
it; alfo fome glafs meafures of different fizes, as B
fig. 12. having a flat brafs cap at bottom with a wood¬
en handle. Thefe are filled with the air to be mea-
fured, then fet upon the brafs knob C fitted to the
board of the tub below the furface of the water, which
that as the tube is long and narrow, and the orifice of drives out fome of the air, leaving only the proper
the funnel not much lefs than the bore of the tube, quantity.
and the meafure made to deliver its contents very
quick, the air rifes flowly up the tube in one continu-
27
In mixing the airs together, our author commonly Hhmethud ;
adds the refpirable flowly to the nitrous; to do which, a mixing \
ed column ; fo that there is time to take the tube off proper quantity of nitrous gas is put in^o the bottle if, ^
by means of one of the meafures already defcribed, and
another quantity of refpjrable air is put into the vef¬
fel A, by firft filling it with this air, and then putting
it on the knob C, as was done by the meafure ; after
the funnel, and to Ihake it before the airs come quite
into contact ; by which means the diminution is
much greater and more certain than it would other-
wife be. Thus, if equal meafures of nitrous and com- #
mon air are mixed together in this manner, the bulk , which the veffel A is fixed in the focket, and the
of the mixture will, in general, be about one meafure;
but if the air? are fuffered to remain in contaft about
a quarter of a minute before they are fhaken, the bulk
will hardly be lefs than one meafure and one fifth ;
and it will be very different according to the length
of time they are fuffered to remain before they are
Ihaken. In like manner, if, through any fault in the
apparatus, the air rifes in bubbles, as in that cafe it is
impoffible to ftiake the tube foon enough, the diminu¬
tion is always lefs than it ought to be. Another very
eonfiderable advantage arifing from the method of mix¬
ing the airs juft mentioned is, that the diminution takes
place in its full extent almoft inftantly ; but if they are
allowed to remain for fome time in contaft before they
bottle M placed with its mouth over the cock. The p. IQ ]
quantities of air made ufe of, and the diminution of
the mixture, are determined by weighing the veffds
under water in the following manner. From one end
of a balance, placed in fuch a manner as to hang over
the tub of water, a forked wire is fufpended, to each
end of which fork is fixed a fine copper wire ; and in
trying the experiment, the veffel A, with the refpirable
air in it, is firft weighed by fufpending it from one of
thofe copper wires, fo that it may remain entirely un¬
der water. The bottle M, with the proper quantity
of nitrous air in it, is then hung in the fame manner
on the other wire, and the weight of both together
determined. The air. is then let out of the veffel A
are ftiaken, the mixture will continue diminifhing for int0 the bottle M, and the weight of both veffels to-
many hours afterwards.
Why Fon- The reafon of thefe differences, according to our
tana’s me- author, is, that, in the Abbe, Fontana’s method, the
the'reft'fo3 water ^a^en hrifkly up and down in the tube while
much. the a’rs are m'x'n£ 5 by which means every fmall por¬
tion of nitrous air muft be in contact with water ei-
gether found a fecond time ; by which we know the
diminution of bulk the airs fuffer on being mixed;
Laftly, the bottle M is taken off, and the veffel A
weighed again by itfelf, which gives the quantity of
refpirable air made ufe of. It is needlefs to determine
the quantity of nitrous air by weight; becaufe, as the
quantity
I
E U B
F 27 ! E U D
f Eudiome- quantity ufed is always fufficient to produce a full di-
ter minution, a fmall difference therein makes no fenfible
one in the diminution. No fenfible error can arife
from any difference in the fpecific gravity of the air;
for the thing found by weighing the veffel is the dif¬
ference of weight of the included air and an equal
bulk of water ; which, as air is no lefs than 800 times
lighter than water, is very nearly equal to the weight
of a quantity of water equal in bulk to the included
air. A common balance is not convenient for weigh¬
ing the bottles under water, without fome’addition to
it : for the lower the veffel of air finks under water, the
more the air is compreffed ; which makes the veffel
heavier, and thereby caufes that end of the beam to
preponderate. Hence we muff either have the index
placed below the beam, as in many effay-balances ; or
by fome other means remove the centre of gravity of
the beam fo much below the centre of fufpenfion, as
to make the balance vibrate, notwithftanding the ten¬
dency which the compreffibility of the air in the vef-
fels has to prevent it.
In this manner of determining the quantities of the air
by weight, care muff be taken to proportion the lengths
of the copper wires in fuch a manner that the furface
of the water in A and M fiiall be on the fame level,
when both have the ufual quantity of air in them ; as
otherwife fome errors will arife from the air being more
compreffed in one than the other. This precaution,
indeed, does not entirely take away the error, as the
level of the water in M is not the fame after the airs
are mixed that it was before; but in veffels of the fize
ufed by our author, this error could never be equal to
the joodth part of the whole; which therefore is quite
inconfiderable: but even if it was much greater, it could
be of no confequence, as it would always be the fame
in trying the fame kind of air.
The veffel ^ (fig. 10.), ufed in thefe experiments, holds
282 grains of water, and is the quantity denominated one
meafure by our author. There are three bottles for ma¬
king the mixture, with a meafure Z? (fig. 12.) for the ni-
; trous air adapted to each. The firlt of thefe holds three
meafures, and the correfponding meafure one and one-
fourth of the former meafure; the fecond bottle holds fix,
and the correfponding meafure 24-; the third holds 12,
and the correfponding meafure five. The firft bottle and
meafure are made ufe of in trying common air, and the
f others for the dephlogifticated or purer kinds. As the
fame quantity of refpirable air is always made ufe of,
meafure of nitrous air is added to one of the com¬
mon atmofpherical kind ; and in trying very pure de¬
phlogifticated air, five meafures of the nitrous kind are
made ufe of; and our author is of opinion, that there
is no kind of air fo pure as to require a greater quan¬
tity of nitrous air. The way by which it is known
whether a fufficient quantity of nitrous air has been ad¬
ded, is to obferve the bulk of the mixture ; for if that
,is not lefs than one meafure, that is, than the refpirable
air alone, it is a fign that the quantity of nitrous air is
fufficient. or that it will produce the proper diminu¬
tion, unlefs it be very impure. It muft be obferved,
however, that though the quantity of refpirable air
will always be nearly the fame, as being put in by mea¬
fure, yet the obferved diminution will commonly require
feme corre&ion. For example, fuppofe that the ob¬
ferved diminution was 2.353 naeafures, and that the
quantity of refpirable air was found to be .985 of a Eudiome-
meafure ; then the obferved diminution muft be increa- te^
fed by .035, in order to have the true diminution, or v ~J
that which would have been produced if the refpirable
air made ufe of had been exadly one meafure ; whence
the true diminution is 2.388.
In weighing common air, our author fomewhat
abridges the procefs above defcribed. He does not
weigh the veffel A, but only the bottle M with the ni¬
trous air in it; then mixes the airs, and again weighs
the fame bottle with the mixture in it, and finds the
increafe of weight; which added to one meafure, is
very nearly the true diminution whether the quantity
of common air made ufe of was a little more or a little
lefs than one meafure. The reafon of this is, that as
the diminution produced by the mixture of common
and nitrous air is only a little greater than the bulk of
the common air, the bulk of the mixture will be venr
nearly the fame whether the bulk of the common afr
be a little greater or a little lefs than one meafure. Let
us fuppofe, for example, that the quantity of common
air made ufe of is exactly one meafure, and that the
diminution of bulk on mixing is 1.08 of a meafure ;
then muft the increafe of the weight of the bottle M,
on adding the common air, be .08 of a meafure. Let
us next fuppofe that the quantity of common air made
ufe of is 1.02 of a meafure; then will the diminution,
on adding the nitrous air, be 1.08-}-^-^-or 1.1016 of
a meafure; and confequently the increafe of the
weight of the bottle M will be 1.1016—1.02, or
.0816 of a meafure, almoft exadlly the fame as if pre-
cifely one meafure of common air had been made ufe of.
The fame bottle is made ufe of, viz. that which 28.
holds three meafures, when the nitrous is added to the ad-dillg
refpirable air. In this experiment the bottle M is firftlothe^e-*
weighed without any air in it, and then weighed again fpirable.
when full of refpirable air, which gives the quantity of
the latter made ufe of. The nitrous air is then put in¬
to the veffel A, and weighed together with the bottle Af,*
after which, having mixed them together, the diminu¬
tion takes place, and they are weighed again, in order
to difcover its quantity. In this method a fmaller
quantity of nitrous air is neceffary than in the former.
1 n the firft method, it was found that the diminution
was fcarce fenfibly lefs when one meafure of nitrous air
was ufed than with a much larger quantity; fo that
one meafure may be accounted fully fuifcient. Our
author, however, chofe to employ meafure, left
the nitrous air fhould be impure. There was no fen¬
fible diminution whether the orifice of the veffel A
opening into the bottle AT was TVth or |th of an inch;
that is, whether the air efcaped in fmall or large bub¬
bles: the diminution was rather greater when the bottle
was (haken brifkly than otherwife ; but all the differ¬
ence that could be perceived between thefe two me¬
thods of (baking did not exceed .01 of a meafure.
The diminution, however, was remarkably lefs when
the bottle was not (haken at all; being at firft only
0.9 ; in about three minutes it increafed to 0.93 ; and
after being (haken for about a minute, it increafed to
0.99 ; but when gently (haken at firft, the diminution
was 1.08 on mixing, and did not feniibly increafe after
that time. Some difference was found to arife from the
length of time the air took up in pa'ffing from one veffel
^ 2 to
»9
Variations
from the
bottles and
quality of
the water.
E U D [ 28 1 E U D
- to another. When it took up 80 feconds, for inftance, in but though this correftion will undoubtedly dimi- Eudiorn-
pafling from the one bottle into the other, there was adif- nilh the error, he is of opinion that it will not by any ter-
J ference of 5 hundredth-parts more than when it took up means take it away entirely ; and from fome circum- v
only 2 2 feconds, and about 2 hundredth-parts, more than ftances it appears that diftilled water polfelfes a proper-
when it took up 45 feconds; but at other times the diffe- ty of abforbing different quantities of nitrous air inde-
rence waslefs. As the hole in the plate Dd, however, was pendent of its heat. 3I
always the fame in our author’s experiments, the time ta- In the fecond method, •vi%.. when the nitrous acid is Why the
ken up by the air in pafling from one veflel into the other added to the common air, the diminution is confider-
varied fo little that no perceptible difference could arife 'k,"■ ,"r° ‘u-- —r f —*1—‘ls e s w eu
from that caufe. A greater difference arofe from the
fize of the bottles and quality of the water made ufe
of. When the fmall bottle, holding three meafures, was
ufed, and filled with diftilled water, the diminution
of common air was ufuaily 1.08 ; but when the bottle
was filled with water from the tub, it was .05 lefs. U-
fing the bottle whfch held 12 meafures, and filled with
diftilled water, the diminution was about 1.15 ; and
with the fame bottle filled with water from the tub it
was ufuaily i.q8. “ The reafon of this (fays Mr quantity of nitrous air comes in contact with a large
Cavendifh) is, that water has the power of abforbing a one of common air, the former is more completely de-
ably lefs than in the other; the reafon of which is, thatt^eensitr0UJ
when nitrous and common air are mixed together, the is added t<a
former is deprived of part of its phlogifton, and is the refpi-
thereby converted into phlogifticated nitrous acid, andrauie a‘r*
in that ftate is abforbed by the water; befides that the
common air is phlogifticated,,.and thereby diminifhed:
fo that the whole diminution on mixing is equal to the
bulk of nitrous air which is turned into acid, added to
the diminution which the common air fuffers by being
phlogifticated. Now it appears, that when a fmall
finall quantity of nitrous air; and the more dephlogifti-
cated the water is, the more of this air it can abforb.
If the water is of fuch a nature alfo as to froth or form
prived of its phlogifton, and abforbed by the water in
a more depblogifticated ftate than when a fmall quan¬
tity of common air comes into conta& with a large
bubbles on letting in the common air, the diminution quantity of nitrous: in the fecond method, therefore.
is remarkably lefs than in other water. In general the
diminution was nearly as great with rain as with di-
where fmall portions of nitrous air come in contact with
a large quantity of common air, the former, as has
Hilled water ; but fometimes the former would froth a been juft obferved, is more deprived of its phlogifton ;
good deal; in which cafe it was no better than water and therefore a fmaller quantity of it is required to
r i„-i   a.i— t. n   j   j: :  4.1  :„ „ . r 
fouled with oak-fhavings. This difference of diminu¬
tion, according to the nature of the water, is a very great
inconvenience, and feems to be the chief caufe of un¬
certainty in trying the purity of the air ; but it is by
no means peculiar to this method, being equally great
phlogifticate the common air than in the former method,
where fm^ll portions of common air come in contadi
with a large quantity of nitrous air ; fo that a lefs quan¬
tity of the nitrous air is abforbed in the fecond method
than in the firft. The common air moft probably fuf-
in that of Fontana’s. In his method indeed it makes fers an equal diminution in both cafes,
little difference whether the water be difpofed to froth Another proof that a fmaller quantity of nitrous
or pot; but this is no great advantage, as it is eafy to sir is required in this method than the former is, that
find water which will not froth; though it (hows plain- if common air be mixed with a quantity of nitrous
ly how little any of the experiments hitherto made on air not fufficient to phlogifticate it, the mixture will
the purity of air can be depended upon.” The beft be more phlogifticated if the nitrous be added flowly to
method of obviating this inconvenience is to be always the common air without being in contadt with water ;
Attempt
medy the
from the
different
quality of
the water.
careful to ufe the fame kind of water : our author al¬
ways made ufe of diftilled water; but found that even
this was fometimes endowed with a greater power of contadl with water at the time of mixing.
abforbing nitrous air than at others: and with a r 
view to remedy this, he made the following experi-
Some diftilled water being purged of its air by
rhent.
boiling, one part was kept for a week in a bottle
with dephlogifticated air, and frequently ftiaken; the
other part being treated in the fame manner with phlo¬
gifticated air. By a mean of three different trials the
left of common air tried with the firft of thefe waters
was 1.159 5 the diminution fuffered by fhaking nitrous
air in it for two feeonds being about 0.285. The teft
of the fame air tried with the other water was 1.054,
and the diminution by nitrous air only 0.09 ; the heat
of the water in the tub and of the diftilled waters be-
ing 450. The heat of the water in the tub and the
diftilled waters was then raifed to 67° ; when the teft
of the fame air tried by the firft water was 1.100, and
by the latter 1.044; the diminution of nitrous air with
the firft water being 0.235» ^7 t^ie latter 0.089. Hence
it might feem that the obferved teft ought to be cor-
refted by the fubtraCtion of T^-ths of the diminution
which nitrous air fuffers by being fhaken in the water,
the mixture will be found to be Hill more phlogifticated
than in the fecond method where the two airs are in
The final
refult of Mr Cavendilh’s experiments on this fubjedt is, Condufions
that nitrous air ufed in the firft method does not phlo-from ,
gillicate common air more than three-fourths of the *
fame quantity ufed in the fecond way; and not fo muchments.
as one half of the quantity ufed in the third way, viz.
by adding the nitrous air flowly to the other, without
being in contaft with water.
With refpeft to the quality of nitrous air ufed inofth/dlf-
thefe experiments, our author obfervesthat it may vary ferent pro¬
in two refpe&s. 1. In purity ; that is, in being morePfrfles °f
or lefs mixed with phlogifticated or other air. 2. Xnnitrousai*»
two parcels of equally pure air, it is poffible that one par¬
cel may contain more phlogifton than the other. A
difference in the fecond refpeft will caufe an enor in
the teft, in whatever proportion it be mixed with the re-
fpirable air ; but if it differs in the firft refpedl, it will
fcarcely caufe any error unlefs it be uncommonly im¬
pure; provided care is taken to ufe a quantity fufficient
to make a full diminution. It muft be obferved, how¬
ever, that if the nitrous air be mixed with fixed air, an
error will be occafioned, becaufe part of the latter is
and adding 002 for every three degrees of heatabove 05 abforbed while the teft is trying ; but this will hardly
be
E U D [
Eudiome- fee th« cafe, unlefs either the metal from which it is
tcr’ procured be covered with ruft, or unlefs the water in
^ u 0 ia' .yyiiich it is received contain much calcareous earth fuf-
pended by fixed air ; as in that cafe, if any of the ni¬
trous acid comes over with the air, it will dilfolve the
calcareous earth, and feparate fome fixed air.
To determine whether it be poffible for nitrous air to
differ in the fecond refpedt, our author procured fome
from quickfilver, copper, brafs, and iron : in making
experiments with which, he found lhat the difference be¬
tween the tells tried with the three firft kinds of air was
not greater than what might proceed from the error of
the experiment; but thofe with the air from iron .or5
greater than the reft. From other experiments it ap¬
peared that the nitrous air from iron was not only more
impure than that from other metals, but that the pure
portion it contained had lefs phlogifton in it than that
from copper or quickfilver. He is of opinion, how¬
ever, that copper affords nitrous air fufficiently pure for
experiments of this kind without having reeourfe to
quickfilver, as Mr Cavallo advifes.
In fome of his experiments, Mr Cavendifh had occa-
fion to ufe a larger apparatus, which is reprefented
fig. 13. A reprefentsa bottle containing nitrous air in¬
verted into the tub of water DE. i? is a bottle fitted
with a bent glafs tube C. This bottle is to be filled
with common air without any water, and is firft flight-
ly warmed by the hand : the end of the glafs tube is
then put into the bottle of nitrous air as reprefented in
the figure. As the bottle B cools, a little nitrous air
runs into it, which inftantly lofes its elafticity in con-
fequence of coming into contact with the atmofpherical
air. This condenfation occafions an influx of frefh ni¬
trous air, and fo on till the whole is exhaufted. By
this means the nitrous air is added flowly to the other
without coming into contaft with water, till the whole
of it has run out from the bottle 4 into B-, after which
the water flows in to fupply the vacancy occafioned by
the diminution.
EUDOSIA, (Athenia, before her converfion to
Chriftianity), a celebrated lady, the daughter of Leon¬
tius, philofopher of Athens ; who gave her fuch a
learned education, that at his death, he left her only a
fmall legacy, faying fhe was capable to make her own
fortune: but pleading at Athens without fuccefs againft
her two brothers, for a fhare in her father’s eftate, fhe
carried her caufe perfonally by appeal to Conftanti-
nople; recommended herfelf to Pulcheria, the filler of
the emperor Theodofius the younger; embraced Chri-
tiianity, was baptized by the name of Eudofia, and
foon after married to the emperor. Their union lafted
a confiderable time: but a. difference at laft taking
place, on account of the emperor’s jealoufy excited by
Chryfapius the eunuch, fhe retired to Jerufalem, where
fhe fpent many years in building and adorning church¬
es and in relieving the poor. Dupin fays, that fhe
did not return thence till after the emperor’s death :
but Cave tells us, that fhe was reconciled to him, re¬
turned to Conflantinople, and continued with him till
his death ; after which fhe went again to Paleftine,
where fhe fpent the remainder of her life in pious
works. She died in the year 460, according to Du¬
pin; or 459, according to Cave : the latter obferves,
that on her death-bed fhe took a folemn oath, by which
ifoe declat ed herfelf entirely free from any ftains of un-
29 ] EVE
chaflity. She was the author of a paraphrafe on the Eudoxians
eight firft books of the Old Teftament in heroic verfe; li
and of a great number of poems, which are loft. Eveiyn',
EUDOXIANS, a party or fe£l of heretics in the v ' •
fourth century, fo denominated from their leader Eu-
doxius, patriarch of Antioch and Conftantinople, a
great defender of the Arian dodlrine. The Eudoxi¬
ans adhered to the errors of the Arlans and Euno-
mians, maintaining, that the Son was created out of
nothing; that he had a will diftindl and different from
that of the Father, &c.
EVE. See Vigil.
Eve, the mother of all mankind; who being deluded
by the ferpent, occafioned the fall, and all its difmal
confequences. See Adam.
EVELYN (John), a moft learned and ingenious
writer and natural philofopher, was born at Wotton in
Surry, the feat of his father, in 1620. After making
the tour of Europe, he returned to England about the
year 1651, and lived very retired at his rural retreat.
Say’s Couit, near Deptford in Kent; where his difguft
at the violence and confufion of the times operated fo
far upon his ftudious difpofition, that he adlually pro-
pofed to Mr Boyle the eftablifhing a kind of college
for perfons of the fame turn of mind, where they
might affociate together without care or interruption.
It was owing to Mr Evelyn’s gratitude to_ the place
of his education, that Oxford became pofleffed of the
famous Arundelian marbles; which he perfuaded the
Lord Henry Howard to beftow on that univerfity.
He was very’ affiduous in tranfmitting to the royal fo-
ciety whatever fell within the compafs of his inquiries;,
and ufed humbly to ftyle himfelf a pioneer in the fervice.
When the number of books he publiflied is coniidered,
the many he left behind him unfiniftied and unpublifli-
ed, and the variety of fubjedts on which he employed
his time, his induftry and application are aftoniftiing.
** His life (fays the honourable Mr Walpole) was a
courfe of inquiry, ftudy, curiofity, inftrudtion, and be¬
nevolence. The works of the Creator, and the mimic
labours of the creature, were all objedls of his purfuit.
He unfolded the perfe&ions of the one, and affifted the
imperfedlions of the other. He adored from examina¬
tion ; was a courtier that flattered only by informing
his prince, and by pointing out what was worthy for
him to-countenance ; and was really the neighbour of
the Gofpel, for there was no man that might not have
been the better for him. He was one of the firil pro¬
moters of the royal fociety, a patron of the ingenious
and indigent, and peculiarly ferviceable to the lettered
world; for, befides his writings and difeoveries, he ob¬
tained the Arundelian marbles for the univerfity of Ox¬
ford, and the Arundelian library for the royal fociety:
nor is it the leaft part of his praife, that he who pro-
pofed to Mr Boyle the eredlion of a philofophic col¬
lege for retired and fpeculative perfons, had the honefty
to write in defence of aclive life againft Sir George
Mackenzie’s Eflay on Solitude. He knew that retire¬
ment in Iris own hands was induftry and benefit to man¬
kind ; but in thofe of others, lazinefs and inutility.”
There are five fmall prints of this gentleman’s journey
from Rome to Naples, drawn and etched by him; and
among his publiftied works are, 1. A Character of
England; 2. The State of France; 3. An EiTay on.
the fir ft book of Lucretius- De rerwn mturaj 4. The
.Erenclir
F. U G [30
French gardener; 5. A Panegyric on King Charles IPs
coronation ; 6. Fumifugum, or the inconveniences of
the air and fmoke of London diffipated; 7. The Hi-
ftory and Art of Engraving on Copper; 8. A parallel
between the ancient archite&ure and the modern ; 9.
Sylva, or a difcourfe of foreft-trees; and feveral others.
This amiable gentleman died, full of age and honour,
in 1706. His fon John Evelyn, born in 1654, diftin-
guiftied himfelf by his elegant tranflations and poems:
He was one of the commifiioners of the revenue in
Ireland; but died early in life, in 1698.
EVERGETES, a firname fignifying benefaBor, gi¬
ven to Philip of Macedonia, and to Antigonus Dofon,
and Ptolemy of Egypt. It was alfo commonly given
to the kings of Syria and Pontus, and we often fee
among the former an Alexander Evergetes, and among
the latter a Mithridates Evergetes. Some of the Ro¬
man emperors alfo claimed that epithet of Benevolent*
and Humane.
EVERGREEN, in gardening, a fpecies of peren¬
nials, which continue their verdure, leaves, &c. all the
year: fuch'are hollies, phillyreas, lauriftinufes, bays,
pines, firs, cedars of Lebanon, &c.
EVERLASTING pea. See Lythyrus.
EVES-droppers. See EAVKS-Droppers.
EVESHAM, or Evesholm, commonly called E-
fam, a town of Worcefterfhire, feated on a gentle afcent
from the river Avon, over which there is a bridge of
feven arches. It is 95 miles from London, 14 miles
from Worcefter, and has a harbour for barges. It is
an old borough, reckoned the fecond in the county ;
and fends two members to parliament. It had for¬
merly an abbey with a mitred abbot; which abbey when
Handing was one of the largeft and moft ftately of any
in the kingdom. It was governed by a bailiff, till
king James I. at the requeft of his fon Prince Henry,
gave it a charter for a mayor, 7 aldermen, 12 capital
burgeffes, a recorder, and chamberlain, who are all of
the common council, with 24 other burgeffes called
affiftants. Four of the aldermen, and the mayor for
the time being, are juftices of the peace; and of oyer
and terminer, and of gaol delivery, for all offences in
the corporation, except high treafon ; and the corpo¬
ration has power to try and execute felons within the
borough. Here are two parifh-churches ; but the
bells of both have been removed to a beautiful old tower
which was one of the gates of the abbey. This town is
noted for the great vidtory obtained near it by Pri|ice Ed¬
ward, afterwards King Edward I. over Simori Mont-
fort, the great earl of Leicefter, who was killed in the
battle. There is an open profpedt from hence of the
fpacious valley called the We of Evejham or vale of
Gloucefler, which fo abounds with the beft of corn, as
well as pafture for (beep, that it is reckoned the gra¬
nary of all thefe parts. The vale runs all along the
banks of the Avon, from Tewkelbury to Perlhore,
and to Stratford in Warwickfhire, and the river is fo
far navigable. It has a weekly market and four fairs.
The market-houfe built by Sir Edward Hobby has its
upper apartments ufed by the corporation for a feffions-
houfe, and formerly for the affizes of the county. There
are confiderable garden-grounds around the place, the
produce of which fupplies the adjacent towns.
EUGENE (Francis), prince of Savoy, defcended
from Carignan, one of the three branches of the houfe
1 E V I
of Savoy, and fon of Eugene Maurice, general of the
Swifs and Grifons, governor of Champagne, and earl
of Soiffons, was born in 1663. Louis XIV. to whom
he became afterwards fo formidable an enemy, thought
him fo unpromifing a youth, that he refufed him pre¬
ferment both in the church and the ftate, thinking him
too much addi&ed to pleafure to be ufeful in either.
Prince Eugene,^jn difgutl, quitted France; and, reti¬
ring to Vienna, devoted himfelf to the imperial fervice.
The war between the emperor and the Turks afforded
the firft opportunity of exerting his military talents 4
and every campaign proved a new ftep in his advance¬
ment to the higheft offices in the army. He gave
the Turks a memorable defeat at Zenta ; commanded
the German forces in Italy, where he foiled marffial
Villeroy in every engagement, and at length took him
prifoner. Our limits do not allow a detail of his cam¬
paigns ; but prince Eugene diltinguiffied himfelf great¬
ly, when the emperor and queen Anne united againft
the exorbitant power of Louis XIV. He died at Vi¬
enna in the year 1736; and was as remarkable for his
modefty and liberality, as for his abilities in the field
and the cabinet.
EUGENIA, the yamboo: A genus of the mono-
gynia order, belonging to the icofandria clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 19th or¬
der, Hefperidea. The calyx is quadripartite, fuperior;
the petals four; the fruit a monofpermous quadrangu¬
lar plum. There are two fpecies, both natives of the
hot parts of Afia. They rife from 20 to 30 feet high;
and bear plum-ftiaped fruit, inclofing one nut. They
are too tender to live in this country, unlefs they are
conftantly kept in a ftove.
EVICTION, in law, fignifies a recovery of lands or
tenements by law.
EVIDENCE, that perception of truth which arifes
either from the teftimony of the fenfes or from an in-
du&ion of reafon.
Evidence, in law, fignifies fomeproof teftimony
of men upon oath, or by writings or records. It is
called evidence, becaufe thereby the point in iffue in a
caufe to be tried is to be made evident to the jury ;
for probationes debent ejfe evidentes et perfpicua. The
fyftem of evidence, as now eftabliffied in our courts of
common law, is very full, comprehenfive, and refined;
far different from, and fuperior to, any thing known
in the middle ages ;—as far fuperior in that as in all
other improvements and refinements in fcience, arts,
and manners.
The nature of evidence during the ages of ignorance
was extremely imperfect, and the people were inca¬
pable of making any rational improvement. Thus it
was the imperfeftion of human reafon that caufed the
invention and introdu&ion of the ordeal, as an appeal
to the Supreme Being. As men are unable to com¬
prehend the manner in which the Deity carries on the
government of the univerfe, by equal, fixed, and ge¬
neral laws, they are apt to imagine, that in every cafe
wdiich their paffions or intereil render important in
their own eyes, the Supreme Ruler of all ought vifibly
to difplay his power in vindicating innocence, and pu-
nifhing vice.
EVIL, in philofophy, &c. is either moral or natu¬
ral. Moral evil is the difagreement between the ac¬
tions of a moral agent, and the rule of thofe actions
what
•E U L [ 31 ] E U L
Evil whatever it is*.—Natural evil is, whatever deftroys or vited to Peterfburg in 1725, promifed Euler, who was Euler.
Euler any way t^ie perfection of natural beings: defirous of following them, that they would ufe their "v~
■ “ ' . fuch as blindnefs, difeafes, death, &c. utmoft endeavours to procure for him an advantageous
* See Moral King’s 'Em., or Scrofihula. See Medicine-Zm^a:. fettlement in that city. In the mean time, by their
Pbilofophy. Evil-Merodach, the fon and fucceffor of Nebuchad- advice, he applied himfelf with ardour to the ftudy of
nezzar the Great, king of Babylon, fucceeded to the phyfiology, to which he made a happy application of
crown in the year of the world 3443 ; but governed his mathematical knowledge; and he attended the me-
the kingdom during the indifpolition of his father, dical lectures of the moft eminent profeffors of Bafil.
who after feven years, having recovered his underftand- This ftudy, however, did not wholly engrofs his time:
ing, once more afcended the throne ; and, as fome be- it did not even relax the activity of his vaft and com-
litvc, imprifoned his fon Evil-Merodach. In this con- prehenfive mind in the cultivation of other branches of
finement it is fuppofed that Evil Merodach made an natural fcience. For while he was keenly engaged in
acquaintance and friendfhip with Jehoiachim king of phyfiological refearches, he compofed A Differtation on
Judah, who had been carried to Babylon by Nebu- the Nature and Propagation of Sound, and an anfwer
chadnezzar. However that was, it is certain, that, to a prize queftion concerning the malting of Ihips;
foon after his fucceffion to the throne, he delivered the to which the academy of fciences adjudged the accejjit,
king of Judah out of prifon, after a confinement of 37 or fecond rank, in the year 1727. From this latter
years, heaped many favours on him, and placed him difcourfe, and other cireumltances, it appears that
above all the other kings who were at the court Euler had early embarked in the curious and important
of Babylon, (2 Kings xxv. 27. Jer. lii. 31.) Evil- ftudy of navigation, which he afterwards enriched with
Merodach reigned but one year, according to the fo many valuable difcoveries.
chronology of Archbiftxop Ulher; but Dr Prideaux M. Euler’s merit would have given him an eafy ad-
will hr e him to have reigned two years, and was fuc- million to honourable preferment, either in the magi-
ceeded by Neriglilfar his lifter’s hulband, who having ftracy or univerfity of his native city, if both civil and
been at the' head of a confpiracy that put him to academical honours had not been there diftributed by
death, reigned in his Head. Others will haw it, that lot. The lot being againft him in a certain promo-
this prince was immediately fucceeded by his fon Bel- tion, he left his country, fet out for Peterlburg, and
shazzar. was made joint profelfor with his countrymen Melfrs
EULER (Leonard), profelfor of mathematics, Hermann and Daniel Bernouilli in the univerfity of
member of the imperial academy of Peterlburgh, an- that city. At his firft fettrng out in his new career,.
cient director of the royal academy of Berlin, and fel- he enriched the academical colledtion with many me-
low of the royal fociety of London, as alfo correfpon- moirs, which excited a noble* emulation between him
dent member of the royal academy of fciences at Paris, and the Bernouillis; and tliis emulation always con-
was born at Bafil, April 15th, 1707, of reputable pa- tinued, without either degenerating into a felfilh jea-
rents. The years of his infancy were palfed in a rural louly, or producing the leaft alteration in their friend-
retreat at the village of Richen, of which place his (hip. It was at this time that he carried to new de¬
father was minifter. — Being fent to the univerfity of grees of perfection the integral calculus, invented the
Bafil, he attended regularly the different profeflbrs.- calculation of finufes, reduced analytical operations to
As his memory wms prodigious, he performed his aca- a greater fimplicity, and thus was enabled to throw
demical talks with uncommon rapidity; and all the new light on all the parts of mathematical fcience. In
time he gained by this was confecrated to geometry, 1730, he was promoted to the profeflbrfhip of natural
w'hich foon became his favourite ftudy. The early pro- philofophy ; and in 1733116 fucceeded his friend D.
grefs he made in this fcience, only added new ardour Bernouilliin the mathematical chair. In i735,apro-
to his application; and thus he obtained a diftinguifhed blem was propofed by the academy which required
place in the attention and efteern of profeffor John Ber- expedition, and for the iolution .of which feveral emi-
nouilli, who was atythat time one of the firft; mather nent mathematicians had demanded the fpace of fome
maticians in Europe. ~lh 1723, M. Euler took his de-- months. The problem was folved by Euler in three
gree as mafter of arts; and delivered on that occalion days, to the great aftonifhment of the academy; but
a Latin difcourfe, in which he drew a comparifon be- the violent and laborious efforts it coft him threw him
tween the philofophy of Newton and the Cartefian fy^ into a fever, which endangered his life, and deprived
ftem, which was received with the greateft applaufe. him of the ui'e of his right eye. The academy of
He afterwards, at his father s defire,, applied himfelf fciences at Paris, which in 1738 had adjudged the prize
to the ftudy of theology and the oriental languages., to his memoir Concerning the Nature and properties of
Though thefe ftudies were foreign to his predominant Fire, propofed for the year 1740 the important fub-
propenfity, his fuccefs was confiderable even in this jedt of the fea-tides; a problem whofe folution required
line: however,with his father’s content, he returned the moft arduous calculations, and comprehended the
to geometry as lus principal objedt. He continued theory of the folar fyftem. Euler’s difcourie on this
to avail himfelf of the counfels and inftrudtions of queftion was adjudged a mafter-piece of analyiis and
M. Bernouilli; he contra&ed an intimate friendfhip geometry; and it was more honourable for him to fhare
with his two fons Nicholas and Daniel; and it was in the academical prize with fuch illuftrious competitors
confequeace of thefe connections that,he became after- as Colin Maclaurin and Daniel Bernouilli, than to have
wards the principal ornament ot the academy of Peterf- carried it away from rivals of lefs magnitude. Rarely,
burg. The projedt of eredting this academy, which had if ever, did fuch a brilliant competition adorn the an-
been formed by Peter the Great, was executed by nals-of the academy ; and no fubjedt, perhaos, propo-
Catharine I.; and the two young Bernouillis beings in- fed by that learned body was. ever treated* with fuch
E U L L 32 ] E U L
accuracy of invefligation and force of genius, as that
which here difplayed the philofophical powers of thefe
three extraordinary men.
In the year 1741, M. Euler was invited to Berlin
to augment the luftre of the academy, that was there
riling into fame. He enriched the lad volume of
the mifcellanies (melangesJ, of Berlin with five memoirs,
which make an eminent, perhaps the principal, fi¬
gure in that colledtfon. Thefe were followed with an
aftonifhing rapidity by a great number of important
refearches, which are fcattered through the memoirs
of the Prufiian academy ; of which a volume has been
regularly publilhed every year fmce its eflablifhment
in 1744. The labours of Euler will appear more efpe-
cially afionifhing, vehen it is confidered, that while
he was enriching the academy of Berlin with a prodi¬
gious number of memoirs, on the deeped parts of ma-
thematical fcience, containing always fome new points
of view, often fublime truths, and fometimes difcove-
ries of great importance; he did not difcontinue his
philofophical contributions to the academy of Peter-
fburgh, which granted him a penfion in 1742, and
whofe memoirs difplay the marvellous fecundity of Eu¬
ler’s genius. It was with much difficulty that this
great man obtained, in 1766, permiffion from the king
of Pruffia to return to Peterfburgh, where he defired
to pafs the reft of his days. Soon after his return,
which was gracioufly rewarded by the munificence of
Catharine II. he was feized with a violent diforder,
which terminated in the total lofs of his fight. A ca¬
taract, formed in his left eye, wdn'ch had been effen-
tially damaged by a too ardent application to ftudy,
deprived him entirely of the ufe of that organ. It was
in this diftreffing fituation that he dictated to his fer-
vant, a tailor’s apprentice, who was abfolutely devoid
of mathematical knowledge, his elements of algebra ;
which by their intriniical merit, in point of perfpicuity
and method, and the unhappy circumftances in which
they were compofed, have equally excited applaufe and
aftonijhment. This work, though purely elementary,
difcovers the palpable charaCteriftics of an inventive ge¬
nius ; and it is here alone that we meet with a com¬
plete theory of the analyfis of Diophantus.
About this time M. Euler was honoured by the
Academy of Science^: Paris with the place of one of
the foreign members of that learned body; and, after
this, the academical prize was adjudged to three of
his memoirs, Concerning the Inequalities in the Motiotis of
the Planets, The two prize queftions propofed by the
fame academy for 1770 and 1772 were defigned to
obtain from the labours of aftronomers a more Perfect
Theory of the Moon. M. Euler, affifted by his eldeft
fon, was a competitor for thefe prizes, and obtained
them both. In this laft memoir, he referved for far¬
ther confideration feveral inequalities of the moon’s
motion, which he could not determine in his firft theo¬
ry, on account of the complicated calculations in which
the method he then employed had engaged him. He
had the courage afterward to review his whole theory,
with the affiftance of his fon and Meffrs Krafft and
Lexell, and to purfue his refearches until he had con-
ftruCted the new tables, which appeared, together with
the great work, in 1772. Inftead of confining him-
felf, as before, to the fruitlefs integration of three dif¬
ferential equations of the fecond degree, which are
K° 121 •
furniftied by mathematical principles, he reduced them Euler-
to the three ordinates, which determine the place of ——y““
the moon ; he divided into clafles all the inequalities
of that planet, as far as they depend either on the elon¬
gation of the fun and moon, or upon the eccentri¬
city, or the parallax, or the inclination of the lu¬
nar orbit. All thefe means of inveftigation, employ¬
ed with fuch art and dexterity as could only be ex-
pe&ed from an analytical genius of the firft order,
were attended with the greateft fuccefs; and it is
impoffible to obferve, without admiration, fuch im*
menfe calculations on the one hand, and on the other
the ingenious methods employed by this great man
to abridge them, and to facilitate their application
to the real motion of the moon. But this admi¬
ration will become aftonifhment, when we confider at
what period and in what circumftances all this was
effeftuated by M. Euler. It was when he was totally
blind, and confequently obliged to arrange all his com¬
putations by the foie powers of his memory and his
genius. It was when he was embarraffed in his do-
meftic circumftances by a dreadful fire, that had con-
fumed great part of his fubftance, and forced him to
quit a ruined houfe, of which every corner was known
to him by habit, which, in fome meafure/fupplied the
place of fight. It was in thefe circumftances that
Euler compofed a work which, alone, was fufficient
to render his name immortal. The heroic patience
and tranquillity of mind which he difplayed here,
needs no defcriptiOn : and he derived them not only
from the love of fcience,- but from the power of reli¬
gion. His philofophy was too genuine and fublime
to ftop its analyfis at mechanical caufes ; it led him to
that divine philofophy of religion which ennobles hu¬
man nature, and can alone form a habit of true mag¬
nanimity and patience in fuffering.
Some time after this, the famous Wentzell, by
couching the cataraft, reftored Mr Euler’s fight; but
the fatisfa&ion and joy that this fuccefsful operation
produced, were of (hort duration. Some inftances of
negligence on the part of his furgeons, and his own
impatience to ufe an organ, whofe cure was not com¬
pletely finifhed, deprived him of his fight a fecond
time ; and this relapfe was accompanied with torment¬
ing pain. He, however, with the affiftance of his fons,
and of Meffrs Krafft and Lexell, continued his labours;
neither the lofs of his fight nor the infirmities of
an advanced age, could damp the ardour of his genius.
He had engaged to furnilh the academy of Peterf¬
burgh with as many memoirs as would be fufficient to
complete its adfts for 20 years after his death. In
the fpace of feven years he tranfmitted to the acade¬
my, by Mr Golfwin, above 70 memoirs, and above
200 more, which were revifed and completed by the
author of this paper. Such of thefe memoirs as were
of ancient date were feparated from the reft, and form
a colleftion that was publiftied in the year 1783, un¬
der the title of Analytical Works.
Euler’s knowledge was more univerfal than could be
well expected in one, who had purfued with fuch un¬
remitting ardour mathematics and aftronomy as his
favourite fludies. He had made a very confiderable
progrefs in medical, botanical, and chemical fcience.
What was ftill more extraordinary, he was an excel¬
lent fcholar, and poffeffed what is generally called eru-
6 dition
/
E U M [ 33 ] E U M
Euler dition in a very high degree. He had read, With at-
II tention and tafte, the moft ertiinent writers of ancient
luman es. ^ome . c;vjj an(j l^erary hiftory of all ages and all
nations was familiar to him ; and foreigners, who were
only acquainted with his works, were aftoniflied to
find in the converfation of a man, whofe long life
feemed folely occupied in mathematical and phyfical
refearches and difcoveries, fuch an extenfive acquain¬
tance with the moft interefting branches of literature.
In this refpeft, no doubt, he was much indebted to a
very uncommon memory, which feemed to retain every
idea that was conveyed to it, either from reading or
from meditation. He could repeat the iEneid of
Virgil, from the beginning to the end, without hefi-
tation, and indicate the firft and laft line of every page
of the edition he ufed.
Several attacks of a vertigo, in the beginning of
September 17^3, which did not prevent his calculating
the motions of the aeroftatical globes, were, neverthe-
lefs, the forerunners of his mild and happy paflage
from this fcene to a better. While he was amufing
himfelf at tea with one of his grandchildren, he was
ftruck with an apoplexy, which terminated his illuf-
trious career at the age of 76. His conftitution was
uncommonly ftrong and vigorous: his health was good;
and the evening of his long life was calm and ferene,
fweetened by the fame that follows genius, the public
efteem and refpeft that are never with held from ex¬
emplary virtue, and feveral domeftic comforts which
he was capable of feeling and therefore deferved to
i enjoy.
EULOGY, Eulogia, in church hiftory. When
the Greeks have cut a loaf or piece of bread to con-
fecrate it, they break the reft into little bits, and diftri-
bute it among the perfons who have not yet communi¬
cated, or fend it to perfons that are abfent; and theft?
pieces of bread are what they call eulogies. The word
is Greek, ww-yi*-, formed of bene, “ well,” and
dico, “ I fay, fpeakq. d. benedictum, “ blefled.”
The Latin church has had fomething like eulogies
for a great many ages; and thence arofe the ufe of
their holy bread.
The name eulogy was likewife given to loaves or cakes
brought to church by the faithful to have them bleffed.
Laftly, the ufe of the term pafled hence to mere pre-
fents made to a perfon without.any benedi&ion. See
the Jefuit Gretfer, in his Treatife de Benediftionibus iff
Maleditlionibus, lib. ii. cap. 22, 24, &c. where he treats
of eulogies thoroughly.
From a pafiage in Bolandus, on the life of St Me-
laine, cap. 4. it appears, that eulogies were not only
of bread, but any kind of meat bleffed and hallowed
for that purpofe. Add, that almoft every body blef¬
fed and diftributed eulogies ; not only bifhops and
priefts, but even hermits, though laymen, made a prac¬
tice of it. Women alfo would fometimes fend eulogies.
The wine fent as a prefent was alfo held an eulogy.
Bolandus remarks farther, that the eucharift itfelf was
alfo called eulogy.
Eulogy, likwife means an encomium on any per¬
fon, on account of fome virtue or good quality.
EUMARIDES, of “ eafy,” among the an¬
cients, a kind of (hoes common to men and women.—
The eumarides were ufed for pomp and delicacy, be¬
ing neat, and painted with various colours.
Vot. VII. Part I.
EUMENES, a Greek officer in the army of Alex- Eumenes.
ander, fon of a charioteer. He was the moft worthy  v—
of all the officers of Alexander to fucceed after the
death of his mafter. He conquered Paphlagonia, and
Cappadocia, of which he obtained the government, till
the power and jealoufy of Antigonus obliged him to
retire. He joined his forces to thofe of Perdiccas,'
and defeated Craterus and Neoptolemus. N.eoptole-
mus perifhed by the hands of Eumenes. When Cra¬
terus had been killed during the war, his remains re¬
ceived an honourable funeral from the hand of the con¬
queror; and Eumenes, after weeping over the afhes of a
man who once was his deareft friend, fent his remains
to his relations in Macedonia. Eumenes fought againft
Antipater and conquered him ; and after the death of
Perdiccas his ally, his arms were dire&ed againft An¬
tigonus, by whom his was conquered A. U. C. 433,
chiefly by the treacherous conduft of his officers. This
fatal battle obliged him to difband the greateft part of
his army to fecure himfelf a retreat; and he fled only
with 700 faithful attendants to a fortified place on the
confines of Cappadocia, called Nora, where he was foon
befieged by the conqueror. He fupported the fiege
for a year with courage and refolution, but fome dif-
advantageous fkirmifhes fo reduced him, that his fol-
diers, grown defperate, and bribed by the offers of the
enemy, had the infidelity to betray him into the hands
of Antigonus. The conqueror, from fhame or re-
morfe, had not the courage to vifit Eumenes; but when
he was afked by his officers, in what manner he wifhed
him to be kept, he anfwered, keep him as carefully as
you would keep a lion. Th;s fevere command was
obeyed ; but the afperity of Antigonus vanifhed in a
few days, and Eumenes, delivered from the weight of
chains, was permitted to enjoy the company of his
friends. Even Antigonus hefitated whether he fhould
not reftore to his liberty a man with whom he had
lived in the greateft intimacy while both fubfervient to
the command of Alexander; and thefe fecret emotions
of pity and humanity were not a little encreafed by the
petitions of his fon Demetrius for the releafe of Eu¬
menes. But the calls of ambition prevailed; and
when Antigonus recolleded what an aeftive enemy he
had in his- power, he ordered Eumenes to be put
to death in the prifon. His bloody commands
were executed 315 years before the Chriftian era.
Such was the end of a man who railed himfelf to power
by merit alone. His fkill in public exercifes firft re¬
commended him to the notice of Philip; and under
Alexander, his attachment and fidelity to the royal
perfon, and particularly his military accomplifhments,
promoted him to the rank of a general. Even his ene¬
mies revered him ; and Antigonus, by whofe orders he
perifhed, honoured his remains with a fplendid funeral,
and conveyed his afhes to his wife and family in Cap¬
padocia. It has been obferved, that Eumenes had
fuch an univerfal influence over the fucceffors'of Alex¬
ander, that none during his lifetime dared to affume
the title of king.
Eumenes I. king of Pergamus, who fucceeded his
uncle Philetasrus about 264 years before Chn'ft. He
made war againft Antiochus the fon of Seleucus, and
enlarged his pofleffions by feizing upon many of the
cities of the kings of Syria. He lived in alliance with
the Romans, and made war againft Prufias king of
E a Bithynia.
E U M [ 34 ] E U N
Eamcnes Bithynia. He was a great patron of learning; but
Eutnenidi* lnucll given to wine, he died of an excefs in
drinking, after a reign of 22 years. He was fucceed-
ed by Attains.
Eumenes II. fucceeded his father Attains on the
throne of Afia and Pergamus. His kingdom was
fmall and poor, but he rendered it powerful and opu¬
lent ; and his alliance with the Romans did not a little
contribute to the encreafe of his dominions after the
vi&ories obtained over Antiochus the Great. He car¬
ried his arms againft Prullas and Antigonus ; and died
160 years before Chrift, after a reign of 40 years,
leaving the kingdom to his fon Attains II. He has
been admired for his benevolence and magnanimity ;
and his love of learning greatly enriched the famous
library of Pergamus, which had been founded by his
predeceflbrs in imitation of the Alexandrian collection
of the Ptolemies. His brothers were fo attached to
Him and devoted to his intereft, that they enlifted among
his body-guards to fhow their fraternal fidelity.
Eumenes, a celebrated orator of Athens about the
beginning of the fourth century. Some of his ha¬
rangues and orations are extant. An hiftorical writer
in Alexander’s army.
EUMENIDES, a name given to the Furies by the
ancients. They fprang from the blood of the wound
which Coelus received from his fon Saturn. Accord¬
ing to others, they were daughters of Earth, and
conceived from the blood of Saturn. Some make
them daughters of Acheron and Night, or Pluto and
Proferpine. According to the more received opinions,
they were three in number, Tifiphone, Megara, and
Ale&o, to which fome add Nemefis. Plutarch men¬
tions only one called Adrajla,. daughter of Jupiter and
Neceffity. They were fuppofed to be the minifters of
the vengeance of the gods. They were ftern and inex¬
orable ; and were always employed in punilhing the
guilty upon earth, as well as in the infernal regions.
They inflifted their vengeance upon earth by wars,
pellilence, and difienfions, and by the fecret ftings of
conference ; and in hell they punilhed the guilty by
continual flagellation and torments. They were alfo
called Fur'ue and Erinnys Their worfhip was almoft
univerfal ; and people dared not to mention their
names or fix their eyes upon their temples. They
were honoured with facrifices and libations ; and in
Achaia they had a temple, which when entered by any
one guilty of a crime, fuddenly rendered him furious,
anddeprived him of the ufe of his reafon. In the facri¬
fices the votaries ufed branches of cedar and of alder,
hawthorn, faffron, and juniper ; and the viftims were
generally turtle-doves and Iheep, with libations of wine
and honey. They were ufually reprefented with a
grim and frightful afpeft, with a black and bloody
garment, and with ferpents wreathing round their head
inflead of hair. They held a burning torch in one
hand, and a whip of fcorpions in the other; and were
always attended By Terror, Rage, Palenefs, and Death.
In hell they were feated around Pluto’s throne, as the
niinifters of his vengeance.
EUMENIDIA, ftftivals in honour of the Eumeni-
des, called by the Athenians vt.avaj S-f«i “ venerable god-
defifes.” They were celebrated once every year, with fa-
t rifices of pregnant ewes, with offerings of cakes made
by the molt eminent youths, and libations of honey
and wine. At Athens none but free-born citizens Eutrol;i-
were admitted, fuch as had led a life the moll virtuous d,e3
and unfullied. „ .
EUMOLPIDES, the priefts of Ceres at the celebra- v—H
tion of her feftivals at Eleufis. They were defeended from
Eumolpus, a king of Thrace, who was made prieft of
Ceres by Erechtheus king of Athens. He became fo
powerful after his appointment to the priefthood, that
he maintained a war againft Erechtheus. This war
proved fatal to both. Erechtheus and Eumolpus were
both killed, and peace was re-eftablilhed among their
defeendants, on condition that the priefthood ever
remained in the family of Eumolpus, and the regal
power in the houfe of ErdRitheus. The priefthood
remained in the family of Eumolpus for' 1200 years;
and this is ftill more remarkable, becaufe he who was
once appointed to the holy office was obliged to remain
in perpetual celibacy.
EUMOLPUS, a king of Thrace, fon of Neptune
and Chione. He was thrown into the fea by his mother,
who wilhed to conceal her ftiame from her father.
Neptune faved his life and carried him into ^Ethiopia,
where he was brought up by a woman, one of whofe
daughters he married. An aft of violence to his fifter-
in-law obliged him to leave ^Ethiopia, and he fled to
Thrace with his fon Ifmarus, where he married the
daughter of Tegyrius the king of the country. This
conneftion to the royal family rendered him ambitious;
he confpired againft his father-in-law, and fled, when
the confpiracy was difeovered, to Attica, where he was
initiated in the myfteries of Ceres of Eleufis, and made
hierophantes or high prieft. He was afterwards re¬
conciled to Tegyrius, and inherited his kingdom. He
made war againft Erechtheus, king of Athens, who
had appointed him to the office of high prieft, and
perifhed in battle about 1380 years before the Chriftian
era. His defeendants were alfo invefted with the
priefthood, which remained for about 1200 years in
that family.
EUNAPIUS, a native of Sardis in Lydia, a cele¬
brated fophift, phyfician, and hiftorian, who flourilhed
in the 4th century, under the emperors Valentinian,
Valens, and Gratian. He. wrote “ The lives of the
Philofophers and Sophiils,” in which he frequently
fhows himfelf a bitter enemy to the Chriftians: alfo a
“ Hiftory of the Cefars,” which he deduced from the
reign of Claudius where Plerodian left off, down to that
of Arcadiusand Honorius. The hiftory is loft ; but we
have the fubftance of it in Zofimus, who is fuppofed
to have done little more than copy it.
EUNOMIANS, in church-hiftory, Chriflian here¬
tics in the 4th century. They were a branch of A-
rians, and took their name from Eunomius biftiop of
Cyzicus; whofe confeffion of faith here follows, ex-
trafted from Cave’s Hijloria Literarla, vol. I. p. 223.
“ There is one God uncreated and without beginning;
who has nothing exifting before him, for nothing can
exift before what is incarnate; nor with him, for what
is uncreate muft be one ; nor in him, for God is a
fimple and uncompounded being. This one fimple and
eternal being is God, the creator and ordainer of all
things : fivft indeed and principally of his only begot¬
ten Son ; and then, through him, of all other things.
For God begot, created, and made, the Son, only by
his direft operation and power, before all things, and
every
E U N C 35 1 E tl M
Eunomius, every other creature ; not producing, however, any be-
Eunuch. ing like himfelf, or imparting any of his own proper
fubftance to the Son? for God is immortal, uniform,
indivifible ; and therefore cannot communicate any part
of his own proper fubftance to another. He alone is
unbegotten ; and it is impoffible that any other being
fliould be formed of an unbegotten fubftance. He did
not ufe his own fubftance in begetting the Son, but
his will only : nor did he beget him in the likenefs of
his fubftance, but according to his own good pleafure.
He then created the Holy Spirit, the firft and great-
eft of all fpirits, by his own power indeed and operation
mediately, yet by the immediate power and operation
of the Son. After the Holy Spirit he created all
other things in heaven and in earth, vifible and invi-
fible, corporeal and incorporeal, mediately by himfelf,
by the power and operation of the Son,” &c.
EUNOMIUS, a famous herefiarch of the 4th cen¬
tury, the difciple of Elius, but abundantly more fub-
tile than his mafter, as well as more bold in propagating
the opinions of his fedl, who after him are called Eu-
nomians. He was ordained bifliop of Cyzicus; but
gave fo much difturbance by the intemperance of his
zeal, that he was depofed more than once. At laft,
tired with being tofled about, he petitioned to re¬
treat to the place of his birth, Dacora in Cappado¬
cia ; where he died very old about the year 374, after
experiencing a variety of fufferings. The greateft part
of his works are loft. There is, however, befides two
or three fmall pieces, a confeffion of his faith remain¬
ing, which Cave inferted in his Hijloria Literaria, from
a manufcript in archbilhop Tennifon’s library. See the
preceding article.
EUNUCH, a caftrated perfon. See the article Ca¬
stration.—The word is formed from q. d.
kQi curam babet, “ guardian or keeper of the bed.”
In Britain, France, &c. eunuchs are never made
but upon occafion of fome difeafe, which renders fuch
an operation neceffary : but in Italy they make great
numbers of children, from one* to three years of age,
eunuchs, every year, to fupply the operas and theatres
of all Europe with fingers. M. de la Lande, in his
Voyage d’Italic, aflerts, that there are public fhops at
Naples where this cruel operation is performed, and
that over the door of thefe (hops is infcribed $>u\fi ca-
Jlrano ragazzi. But Dr Burney informs us, that he
was not only utterly unable to fee or hear of any fuch
ftiops during his refidence in that city, but was conftant-
ly told, both by the natives and Engliih fettled there,
that the laws againft fuch a praftice were fo numerous
and fevere, that it was never performed but with the ut-
moft fecrecy.
In the eaftern parts of the world, they make eunuchs
in order to be guards or attendants on their women.
The feraglio of the eaftern emperors are chiefly ferved
and guarded by eunuchs ; and yet, from good autho¬
rity, we learn, that the rich eunuchs in Perfia and
other couatries keep feraglios for their own ufe. Thofe
who, out of an imprudent zeal to guard themfelves
from fenfual pleafures, made themfelves eunuchs, were,
by the council of Nice, condemned and excluded from
holy orders. There are feveral fevere prohibitions in
Germany againft the making of eunuchs; and in France
an eunuch muft not marry, not evert with the confent
of the woman.
Though the pra&ice- of caftration is deteftable lit Eunuch,
every point of view ; yet there appears no real founda- ~
tion for the injurious opinion generally entertained of
eunuchs, viz. that they are all cowards, and devoid of
genius for literature or any folid ftudy. “ As to ge¬
nius (fays the author laft quoted), I never found thofe
of the firft clafs in mufic deficient in intelle&ual abili¬
ties for more ferious ftudies. Indeed I have feen real
genius and difpofition for literary purfuits, in more
than one great opera finger ; and as for compofition,
and the theory of mufic, not only the beft fingers of
the Pope’s chapel ever fince the beginning of the laft
century, but the beft compofers, are among the foprani,
in that fervice.” With refpetlto the operation affect¬
ing the mind fo much as to deprive it of all fortitude in
times of danger, there is great reafon to doubt the faft :
moft of the generals of eaftern monarchs having been at
all times of this clafs; and the braveft ftand that ever
was made againft Alexander the Great was at Gaza,
under the command of one of Darius’s generals, who
was a eunuch. Ammianus Marcellinus gives an ac¬
count of Menophilus, a eunuch, to whom Mithridates
intrufted his daughter; which proves the pofiibility of
fuch unfortunate perfons pofieffing a heroifm equal to
that of the moft determined Stoic.
It is very certain, that the ancients never fuppofed
eunuchsOxi have been men of inferior intelleits, or that
they pofleffed lefs vigour of mind than other men. At
leaft the Perfians were not of this opinion ; for Hero¬
dotus* relates, that when they had taken poffeffion of * Lib. vi.
fome Ionian cities, xxiSct; ti tv; iv itSia-UU; (v.KvyO'U.ivoi 3* p. 45r^
£§ST«/4»0V, XHI ITOUVV Unit linctl tvopxta; SUVH^Vi-. It is cer„ e<L Weffel-
tain, however, Herodotusf, in relating the melancholy1"!^ viii.
ftory of Hermotimus, fays, that rota-t liupSupnet n p_ 6^8.
fiuultpot 110-1,11 tui/vgol, mirlto; nvsxx Tuot,;, rav tvopgitiv, “ a-
mong the barbarians, the eunuchs are more valued than
other men, on account of their univerfal fidelity.” It
appears from this paffage of Herodotus, that in Perfia
eunuchs were far from being objects of contempt; and
were even frequently promoted to the higheft honours.
This was indeed the cafe with Hermotimus. We find
in Agathias, who was one of the Byzantine hiftorians,
that a general in the Roman army, named Narfes, was
a eunuch. This was in the latter ages. In Plutarch’s
Life of Ariftides, Themiftocles is related to have cho-
fen an eunuch, whofe name was Arnac.es, from among
his prifoners, to fend on a fecret embaffy to Xerxes.
This furely may ferve to fliow, that mental imbecility
was not fuppofed by the Greeks to be the charaCteriftie
of eunuchifm. The fame ftory of the confidence placed
in Arnaces, who was one of the Perfian king’s eu¬
nuchs, is related alfo in the life of Themiftocles. Ari-
ftotle paid fuch high refpedt to Hermias, who was a
eunuch and governor of Atarnea, which is in Myfia,
that he even offered facrifices in honour of him ; a*
Lucian informs us in his Dialogue entitled Eunuchus,
This regard of Ariftotle for Hermias has been often
celebrated, and is mentioned by Suidas, Harpocratio,
and others.
Eunuchs, in church-hiftory, a fed of heretics in
the third century, who were mad enough to caftrate,
not only thofe of their own perfuafion, but even all o-
thersthey could lay hold of. They took their rife from
the example of Origen, who, mifunderftanding the fol¬
lowing words of our Saviour, “ and eunuchs who made
2 E themfelve*
E v O [3
Evo:ati tLemfclves eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven,” ca-
,, II . ftrated hitnfelf.
vo vu,us.^ EVOCATIj foldiers among the Romans, who ha¬
ving ferved their full time in the army, went after-
w'ards volunteers at the requelt of fome fiivourite gene¬
ral ; on which account they were called by the honour¬
able names of Emeriti and Benejiciarii.
EVOCATION (Eyocaiio,) among the Romans, a
religious ceremony always obferved by them at the un¬
dertaking a liege, wherein they folemnly called upon
the gods and goddefl'es of the place to forfake it and
come over to them. Without the performance of this
ceremony, they either thought that the place could
not be taken, or that it would be a facrilege to take
the gods prifoners. They always took it for granted
that their prayer was heard, and that the gods had de-
ferted the place and come over to them, provided they
were able to make themfelves mailers of it.
EUODIA, in botany r A genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of plants. The
calyx is a tetraphyllous perianthium; the corolla con fids
of four fpathulated, lharp, and open petals; the ftatni-
na are four fubulated filaments as long as the petals;
the pericarpium four, roundilh, bivalve, and mono-
fpermous capfules ; the feeds folitary.
EVOLUTION, in algebra, the unfolding or open¬
ing of a curve, and making it defcribe an evolvent.
The word evolutio is formed of the prepofition e “ out;”
and volvo “ I roll, or wind ;” q. d. an unwinding, or
unrolling.
The equable evolution of the periphery of a circle,
or other curve, is fuch a grad ual approach of the cir¬
cumference to re&itude, as that its parts do all concur
and equally evolve or unbend; fo that the fame line
becomes fuccefiively a lefs arc of a reciprocally greater
, circle ; till at laft they change into a ftraight line. In the
Philofophical Tranfadtions, N° 260. a new quadratrix
to the circle is found by this means, being the curve
. defcribed by the equable evolution of its periphery. ^
Evolution, is alfo ufed for the extradlion of roots
out of powers; in which fenfe it Hands oppofed to in¬
volution. See Algebra, p. 413.
Evolution, in the art of war, the motion made by
a body of troops, when they are obliged to change
their form and difpofition, in order to preferve a poll
or occupy another, to attack an enemy with more ad¬
vantage, or to be in a condition of defending them¬
felves the better.
It con fills in doublings, counter-marches, conver-
fions, See. A battalion doubles the ranks, when attack¬
ed in front or rear, to prevent its being flanked or fur-
rounded ; for then a battalion fights with a larger front.
The files are doubled, either to accommodate themfelves
to the neceffity of a narrow ground, or to refill an ene-
memy that attacks them in flank. But if the ground
will allow it, converfion is much, preferable ; becaufe,
after converfion, the battalion is in its firft form, and
oppofes the file-leaders, which are generally the bell
men, to the enemy ; and likewife, becaufe doubling
the files in a new or not well difciplined regiment, they
may happen to falf intodiforder. See Doubling.
EVOLVULUS, in botany : A genus of the tetra-
gynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 29th or-
6 ] E U P
der, Campanacea. The calyx is pentaphyllous; the co- Eucnymus-
rolla quinquefid and verticillated; the capfule trilocular;
the feeds folitary. Eupatrulx.
EUONYMUS, the spindle-tree: A genus of v "
the monogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs
of plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
43d order, Dumofa. The corolla is pentapetalous; the
capfule pentagonal, quinquelocular, quinquevalved, and-
coloured ; the feeds hooded. There are two fpecies,
1. The europaDus, hath an upright woody item i o or
15 feet high, garniflied with oblong oppofite leaves :
from the lides of the branches proceed finall bunches of
greenifh quadrifid flowers, fucceeded by pentagonous
capfules, difclofing their feeds in a beautiful manner in
autumn. 2. The americanus, or evergreen fptndle-
tree, hath a flmibby ftem, dividing into many oppofite:
branches, rifing fix or eight feet high, garnilhed with
fpear- lhaped evergreen leaves growing oppofite, and from
the fides and ends of the branches. The flowers are
quinquefid and whitilh, and come out in fmall bunches,
fucceeded by roundilh, rough, and protuberant cap¬
fules, which rarely perfect their feeds in this country.
Both thefe fpecies are hardy, and will fucceed in any
foil or fituation. The berries of the firil fort vomit and
purge very violently, and are fatal, to Iheep. If pow¬
dered and fprinkled upon hair, they deftroy lice. If
the wood is cut when the plant is in blofibm, it is tough
and not eafily broken ; and in that ftate it is ufed by
watchmakers for cleaning watches, and for making
Ikewers and tooth-pickers. Cows, goats, and Iheep, eat
this plant; horfes refufe it.
EUPATORIUM, hemp-agrimony : A genus of
the polygamia aequalis order, belonging to the fynge-
nefia clafs of plants; and in the natural method ranking
under the 49th order, Compofita. The receptacle is
naked ; the pappus feathery ; the calyx imbricated and
oblong; the flyle femibifid and long. There are 13
fpecies, many of them herbaceous flowery perennials,
producing annual italks from two to three or five feet
high, terminated by clufters of compound flowers of a
red, purple, or white, colour. They are eafily propa¬
gated by feeds, or parting the roots in autumn of
fpring. One fpecies, viz. the cannabinum, or water
hemp-agrimony, is a native of Britain. It is found
wild by the fides of rivers and ditches, and has pale-
red bloflbms. It has an acrid fmell, and a very bitter
tafte, with a confiderable fhare of pungency. The
leaves are much recommended for ftrengthening the tone
of the vifeera, and as an aperient; and faid to have ex¬
cellent effects in the dropfy, jaundice, cachexies, and
fcorbutic diforders. Boerhaave informs us, that this is
the common medicine of the turf-diggers in Holland,
againfl feurvies, foul ulcers, and fwellings in the feet)
to which they are fubjea. The root of this plant is
faid to operate as a ftrong cathartic: but it is hardly
ufed in Britain, and has no place in our pharmacopceias.
EUPATRIDiE, in antiquity, a name given by
Thefeus to the nobility of Athens, as diftinguiflied from
the Geomori and Demiurgi. The Eupatridse, by The-
feus’s eftablifliment, had the right of choofing magi-
flrates, teaching and difpenfing the laws, and interpre¬
ting holy and religious myfteries. The whole city, in
all other matters, was reduced to an equality. The
Geomori were hufbandmen, and inferior to the Eiipa-
tridss.
*
*
E u p L 37
Euphony tridae in point of fortune; the Demiurgi were artificers,
]
E U 1>
- and fell fliort of the Eupatridae in number.
, >>?" EUPHONY, in grammar, an eafinefs, fmoothnefs,
and elegancy of pronunciation. The word is formed
of ivy bene, “ well,” and vox, “ voice.” Quin¬
tilian calls euphonia, “ vocalUas Scaglier, “facilis pro-
nunciatio.”
Euphonia is properly a kind of figure whereby we
fupprefs a too harrti letter, or convert it into a fmoother,
contrary to the ordinary rules. There are examples e-
neugh in all languages.
EUPHYMISM. See Oratory.
EUPHORBIA, spurge : A genus of the trigy-
nia order, belonging to the dodecandria clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 38th or¬
der, Trlcocca. The corolla is tetrapetalous or pentape-
talous, placed on the calyx ; the calyx is monophyllous
and ventricofe ; the capfule tricoccous. There are 62
fpecies, fix of which are natives of Great Britain. They
are moftly Ihrubby and herbaceous fucculents, frequent¬
ly armed with thorns, having ftalks from 10 or 12
inches to as many feet in height, with quadripetalous
flowers of a whitilh or yellow colour. They are eafily
propagated by cuttings ; but the foreign kinds mu!l be
always kept in pots in a ftove. If.kept dry, they may
be preferved for feveral months out of the ground, and
then planted, when they will as readily take root as
though they had been frelh. The juice of all the fpe¬
cies is fo acrid, that it corrodes and ulcerates the body
wherever it is applied ; fo .that phyficians have feldom
ventured to prefcribe it internally. Warts, or corns,
anointed with the juice, prefently difappear. A drop
of it put into the hollow of an aching tooth, gives re¬
lief, like other corrofives, by deftroying the nerve.
Some people rub it behind the ears, that it may blifter.
See Plate One of the foreign fpecies, named efula, is fuch a vio-
^xxxvu. lent corrofive, that, if applied to any part of the body,
2°repre- ^ produces a violent imflammation, which is foon fuc-
fent partofceeded by a fwelling that degenerates into a gangrene
the ftem and proves mortal. There is a fpecies at the Cape,
which fupplies the Hottentots with an ingredient for
poifoning their arrows. Their method of making this
pernicious mixture, is by firft taking the juice extrac¬
ted from the Euphorbia, and a kind of caterpillar pe¬
culiar to another plant which has much the appearance
of a fpecies of rhus. They mix the animal and vege¬
table matter; and after drying it, they point their ar¬
rows with this compofition, which is fuppofed to be
the moft effedtual poifon of the whole country. The
euphorbia itfelf is alfo ufed for this purpofe, by throw¬
ing the branches into fountains of water frequented by
and flui
magnified.
Paterfon's
Journey i
the Cape,
p. 62.
EUPHORBIUM, in the materia medica, a gum- Euphor
mi-refinous fubllance, which exfudts from a large ori- blJ'm
ental tree, (Euphorbia ojjvinarum)* It is brought to £uphra
us immediately from Barbary, in drops of an irregular ——y*"
form; fome of which, upon being broken, are found
to contain little thorns, fmall twigs, flowers, and other
vegetable matters; others are hollow, without any thing
in their cavity : the tears in general are of a pale yel¬
low colour externally, fomewhat white vvithinfide: they
eafily break between the fingers. Lightly applied to
the tongue, they affect it with a very (harp biting tafte;
and upon being held for fome time in the mouth, prove
vehemently acrimonious, inflaming and exulcerating
the fauces, &c. Euphorbium is extremely troubleCome
to pulverife ; the finer part of the powder, which flies
off, affedting the head in a violent manner. The acri¬
mony of this fubftance is fo great as to render it abfo-
lutely unfit for any internal ufe : feveral correctors have
been contrived to abate its virulence ; but the belt of
them are not to be trufted to : and as there feems to
be no real occafion for it, unlefs for fome external pur-
pofes, we think, with Hoffman and others, that it
ought to be expunged from the catalogue of internal,
medicines. And accordingly it has now no place in
the London or Edinburgh pharmacopoeias. But it is'
Hill retained in moil of the foreign ones, and is fome-
times ufed as a fternutatory.
EUPHOR BUS, a famous Trojan, fon of Panthbus.
He was the firft who wounded Patrocius, whom Hec¬
tor killed. He perifhed by the hand of Menelaus, who
hung his fhield in the temple of Juno at Argos. Py¬
thagoras, the founder of the dodtrine of the metemp-
fychofis or tranfmigration of fouls, affirmed that he
had been once Euphorbus, and that his foul recollec¬
ted many exploits which had been done while it ani¬
mated that Trojan’s body. As a further proof of his
affertion, he fhowed at firft fight the Afield of Euphor¬
bus in the temple of Juno.
EUPHORION of Chalcis, a poet and hiftorian,
born in the 126th Olympiad. Suetonius fays that Ti¬
berius compofed verfes in imitation of Euphorion, Ria-
nius, and Parthenius ; with whom he was charmed to
fuch a degree, that he ordered their writings and their
pidtures to be kept in all the public libraries, among
the ancient and celebrated authors.
EUPHRASIA, eye-bright: A genus of the
angiofpermia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
40th order, Perfonata. The calyx is quadritid and cy¬
lindrical ; the capfule bilocular, ovato-oblong; the
fhorter two antherse, with the bafe of the one lobe ter-
wiidbeafts, which after drinking the water thus poifon- minated by a fmall fpine. There are feven fpecies; two
ed, feldom get 1000 yards from the brink of the foun- lk“ -m™-—!:.. —1 -j— 
tain before they fall down and expire. This plant grows
from about 15 to 20 feet in height, fending out many
branches full of ftrong fpines. The natives cut off as
many of the branches as they think neceffary for the
deftrudtion- ofthe animals they intend to poifon. They
generally condudt the water a few yards from the fpring
into a pit made for the purpofe ; after which they put
in the euphorbia, and cover the fpring, fo that the crea¬
tures have no choice. No animal efcapes which drinks
of fuch water, though the flefti is not injured by the
poifon.
of which, viz. the officinalis and odontites, are natives
of Britain. The firft of thefe, which hath blue flow¬
ers, is a weak aftringent, and was formerly much cele¬
brated in diforders of the eyes; but the prefent prac¬
tice hath not only difregarded its internal, but alfo its
external, ufe. This plant will not grow but when fur-
rounded by others taller than itfelf. Cows, horfes,
goats, and fheep, est it; fwine refufe it.
EUPHRATES, a river univerfally allowed to take
its rife in Armenia Major; but in what particular fpot,
or in what dire&ion it afterwards fhapes its courfe,
there is the greateft difagreement. Strabo fays, that
the
E V R
[ 33 ]
EUR
■Euphrates the Euphrates rifes in mount Abus, which he joins
Evremonc' w^l> or accounts a part o£, mount Taurus; that its
^ beginning is on the north fide of mount Taurus ; and
that running, firft weft ward through Armenia, then
ftriking off to the fouth, it forces its way through that
mountain : and thus it rifes in the fouth of Armenia,
mount Taurus being the boundary on that fide ; and
runs through its fouth part, quite to Cappadocia, con¬
terminal with Armenia Minor; or quite to this laft, or
to its fouth limit; to reach which, it muft bend its weft
courfe a little north; becaufe the Taurus, from which
it rofe, lies lower, or more to the fouth, and almoft
parallel with Melitene : and that then it turns to the
fouth, in order to break through the Taurus, and efcape
to Syria, and then take a new bend to Babylonia. To
this account of Strabo, Pliny runs quite counter
ved under the duke of Candale in the war of Guienne; Erremontf.
and in Flanders, till the fufpenfion of arms was agreed Euripides,
on between France and Spain : he afterwards accompa- '"—~v
nied cardinal Mazarine when he went to conclude the
peace with Don Lewis de Haro, the king of Spain’s
firft minifter. He wrote, as he had promifed, a long
letter to the marquis de Crequi, of this negociationj
in which he fhowed, that the cardinal had facrificed
the honour of France to his own private intereft, and
rallied him in a very fatirical manner. This letter fall¬
ing into the hands of the cardinal’s creatures fame time
after his death, was reprefented as a ftate-crime, and he
was obliged to fly to Holland. He had too many
friends in England (whithe^ he had taken a tour the
year before with the count de Soiffons, fent to com¬
pliment Charles II. upon his reftoration) to make any
adducing eye-witneffes, who carry the Euphrates long ftay in Holland ; and therefore paffed over into
from north to fouth in a right line, till it meets
mount Taurus; placing the fprings together with
mount Abus, or Aba, which inclines to the weft, to
the north of Taurus. Ptolemy ftrikes a middle courfe
between both, placing fprings to the eaft, as Stra¬
bo does; whence, he fays, it runs in a long courfe
weftward, before it bends fouth ; and that it rifes not
from mount Taurus, but far to the north of it; and
he makes it run llraight weft from its rife, then turn
fouth fpontaneoufly, without any interpofing obftacle,
England, where he was received with great refpe6t,and
admitted into intimate friendfttip with feveral perfons
of diftindlion. The king gave him a penfion of 300 1.
a-year. He had a great defire to return to his native
country ; and, after the peace of Nimeguen, wrote a
letter in verfe to the king of France to aflc leave, but
in vain. Upon the death of king Charles, he loft his
penfion. He did not rely much on king James, though
that prince had ftiown himfelf extremely kind to him.
The revolution was advantageous to him. King Wil-
in a manner quite different from Strabo, Mela, and Kara, who had known him in Holland, gave him fub-
others, who make the Taurus the caufe of this turn.
The Euphrates naturally divides into two channels, one
through Babylon, and the other through Seleucia, be-
fides the feveral artificial cuts made between it and the
Tigris about Babylon : and thefe cuts or trenches are
what the Pfalmift calls the rivers of Babylon, on the
willows of which the captives hung their harps. It is
probable, that the Euphrates naturally poured into the
fea at one particular mouth, before thefe cuts were
made. A thing appearing fo evident to the a'ncients,
that Pliny has fet down the diftance between the
mouths of the Euphrates and the Tigris: and he fays,
fome made it 25, and others 7, miles; but that the
ftantial marks of his favour. He died of a ftran-
gury in 1703, aged 90; and was interred in Weft-
minfter-abbey, ■where a monument is ere&ed to his me¬
mory. His behaviour was engaging, his humour
cheerful, and he had a ftrong difpofitioa to fatire : he
profeffed the Ronailh religion, in which he was born ;
but at the bottom was certainly a freethinker. He
always fpoke of his difgrace with the refolution of a
gentleman ; and whatever ftrong defire he had to re¬
turn to his country, he never folicited the favour with
meannefs : therefore, when this leave was fignified to
him unexpeftedly in the decline of his life, he re*
plied, that the infirmities of age did not permit him to
Euphrates being for a long time back intercepted in its Lave a country where he lived agreeably. There have
courfe by cuts, made for watering the fields, only the
branch called the Pajitigrit fell into the fea, the reft
of it into the Tigris, and both together into the Per-
fian Gulf. Overflowing the country through which it
runs, at ftated times of the year, like the Nile, it ren¬
ders it fertile.
EUPOLIS, an Athenian comic poet, flourifhed
been many editions of his works: but the beft is that
of Amfterdam in 1726, in 5 vols 12mo, to which is
prefixed his life by Do&or Des Maizeaux ; who has
alfo given an accurate Englifli tranflation of them in
3 vols Bvo.
EURIPIDES, one of the Greek poets who excel¬
led in tragedy, was born about 468 B. C. in the ifle
about the 85th Olympiad. He took the freedom of of Salamis, whither his father and mother had retired
a little before Xerxes entered Attica. He learnt rhe¬
toric under Prodicus, morality under Socrates, and na¬
tural philofophy under Anaxagoras ; but at 18 years
of age abandoned philofophy, in order to apply h m-
felf to dramatic poetry. He ufed to {hut himtelf up
in a cave to compofe his tragedies, which were ex¬
tremely applauded by the Greeks. Tfie Athenian ar¬
my, commanded by Nicias, being defeated in Sicily,
the foldiers purchaied their fives and liberties by re¬
citing the verfes of Euripides ; fuch efteem and vene-
___ ration had the Sicilians for the pieces wrote by this ex-
him from cultivating polite literature; and he fignalized cellent poet. Socrates, the wifeft of the philofophers,
h’.mfelf by his politenefs and wit as much as by his fet fueh a value upon them, that they were the only
bravery. The king made him a marefchal de camp, and tragedies he went to fee a died ; and yet his perform-
gave him a penfion of 300*0 livres per annum. He fer- ances feldora gained the prize. Euripides frequent-
Jy
the ancient comedy in lathing the vices of the people.
He loft his life in a fea-fight between the Athenians
and Lacedemonians ; and his fate was fo much lament¬
ed, that after his death it was enafted that no poet
fhouldferve in the wars. Some fay Alcibiades put him
to death for his fatirical freedom.
EVREMOND (Charles de St Denis), born at St
Denis le Guaft in Lower Normandy in 1613, w’as de-
figned for the gown, and entered on the ftudy of the
law ; but he foon quitted that, and was made an en-
fign before he was 16. A military life did not hinder
EUR [ 39 J EUR
EuHpus, ly interfperfes through them moral fentences, and fe-
vere refle(^*ons 011 ^ fair fex ; whence he was called
l_    the Woman hater. He was, neverthelefs, married: but
the fcandalous lives of his two wives drew upon him the
raillery of Ariftophanes, and other comic poets; which
occafioned his retiring to the court of Archelaus, king
of Macedon, where he was well received. That prince
was fond of learned men, and drew them to him by his
liberality. If we may believe Solinus, he made Euri¬
pides his minifter of Hate, and gave him other extra¬
ordinary proofs of his efteem. He had, however,
paffed but a few years there, when an unhappy acci¬
dent put an end to his life. He was walking in a
wood, and, according to his ufual manner, in deep
meditation ; when, unfortunately happening upon Ar-
chelaus’s hounds, he was by them torn in pieces. It is
not certain whether his death happened by chance, or
through envy of fome of the great courtiers. How¬
ever, Archelaus buried him with great magnificence ;
and the Athenians were fo much afflifted at his death,
that the whole city went into mourning. Of 92 trage¬
dies which he compofed, only 19 are remaining: the
moft valuable editions of which are thofe of Aldus, in
1503, Bvo; of Plantin, in 1570, fexefimo; of Com-
melin, in 1597, 8vo; of Paul Stevens, in 1604, 410 ;
and of Jofhua Barnes, in 1694, folio.
EUK-IPUS, now the Negropont, a canal orftrait
which divides the ifland of Eubcea from the continent
of Greece. In one place it is fo narrow, that a galley
can fcarce pafs through it. The agitations of the Eu-
ripus were much fpoken of by the ancients. Some fay
that the canal has a flux and reflux fix times in 24 hours;
others, that it ebbs and flows feven times a day; but
Livy does not allow this flux and reflux to be fo re¬
gular. Father Babin, a Jefuit of great learning, who
made man--' obfervations on the fpot during his long
abode in the ifland of Negropont, tells us, that the
Euripus is regular in its ebbing and flowing the firft
eight days of the moon : the fame regularity be ob-
ferved from the 14th to the 20th day inclufive, and
in the three laft days: but in the other days of the
lunar month, it is not fo regular; for it fometimes ebbs
and flows 11,12, 13, and 14 times in the fpace of a
natural day. In this place, as the ftory commonly goes,
Ariftotle drowned himfelf out of chagrin, for not being
able to account for fo unufual a motion.
Euripus has fince become a general name for all
ftraits, where the water is in great motion and agi¬
tation.
The ancient circufes had their euripi, which were
no other than pits or ditches on each fide of the courfe,
into which it was very dangerous falling with their
Horfes and chariots as they ran races. The term eu¬
ripus was more particularly applied by the Romans to
three canals or ditches which encompafled the circus
on three fides, and which were filled occafionally to
reprefent naumachiae or fea-battles. The fame people
called their fmaller fountains or canals in their gardens
euripufes ; and their largeft, as cafcades, &c. niles.
EUROCLYDON, (of Eupc? eqfl-<wind, and
wave,') is a fpecies of wind, of which we have an ac¬
count only in Adts xvii. 14. and concerning the nature
of which critics have been much divided. Bochart,
Grotius, Beutley, and others, fubilitute another read¬
ing, fupported by the Alexandrian MS. and the Vul- Europa;
gate, viz. EvpaKvwv, ox Euro-aquilo ; but Mr Bryant de- £uroPe-
fends the common reading, and confiders the Eurocly- v
don, i. e. Eupoj y.h\j{a>, as an ealt-wind that caufes a deep
fea or vaft inundation. He maintains, in oppofition
to Dr Bentley’s reafoning, who fuppofes that the ma¬
riners in the fhip, the voyage of which is recited in
this paffage, were Romans, that they were Greeks of
Alexandria, and that the ihip was an Alexandrian Ihip
employed in the traffic of carrying corn to Italy ; and
therefore, that the mariners had a name in their own
language for the particular typbonic or (tormy wind
here mentioned. Pie alfo Ihows from the paffage itfelf,
that the tempeftuous wind called Eurotlydon, beat (**/’
«vhc) upon the ifland of Crete ; and therefoie, as this
is a relative expreffion, referring to the fituation of the
perfon who fpeaks of it, who was at that time to the
windward or fouth of it, the wind blew upon Ihore, and
rnuit have come from the fouth or fouth-eaft ; which,
he adds, is fully warranted by the point where the fhip
was, and the direction it ran in afterwards, which was
towards the north and north-weft.
EUROPA, in fab. hift. a daughter of Agenor king
of Phoenicia and Telephafia. She was fo beautiful that
Jupiter became enamoured of her; and the better to fe-
duce her, he aflumed the fhape of a bull and mingled
with the herds of Agenor, while Europa, with her fe¬
male attendants were gathering flowers in the meadows.
Europa carelfed the beautiful animal; and at laft had
the courage to fit upon his back. The god took ad¬
vantage of her fituation ; and with precipitate fteps re¬
tired towards the fhore, crofled the fea with Euro¬
pa on his back, and arrived lafe in Crete. Plere he af-
fumed his original fhape, and declared his love. The
nymph confented, though flie had once made vows of
perpetual celibacy ; and fhe became mother of Minos,
Sarpedon, and Rhadamanthus. After this difiinguifh-
ed amour with Jupiter, fhe married Alterius king of
Crete. This monarch feeing himfelf without children
by Europa, adopted the fruit of her amours with Jupi¬
ter, and always efteemed Minos, Sarpedon, and Rha¬
damanthus as his own children. Some fuppofe that
Europa lived about 1552 years before theClniflian era.
EUROPE, one of the quarters of the world, bound¬
ed on the north by the Frozen Ocean, on the weft
by the Weftern Ocean, on the fouth by the Mediter¬
ranean, which feparates it from Africa, and by the
Archipelago, which divides it in part from Alia, as
alfo by the Black Sea, then by the river Don, till it
comes near the river Volga or Wolga, and then it is
parted from Afia by this laft, and afterwards by the
river Oby. Europe is fituated between Long 9. 35.
W. and 72. 25. E. and Lat. 35° and 720 N. It is
about 3300 miles in length, from Cape St Vincent in
Portugal, to the river Oby in Ruffia; and 2200 miles
in breadth, from Cape Matapan, in the Morea, to the
North Cape of Norway. We may judge by this, that
it is much lefs than Afia and Africa.* but it is in many
things more confiderable than both.
Europe, excepting a fmall part of Lapland and
Mufcovy, is fituated in the temperate zone; infomuch,
that we neither feel the extremities of heat nor cold.
We cannot boatl of rich mines of gold, ftlver, and pre-~
cious ftones ; nor does it produce fugar or fpioes, nor
EUR [ 40 1
Europe yet elephants, camels, &c. which we can do without; but The ftamina
Euryandra Proc^uces abundance of corn, pulfe, fruits, animals, &c.
the moil neceflary for the ufe of mankind. In general,
it is better peopled and better cultivated than- the other
•quarters; it is more full of cities, towns, and villages,
great and fmall, and its buildings are more folid and
E U S
very many capillary filaments much Eurydice
dilated at the apex ; the pericarpium three egg-lhaped
follicles containing feveral feeds. Eufden. .
EURYDICE, in fab. hill, the wife of Orpheus, r
who, flying from Ariftaeus that endeavoured to ravifh
her, was llain by a ferpent. Her hulband went down
more commodious than thofe of Africa and Alia. The to the lhades, and by the force of his mufic perfuaded
inhabitants are all white; and incomparably more hand- Pluto and Proferpine to give him leave to carry back
fome than the Africans, and even than moll of the A- his wife ; which they granted, provided he did not
fiatics. The Europeans furpafs both in arts and fei- look on her till he came to the light; but he breaking
ences, efpecialiy in thofe called the liberal; in trade, the condition, was forced to leave her behind him. See
navigation, and in military and civil affairs ; being, at Orpheus,
the fame time, more prudent, more valiant, more ge- EURYMEDON, (anc. geog ) a noble river run-
nerous, more polite, and more fociable than they: and ning through the middle of JPamphylia ; famous for a
though we are divided into various fedls, yet, as Chri- fea and land fight on the lame day, in which the A-
flians, we have infinitely the advantage over the reft of thenians, under Cimon the fon of Miltiades, defeated
mankind. There are but few places in Europe where the Perfians. The fea-fight happened firft in the fea
they fell each' other for Haves ; and none where rob¬
bery is a profellion, as it is in Alia and Africa.
There are feveral forts of governments in Europe'; as
the two empires of Germany and Ruffia, the kingdoms
of England, France, Spain, Portugal, Denmark, Swe¬
den, Poland, Pruflia, Sardinia, and the Two Sicilies.
The commonwealths are Holland, Swifferland, Venice,
Genoa, Ragufa, Lucca, and Geneva. The duke¬
doms, Tufcany, Savoy, Modena, Mantua, Parma, and
Courland, &-c.
There are five forts of religions in Europe, viz. the
Mahommedan, which is profeffed in Turkey in Eu-
of Pamphylia, towards Cyprus ; the land engagement,
the following night on the Eurymedon. Cimon, after
defeating the Perfian fleet, armed his men with the ar¬
mour of the captives, and fet fail for the enemy, who
lay on the banks of the Eurymedon, in the fhips taken
from the Perfians ; who on feeing their own fliips and
their own people in appearance, were off their guard,
and thus became an eafy conqueil.
EURYSTHEUS, a king of Argos and Mycenae,
fon of Sthenelus, and Nicippe the daughter of Pelops.
Juno haftened his birth by two months, that he might
come into the world before Hercules the fon of Alcme-
rope; the Greek, of which there are many in the fame na, as the younger of the two was doomed by order of
parts, in all Mufcovy, and in feveral parts of Polifti Jupiter to be fubfervient to the will of the other. (-F/V&
Ruffia 5 the Roman Catholic in Spain, Portugal, Alcmena.) This natural right was cruelly exercifed by
France, and Italy; the Proteftant, though with a con- Euryftheus, who was jealous of the fame of Hercules ;
fiderable difference, in Great Britain, Denmark, Swe- and who to deftroy fo powerful a relation, impofed up-
den, and Norway. There is a mixture of both the laft, on him the moft dangerous and uncommon enterprifes
in Ireland, Swifferland, Germany, Poland, Hungary, well known by the name of the twelve labours of Her-
and the Low Countries: befides many Jews, and fome cities. The fuccefs of Hercules in atchieving thofe
idolaters in Lapland and the northern parts of Muf- perilous labours alarmed Euryftheus in a greater degree,
covy. and he furniftied himfelf with a brazen veffel, where he
There are three general languages in Europe: the might fecure himfelf a fafe retreat in cafe of danger.
Latin, of which the Italian, the French, and the Spa- After the death of Hercules, Euryftheus renewed h:s
niffi, are dialeds; the Teutonic, which is fpoken, tho’ cruelties againll his children, and made war againft
differently, in Germany, Hungary, Denmark, Sweden,
.and Great Britain; the Sclavonic, which is fpoken, tho’
- greatly difguifed, in Mufcovy, Poland, Bohemia, and
Turkey in Europe. There are fome of lefs extent: as,
Ceyx king of Trachinia, becaufe he had given them
fupport, and treated them with hofpitality. He was
killed in the profecution of this war by Plyllus the fon
of Hercules. His head was fent to Alcmena the mo-
the Greek; the Proper Hungarian ; the Bafque ; the ther of Hercules ; who, mindful of the cruelties which
Britifh, which is fpoken in Wales and Bretagne in her fon had fuffered, infulted it, and tore out the eyes
France ; the Irilh ; and the Laponic. with the moil inveterate fury. Euryftheus was fucceed-
Europe may be divided into 11 great parts, inclu- ed on the throne of Argos by At reus his nephew. The
ding their dependencies: 1. Sweden; 2. Denmark death of Euryftheus happened about 30 years before
and Nomay; 3. Ruffia ; 4. Poland; 5. Germany ; the Trojan war.
6. France; 7. Spain ; 8. Italy ; 9. Turkey in Europe; EURYTHMY, in architefture, painting, and
10. Little Tartary ; and, 11. The European iflands, fculpture, is a certain majefty, elegance, and eafinefs,
of which the chief are Great Britain and Ireland. The appearing in the compoiition of divers members or
greateft cities in Europe are, London, Paris, Amfter- parts of a body, painting, or fculpture, and refulting
dam, Conftantinople, Mufcow, and Rome. from the fine proportion of it.
EURYALE, in mythology, one of the Gorgons, EUSDEN (Laurence), an Irifti clergyman, re&or
daughter of Phorcys, and fiiler of Medufa : fhe was of Conefhy in Lincolnfhire, and poet laureat after the
fubjeft neither to old age nor death. death of Mr Rowe. His firft patron was the eminent
EURYANDRA, in botany; A genus of the tri- lord Halifax; whofe poem, on the battle of the Boyne,
gynia order, belonging to the polyandria clafs of plants, he tranflated into Latin, and dedicated to his lordftlip.
The calyx is a pentaphyllous perianthium, with fmall, He was efteemed by the duke of Newcaftle, who re-
roundiffi, and concave leaves; the corolla confifts of warded an epithalamium he wrote on his marriage with
three roundiih hollow petals, longer than the calyx, the place of poet laureat. He was the author of many
j poetical
Plate CLXXXV11L
m
E U S [4
Etifebiang poetical pieces, though but little known before his pre-
II ferment: he died in 1730.
titans* EUSEBIANS, a denomination given to the fe£t of
j, ^ ‘ ■ Arians, oil account of the favour and countenance
which Eufebius, bilhop of Ctefarea, (bowed and procu¬
red for them at their firft rife. See Arians and Eu¬
sebius.
EUSEBIUS, furnamed Pamphilus, a celebrated
bilhop of Caefarea in Paleftine, and one of the moft
learned men of his time, was born in Paleftine about
the latter end of the reign of Gallienus. He was the
Intimate friend of Pamphilus the Martyr ; and, after
his death, took his name in honour to his memory. He
was ordained biftiop of Cxfarea in 313. He had a con-
fiderable lhare in the conteft relating to Arius ; whofe
caufe he, as well as feveral other biihops of Paleftine,
defended, being perfuaded that Arius had been un-
juftly perfecuted by Alexander biftiop of Alexandria.
He alfifted at the council of Nice in 325 ; when he
made a fpeech to the emperor Conftantine on his coming
to the council, and was placed next him on his right
hand. He was prefent at the council of Antioch, in
which Euftathius bilhop of that city was depofed; but
though he was chofen by the bifhop and people of
Antioch to fuccced him, he abfolutely refufed it. In
335, he afiifted at the council of Tyre held againft
Anathafius; .and at the affembly of biihops at Jerufa-
lem, at the time of the dedication of the church there.
By thefe bifhops he was fent to the emperor Conftan¬
tine to defend what they had done againft Athanaliusj
when he pronounced the panegyric made on that em¬
peror during the public rejoicings in the beginning of
the 30th year of his reign, which was the daft of his
life. Eufebius furvived the emperor but a fhort time,
for he died in 338. He wrote, 1. An Ecclefiaftical
Hiftory, of which Vale tins has given a good edition in
Greek and Latin ; 2. The life of Conftantine ; 3. A
treatife againft Hieroclcs; 4. Chronkon; 5. Prepara-
tlones Evangelica; 6. De demonjlratione Evangelica; of
which there are but 10 books extant out of 20; and
feveral other works, fome of which are loft.
EUSTACHIUS (Bartholomew), phyfician and
anatomift at Rome, flouriihed about the year 1550.
His anatomical Plates were difcovered there in 1712,
and publilhed in 1714.
EUSTATH1ANS, a name given to the Catholics
of Antioch in the 4th century, on occafion of their re-
fufal to acknowledge any other bilhop befide St Eufta¬
thius, depofed by the Arians.
The denomination was given them during the epif-
copate of Paulinus, whom the Arians fubftituted to St
Euftathius, about the year 330, when they began to
hold their affemblies apart. About the year 350,
Leontius of Phrygia, called the eunuch, who was
an Arian, and was put in the fee of Antioch, defired
the Euftathians to perform their fervice in his church ;
which they accepting, the church of Antioch ferved
indilferently both the Arians and Catholics.
This, w’e are told, gave occafion to two inftitutions,
which have fubfifted in the church ever fince. The firft
was pfalmody in two choirs; though M. Baillet thinks,
that if they inftituted an alternate pfalmody between
two choirs, it was between two Catholic choirs, and
not by way of refpoufe to an Arian choir. The fe-
Vol.VII. Parti.
1 ] E U S
cond was the doxology, Glory he to the Father, and the H'lfta.
Son. and the Holy Ghoft. See Doxologv. this-.s
This conduit, which feemed to imply a kind of com- i7u4jt;a
munion with the Arians, gave great offence to abun-  — 
dance of Catholics, who began to hold feparate me’et>
ings; and thus formed the fchifm of Antioch. Upon
this, the reft, who continued to meet in the church,
ceafed to be called Eujlathlans, and that appellation
became reftrained to the dilfenting party. S. Flavia-
nus, bilhop of Antioch in 381, and one of his fuccef-
fors, Alexander, in 482, brought to pafs a coalition, or
reunion, between the Euftathians and the body of the
church of Antioch, deferibed with much folemnity by
Theodoret, Eccl. 1. iii. c. 2.
Eustatheans were alfo a feit of heretics in the
fourth century, denominated from their founder Eu¬
ftathius, a monk fo foolilhly fond of his own profellion,
that he condemned all other conditions of life. Whe¬
ther this Eoftathius was the fame with the bilhop of
Sebaftia and chief of the Semiarians, is not eafy to
determine.
He excluded married people from falvation ; pro¬
hibited -his followers from praying in their houfes; and
obliged them to quit all they had, as incompatible
with the hopes of heaven. He drew them out of the
other affemblies of Chriftians to hold fecret ones with
him, and made them wear a particular habit: he ap¬
pointed them to fall on Sundays; and taught them, that
the ordinary falls of the church were needlefs, after they
had attained to a certain degree of purity which he
pretended to. He Ihowed great horror for chapels built
in honour of martyrs, and the affemblies held therein.
Several women, feduced by his reafons, forfook their
hufbands, and abundance of Haves deferted their mar
Hers houfes. He was condemned at the council of
Gangra in Paphlagonia, held between the years 326
and 341.
EUSTATHIUS, bilhop of Theffalonica, in the
12th century, under the reigns of the emperors Ema-
nuel, Alexander, and Andronicus Comnenus. He was
a very eminent grammarian ; and wrote commentaries*
upon Homer, and Dionyfius the geographer. The ‘
beft edition of his Commentaries on Homer is that of
Rome, printed in Greek, in 1542, in four volumes
folio. His commentaries on the Periegefis of Diony¬
fius were printed by Mr Hudfon at Oxford, in 1697,
8vo. Euftathius appears to have been alive in the
year 1194.
EUSTATIA,StEustatia, or EuJlatiuj, one of the
Caribbee illands, belonging to the Dutch, and fituated in
W. Long. 62. 56. N. Lat. 17. 29. It is little elfe than
a huge mountain, which formerly has, in all probability,
been a volcano. Its fituation is foftrong, thatithasbut
one landing place ; and that is fortified in fuch a man¬
ner as to be almoft impregnable. Tobacco is the chief
produft of the illand ; and it is cultivated to the very
top of the pyramid, which terminates in a large plain
furrounded with woods, but having a hollow in the
middle, which ferves as a large den for wild beafts.
No fewer than 5000 white people and 15,000 ne¬
groes fubfift on this fpot, where they rear hogs, kids,
rabbits, and all kinds of poultry, in fuch abundance,,
that they can fupply their neighbours, after having
ferved themfelves.
F The
E U S [ 4:
JBuftatia. The firft Dutch colony fent to this ifland confifted
1 of about 1600 people. They were difpofleffed by the
Englifh from Jamaica in 1665. Soon after, the Dutch
and French becoming confederates, the Engliih were
expelled in their turn. The French continued tp hold
a garrifon in the illand till the treaty of Breda, when
it was rellored to the Dutch. Soon after the revolu¬
tion, the French drove out the Dutch, and were in
their turn driven out by the Englifh under Sir Timo¬
thy Thornhill, with the lofs of no more than eight men
killed and wounded, though the fort they took mount¬
ed 16 guns and was in every other refpeft very flrong.
Sir Timothy found it neceffary for the proteftion of
the Dutch, to leave a fmall Englifh garrifon in the
fort; but he granted the French no terms of capitu¬
lation, except for their lives and baggage. By the
peace of Ryfwic, the entire property of this ifland was
reftored to the Dutch.
This ifland was reduced by the Britifh in the year
1781. Though not 20 miles in circumference, it
abounded at that time with riches, by reafon of the
vaft conflux of trade from every other ifland in thefe
feas. Being a free port, it was open to all the fub-
jefts of the belligerent powers; and thus a communi¬
cation was eftablifhed among them, through which
they were enabled to carry on a commercial corre-
fpondence, which greatly mitigated the inconveniences
of war. The greateil benefit, however, was reaped by
the Dutch ; who, by tranfadting all trading bufmefs
for other nations, were thus entrufted with numberlefs
commifiions, and likewife enjoyed vaft profits from
the fale of the merchandizes to which they were in-
titled. At the time the attack was made upon them,
they were fo little under any apprehenfions of fuch an
event, that their ware-houfes were not fufificient to con¬
tain the quantity of commercial articles imported for
fale, and the beach and ftreets were covered with
hogfheads of tobacco and fugar. In this fituation,
Admiral Rodney having received orders to commence
hoftilities againft the Dutch, fuddenly appeared before
the ifland with fuch an armament of fea and land
forces, as in its defencelefs fituation was not only ufe-
lefs but ridiculous. The governor could fcarce credit
the officer who fummoned him to furrender ; but be¬
ing convinced how matters- flood, the only poffible
ftep was taken, namely, to furrender the whole ifland,
and every thing in it, at difcretion. Along with the
ifland there fell into the hands of the captors a fhip of
60 guns, with 250 fail of merchantmen, while the va¬
lue of property on the ifland was eftimated at no lefs
than four millions fterling. This capture became af¬
terwards a fubjedt of difcuffion in parliament, where
the conduct of the Britifh commanders was feverely
fcrutinized by Mr Burke. The admiral and general
made their defence in perfon : but the minority at
that time were far from being fatisfied; and it was fup-
pofed that on the change of miniflry a rigid inquiry
would have been fet on foot, had not the fplendor of
Admiral Rodney’s victory over de Grafle put an end
to all thoughts of that nature.
The ifland of St Euftatius is naturally of fuch dif¬
ficult accefs, as already obferved, that it is almoft impof-
fible for an enemy to effeft a landing if proper care is
taken by thofe who are in poffeffion of it. This very
«ircumftance proved the ruin of the new pofTeffors. The
i 1 E u T
Britifh, fecure in their inacceffible fituation, conduced Euflatias
themfelves in fuch a manner as induced the Marquis de II
Bouillc to make an attempt to regain it. Having fail- Euthymia.
ed from Martiaico at the head of 2000 men, he arrived,
on the 26th of November 1781, off one of the landing
places of the ifland, which was deemed fo inacceffible that
it had been left without a guard. With much lofs and
difficulty, however, he landed here with four or five
hundred of his people during the night. The appear¬
ance of day put an end to his landing any more ; and
he now faw himfelf obliged either to relinquifh the en-
terprife or to attack the garrifon, which was almoft
double the number of thofe he had on the ifland. He
chofe the latter; and was favopred in his enterprife by
the extreme negligence of his antagonifts. A difficult
pafs, which a few men might have occupied with fuc-
cefs againft a great number, was left unguarded, which
the marquis fecured in time, and then pufhed forward
with the utmoft expedition. The Britifh, miftaking
a body of Irifh troops which attended the French
commander for their own comrades, fuffered them to
approach without thinking of oppofing them. They
were then exercifing on the parade; but were foon
made fenfible of their fatal miftake by a clofe difcharge
from their fuppofed friends, by which many were killed
and wounded. The furprife occafioned by this fudden
attack was fo great, that no refiftance could be made;
efpecially as their commanding officer, colonel Cock-
burn, who happened at that inftant to come upon the
parade, was made prifoner. A number of them, how¬
ever, haftened to the fort with a view of making head
againft the enemy ; but the French had already taken
pofleffion of the gate, and prevented the draw-bridge
from being railed. They entered the fort; which,
being furrendered by thofe who had taken fhelter in it,
the reft of the garrifon, difperfed in various places, and
imagining the number of the enemy to be much greater
than it really was, fubmitted without any oppofition.
The French commander took this opportunity of
fhowing his difintereftednefs in pecuniary matters. A-
mong the fpoils that fell into his hands a large fum.
of money was claimed by the Britifli commanding of¬
ficer as being his private property, which was gene-
roufly reftored to him : in like manner the proper¬
ty of the Dutch inhabitants was referved to them,
and nothing was allowed to be feized but the produce
arifing from the fale of prizes that had been taken by
the Englifti when they captured the ifland.
EUSTYLE, in archite&ure, a fort of building in
which the pillars are placed at the moft convenient di-
ftance one from another, the intercolumniations being
juft two diameters and a quarter of the column, except
thofe in the middle of the face, before and behind,
which are three diameters diftant.
EUTERPE, one of the mufes, daughter of Jupitec
and Mnemofyne, She prefided over mufic, and was
looked upon as the inventrefs of the flute. She is repre-
fented as crowned with flowers and holding a flute in
her hands: Some mythologifts attributed to her the
invention of tragedy, more commonly fuppofed to be
the produdfion of Melpomene.
EUTHYMIA, among the Greeks, fignified fuch a
difpofition, or ftate of the mind, as could not be ruffled
either by good or bad fortune, by ficknefs or health,
good or evil,
EU-
E U T [ 43 ] EX
Eutrophii EUTROPIUS (Flavius), a Latin author, in the
_ ij. 4th century, was fecretary to Conliantine the Great,
y" 1 ' and afterwards bore arms under the emperor Julian,
and followed that prince in his expedition againd the
Perlians. He wrote an Abridgment of the Roman
Hiftory, from the foundation of Rome to the reign
of Valens; the beft edition of which is that of Mifs
Le Fevre, afterwards Madam Dacier, publilhed at
Paris for the ufe of the Dauphin, in 4to, in the year
1683.
EUTYCHIANS, ancient heretics, who denied the
duplicity of natures in Chrift ; thus denominated from
Eutyches, the archimandri e, or abbot of a monaftery
at Conftantinople, who began to propagate his opinion
A. D. 448. He did not, however, feem quite fteady
and conliftent in his fentiments : for he appeared to
allow of two natures, even before the union ; which
was apparently a confequence he drew from the prin¬
ciples of the Platonic philofophy, which fuppoles a
pre-exiftence of fouls: accordingly, he believed that
the foul of Jefus Chrift had been united to the divini¬
ty before the incarnation ; but then he allowed no di-
ftin&ion of natures in Jefus Chrift fince his incarnation.
This herefy was firft condemned in a fynod held at
Conftantinople by Flavian, in 448, approved by the
council of Ephefus, called conventus latronum, in 449,
and re-examined, and fulminated, in the general coun¬
cil of Chalcedon in 451. The legates of pope Leo,
who affifted at it, maintained, that it was not enough
to define, that there were two natures in Jefus Chrift,
butjnfifted ftrenuoufly, that, to remove all equivoca¬
tions, they muft add thefe terms, without being chan¬
ged, or confounded, or divided.
The herefy of the Eutychians, which made a very
great progrefs throughout the eaft, at length became
divided into feveral branches. Nicephorus makes men¬
tion of no fewer than twelve: fome called Schcmatici^ or
Apparenies, as only attributing to Jefus Chrift a phantom
or appearance of flelh, and no real flelh : others, Theo-
dofians, from Theodoftus bilhop of Alexandria : others,
Jacobites, from one James [Jacobus), of Syria ; which
branch eftablifhed itfelf principally in Armenia, where
it ft ill fubfifts. Others were called Acephali, q. d with¬
out head ; and Severians, from a monk called Sevsrus,
who feized on the fee of Antioch in 513. Thefe laft
were fubdivided into five faftions, viz., dgnoeta, who
attributed fome ignorance to Jefus Chrift ; the fol¬
lowers of Paul; Mfxaivo/, that is, the black Angelites,
thus called from the place where they were aflembled;
and lattly, Adrites, and Cononites.
Eutychians was alfo the name of another feft, half
Arian half Eunomian ; which arofe at Conftantinople
in the fourth century.
It being then a matter of mighty controverfy among
the Eunomians at Conftantinople, whether or nothe Son
of God knew the laft day and hour of the world, par¬
ticularly with regard to that paflage in the gofpel of
St Matthew, chap, xxiv ver. 36. or rather that in
St Mark, xiii. 32. where it is expreffed, that the Son
did not know it, but the Father only; Eutychiusmade
no fcruple to maintain, even in writing, that the Son
did not know it; which fentiment difpleafing the lead¬
ers of the Eunomian party, he feparated from them,
and made a journey to Lunomius, who was then in
exile.—That heretic acquiefced fully in Eutychius’s
do&rine, and admitted him to his communion. Euno- Eutychim
mius dying foon after, the chief of the Eunomians at II
Conftantinople refufed to admit Eutychius ; who, up- Ex’
on this, formed a particular fetft of fuch as adhered to
him, called Eutychians.
This fame Eutychius, with one Theopronius, as was
faid in Sozomen’s time, were the occafions of all the
changes made by the Eunomians in the admini ft ration
of baptifm ; which confifted, according to Nicephorus,
in only ufing one immerfion, and not doing it in the
name of the Trinity, but in memory of the death of
Jefus Chrift. Nicephorus calls the chief of that fed,
not Eutychius, but Eupfychius, and his followers Euno-
miaupfy chians.
EU i YcHIUS, patriarch of Alexandria, lived about
the ninth age ; and wrote annals in the Arabic lan¬
guage, printed at Oxford in .658, with a Latin ver-
fion by Mr Pocock. Selden had printed fomething of
his before.
EUXINE or Black Sea, forms part of the boun¬
dary betwixt Europe and Alia. It receives the Nie-
per, the Danube, and other large rivers ; and extends
from -8 to 40 degrees of E. Long, and from 40 to
46 of N. Lat. The ancients imagined this fea to have
been originally only a lake or Handing pool, which
broke firtt into the Propontis, and then into the Egean,
wafhing away by degrees the earth which firft kept it
within bounds, and formed the two channels of the
Bofphorus Thracius and Hellefpont, now the Darda¬
nelles.—It was anciently called the Axenus, fuppofed
to be from Afhkenaz the fon of Gomer, who is faid to
have fettled near it. This original being forgot in
length of time, the Greeks explained it by inhofpitable,
which the word Axenos literally fignifies; and there¬
fore, when they came to confider the inhabitants of
thefe coafts as more civilized and hofpitable, they
changed the name into Euxinus, which it itill retains.
EWE, the Englifti name qf a female Iheep. Sec
Ovis.
EWERY, in the Britilh cuftoms, an office in the
king’s houftiold, to which belongs the care of the table ;
linen, of laying the cloth, and ierving up water in fil-
ver ewers after dinner.
EX, a river that rifes in a barren traft of land, cal¬
led Exmore, in Somerfetlhire ; and after being joined
by feveral little ftreams, runs by Tiverton, where there
is a Hone bridge over the river. About nine miles be¬
low Tiverton, it is joined by a pretty large llream cal¬
led the Colombton ; and about two miles lower, by a-
nother ttream formed by the junction of the Horton
and Credy. With thefe additions, it wafhes the wall*,
of Exeter. At Topfham, above four miles below Ex¬
eter, it receives another confiderable addition to its
ftream ; two miles farther, it is joined by the Ken j
and falls into the ocean at Exmouth, after a courfe of
about 40 miles. Ships of great burden go up to
Toplham, from whence veffels of 150 tons are convey¬
ed to the quay .at Exeter, by means of an artificial ca¬
nal. The Ex is navigable for veffels of confiderable
burden to Toplham. The paffage, however, at the
mouth of the river, is but narrow, having rocks on the
eatt-fide and broad fands on the weft ; nor is the water
on the bar more than fix or feven feet deep at low wa¬
ter, but the tide rifes 14 or 15 feet, fo that it is deep
enough at high water. When ftiips are within the
F 2 bars
E X A [ 44 ] . E X A
Ex officio bar, they may ride afloat at a place called Starcrofs,
II about a mile and an half from the river’s mouth ; but
Exaltation t}j0fe that go to Topiham lie a-ground on the ooze
a[ low water.
EX officio, among lawyers, fignifies the power
a perfon has, by virtue of his office, to do certain acts
without being applied to. Thus a juflice of peace
may ex officio, at his difcretion, take furety of the
peace, without complaint made by any perfbri what-
foever.
There was formerly an oath ex officio, whereby a fup-
pofed offender was compelled in the ecclefiaftical court
to confefs, accufe, or clear himfelf of a crime ; but
this law is repealed.
Ex Pojl FaSo, in law, fomething done after ano¬
ther : thus an eftate granted may be good by matter
ex poji fa8o, that was not fo at firft., as in cafe of elec¬
tion.
EXACERBATION. See Paroxysm.
EXACTION, in law, a wrong done by an officer,
or a perfon in pretended authority, in taking a reward
or fee that is not allowed by law.
A perfon guilty of exaftion may be fined and im-
prifoned. It is often confounded with Extortion.
EXACUM, in botany : A genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of plants ; and
in the natural method ranking under the 20th order,
Rotacea. The calyx is tetraphyllous; the corolla qua-
drifid, with the tube globular; the capfule two-fur¬
rowed, bilocular, polyfpermous, and opening at the
top.
EXJERESIS, in furgery, the operation of extrac¬
ting or taking away fomething that is hurtful to the
human body.
EXAGGERATION, in rhetoric, a kind of hy¬
perbole, whereby things are augmented or amplified,
by faying more than the truth, either as to good or
bad.
Exaggeration, in painting, a method by which
the artift, in reprefenting things, changes them too
much, or makes them too ftrong, either in refpeft of
the- defign or colouring. It differs from caricaturing,
in that the latter perverts or gives a turn to the fea¬
tures of a face, &c. which they had not; whereas ex-
aggeration only heightens or improves what they had.
EXALTATION, or Elevation, is chiefly ufed
in a figurative fenfe, for the raifing or advancing a
perfon to fome ecclefiaftical dignity ; and particularly
to the papacy.
Exaltation of the Crofs, is a feaft of the Romifh
church, held on the 14th of September; in memory,
as is generally fuppofed,of this, that the emperor He-
raclius brought back the true crofs of Jefus Chrift on
his Ihoulders, to the place on mount Calvary, from
which it had been carried away 14 years before by
Cofroes king of Perfia, at his taking of Jerufalem, un¬
der the reign of the emperor Phocas. The crofs was
delivered up by a treaty of peace made with Siroe,
Cofroe’s fon. The inftitution of this treaty is com¬
monly faid to have been fignalized by a miracle ; in
that Heraclius could not ftir out of Jerufalem with the
crofs, while he had the imperial veftments on enriched
with gold and precious ftones, but bore it with eafe in
& common drefs.
Sutlong before the empire of Heraclius, there had
been a feaft of the fame denomination obferved both Exaltation
in the Greek and Latin churches, on occafion of what „ ,
our Saviour faid in St John xii. 32. And I, if I he ex- Xa“,pl%
alted, or lifted up, will draw all men unto me. And a- J
gain, in ch. viii. ver. 28. When you have exalted, or
lifted up, the Son of Man, thenjhall ye know that I am he.
The feaft of the dedication of the temple built by
Conftautine was held, lays Nicephorus, on the 14th of
September, the day on which the temple had been con-
fecrated, in the year 333 ; and this feaft was alfo cal¬
led the exaltation of the crofs, becaufe it was a ceremony
therein, for the bifhop of Jerufalem to afeend a high
place, built by Conftantine for that purpofe, in man¬
ner of a pulpit, called by th#-Greeks the facred my-
fleries of God, or the holinefs of God, and there hoift up
the crofs, for all the people to fee it.
Exaltation, in phyfics, denotes the a£l, or ope¬
ration, of elevating, purifying, fubtilizing, or perfeft-
ing, any natural body, its principles and parts; alfo
the quality or difpoiition which bodies acquire by
fuch operation. The term exaltation has been peculi¬
arly affiefted by the chemifts and alchemifts; who,
imagining it to have fome extraordinary emphafis, are
employing it on every occafion.
Exaltation, in aftrology, is a dignity which a
planet acquires in certain ligns or parts of the zodiac;
which dignity is fuppofed to give it an extraordinary
virtue, efficacy, and influence. The oppofite fign, or
part of the zodiac, is called the dejedlion of the pla¬
net. Thus the 15th degree of Cancer is the exalta¬
tion of Jupiter, according to Albumazor, becaufe it
was the afeendant of that planet at the time of the
creation; that of the fun is in the 19th degree of
Aries, and its dejeftion in Libra ; that of the moon
is in Taurus, &c. Ptolemy gives the reafon of this in
his firft book De Quadrup.
EXAMINATION, an exact and careful fearch or
inquiry, in. order to difeover the truth or falfehood of
a thing.
Self-Examination is a point much infilled on by di¬
vines, and particularly the ancient fathers, by way of
preparation to repentance. St Ignatius reduces it to
five points; viz. I. A returning thanks to God for
his benefits. 2. A begging of grace and light, to
know and diftinguifti our fins. 3. A running over all
our actions, occupations, thoughts, and words, in or¬
der to learn what has been offenfive to God. 4. A
begging of pardon, and conceiving a fincere forrow
for having difpleafed him. And, 5. Making a firm
refolution not to offend him any more ; and taking the
neceffary precautions to preferve ourfelves from it.
EXAMINERS, in chancery, two officers of that
court, who examine, upon oath, witneffes produced in
caufes depending there, by either the complainant or
defendant, where the witneffes live in London or near
it. Sometimes parties themfelves, by particular order,
are examined. In the country, above 20 miles from
London, on the parties joining in commiffion, witnef¬
fes are examined by commiffioners, being ufually coun-
fellors or attornies not concerned in the caufe.
EXAMPLE, in a general fenfe, denotes a copy
or pattern.
Example, in a moral fenfe, is either taken for a
type, inftance, or precedent, for our admonition, that
we may be cautioned againft the faults or crimes which
2 other*
E X A r 45 ] E X C
Example others have committed, by the bad confequences which
II have enfued from them ; or example is taken for a pat-
tern for our imitation or a model for us to copy after.
v That examples have a peculiar power above the naked
precept, to difpofe us to the prattice of virtue and ho-
linefs, may appear, by confxdering, i. That they moft
clearly exprefs to us the nature of our duties in their
fubjefts and fenfible effe&s. General precepts form
abltraft ideas of virtue ; but in examples, virtues are
moft viiible in all their circumftances. 2. Precepts
inftriuftus in what things are our duty; but examples
affure us that they are poffible. When we fee men
like ourfelves, who are united to frail flefti, and in the
fame condition with us, to command their paffions, to
overcome the moft glorious and glittering temptations,
we are encouraged in our fpiritual warfare. 3. Ex¬
amples, by fecret and lively incentive, urge us to imi¬
tation. We are touched in another manner by the
vifible praftice of good men, which reproaches our de¬
fects, and obliges us to the fame zeal which laws, tho’
wife and good, will not effedt.
The example of our Saviour is moft proper to form
us to holinefs; it being abfolutely perfect, and accom¬
modated to our prefent ftate. There is no example of
a mere man that is to be followed without limitation :
But the example of Chrift is abfolutely perfect; his
converfation was a living law : “ He was holy, harm-
lefs, undefiled, and feparate from tinners.”
Example, in rhetoric, denotes an imperfeft kind
of indufition or argumentation ; whereby it is proved,
that a thing which happened on fome other occafion
will happen again on the prefent one, from the fimili-
tude of the cafes. As, “ The war of the Thebans,
againft their neighbours the Phocians, was ruinous;
confequently, that of the Athenians againft their
neighbours, will like wife be fetal.”
EXANTHEMA, among phyfieians, denotes any
kind of efflorefcence or eruption, as,the meafles, pur¬
ple fpots in the plague, or malignant fevers, &c.
EXARCH, in antiquity, an appellation given, by
the emperors of the eaft, to certain officers fent into
Italy, in quality of vicars, or rather prefe&s, to de¬
fend that part of Italy which was yet under their o-
bedience ; particularly the city of Ravenna againft
the Lombards, who had made themfelves mafters of
the greateft part ef the reft.
The refidence of the exarch was at Ravenna ; which
city, with that of Rome, were all that was left the
emperors. The firft exarch was the patrician Boetius,
famous for his treatife, De Confolatione Philofophias;
appointed in 568 by the younger Juttin. The ex¬
archs fubfifted about 185 years, and ended in Euty-
chius; under whofe exarchate the city of Ravenna
was taken by the Lombard king Afthlphus, or Aftol-
phus.
The emperor Frederic created Heraclius, archbifhop
of Lyons, a defcendant of the ilhiftrious houfe of
Montboiffier, exarch of the whole kingdom of Bur¬
gundy ; a dignity till that time unknown any where
but in Italy, particularly in the city of Ravenna.
Homer, Philo, and other ancient authors, give like-
wife the name exanhus to the choragus or mafter of
the fingers, in the ancient chorufes, or him who fung
firft: the word or fignifying equally to
tfagin, and to command*
Exarch of a JDkcefe was, anciently, the fame with Exarch-
primate. This dignity was inferior to the patriarchal, „ II ,
yet greater than the metropolitan. Exception.
Exarch alfo denotes an officer, ftill fubfifting in v
the Greek church ; being a kind of deputy or legate
a latere of the patriarch, whofe office it is to viiit the
provinces allotted him, in order to inform himfelf of
the lives and manners of the clergy ; take cognizance
of ecclefiaftical caufes ; the manner of celebrating di¬
vine fervice; the adminiftration of the facraments,-
particularly confeffion ; the obfervance of the canons;
monaftic difeipline ; aftairs of marriages, divorces, &c.
but, above all, to take an account of the feveral reve¬
nues which the patriarch receives from feveral churches;
and, particularly, as to what regards the colle&ing the
fame.
The exarch, after having greatly enriched himfelf
in his poll, frequently rifes to the patriarchate itfelf.
Exarch is alfo ufed, in the eaftern church antiqui¬
ty, for a general or fuperior over feveral monafteries
the fame that we otherwife call archimandrite ; being
exempted, by the patriarch of Conftantinople, from
the jurifdidtion of the bilhops; as are now the gene¬
rals of the Romilh monaftic orders,
EXAUCTORATIO, in the Roman military dif¬
eipline, differed from the miffio, which was a full dif-
charge, and took place after they had ferved in the
army 20 years ; whereas the exau&oratio was only a
partial difeharge : they loft their pay indeed, but ftill
kept under their colours or vexilla, though not under
the aquila (or eagle), which was the ftandard of the
legion : whence, inftead of Legionarii, they were cal¬
led Subjtgnani, and were retained till they had either
ferved their full time, or had lands affigned them.
The exaudloratio took place after they had ferved 17.
years.
EXCALCEATION, among the Hebrews, was a
particular law, whereby a widow, whom her hufband’s
brother refufed to marry, had a right to fummon him
to a court of juftiqe ; and, upon his refufal, might ex-
calceate him, that is, pull off one of his {hoes, ar*l fpit
in his face ; both of them a&ions of great ignominy.
EXCELLENCY, a title anciently given to kings
and emperors, but now to ambaffadors, generals, and
other perfons who are not qualified for tliat of high-
nefs, and yet are to be elevated above the other infe¬
rior dignities.
EXCENTRIC, in geometry, a term applied to
circles and fpheres which have not the fame centre,
and confequently are not parallel; in oppofition to
concentric, where they are parallel, having one com¬
mon centre.
EXCENTRICITY, in - aftronomy, is the diftance
of the centre of the orbit of a planet from the centre
of the fun ; that is, the diftance between the centre of
the ellipfis and the focus thereof.
EXCEPTION, fomething referred, or fet afide,
and not included in a rule.
It is become proverbial, that there is no rule with¬
out an exception; intimating, that it is impoffible to
comprehend all the particular cafes, under one and the
fame maxim. But it is dangerous following the ex¬
ception preferably to the rule.
Exception, in law, denotes a flop or ftay to an
-aftion ; and is either dilatory or peremptory, in pro¬
ceedings ,
E X C
B-xcerpt ceedings at common law ; but in chancery it is what
II the plaintiff alleges againff the fufficiency of an an-
fwer, &c.
^ An exception is no more than the denial of what
is taken to be good by the other party, either in point
of law or pleading. The counfel in a caufe are to
take all their exceptions to the record at one time, and
before the court has delivered any opinion of it.
EXCERPT, in matters of literature. See Ex¬
tract.
EXCESS, in arithmetic and geometry, is the dif¬
ference between any two unequal numbers or quanti¬
ties, or that which is left after the leffer is taken from
or out of the greater.
EXCHANGE, in a general fenfe, a contraft or
agreement, whereby one thing is given or exchanged
for another.
Exchange, in commerce, is the receiving or paying
of money in one country for the like fum in another,
by means of bills of exchange.
The fecurity which merchants commonly take from
one another when they circulate their bufinefs, is a bill
of exchange, or a note of hand : thefe are looked up¬
on as payment. See Bill, and Mercantile Laws.
The punctuality of acquitting thefe obligations is ef-
fential to commerce; and no fooner is a merchant’s
accepted billprotetled, than he is confidered as a bank- ~
rupt. For this reafon, the laws of mod nation^ have
given very extraordinary privileges to bills of exchange.
The fecurity of trade is effential to every fociety ; and
were the claims of merchants to linger under the for¬
malities of courts of law when liquidated by hills of
exchange, faith, confidence, and punctuality, would
quickly difappear, and the great engine of commerce
would be totally deftroyed
A regular bill of exchange is a mercantile contraCt,
in which four perfons are concerned, viz. i. The
drawer, who receives the value : 2. His debtor, in a
diftant place, upon whom the bill is drawn, and who
muff accept and pay it: 3. The perfon who gives va¬
lue for the bill, to whofe order it is to be paid : and,
4. The perfon to whom it is ordered to be paid, credi¬
tor to the third.
By this operation, reciprocal debts, due in two di¬
ftant parts, are paid by a fort of transfer, or permuta¬
tion of debtors and creditors.
(A) in London is creditor to (B) in Paris, value
*001. (C) again in London is debtor to (D) in Paris
for a like fum. By the operation of the bill of ex¬
change, the London creditor is paid by the London
debtor ; and the Paris creditor is paid by the Paris
debtor; confequently, the two debts are paid, and no
money is fent from London to Paris nor from Paris
to London.
In this example, (A) is the drawer, (B) is the ac¬
cepter, (C) is the purchafer of the bill, and (D) re¬
ceives the money. Two perfons here receive the mo¬
ney, (A) and (D); and two pay the money, (B) and
{C) ; which is juft what muff be done when two
debtors and two creditors clear accounts.
This is the plain principle of a bill of exchange.
From which it appears, that reciprocal and equal debts
only can be acquitted by them.
When it therefore happens, that the reciprocal debts
of London and Paris (to ufe the fame example) are
E X G
not equal, there arifes a balance on one fide. Suppofe
London to owe Paris a balance, value 1001. How can
this be paid ? Anfwer, It may either be done with or
without the intervention of a bill.
With a bill, if an exchanger, finding a demand for
a bill upon Paris for the value of 100I. when Paris
owes no more to London, fends lool. to his correfpon-
dent at Paris in coin, at the expence (fuppofe) of 1 I.
and then, having become creditor on Paris, he can
give a bill for the value of 100I. upon his being repaid
his expence, and paid for his rilk and trouble.
Or it may be paid without a bill, if the London
debtor fends the coin bimfelf to his Paris creditor, with¬
out employing an exchanger
This laft example (hows of what little ufe bills are in
the payment of balances. As far as the debts are equal,
nothing can be more ufeful than bills of exchange; but
the more they are ufeful in this eafy way of bufinefs, the \ I
lefs profit there is to any perfon to make a trade of ex¬
change, when he is not himfelf concerned either as
debtor or creditor.
When merchants have occafion to draw and remit
bills for the liquidation of their own debts, active and
paffive, in diftant parts, they meet upon’Change; where,
to purfue the former example, the creditors upon Paris,
when they want money for bills, look out for thofe who
are debtors to it. The debtors to Paris again, when
they want bills for money, feek for thofe who are cre¬
ditors upon it.
This market is conftantly attended by brokers, who
relieve the merchant of the trouble of fearching for
thofe he wants. To the broker every one communi¬
cates his wants, fo far as he finds it prudent; and by
going about among all the merchants, the broker dif-
covers the fide upon which the greater demand lies,
for money or for bills.
He who is the demander in any bargain, has con¬
ftantly the difadvantage in dealing with him of whom
he demands. This is no where fo much the cafe as in
exchange, and renders fecrecy very effential to indivi¬
duals among the merchants. If the London merchants
want to pay their debts to Paris, when there is a ba¬
lance againft London, it is their intereft to conceal
their debts, and efpecially the neceffity they may be
under to pay them; from the fear that thofe who are
creditors upon Paris would demand too high a price
for the exchange over and above par.
On the other hand, thofe who are creditors upon
Paris, when Paris owes a balance to London, are as
careful in concealing what is owing to them by Paris,
from the fear that rhofe who are debtors to Paris would
avail themfelves of the competition among the Paris cre¬
ditors, in order to obtain bills for their money, below
the value of them, when at par. A creditor upon Pa¬
ris, who is greatly preffed for money at London, will
willingly abate fomething of his debt, in order to get
one who will give him money for it.
From the operation carried on among merchants up¬
on ’Change, we may difcover the confequence of their
feparate and jarring interefts. They are conftantly in-
terefted in the ftate of the balance. Thofe who are
creditors on Paris, fear the balance due to London ;
thofe who are debtors to Paris, dread a balance due
to Paris. The intereft of the firft is to diffemble what
they fear; that of the laft, to exaggerate what they
wilh.
r 46 1
E X C . f 47
Iichange. wifli. The brokers are thofe who determine the courfe
of the day ; and the moft intelligent merchants are a
thofe who difpatch their bufinefs before the fact is
known.
Now, how is trade in general interefted in the que-
ftion, Who fhall outwit, and who lhall be outwitted,
in this complicated operation of exchange among mer¬
chants ?
The intereft of trade and of the nation is principal¬
ly concerned in the proper method of paying and re¬
ceiving the balances. It is alfo concerned in prefer-
ving a juft equality of profit and lofs among all the
merchant^, relative to the real ftate of the balance.
Unequal competition among men engaged in the fame
purfuit, conftantly draws along writh it bad confequen-
ces to the general undertaking ; and fecrecy in trade
will be found, upon examination, to be much more ufe-
ful to merchants in their private capacity, than to the
trade they are carrying on.
Merchants endeavour to Amplify their bufinefs as
much as poffible ; and commit to brokers many opera¬
tions which require no peculiar talents to execute. This
of exchange is of fuch a nature, that it is hardly pof¬
fible for a merchant to carry on the bufinefs of his bills,
without their affiftance, upon many occafions. When
merchants come upon ’Change, they are fo full of fear
andjealoufies, that they will not open themfelves to one
another, left they ftiould difcover what they want to
conceal. The broker is a confidential man, in fome de¬
gree, between parties, and brings them together.
Befides the merchants who circulate among them¬
felves their reciprocal debts and credits ariiing from
their importation and exportation of goods, there is an¬
other fet of merchants who deal in exchange ; which is
the importation and exportation of money and bills.
Were there never any balance on the trade of na¬
tions, exchangers and brokers would find little employ¬
ment : reciprocal and equal debts would eafily be tranf-
afted openly between the parties themfelves. No man
feigns and diflembles, except when he thinks he,has an
intereft in fo doing.
But when balances come to be paid, exchange be¬
comes intricate ; and merchants are fo much employed
in particular branches of bufinefs, that they are obliged
to leave the liquidation of their debts to a particular
fet of men, who make it turn out to the beft advantage
tp themfelves.
1 E X C
Whenever a balance is to be paid, that payment coft-s, Exchange;
as we have feen, an additional expence to thofe of the  v—
place who owe it, over and above the value of the debt.
If, therefore, this expence be a lofs to the trading
man, he mull either be repaid this lofs by thofe whom
he ferves, that is, by the nation ; or the trade he car¬
ries on will become lefs profitable.
Every one wfill agree, that the expence of high ex¬
change upon paying a balance is a lofs to a people,
no way to be compenfated by the advantages they reap
from enriching the few individuals among them who
gain by contriving methods to pay it off; and if an ar¬
gument is neceffary to prove this propofition, it may
be drawn from this principle, viz. whatever rendters the
profit upon trade precarious or uncertain, is a lofs to
trade in general: this lofs is the confequence of high-
exchange ; and although a profit does refult from it
upon one branch of trade, the exchange-Bufinefs, yet
that cannot compenfate the lofs upon every other.
We may, therefore, here repeat what we have faid
above, that the more difficulty is found in paying a ba¬
lance, the greater is the lofs to a nation.
The Courfe of Exchange.
The courfe of exchange is the current price betwixt
two places, which is always fluctuating and unfettled,
being fometimes above and fometimes below par, ac¬
cording to the circumftances of trade.
When the courfe of exchange rifes above par, the
country where it rifes may conclude for certain, that .
the balance of trade runs againft them. The truth of
this will appear, if we fuppofe Britain to import from
any foreign place goods to the value of 100,0001. at
par, and export only to the value of 80,0001. In this
cafe, bills on the faid foreign place will be fcarce in
Britain, and confequently will rife in value ; and aftea
the 80,0001. is paid, bills muft be procured from other
places at a high rate to pay the remainder, fo that per¬
haps 120,0001. may be paid for bills to difcharge a
debt of 100,0001.
Though the courfe of exchange be in a perpetual
flux, and rifes or falls according to the circumftances of
trade ; yet the exchanges of London, Holland, Ham.-,
burgh, and Venice, in a great meafure regulate thofe
of all other places in Europe.
I. Exchange with Holland.
MONE Y-TABLE.
Par in Sterling. s. d.
1 groat or penny =: o °*54
1 ftiver = o 1.09
= 1 fchilling = o 6.56
“ ^ 1 pound Flemifli = 10 11.18
1 gilder or florin =: 1 9.86
I 1 pound Flemifti = 10 H.18
rixdollar = 4 6.66
8 Pennings, or 2 duytes,
2 Groats, or 16 pennings,
6 Stivers, or 12 pence,
20 Schillings,
20 Stivers, or 40 pence,
6 Guilders, or florins,
^Guilders, or florins,
In Holland there are two forts of money, bank and better than the current. The difference between the?
current. The bank is reckoned good fecurity ; de- bank and current money is called the agio.
mands on the bank are readily anfwered ; and hence. Bills on Holland are always drawn in bank-money j
bank-money is generally rated from 3 to 6 /«• cent, and if accounts be fent over from Holland to Britaindm
E X C
xchange current money, theBritifhmerchant pays.thefe accounts
—V  by bills, and in this cafe has the benefit of the agio.
[ 48 T
E X C
Prob. I. To reduce lank-money to c:vrent money.
Rule. As too to xoo+agio, fo the given guilders
to the anfwer.
800 825 11050
442°
17680
 Guild, ft. pen.
8]oo) 18232)50(2279 1 4. cur.
16... 20
22 io|oo(
16 8
63 2
56 16
72 32
72 32
Or, by pra&ice,
50)2210
44.2 —2 per cent.
22.1 == I per cent.
2.7625 = \ per cent.
8
825
45581
16500
16
273490
45581
990
165
729300
800
8)2641000
3)33
N°I2:
8)5834401000
$)72g$oGuild.
11)24310(2210 bank.
In Amfterdam, Rotterdam, Middleburgh, &c. books Exchange
and accounts are kept by fome in guilders ftivers and
pennings, and by other? in pounds (hillings and pence
Flemifh.
Britain gives 11. Sterling for an uncertain number
of drillings and pence Flemifh. The par is 11. Ster-
a ling for 36.59 s. Flemidr; that is, X 1. 16s. y.oSd.
mounttoin Holland currency,theagio being$^per cent.?
Guild.
As 100 : i03|- :: 2210
8 8 825
When the Flemidr rate rifes above par, Britain gains
and Holland lofes by the exchange, and vice verfa.
Sterling money is changed into Flemidr, by faying,
As 1 1. Sterling to the given rate.
So is the given Sterling to the Flemidr fought.
Or, the Fleraidr money may be cad. up by pradlice.
Dutch money , whether pounds, (hillings, pence Fle-
mi(h, or guilders, ftivers, pennings, may be changed
into Sterling, by faying,
As the given rate to 11. Sterling,
So the given Dutch to the Sterling fought.
Example, i. A merchant in Britain draws on Am-
fterdam for 782 1. Sterling: How many pounds Fle¬
midr, and how many guilders, will that amount to, ex¬
change at 34s. 8d./^rpound Sterling?
Decimally.
L.
If 1 :
f. d.
34 8 :
416
782
2279.0625
If the agio only be required, make the agio the
middle term, thus: ^
Guil. ft. pen.
As 100 : 34- :: 2210 : 69 1 4 agio. Or, work
by practice, as above.
Prob II. To reduce current money to bank-money.
3328
2912
12)3253x2 ^
2)0) 2710)9 4
£•1355 9 \Flem.
L.
If 1 :
L.
34.0 782
782
693
27733
242666
2)0)2710)9.3
■£•1355 9 4 Flem.
Rule. As xoo+agio to 100, fo the given guilders
to the anfwer.
By practice.
L. s.
Example. What will 2279 guilders 1 ftiver 4 pen¬
nings, Holland currency, amount to in bank-money,
the agio being 34 per cent. ?
Guild. Guild. Guild, ft. pen.
As 1034 : 100 :: 2279 1 4
4s. — T
8d. =4-
782
391
156 8
26 1 .
Or thus:
L.
14s. —-rrs
8d. =TIo
782
547 8
26 1 4
1355 9 AFl-
355 9 ^Fl.
Multiply the Flemidr pounds and (hillings by 6, and
the produft will be guilders and ftivers ; and if there
be any pence, multiply them by 8 for pennings; or,
divide the Flemidr pence by 40, and the quot will be,
guilders, and the half of the remainder, if there be any,
will be ftivers, and one penny odd will be half a ftiver,
or 8 pennings, as follows:
L. s. d.
1355 9 4 Flem. pence.
6 4l0)3253Il2(32 rem’
Guild. 81 $2 16ftiv. Guild. 8152 i6ftiv.
2. Change 591b 5 s. Flemiftr into Sterling money,
exchange at.37s. 6d,Flenaidrperl. Sterling.
E X C
Fhm. Ster. Flem.
s. d. L. L. s.
If 37 6 : i :: 591 5
2 20
5)75
4)«5
3
11025
2
5)23650
5) 4730
3) 946
Z. s. d.
Anf.&S 5 8 Ster.
Decimally.
5)Z. Z. 5) £•
If 1.875 : 1 :: 59'-2S
5) -375 5)118.25
5) -075 5) 23‘65,
.015 .015) 473(3'3-3
45
[ 49 1 E X C
phennings; but fome keep them in pounds, fchillings, Exchange,
and groots Flemifh. —y—«s
The agio at Hamburgh runs between 20 and 40
per cent. All bills are paid in bank-money.
Hambiygh exchanges with Britain by giving an un¬
certain number of fchillings and grpots Flemish for the
pound Sterling. The gfopt or penny Flemilh here, as
alfo at Antwerp, is worth f^of a penny Sterling; and
fo fomething better than in Holland, where it is only
To%d. Sterling. Flemijh.
6 Phennings "] f 1 groot or penny
6 Schilling-Iubs I j 1 (chilling
1 Schilling-lub f make ^ 2 pence or groot*
1 Mark | | 32 pence or groots
7^-Marks J r pound.
The par with Hamburgh, and alfo with Antwerp,
is 35s. 6yd. Flemifh for il. Sterling.
Examples, i. How many marks muft be received
at Hamburgh for 3001. Sterling, exchange at 35 s. 3 d.
Flemifh per 1. Sterling?
Z, s. d. L.
If 1 : 35 3 :: 3°o
12
23
15
80
IS
5°
45
Holland exchanged with other nations as follows,
viz. with
Flem. d.
Hamburgh, on the dollar, = 66-f-
France, on the crown, = 54
Spain, on the ducat, = 109^
Portugal, on the crufade, = 50
Venice, on the ducat, =. 93
Genoa, on the pezzo, = 100
Leghorn,' on the piaftre, == ido
Florence, on the crown, = 120
Naples, on the ducat, = 74y
Rome, on the crown, = 136
Milan, on the ducat, r= 102
Bologna, on the dollar, — 94-f
Exchange between Britain and Antwerp, as alfo the
Auflrian Netherlands, is negociated the fame way as
with Holland ; only the par is fomewhat different, as
will bedefcribed in article 2d, following.
II. Exchange with Hamburgh.
Mo N E Y-T A B L E.
Par in Sterling. s. d.
12' Phennings ~| f 1 fchilling-lub = 0 1-5-
16 Schilling-lubs j <u | 1 mark =16
2 Marks )> i« I dollar =30
3 Marks I ^ I 1 rixdollar =4 6
SyMarks j ^ i ducat = 9 44-
Books and accounts are kept at the bank, and by
tnt)fl people in the city, in marks, fchilling-lubs, and
Vol. VII. Parti.
423
300
 M. fch.
32)126900(3965 10
96 • • •
3°9
288
210
192
"Tso
160
(20)
16
)32°
S2
(°). .
Decimally.
Flem. s. Marks. Flem. s.
If 20 : 7.5 :: 35-25
4 :1-5 ” 35-25
I-5
17625
3525
4)52.875
Marks in il. Sterling 13.21875
300
Marks in 3001. Sterling
3965.62500
16
3750
625
Schilling-lubs 10.900
G
3. How
Exchange.
Cr.
E X C [ 5° ] E X
. 2. How muck Sterling money will a bill of 3965 If you work decimally, fay,
' mark 10 fchilling-lubs amount to, exchange at 35 s. 3d.
Slemifti per pound Sterling?
Fl.s. d. L.St. Mh fch.
If 35 3:1:: 3965 10
12 32 2
d. Ster. Cr. d. Ster.
As 1 : 31-625 :: 1978.416 : 62567.427083
How many French livres will L 12: : 18:6 Ster¬
ling amount to, exchange at 32-^d. per crown?
d. Liv. L. s. d.
18 6
42 3.
7930 20d.
1'897
423)126900(300!. fter,
1269
Decimally.
4 : 1.5 :• 35-25
15
17625
2225
4)52-875(I3-2i875
13.21875)3965.62500(300!. fter.
3965625
III. Exchange ixiith France.
Money-table.
Par in Ster. s. d.
12 Deniers^ T 1 fol =0 o-|-§-
20 Sols > make < 1 livre =09!:
3 Livres J C1 crown =25^
At Paris, Rouen, Lyons, &c. books and accounts
are kept in livres, fols, and deniers; and the exchange
If 32I = 3 =
  8
263
24 2438
12
29262
24
117048
58524
   Liv. fols. den.
263)702288(2670 5 11 Jnf.
Rem. (78 = 5 fols 11 deniers.
IV. Exchange with Portugal.
Money-table.
Par in Ster. s. d. f.
1 ree =00 0.27:
4°° rees] make \ 1 cr.fade = 2 3
1000 rees 5 (. 1 nailree = 5 7f
    , . ^ In Lifbon, Oporto, &c. books and accounts are
with Britain is on the crown, or ecu, of 3 livres, or 60 generally kept in rees and millrees ; and the millrees
fols Tournois. Britain gives for the crown an uncer- are diftinguifhed from the rees by a mark fet between
tain number of pence, commonly between 30 and 34, them thus, 485 ^ 372 } that is, 485 millrees and 372
the par, as mentioned above, being 29^6. rees.
Example. What StprUng money muft be paid I,. port , 0„ the millrM . the as in the r.ble, be-
London to receive m Pans 1978 crowns aS fols, ex- . s,er,lm. The’ conr£ ’!th Brit •„ ruoa .
Britain, as well as other nations, exchanges with
change at 31^. per crown?
Sols. '
If 60 :
d.
31? :
Cr. fols.
19,78 25
60
118705
 253
356115
593525
2374to
6)0)300323615 Rem.
8)500539 3
12)62567 11
2)0)521I3 13
ng 67i-d. Sterling. The courfe with Britain runs from
63d. to 68d. Sterlings millree.
Example, i. How much Sterling money will pay
a bill of 827 160 rees, exchange at 63^. Sterling
per millree?
Rees. d. Rees.
If 1000 : 63! :: 827.160
8 507
8ooo 507
579012
4i358o
8000)419370.120 2
d. '
30 =
l4r =
L. 260 13 11-g- Jnf
B.y Praftic.
Cr. Sols.
1978 25, at3i|d.
Sols 20 Z= y
5 = i
247
5 o
7 3
o 7t
O IOt
° 2x
A.
CO — y
3 = To
f — TT
26O 13 Uj
12) 5242.1 — 5d.
20) 4368 — 8s.
L. 218 8 si Anf. .
By Practice.
Rees.
827.160, at 63|d.
206.790
10.3395
.861625
.4308125
| 218.4219375
The
E X C [51
Exchange. The rees beijig thoufandth-parts of the millrees, are
‘T—annexed to the integer, and the operation proceeds ex-
- a£lly as in decimals.
2. How many rees of Portugal will 500 1. Sterling
amount to, exchange at 5s. 4-|-d. per millrce ?
d. Plajl. L.
If38|-: 1 :: 345
£
s. d.
18 8^
X c
Exchange*
d.
If 644
Rees.
: 1000 :
8
L.
500
614
6918
83024
16
498149
83024
614)1328389(2163 piaflres.
1228 •••
1003
614
3898
3684
Carried up 1328389
120000
8000
517 )96ooooooo( 1856.866y&/I
V. Exchange with Spain.
2149
1842
3°7
8
Piajl. Rials.
Anf. 2163 4
614)2456(4 rials.
2456
VI. Exchange with Venice. -
Money-table. Money-table.
54 Soldi 7 , i 1 gros
Par in Ster. s. d. 24 Gros 5 t 1 ducat = 504 d. Sterling.
!i rial =0 5-4 The money of Venice is of three forts, viz. two of
1 piaftre =3 7 bank money, and the picoli money. One of the banks
1 ducat = 4 # 114 deals in banco money, and the other in banco current.
The bank money is 20 per cent, better than the banco
In Madrid, Bilboa, Cadiz, Malaga, Seville, andmoft current, and the banco current 20 per cent, better than
®f the principal places, books and accounts are kept in the picoli money. Exchanges are always negociated
piaftres, called alfo dollars, rials, and mervadies; and by the ducat banco, the par being 4s. 24d. Sterling,'
they exchange with Britain generally on the piaftre, as in the table.
and fometimes on the ducat. The coutfe runs from Though the ducat be commonly divided into 24
3yd. to 45d. Sterling for a piaftre or dollar o£ 8 gros, yet bankers and negotiators, for facility of o
rials.
Examp. i. London imports from Cadiz goods to
the value of 2163 piaftres and 4 rials: How much
Sterling will this amount to, exchange at 384 d. Ster.
ling per piaftre ?
d.
24 :
r ~ 4
Piajl. Rials.
2x63 4, at 38|d.
216
108
Rialt.
4 -
putation, ufually divide it as follows, and keep their
books and accounts accordingly.
12 Deniers d’or 7 , f 1 fol d’or
20 Sols d’or 5 ma e (_ 1 ducat = 504d. Sterling.
The courfe of exchange is from 45 d. to 55 d. Ster¬
ling per ducat.
Examp. i. How much Sterling money is equal t©
1459 ducats 18 fols 1 denier, bank-money of Venice5
d. exchange at 524 d. Sterlingducat ?
38-|- each. JDuc. d. Duc.fol. den. d.
19tV If 1 : 524 :: 1459 18 1 I sH rate*
52i
Sols.
10 = 4
5 = 1
7tV
L. 345 t8
Anf.
2. London remits to Cadiz 345 b 18s. S-rVL How
much Spanifti money will this amount to, exchange at
384 d. Sterling per piaftre ?
2918
7295
d. 75868
i =7294
i =364?
7696:4
47t
   Rem.
12)770 io(6d.
2|°)M7(i7s-
L. 320 17 6 Sterling. Anf.
G 2
264
13-g'
; 5t
of
474
2. How
E X C
Exchange. 2. How many ducats at Venice are equal to 385 1.
tx2 6. 6d. Sterling, exchange at 48. 4d. per ducat?
L. Due. L.
If .21(3 : 1 385.625
.21^)385.625
21 385.625
- Due.
[ 1
E X C
Exchange money is reduced to lire-money, by being Exchange,
multiplied by 5|-, as follows :
Jnf.
195)347062.5(1779.8
l95
1520
1365
1556
*365
1912
1755
1575
1560
Bank-money is reduced to current money, by allow¬
ing for the agio, as was done in exchange with Hol¬
land ; viz. fay, As 100 to 120, or as 10 to x2, or as
5 to 6, fo the given bank-money to the current fought.
And current money is reduced to bank-money by re-
verfing the operation. And in like manner may picoli-
money be reduced to current or to bank money, and
the contrary.
100 ducats banco of Venrice.
InLeghorn=73 pezzos I In Lucca = 77 crowns
In Rome =684-crowns | In Francfort = 1394-florins.
VII. Exchange with Genoa.
Fez. foldi.
3390 16
5i
16954 0
r = 1695 8
r = 847 H
Lires 19497 2
Decimally.
3390-8
 5-75
169540
237356
169540
Lires 1949 7.100
And lire-money is reduced to exchange-money by
dividing it by 5!-.
In Milan, 1 crowq, =z 80
In Naples, 1 ducat = 86
In Leghorn, 1 piaftre 2= 20
In Sicily, 1 crown = I27|
VIII. Exchange with Leghorn.
Money-table.
“I1 '• d-
20 Soldi J 11 pialtre = 4 6 Ster.
Books and accounts are kept in piaftres, foldi, and
denari. The piaflre here confifts of 6 lires, and the
lire contains 20 foldi, and the foldi 12 denari, and
confequently exchange money is 6 times better than
lire money. The courfe of exchange is from 47 d. to
58 d. Sterling per piaftre.
Example. What is the SterHng value of 731 pi¬
aftres, at 55-1-each ?
731 piaftres, at 55-rd.
j. d.
4 or48 = j-
6=1
.6 4
8 5
4 11
M O N E Y-T A B L E.
12 Denari 7 l 5 1 s'
20 Soldi 5 ma e ^ 1 pezzo =4 6 Sterling.
Books and accounts are generally kept in pezzos,
foldi, and denari: but feme keep them in lires, foldi,
and denari; and 12 fuch denari make 1 foldi, and 20
foldi make 1 lire.
The pezzo of exchange is equal to 5I lires; and,
confequently, exchange-money is yj- times better than
the lire money. The courfe of exchange runs from
47 d. to 58 d. Sterling^er pezzo.
Examp. How much Sterling money is equivalent
to 3390 pezzos 16 foldi of Genoa, exchange at5i-^d.
Sterling/er pezzo? •
Soldi, d. Fez. foldi.
If 20 : 51I- :: 3390 16
8   20
160 ^ 67816
4i5
339080
67816
271264
• d. L. s. d.
160)28143640(1758971=732 18 1!
If Sterling money be given, it may be reduced or
changed into pezzos of Genoa, by reverfing the former
'©peration.
L. 169 o 104 slnf.
Sterling-money is reduced to money of Leghorn, by
reverfing the former operation ; and exchange-money
is reduced to lire-money by multiplying by 6, and lire-
money to exchange-money by dividing by 6.
100 piaftres of Leghorn are
In Naples = 134 ducats | In Geneva = 185.4- crowns.
Soldi of Leghorn.
In Sicily* I crown = 1334-
In Sardinia, 1 dollar = 954-
The above are the chief places in Europe with which
Britain exchanges direftly ; the exchanges with other
places are generally made by bills on Hamburgh, Hol¬
land, or Venice. We ftiall here, however, fubjoin the
par of exchange betwixt Britain and moft ©f the other
places ih Europe with which flie has any commercial
intercourfe.
Rome,
Naples,
Florence,
Milan,
Bologna,
Sicily,
Vienna,
Augiburgh,
Francfort,
Bremen,
JJreflau,
Sterling L.s. d.
6 i-
crown
ducat
crown
ducat
dollar
crown
rixdollar
florin
florin
rixdollar
rixdollar
3 44-
5 4t
4 7
4 3
5 °
4 8
3 if
3 o
3 6
3 3
Berlin,
Exchange.
Berlin,
Stetin,
Embden,
Bolfenna,
Dantzic,
Par in Sterling L. s. d.
rixdollar = 40
mark —
rixdollar =
rixdollar =
6
3 6
3 8
E X C [ 53 ] E X C
X. Exchange with Ireland.
At Dublin, and all over Ireland, books and accounts
are kept in pounds, {hillings, and pence, as in Britain;
and they exchange on the tool. Sterling.
The par of one {hilling Sterling is one {hilling and
one penny Irifh ; and fo the par of 100 1. Sterling is
ic81. 6 s. 8d. Irilh. The courfe of exchange runs
from 6 to 15 per cent.
The following places, viz. Switzerland, Nurem- Examp. 1. London remits to Dublin 5861. 10s.
burgh, Leipfic, Drefden, Oinaburgh, Brunfwic, Co- Sterling: How much Irifli money will that amount to,
logn, Leige, Straiburgh, Cracow, Denmark, Nor- exchange at 9I-per cent. ?
way, Riga, Revil, Narva, exchange with Britain,
Exchange.
13-J florins == 1 © o
Stockholm, 344- dollars'* =
Ruflia, 1 ruble
Turkey, 1 afper
o o
4 5
4 6
when direct exchange is made, upon the rixdollar, the
par being 4 s. 6 d. Sterling.
IX. Exchange with America and the Wejl Indies.
In North America and the Weft Indies, accounts,
as in Britain, are kept in pounds, {hillings, and pence.
In North America they have few coins circulating a-
mong therri, and on that account have been obliged to
fubftitute a paper-currency for a medium of their com¬
merce ; which having no intrinfic value, is fubje&ed to
many difadvantages, and generally fuffers a great dif-
count. In the Weft Indies coins are more frequent,
owing to their commercial intercourfe with the Spa-
nifli fettlements.
Exchange betwixt Britain and America, or the Weft
Indies, may be computed as in the following examples :
1. The neat proceeds of a cargo from Britain to
Bofton amount to 8451. 17s. 6d. currency: How
much is that in Sterling money, exchange at 80 per
If 100 : 109^ ;
800 : 877
L.
: 586.5
877
41055
41055
46920
800)514360.5
642.950625
Anf. 6421. 19 s. Irifli.
p. cent.
10 '= .
By pra&ice.
586.5
If
;8o :
18 :
9 ‘
100
10 L.
5 • ■ 845
•. d.
7 6
5
9t
9)4229 7 6
58.65
11.73 fifti.
46.92
5.865
2.9325
•733l25
56.450625 add.
L. 469 18 7f Ster. Anf.
2. Bofton remits to Britain a bill of 469 1. 18 s.
7y d. Sterling : How much currency was paid for the
bill at Bofton, exchange at 80 per cent. ?
If 100 : 180 L. s. d.
5 : 9 :: 469 18 7^-
9
5)4229 7 6
845 17 6 currency. Anf.
3. How much Sterling-money will 1780I. Jamaica
currency amount to, exchange at 40 per cent. ?
If 140 : 100
14 : 10 L.
7:5:: 1780
5
7)8900
1271 8. 6! Ster- ^nf-
Bills of exchange from America, the rate being high,
is an expenfive way of remitting money to Britain; and
therefore merchants in Britain generally choofe to
have the debts due to them remitted home in fugar,
rum, or other produce.
Sx
642.950625
2. How much Sterling will 625 1. Irilh amount to,
exchange at 1 o| per cent. ?
If 1 loi : 100 :: 62?
8 800
883 800 883)500000(566 5 o! Ster. Anf.
XL Exchange betwixt London and other places in
Britain.
The feveral towns in Britain exchange with Lon¬
don for a fmall premium in favour of London ; fuck
as, 1, t E, &c. per cent. ' The premium is more, or lefs,.
according to the demand for bills ?
Examp. Edinburgh draws on London for 860I. ex¬
change at i-| per cent.; How much money muft be paid;
at Edinburgh for the bill ?
L.
260
per cent.
11 166 premium.
J 871 16 6 paid for the bilj.
To,
E X C L J4 1 E X C
To avoid paying the premium, it is an ufual prac¬
tice to take the bill payable at London a certain num¬
ber of days after date ; and in this way of doing, 73
days is equivalent to 1 per cent.
XII. Arbitration of Exchanges.
The courfe of exchange betwixt nation and nation
naturally rifes or falls according as the circumftanCes
and balance of trade happen to vary. Now, to draw up¬
on-and remit to foreign places, in this flu&uating date
of exchange, in the way that will turn out moil profit¬
able, is the defign of arbitration. Which is either
fimple or compound.
I. Simple Arbitration.
In fimple arbitration the rates or prices of exchange
from one place to other two are given ; whereby is
found the correfpondent price between the faid two
places, called the arbitrated price, or par of arbitration :
and hence is derived a method of drawing and remit¬
ting to the bell advantage.
ExaSip. 1. If exchange from London to Amfter-
dambe 33 s. gd. per pound Sterling; and if exchange
from London to Paris be 32 d. per crown; what mull
be the rate of exchange from Amfterdam to Paris, in
order to be put on a par with the other two ?
Ster. Flem. Ster.
s. s. d. d.
If 20 : 33 9 : : 32
12 12
240 405
32
3. If exchange fromLondon to Paris be 33d. Sterling Exchange.
per crown, and to Amfterdam 405 d. Flemifhper pound —
Sterling ; and if, by advice from Holland to France,
the courfe of exchange between Paris and Amfterdam
is fallen to 52 d. Flemifli per crown if what may be
gained per cent, by drawing on Paris, and remitting to
Amfterdam ?
The par of arbitration between Paris and Amfter¬
dam in this cafe, by Ex. 1. is 54 d. Flemiih/er crown.
Work as under.
d. St. Cr. L.St. Cr.
If 32 : x :: 100 : 750 debit at Paris
Cr. d.Fl C. d.Fl.
If 1 : 52 :: 750 : 3yo<!Jo credit at Amfterdam.
d.Fl. L.St. d. FI. L. s. d.Ster.
If 405 : 1 39000 : 96 5 11^-to be remitted.
100
3 M 4
But if the courfe of exchange between Paris and
Amfterdam, inftead of falling below, rife above the
par of arbitration, fuppofe to 56 d. Flemifhcrown ;
in this cafe, if y ou propofe to gain by the negotiation,
you muft draw on Amfterdam, and remit to Paris.
The computation follows.
L.St. d.Fl. L.St. d.Fl.
If 1 : 405 too : 40500 debit at Amfterdam.
d.F/. Cr. d. F. Cr.
If 56 : 1 :: 40500 : 723^ credit at Paris.
Cr. d.Si. Cr. L. s. d. Ster.
If 1 : 32 723^ : 96 8 6^ to be remitted.
100
810
121£
240)12960(54 d. Flem. crown. Anf.
3 11 5 t gained per cent.
In negotiations of this fort, a fum for remittance is
afforded out of the fum you receive for the draught;
and your credit at the one foreign place pays your debt
at the other.
2. If exchange from Paris to London be 32d. Ster¬
ling crown ; and if exchange from Paris to Amfter-
dam be 54d. Flemifhcrown ; what muft be the rate
of exchange between London and Amfterdam, in order
to be on a par with the other two ?
Ster. Flem. Ster.
d. d. d.
If 32 : 54 ; ; 240
240
2x6
108
 12) r. d.
32)12960(405 (139 Flem.per 1. Ster. Anf.
From thefe operations it appears, that if any fum of
money be remitted, at the rates of exchange mention¬
ed, from ary one of the three places to the fecond, and
from the iecond to the third, and again from the third
to the fiift, the fum fortn itted will come home entire,
without increafe or diminution.
From the par of arbitration, thus found, and the
courfe of exe' .ivcn, is deduced a method of
drawing ai d leimtutig to advantage, as in the follow¬
ing example.
II. Compound Arbitration.
In compound arbitration the rate or price of ex¬
change between three, four, or more places, is given,
in order to find how much a remittance paffing through
them all will amount to at the laft place ; or to find
the arbitrated price, or par of arbitration, between the
firft place and the laft. And this may be done by the
following
Rules. I. Diilinguifh the given rates or prices in¬
to antecedents and confequents; place the antecedents
in one column, and the confequents in another on the
right, fronting one another by way of equation.
II. The firft antecedent, and the laft conlequent to
which an antecedent is required, muft always be of the
fame kind.
ill. The fecond antecedent muft be of the fame
kind with the firft confequent, and the third antece¬
dent of the fame kind with the fecond confequent, &c.
IV, If to any of the numbers a fradtion be annexed,
both the antecedent and its confequent muft be multi¬
plied into the denominator.
V. To facilitate the operation, terms that happen to
be equal or the fame in both columns, may be dropped
or rejedled, and other terms may be abridged.
4
VI.
E X G L 55 ] . E X C
VI. Malt!ply the antecedents continually for a divifor, from Venice to Hamburgh, at lood. Flemifli^r dacat Exchange.
and the confequents continually for a dividend, and the from Hambur;rh to Lilbon, at 5od. Flemifh per era-  y~-~>
quot will be the anfwer or antecedent required. fade of 400 rees ; and, laltly, from Lilbon to Lon-
„ Tr r j 1 c^v * don at 64d. Sterling per millree: How much Sterling
Examp. i. If °n remi I°00 ; r in^ ^ money will the remittance amount to? and how much
Spam, by way of Holland, at 35 s. Flemdh pound wiu be ;ned or faved f oli the direa exchange
Sterling; thence to France, at 58d. Flemifh ^ crown ; from H«Uandto London ^^3. ^ Flemilh^r pound
thence to Venice, at too crowns jder 00 ducats ; and J x r
thence to Spain, at 360 mervadies^er ducat; how many
piaftres, of 272 mervadies, will the isool Sterling a-
mount to in Spain ?
Jlntecedents, Confequents. Alridged.
1 1. Sterling — 35 s. or420d FI. i 1=210
58 d. Flemifh = 1 crown France 29= 1
l oocrownsFrance = 60 ducats Venice 1 = 30
1 ducat Venice = 360 mervadies.Spain 1= 45
272 mervadies = x piattre 17= 1
Howmanypiaftres =M0001. Sterling = xo
In order to abridge the terms, divide 58 and 420
by 2, and you have the new antecedent 19, and the
new consequent 210; rejedd two ciphers in 100 and
x000 divide 2~2 and 360 by 8, and you have 34
and 4.5 ; divide 34 and 60 by 2, and you have 17 and
30; and the whole will ftand abridged as above.
Then, 29 X 17 = 493 divifor; and 2 id X 30 X 45
X 10=2835000dividend ; and, 493)2835000(57504- li‘
piaftres. Anf
Or, the confequents may be conne&ed with the fign 44
of multiplication, and placed over a line by way of nu-
36s. xod. Flemifh^fir pound
Sterling ?
Antecedents. Confequents.
ybd. Flem. = 1 crown
loo crowns = 60 ducats.
1 ducat = 100 d. Flem.
50 d. Flem. = 400 rees.
1000 rees = 64d. Sterling.
How many d. Ster. = 400I. or qhoood. Flemifh?
This, in the fraflional form, will ftand as follows.
60X100X400X64X96000 _36;'>S40 and
65X100X50X1000 — 7
7)368640(5266246. Ster. = 219!. 8s. b^d. St. Anf.
To find how much the exchange from Amfterdara
dire&ly to London, 31363. 10 d. Flemiftiper 1. ,Ster-:
lina, will amount to, fay,
s. d. d. FI. L. St. d. FI. L. s. d.St.
36 10 If 442 : :: 96000 .' 217 3 io4-
12 219 8 6^
Gained or faved, 24 8^
In the above example, the par of arbitration, or the
merator; and the antecedents, connected in Yhe fame arbitrated price between London and Amfterdam, ^.
manner, may be placed under the line, by way of de- the °J f ^ ‘ St£rhng>
• ' , ,r . ., , mav he found thus :
nominator; and then abridged, as follows:
420X60X360X10 _2ioX6oX ,60X10
58X100X272 ~ 29X X272
_210X60X45X1 o_210X3 X45X10
29X34 T 29X17
_2835000,
_ 49 j
And, 493)2835000(57504 piaftres. Arif.
The placing the terms by way of antecedent and
confequent, and working as the rules direift, fave fo
many ftatings of the rale of three, and greatly fhortens
the operation. The proportions at large for the above
queftion would ftand as under.
i taught a
L. St. d.Fl.
If 1 : 420 ::
d. FI. Cr.
If 58
Cr.
If 100
Due.
If
Mer.
If 272
L. St.
Due.
60 !
Mer.
360 :
Plqft.
d. FI.
420000,
Cr.
724I'if
Due.
4344-rf,
Mer.
4^44w : 15^4,37lf.
420000 :
Cr.
724'4f =
Due.
Mer.
15^4237^
Piafi.
' S75°Hr
If we fuppofe the-courfe of direft exchange to Spain-
to be 4246. Sterling/er piaftre, the 100 I. remitted-
would only amount to 56474 piaftres; and, conse¬
quently, 103 pi,. «res are gained by the negpeiation ^
that is, about 2 per cent
1. A banker in Amfterdam remits to London 4001.’
Flemifti; Hrft - at j6d. Flemifh crown ;
from France to Venice, at ioq crowns per 60 ducats;
may be found thus :
Make 646 Sterling, the price of the millree, the
firft antecedent; then all the former confequents will
become antecedents, and all the antecedents will be
come confequents. Place 240, the pence in 11. Sterling* ,
as the laft confequent, and then proceed a
bove, vice,.
Antecedents. Confequents.
646. Ster. = 1000 rees.
400 rees = 506. Flem.
100d. Flem. = 1 ducat.
60 ducats = 100 crowns.
1 crown = 566. Flem.
Howmanyd.Flem. = 2406. Ster. ?
icooX5oXicoX56X24o_875 and
O4X400X100X60 2
2)875(4374d. — 36s. 546. Flem./«*1. Ster. Anf.
Or the arbitrated price may be found from the anfwes. r
to the queftion, by faying
d. Ster. d. Flem. d. St.
40 : 96000 :: 240
7
672000 ,
240
2688
1344.
 — d. s. d. Flem.
368640)161280000(4374 = 36 54as before.
The work may be proved by the arbitrated price thus s :
As il. Sterling to 36s. 546. Flemifh, fo 219I. 8s. 6fd '
Sterling to 400I. Flemifh.
Tb«.
If ^4
E X C [ 56 ] E X C
Exchange, Tlie arbitrated price compared with tbe direct courfe
-Exchequer. f[iOWS whether the direft or circular remittance will be
moft advantageous, and how much. Thus the banker
at Amfterdam will think it better exchange to receive
il. Sterling for 36s 5-'d. Flemifh, than for 36s. tod.
Flemifh.
Exchange fignifies alfo a place in molt confiderable
trading cities, wherein the merchants, negociants, a-
gents, bankers, brokers, interpreters, and other perfons
concerned in commerce, meet on certain days, and at
certain times thereof, to confer and treat together of
matters relating to exchanges, remittances, payments,
adventures, affurances, frieghtments, and other mercan¬
tile negociations, both by fea and land.
In Flanders, Holland, and feveral cities of France,
thefe places are called burfes; at Paris and Lyons, places
- de change; and in the Hanfe towns, colleges of merchants.
Thefe affemblies are held with fo much exa&nefs, and
merchants and negociants are fo indifpenfably required
to attend at them, that a petfon’s abfence alone makes
him be fufpefted of a failure or bankruptcy. The
moft confiderable exchanges in Europe, are that of
Amfterdam ; and that of London, called the Rgyal
Exchange.
Even in the time of the ancient Romans, there were
places for the merchants to meet, in moft of the confi¬
derable cities of the empire. That faid by fome to
have beCh built at Rome in the year of the city 259,
493 years before our Saviour, under the confulate of
Appius Claudius and Publius Servilius, was called col¬
legium mercatorum ; whereof it is pretended there are
Hill fome remains, called by the modern Romans
the lodge ; and now, ufually, the Place of St George.
This notion of a Roman exchange is fuppofed to be
founded on the authority of Livy, whofe words are as
■follow; viz. Cert amen confulibus incider at, liter dcdica*
ret Mcrcurii iede'm. Senalus a fe rem adpopulum rejecit c
utri eorum dedicatio jiiffu populi data effet, eum pracjfe an-
vonce, mercatorium collegium injlituere jujjit. Liv. lib. ii.
But it muft be here remarked, that collegium never fig-
nified a building for a fociety in the purer ages of the
Latin tongue; fo that collegium mercatorum injlituere muft
not be rendered to build an exchange for the merchants,
but to incorporate the mercharits into a company. As
Mercury was the God of traffick, this cedes Mercuri
feems to have been chiefly defigned for the devotions
of this company or corporation.
EXCHEQUER, in the Britifh jurifprudence, an
ancient court of record, in which all caufes concern¬
ing the revenues and rights of the crown are heard
and determined, and where the crown revenues are re¬
ceived. It took this name from the cloth that covered
the table of the court, which was party-coloured, or
chequered.
This court is faid to have been ere&ed by William
the Conqueror, its model being taken from a like court
eftablifhed in Normandy long before that time. An¬
ciently its authority was fo great, that it was held in
' the king’s palace, and the arts thereof were not to be
examined or controlled in any other of the king’s
courts ; but, at prefent, it is the laft of the four courts
at Weftminfter.
In the exchequer, fome reckon feven courts, viz.
thofe of pleas, accounts, receipts, exchequer-chamber
( which is an aflembly of all the judges on difficult mat-
N° 122, " *
ters in law), errors in the exchequer, errors in the Exchequer,
king’s bench, and, laftly, the court of equity in the ——r—
exchequer.
But the exchequer, for the difpatch of bufinefs, is
generally divided into two parts; one of which is chief¬
ly converfant in the judicial hearing and deciding of all
caufes relating to the king’s coffers, formerly termed
the exchequer of accounts : the other is called the receipt
of the exchequer, as being principally employed in re¬
ceiving and paying of money.
Officers of the receipt may take one penny in the
pound, as their fee for fums iffued out; and they are
obliged, without delay, to receive the money brought
thither ; and the money received is to be put into chefts
under three different locks and keys, kept by three fe¬
veral officers. All fheriffs, bailiffs, &c. are to account
in the exchequer ; and in the lower part, termed the
receipt, the debtors of the king, and perfons in debt to
them, the king’s tenants, and the officers and minifters
of the court, are privileged to fue one another, of any
ftranger, and to be fued in the like actions as are brought
in the courts of king’s bench and common-pleas.
The judicial part of the exchequer, is a court both
of law and equity. The court of law is held in the
office of pleas, according to the courfe of common
law, before the barons : in this court, the plaintiff
ought to be a debtor or accountant to the king ; and
the leading procefs is either a writ of fubpoena, or quo
minus, which laft goes into Wales, where no procefs
out of courts of law ought to run, except a capias utla-
gatum.
The court of equity is held in the exchequer cham¬
ber before the treafurer, chancellor, and barons ; but,
generally, before the barons only: the lord chief ba¬
ron being the chief judge to hear and determine all
caufes. The proceedings in this part of the exche¬
quer are by Engliih bill and anfwer, according to the
praftice of the court of chancery ; with this difference,
that the plaintiff here muft fet forth, that he is a debt¬
or to the king, whether he be fo or not. It is in this
court of equity that the clergy exhibit bills for the re¬
covery of their tythes, &c. Here too the attorney-
general exhibits bills for any matters concerning the
crown ; and a bill may be exhibited againft the king’s
attorney by any perfon aggrieved in any caufe profe-
cuted againft him on behalf df the king, to be relieved
therein t in which cafe, the plaintiff is to attend on the
attorney-general, with a copy of the bill, and procure
him to give in an anfwer thereto ; in the making of
which he may call in any perfon interefted in the caufe,
or any officer, or others, to inftrutt him, that the king
be not prejudiced thereby, and his anfwer is to be put
in without oath.
But, befides the bufinefs relating to debtors, farm¬
ers, receivers, accountants, &c. all penal punifti-
ments, intrufion, and forfeitures upon popular aftlons,
are matters likewife cognizable by this court; where
there alfo fits a puifne-baron, who adminifters the oaths
to high iheriffs, bailiffs, auditors, receivers, collectors,
comptrollers, furveyors, and fearchers of all the cu-
ftoms, &c.
The exchequer in Scotland has the fame privileges
and jurifdiftion as that of England; and all matters
competent to the one are likewife competent to the
other.
Elaci
Exchequer,
fixcife.
Slacljt.
Gvnment,
E X C [ 57 ] E X C
Black Book of the Exchequer, is a book under the
keeping of the two chamberlains of the exchequer;
faid to have been conapofed in 1175 by Gervais of
Tilbury, nephew of king Henry II. and divided into
feveral chapters. Herein is contained a defcription of
the court of England, as it then flood, its officers, their
ranks, privileges, wages, perquifites, power, and jurif-
didtion ; and the revenues of the crown, both in mo-
ney, grain, and cattle. Here we find, that for one
(hilling, as much bread might be bought as would ferve
i oc men a whole day; that the price of a fat bul¬
lock was only 12 (hillings, and a (heep four, &c.
Chancellor of the Exchequer. See Chancellor.
Exchequer-Bills. By ftatute 5 Ann c. 13. the lord-
treafurers may caufe exchequer-bills to be made of
any fums not exceeding 1,500,000 1. for the ufe of the
war ; and the duties upon houfes were made charge¬
able with 4 1. 10 s. per cent, per annum to the bank
for circulating them. The bank not paying the bills,
adlions to be brought againft the company, and the
money and damages recovered: and if any exchequer-
bills be loft, upon affidavit of it before a baron of the
exchequer, and certificate from fuch baron, and fecu-
rity to pay the fame if found, duplicates are to be made
out: alfo when bills are defaced, new ones (hall be de¬
livered. The king, or his officers in the exchequer,
by former ftatutes, might borrow money upon the cre¬
dit of bills, payable on demand, with intereft after the
rate of 3d. per diem for every tool. bill. And by
8 & 9 W. 3. c. 20. an intereft of yd. a-day was allow¬
ed for every 100I. But 12 W. 3. c. 1. lowered the in¬
tereft on thefe bills to 4d. a-day per cent. And by 12
Ann. c. 11. it is funk to 2d. a-day.—Forging exche¬
quer bills, or the indorfements thereof, is felony.
EXCISE, (from the Belgic accuffe, tributum,
“ tribute),” an inland duty or impofition, paid fome-
times upon the confumption of the commodity, or fre¬
quently upon the wholefale, which is the laft ftage
before the confumption. This is doubtlefs, impartial¬
ly fpeaking, the moft ceconomical way of taxing the
fubjedt; the charges of levying, colledling, and ma-
naging the excife-duties, being confiderably lefs in
proportion than in other branches of the revenue. It
alfo renders the commodity cheaper to the confumer,
than charging it with cuftoms to the fame amount
would do ; for the reafon juft now given, becaufe ge¬
nerally paid in a much later ftage of it. But, at the
fame time, the rigour and arbitrary proceedings of ex-
cife-laws feem hardly compatible with the temper of a
free nation. For the frauds that might be committed
in this branch of the revenue, unlefs a drift watch is
kept, make it neceffary, wherever it is eftablilhed, to
ive the officers a power of entering and fearching the
oufes of fuch as deal in excifeable commodities, at any
hour of the day, and, in many cafes, of the night like-
wife. And the proceedings, in cafe of tranfgreffions,
are fo fummary and fudden, that a man may be con-
vifted in two days time in the penalty of many thou-
fand pounds, by two commiffioners or juftices of the
peace ; to the total exclufion of the trial by jury, and
difregard of the common law. For which reafon, tho’
lord Clarendon tells us, that to his knowledge the earl
of Bedford (who was made lord treafurer by king
Charles I. to oblige his parliament) intended to have
fet up the excife in England, yet-it never made a part
Vol.VII. Parti.
of that unfortunate prince’s revenue; being firft intro- ExciSr,
duced, on the model of the Dutch prototype, by the
parliament itfelf after its rupture with the crown. Yet
fuch was the opinion of its general unpopularity, that
when in 1642 “ afperfions were caft by malignant per-
fons upon the houfe of commons, that they intended to
introduce excifes, the houfe for its vindication therein
did declare, that thefe rumours were falfe and fcanda-
lous, and that their authors (hould be apprehended and
brought to condign puniffiment/’ Its original efta-
blilhment was in 1643, and its progrefs was gradual;
being at firft laid upon thofe perfons and commodities
where it was fuppofed the hardfttip would be lead per¬
ceivable, viz. the makers and venders of beer, ale, cy¬
der, and perry ; and the royalifts at Oxford foon fol -
lowed the example of their brethren at Weftminfter, by
impofing a fimilar duty : both fides protefting, that it
(hould be continued no longer than to the end of the
war, and then be utterly abolilhed. But the parlia¬
ment at Weftminfter foon after impofed it on flefti,
wine, tobacco, fugar, and fuch a multitude of other
commodities, that it might be fairly denominated gene¬
ral : in purfuance of the plan laid down by Mr Pymme
( who feems to have been the father of the excife), in his
letter to Sir John Hotham, fignifying, “ that they
had proceeded in the excife to many particulars, and
intended to go on farther; but that it would be ne-
ceflary to ufe the people to it by little and little.” And
afterwards, when the nation had been accuftomed to it
for a feries of years, the fucceeding champions of li¬
berty boldly and openly declared “ the impoft of ex¬
cife to be the moft eafy and indifferent levy that could
be laid upon the people;” and accordingly continued
it during the whole ufurpation. Upon king Charles’s
return, it having then been long eftabliftied and its
produce well known, fome part of it was given to the
crown, in 12 Car. II. by way of purchafe for the feudal
tenures and other oppreffive parts of the hereditary reve¬
nue. But, from its firft original to the prefent time, it*
very name has been odious to the people. It has, never-
thelefs, been impofed on abundance of other commodities
in the reigns of king William III. and every fucceeding
prince, to fupport the enormous expences occafioned
by our wars on the continent. Thus brandies and o-
ther fpirits are now excifed at the diftillery; printed
filks and linens, at the printer’s; (larch and hair pow¬
der, at the maker’s; gold and filver wire, at the
wiredrawer’s; all plate whatfoever, firft in the hands
of the vender, who pays yearly for a licence to fell it,
and afterwards in the hands of the occupier, who alfo
pays*an annual duty for having it in his cuftody ; and
coaches and other wheel-carriages, for which the occu¬
pier is excifed; tho’ not with the fame circumftances of
arbitrary ftriftnefs with regard to plate and coaches as
in the other inftances. To thefe we may add coffee
and tea, chocolate and cocoa pafte, for which the du¬
ty is paid by the retailer; all artificial wines, common¬
ly called fweets; paper and pafteboard, firll when
made, and again if (lained or printed; malt, as before-
mentioned; vinegars; and the manufafture of glafs;
for all which the duty is paid by the manufafturer;
hops, for which the perfon that gathers them is an-
fwerable ; candles and foap, which are paid for at the
maker’s ; malt liquors brewed for fale, which are ex¬
cifed at the brewery; cyder and perry at the ven-
H der’sj
E X C L 58 J E X C
Excifion der’s ; leather and fkiug, at the tanner’s; and, lately,
Exco c ia to^acco» at l^e manufafilurer’s: A lift, which no
, xco<-cma- fvJenll to his country would wifti to fee farther in-
creafed.
The excife was formerly farmed out; but is now
managed for the king by commiffioners in both king¬
doms, who receive the whole product of the excife,
and pay it into the exchequer. Thefe commiffioners
are nine in number in England, and five in Scotland.
The former have a falary of 1000 1. a-year, the latter
600 1. They are obliged by oath to take no fee or re¬
ward but from the king himfelf; and from them there
lies an appeal to five other commiffioners called commif-
Jioners of appeals.
EXCISION, in furgery, the cutting out, or cutting
off, any part of the body.
Excision, in a fcripture fenfe, means the cutting off
of a perfon from his people, by way of punilhment for
fome fin by him committed. The Jews, Selden in¬
forms us, reckon up 36 crimes, to which they pretend
this punifhment is due. The Rabbins reckon three
kinds of excifion ; one, which deftroys only the body ;
another, which deftroys the foul only ; and a third,
w hich deftroys both body and foul. The firft kind of
excifion they pretend is an untimely death ; the fecond
is an utter extinfition of the foul; and the third, a
compound of the two former : thus, making the foul
mortal or immortal, fays Selden, according to the de¬
grees of mifbehaviour and wickednefs of the people.
EXCLAMATION. See Oratory, no 85.
EXCLUSION, or Bill of Exclusion, a bill pro-
pofed about the clofe of the reign of king Charles II.
for excluding the duke of York, the king’s brother,
from the throne, on account of his being a Papift.
EXCLUSIVE, is fometimes ufed adjeftively, thus;
Si patent carries with it an exclufve privilege. Some¬
times adverbially : as, He fent him all the numbers from
n 145 to n° 247 exchfve; that is, all between thefe two
numbers, which themfelves were excepted.
EXCOECARIA, in botany : A genus of the tri-
andria order, belonging to the dioecia clafs of plants ;
and in the natural method ranking under the 3 8th
order, Tricocae. The male amentum is naked ; there
is no calyx nor corolla; there are three ftyles, and a
tric -cous capfule. There is but one fpecies, the agal-
locha, or aloes-wood, a native of China and fome of
the Indian iflands, is about the fame height and form
as the olive tree. Its trunk is of three colours, and
contains three forts of wood: the heart is that of tam-
bac or calombac, which is dearer in the Indies than
even gold itfelf. It ferves to perfume cloaths and a-
partments ; and is efteemed a fovereign cordial in faint¬
ing fits, a reftorative in the palfy, and a cure for afca-
rides in children. It is burnt as incenfe in the Chinefe
and Indian temples; and ifls alfo ufed to fet the moft
precious jewels that are worked in the Indies. -
The aloes-wood is very highly valued ; and ftrange
fables were invented as to the origin of the tree that
yields' it; fome pretending that it grew in Paradife, and
was pnly conveyed to us by means of the rivers over¬
flowing their banks and fweeping off the trees in their
way ; others affirming that it grew on inacceffible
mountains, where it was guarded by'certain wild beafts,
The Siamefe ambafiadots to the court of France
m 1686, who brought a prefent of this wqod from
their emperor, firft gave the Europeans any confifteni Excormrvu-
account of it. See Xxlo-Aloes. meat ion.
EXCOMMUNICATION, an ecclefiaftical penal-  ’ ^
ty or cenfure, whereby fuch perfons as are guilty of
any notorious crime or offence, are feparated from the
communion of the church, and deprived of all fpiritual
advantages.
.Excommunication is founded on a natural right
which all focieties have, of excluding out of their bedy
fuch as violate the laws thereof; and it was originally
inftituted for preferving the purity of the church ; but
ambitious ecckfiaftics converted it by degrees into an
engine for promoting their own power, and infiidted it
on the moft frivolous occafions.
The power of excommunication, as well as other
afts of ecclefiaftical difeipline, was lodged in the hands
of the clergy, who diftinguifhed it into the.greater and
leJJ'er. The lefferexcommunication, limply called aphorif-
mos, “feparation or fufpenfion”, confifted in excluding-
men from the participation of the eucharift, and the
prayers of the faithful. But they were not expelled
the church ; for they had the privilege of being pre¬
fent at the reading of the Scriptures, the fermons, and
the prayers of the catechumens and penitents. Tin's
excommunication was infli&ed for leffer ciimes; fuch
as negle&ing to attend the fervice of the church, mif¬
behaviour in it, and the like.
The greater excommunication, called panicles apho-
rifmos, “ total feparation and anathema”, confifted in an
abfolute and entire exclusion from the church and the
participation of all its rites. When any perfon was
thus excommunicated, notice was given of it by circu¬
lar letters to the moft eminent churches all over the
world, that they might all confirm this aft of difeipline,
by refufing to admit the delinquent to their commu¬
nion. The confequences of this latter excommunication
were very terrible. The excommunicated perfon was
avoided in civil commerce and outward converfation.
No one was to receive him into his houfe, nor eat at
the fame table with him ; and when dead, he was de¬
nied the foltmn rites of burial.
The Romifh pontifical takes notice of three kinds of:
excommunication, 1. The minor, incurred by thofe
who have any correfpondence with an excommunica¬
ted perfon. 2. The major, which falls upon thofe who
difobey the commands of the holy fee, or refufe to fub-
mit to certain points of difeipline; in confequence of
which they are excluded from the church militant and
triumphant, and delivered over to the devil and his an¬
gels. 3. Anathema, which is properly that pronoun¬
ced by the popeagainft heretical princes and countries.
In former ages, thefe papal fulminations were moft
terrible things ; but at prefent, they are formidable to
none but a few petty ftates of Italy.
Excommunication, in the Greek church, cuts off the
offender from all communion with the 318 fathers oft
the firft council of Nice, and with the faints ; configns .
him over to the devil and the traitor Judas; and con¬
demns his body to remain after death as hard as a flint
or piece of fteel, unlefs he humbles himfelf and makes
atonement for his fins by a fincere repentance. The
form abounds with dreadful imprecations; and the
Greeks affert, that if a perfon dies excommunicated,
the devil enters into the lifelefs corpfe ; and therefore,
in order to prevent it, the relations of the deceafed cut
E X C [ 59 1 E X C
Ixconimu- hla body in pieces, and boil them in wine. It is a cu-
^mcauon. {^om for the patriarch of Jgrufalem annually to excom-
- ' municate the pope and the church of Rome ; on which
occafibn, together wdth a great deal of idle ceremony,
he drives a nail into the ground with a hammer, as a
mark of maledi&ion.
The form of excommunication in the church of Eng¬
land anciently ran thus: “ By the authority of God
the Father Almighty, the Son and Holy Ghoft, and
of Mary the bleffed mother of God, we excommuni¬
cate, anathematize, and fequefter from the pale of ho¬
ly mother church, &c.” The caufes of excommuni¬
cation in England are, contempt of the bifhop’s court,
herefy, negledb of public worlhip and the facraments,
incontinency, adultery, iimony, &c. It is defcribed to
be twofold. The lefs is an eccleiiaftical cenfure, ex¬
cluding the party from the participation of the facra¬
ments : the greater proceeds farther, and excludes him
not only from thefe, but from the company of all Chri-
ftians. But if the judge of any fpiritual court excom¬
municates a man for a caufe of which he hath not the
legal cognizance, the party may have an a&ion againft
him at common law, and he is alfo liable to be indifted
at the fuit of the king.
Heavy as the penalty of excommunication is, confi-
dered in a ferious light, there are, notwith(landing,
many obllinate or profligate men, who would defpife
the brutum fulmen of mere ecclefiaftical cenfures, efpe-
cialiy when pronounced by a petty furrogate in the
country, for railing or contumelious words, for non¬
payment of fees or cods, or ether trivial caufe. The
common law, therefore, compaflionately fteps in to
their aid, and kindly lends a fupporting hand to an
otherwife tottering authority. Imitating herein the
policy of the ancient Britons, among whom, according
to Cefar, whoever were interdidled by the druids from
their facrifices, “ In numero impiorum ac fceleratorum
habentur : ab iis omnes decedunt, aditum eorum fermo-
nemque defugiunt, ne quid ex contagione incommodi
accipiant: neque iis petentibus jus redditur, neque ho-
nos ullus communicatur.” And fo with us, by the com¬
mon law, an excommunicated perfon is difabled to do
any aft that is required to be done by one that is probtis
et legalis homo. He cannot ferve upon juries; cannot be
a witnefs in any court; and, which is the word of all,
cannot bring an aftion, either real or perfonal, to reco¬
ver lands or money due to him. Nor is this the whole :
for if, within 40 days after the fentence has been pub-
lifhed in the church, the offender does not fubmit and
abide by the fentence of the fpiritual court, the bifliop
may certify fuch contempt to the king in chancery.
Upon which there iffues out a writ to the (heriff of the
county, called from the bifliop's certificate aftgnifica-
•vit; or from its effeft, a writ de excommunicato capi¬
endo : and the flier iff (hall thereupon take the offen¬
der and imprifon him in the county jail, till he is re¬
conciled to the church, and fuch reconciliation certifi¬
ed by the bifliop ; upon which another writ de excom¬
municato deliberando, iffues out of chancery to deliver
and releafe him.
Excommunication was alfo praftifed among the
Jews, who ufed ro expel from their fynagogue fuch as
had committed any grievous crime. See the Gofpel
according to St John, ix. 22. xii. 42. xvi. 2. And
Jofeph. Antiq. Jud.lib. ix. cap. 22. and fib. xvi. cap. 2.
Godwyn, in his Mofes and Aaron, didinguiflies three Exrcmmu-
degrees, or kinds, of excommunication among the nication
Jews. The fird he finds intimated in John ix. 22. The,. M
fecond in 1 Cor. v. 5. And the third in xCor. xvi. 22. ‘jXcr^men •
See Niddui. j
The rule of the Benediftines gives the name excom¬
munication to the being excluded from the oratory, and
the common table of the houfe, in our inns of court
called difeommoning. This was the punifliment of fuch
monks as came too late.
Excommunication, or a being fecluded from a
participation in the myderies of religion, wras alfo in
ufe under paganifm.
Such as were thus excommunicated were forbidden to
afiid or attend at the facrifices, or to enter within the
temples; and were afterwards delivered over to the
demons and furies of hell, with certain imprecations 5
which was called among the Romans diris devovere.
See Execration.
The Druids among the ancient Britons and Gauls*
likewife, made ufe of excommunication againd rebels;
and interdifted the communion of their myderies to
fuch as refufed to acquiefce in their decifions. See
Druids.
EXCORIATION, in medicine and furgery, the
galling, or rubbing off of the cuticle, efpecially of the
parts between the thighs and about the anus. In adults,
it is occafioned by riding, much walking, or other ve¬
hement exercife, and may be cured by vulnerary ap¬
plications. In children there is often an excoriation,
not only of the parts near the pudenda, chiefly of the
groin and ferotum, but likewife in the wrinkles of the
neck, under the arms, and in other places; proceeding
from the acrimony of urine and fweat; and occafioning
itching pains, crying, watching, redleffnefs, &c. To
remedy this, the parts affefted may be often waflied
with warm water, and fprinkled with drying powders,
as chalk, hartlhorn, but efpecially tutty, lapis calami-
naris, and cerufs, which may be tied loofely in a rag,
and the powder (hook out on the parts.
EXCREMENT, whatever is difeharged out of the
body of animals after digeftion ; or the fibrous part of
the aliment, mixed with the bile, faliva, and other fluids.
Urine and the feces are the grofs excrements that are
difeharged out of the bladder or belly. Other excre¬
ments are the various humours that are fecreted from
the blood through the different drainers in the body,
and which ferve for feveral ufes; fuch as the faliva,
fweat, bile, the pancreatic juice, lymph, the femen,
nails, the hair, the horns and hoofs of animals.
Alchemifts, who have fought every where for their
great work, as they called it, have particularly operar
ted much on the excrements of men and other animals;
but philofophical chemiftry has acquired no know¬
ledge from all thefe alchemical labours, from the ob-
feurity with which their authors have defcribed them.
The philofophic chemifts have not much examined ani¬
mal excrements. Of thefe, Homberg is the only one
who has particularly anaiyfed and examined human
ordure ; and this was done to fatisfy an alchemical
project of one of his friends, who pretended that front
this matter a white oil could be obtained, without
fmell, and capable of fixing mercury into filver. The
oil was found by Homberg, but mercury was not fix¬
ed by it.
H 2
The
E X C f 60 1 E X C
JExcrefc«nce The labours of this able chemift; were not, however,
II ufelefs, like thofe of the alchemifts; becaufe he has
_ExculL)i3t- clearly related the experiments he made on this matter,
V“' v in the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences. Thefe
experiments are curious, and teacil feveral effential
things concerning the nature of excrements. The re-
fult of thefe experiments is as follows : Freflt human
feces, being diftilled to drynefs in a water bath, furniih
a clear, watery, infipid liquor, of a difagreeable fmell,
but which contains no volatile alkali; which is a proof
that this matter, although nearly in a putrefaftive
ftate, is not however putrefied; for all fubltances real¬
ly putrid furnifh with this degree of heat a manifeft
• See Pu- volatile alkali*. The dry refiduum of the foregoing
trefaman. experiment, being di it filed in a retort with a gradua¬
ted fire, furniihes a volatile alkaline fpirit and fait, a
fetid oil, and leaves a refiduous coal. Thefe are the
fame fubftances which are obtained from all animal
matters.
Human feces, diluted and lixiviated in water, fur-
nifti by filtration and evaporation of the water an oily
fait of a nitrous nature, which deflagrates like nitre
upon ardent coals, and which inflames in clofe veflels
when heated to a certain degree. This fame matter
yielded to Homberg, who treated it by a complete
fermentation or putrefa&ion, excited by a digeftion
during 40 days in a gentle water-bath heat, and who
afterwards diftilled it, an oil without colour, and with¬
out bad fmell, and fuch as he endeavoured to find;
but which did not, as we faid before, fix mercury into
filver.
EXCRESCENCE, in furgery, denotes every pre¬
ternatural tumour which arifes upon the fkin, either in
the form of a wart or tubercle. If they are born with
a perfon, as they frequently are, they are called navi
materni, or marks from the mother ; but if the tu¬
mour is large, fo as to depend from the fkin, like a
fleftiy mafs, it is then called a farcoma. See Surgery.
EXCRETION, or Secretion, in medicine, a fe-
paration of fame fluid, mixed with the blood, by means
of the glands. Excretions, by which we mean thofe
that evacuate fuperfluous and heterogeneous humours,
purify the mafs of blood : the humours-which are ge¬
nerated in the blood are excreted by the glands, and
are replaced by a fufficient quantity of aliment.
EXCRETORY, in anatomy, a term applied to
certain little dufts or veffels,. deftined for the recep¬
tion of a fluid, fecreted in. certain glandules, and other
vifeera, for the excretion of it in the appropriated
places.
EXCUBIiE, in antiquity, the watches and guards
kept in the day by the Roman foldiers. They are
contradiftinguiftied from the vigilia which were kept
in the night. The exculia were placed eithef at the
gates and entrenchments or in the camp ; for the lat¬
ter there was allowed a whole manipulus to attend be¬
fore the pratorium, and four foldiers to the tent of
every tribune. The excubia at the gates of the camp,
and at the entrenchments, were properly cdMz& jlationes.
One company of foot and one troop of horfe were af-
figned to each of the four gates every day. To de-
fert their poll, or abandon their corps of guards, was
aa unpardonable crime.
The triarii, as the molt honourable order of foldiers,
were excufed from the ordinary watches; yet being Exculpa-
placed oppofite to the equites, they were obliged to have t,l1>n
an eye over them. Execution
Letters of EXCULPATION, in Scots law, a - --ft
writ or fummons iffued by authority of the court of
jufticiary, at the inftance of a pannel, for citing wit-
neffes to prove his defences, or his obje&ions to any of
the jury or witnelfes cited againft him.
EXCUSATI, in church hiftory, a term ufed to de¬
note flaves, who flying to any church for fanftuary,
were excufed and pardoned by their mafters; but thefe
were obliged to take an oath to that purpofe before
they could have them again ; and, if they broke the
oath, they were puniftied and fined as perfons guilty
of perjury.
EXEAT, in church-difcipline, a Latin term, ufed
for a permilfion which « bifhop grants a prieft to go
out of his diocefe ; or an abbot to a religious to go
out of his monaftery.
The word is alfo ufed in feveral great fchools for
leave given a fcholar or ftudent to go out. His mafter
has given him an exeat.
EXECRATION, in antiquity, a kind of punifti-
ment, confifting of direful curfes and marks of infamy:
fuch was that ufed againft Philip king of Macedon
by the Athenians. A general affembly of the people
being called, they made a decree, that all the ftatues
and images of that king, and of all his anceftors, fhould
be demoliftred, and their very name razed ; that all
the feftivals, facred rites, priefts, and whatever elfe had
been inftituted in honour of him, fhould be profaned;
that the very places where there had been any monu¬
ment or infeription to his honour, fhould be deteftable;
that nothing fhould be fet up, or dedicated in them,
which could be done in clean places; and, laftly, that
the priefts, as often as they prayed for the Athenian
people, allies, armies, and fleets,. fhould as many times
deleft and execrate Philip, his children, kingdom, land
and fea forces, and the whole race and name of the
Macedonians.
At the taking and demolifhing of cities, it was
ufual amongft the Jews, Greeks, and Romans, to pro¬
nounce curfes upon, and load with direful execrations,
the rebuilders of them.
EXECUTION, in a general fenfe, the aft of acr
complifhing, finifhing, oratchieving anything.
Execution, in- law, the completing or finifhing
feme aft, as ofjudgment, deed, &c. and it ufually fig-
nifies the obtaining poffeffion of anything recovered,
by judgment of law.
Sir Edward Coke obferves, that there are two forts
of executions: the one final; and the other a quoufque,.
that tends to an end. An execution final, is that which
makes money of the defendant’s goods; or extends to
his- lands, and delivers them to the plaintiff, who ac¬
cepts the fame in fatisfaftion ; and this is the end of
the fuit, and the whole.that the king’s writ requires to
be done. The writ of execution with a quoufque, tha’
it tends to an end, yet is not final, as in the cafe of a
capias adfathfac. where the defendant’s body is to be
taken, in order that the plaintiff may be fatisfied for
his debt. See Capias.
Executions are either in perfonal, real, or mixed ac¬
tions. In a perfonal action, the. execution may be made
three
EXE [ 61 ] E X E
Execution, three ways, vl%. by the writ of capias ad fatisfaciendum,
 againft the body of the defendant; Jieri facias, again ft
his goods ; or elegit, againft his lands. See Fieni Facias
and Elegit.
In areal and mixed a&ion, the execution is by writ
• See Ha- of habere facias faftnam, and habere pojfejfimcm* Writs
iere. of execution bind the property of goods only from the
time of delivery of the writ to the fheriff; but the
land is bound from the day of the judgment obtained:
and here the fale of any goods for valuable confidera-
tion, after a judgment, and before the execution award¬
ed, will be good. It is otherwife as to lands, of which
execution may be made, even on a purchafe after the
judgment, though the defendant fell fuch land before
execution. Likewife, iheriffs may deliver in execution
all the lands whereof others fhall be feifed in trail for
him, againft whom execution is had on a judgment, &c.
When any judgment is figned, the execution may
be taken out immediately thereon ; but if it be not if-
fued within a year and a day after, where there is no
fault in the defendant, as in the cafe of an injunftion,
writ of error, &c. there muft be a fcire facias, to re¬
vive the judgment; though, if the plaintiff fues out
any writ of execution within the year, he may continue
it after the year is expired. After judgment againft
the defendant, in'an aCiion wherein fpecial bail is given,
the plaintiff is at liberty to have execution againft fuch
defendant, or againft his bail : but this is underftood
where the defendant does not render himfelf, accord¬
ing to law, in fafeguard of the bail: and execution
may not regularly be fued forth againft a bail, till a
default is returned againft the principal: alfo if the
plaintiff takes the bail, he (hall never take the principal.
It is held that an execution may be executed after the
death of the defendant: for his executor, being privy
thereto, is liable as well as the teftator. The execu¬
tor is an entire thing, fo that he who begins muft end
it: therefore, a new Iheriff may diftrain an old one, to
fell the goods feized on a diftringas, and to bring the
money into court.
^ „ Execution, in criminal cafes, the completion of
mtnt. ^ human puniihment. This follows judgment-f-; and
muft in all cafes, capital as well as otherwife, be per¬
formed by the legal officer, the fheriff or his deputy ;
whofe warrant for fo doing was anciently by precept
under the hand and feal of the judge, as it is ftill prac-
tifed in the court of the lord high fteward, upon the
execution of a peer: though, in the court of the peers
Hlaclft. in parliament, it is done by writ from the king. Af-
Comment. terwards it was eftablifhed, that in cafe of life, the
judge may command execution to be done without any
writ. And now the ufage is, for the judge to fign the
kalendar or lift of all the prifoners names, with their
feparate judgments in the margin, which is left with
the fheriff. As, for a capital felony, it is written op-
pofite to the prifoner’s name, “ let him be hanged by
the neck formerly, in the days of Latin and abbre¬
viation, “ fuf. per coll.” for ffpendatur per collum”
And this is the only warrant that the fheriff has for
fo material an a<ft as taking away the life of another.
It may certainly afford matter of fpeculation, that in
civil caufes there fhould be fuch a variety of writs of
execution to recover a trifling debt, iffued in the king’s
name, and under the feal of the court, without which
the. fheriff cannot legally ftir oneitep ; and yet that the
execution of a man, the moft important and terrible Execution,
talk of any, fhould depend upon a marginal note.
The fheriff, upon receipt of his warrant, is to do
execution within a convenient time; which in the coun¬
try is alfo left at large. In London, indeed, a more fo-
lemn and becoming exadlnefs is ufed, both as to the
warrant of execution and the time of executing there¬
of : for the recorder, after reporting to the king in
perfon the cafe of the feveral prifoners, and receiving
his royal pleafure, that the law muft take its courfe,
iffues his warrant to the fheriffs, diredling them to do
execution on the day and at the place affigned. And
in the court of king’s bench, if the prifoner be tried
at the bar, or brought there by habeas corpus, a rule
is made for his execution; either fpecifying the time
and place, or leaving it to the difcretion of the fheriff.
And, throughout the kingdom, by ftatute 25 Geo. II. <
c. 37. it is enabled that, in cafe of murder, the judge
fhall in his fentencc diredl execution to be performed
on the next day but one after fentence pafled. But,
otherwife, the time and place of execution are by la w-
no part of the judgment. It has been well obferved,
that it is of great importance that the punifhment
fhould follow the crime as early as poffible ; that the
profpedl of gratification or advantage, which tempts a
man to commit the crime, fhould inftantly awake the
attendant idea of punifhment. Delay of execution
ferves only to feparate thefe ideas; and then the exe¬
cution itfelf affedls the minds of the fpettators rather
as a terrible fight, than as the neceffary confequence
of tranfgreffion.
The fheriff cannot alter the manner of the execution,
by fubftituting one death for another, without being
guilty of felony himfelf. It is held alfo by Sir Ed¬
ward Coke and Sir Matthew Hale, that even the king
cannot change the punifhment of the law, by altering
the hanging or burning into beheading; though, when
beheading is part of the fentence, the king may remit
the reft. And, notwithftanding fome examples to the
contrary, Sir Edward Coke ftoutly maintains, that
judicandum ejl legibus, non exemplis. But others have
thought, and more juftly, that this prerogative, being
founded in mercy, and immemorially exercifed by the
crown, is part of the common law. For hitherto, in
every inftance, all thefe exchanges have been for move
merciful kinds of death; and how far this may alfo
fall within the king’s power of granting conditional
pardons (vi%. by remitting a fevere kind of death, 011
condition that the criminal fubmits to a milder) is a
matter that may bear confideration. It is obfervable,
that when Lord Stafford was executed for the popifh
plot in the reign of King’Charles II. the then fheriffs .
of London, having received the king’s writ for be¬
heading him, petitioned the Houfe of Lords, for a
command or order from their lordfhips, how the faid
judgment fhould be executed: for, he being profecuted-
by impeachment, they entertained a notion (which is ■
faid to have been countenanced by Lord Ruffel), that
the king could not pardon any part of the fentence.
The lords refolved, that the fcruples of the fheriffs
were unneceffary; and declared, that the king’s writ
ought to be obeyed. Difappointed of raifing a flame
in that affembly, they immediatelyfignified totheHoufe
of Commons by one of the members, that they were not
fatisfied as to the power of the faid writ. That houfe
1. took •:
EXE I 62 ] EXE
Execution took two days to confider of it; and then fullenly re- for inch buildings as were diltincf from the main body Exegefi*
Exedrce ^vec^> t^at the houfe was content that the fheriff do of the churches, and yet within the limits of the church xercife_
■ 1-^'"*' execute Lord Stafford by fevering his head from his taken in its largeft fenfe. Among the exedrse the chief
l‘" t body. It is farther related, that when afterwards the was the Baptistery.
fame Lord Ruffe! was condemned for high treafon up- EXEGESIS, a difcourfe by way of explanation or
on indi&ment, the king, while he remitted the igno- comment upon any fubjeft. In the Scotch univerfi-
minious part of the fentence, obferved, “that his ties, there is an exercife among the fludents in divinity,
Lordfhip would now find he was poffeffed of that pre- called an exegefo, in which a queftion is ftated by the
rogative, which in the cafe of Lord Stafford he had refpondent, who is then oppofed by two or three o-
denied him.” One can hardly determine (at this di- ther ftudents in their turns; during which time the
fiance from thofe turbulent times), which moft to dif- profeffor moderates, and folves the difficulties which
approve of, the indecent and fanguinary zeal of the the refpondent cannot overcome.
fubjedt, or the cool and cruel farcafm of the fovereign. EXEGETES, (formed of tl«yto^ai “ X explain,”)
To conclude: it is clear, that if, upon judgment to among the Athenians, per^gns learned in the laws,
be hanged by the neck till he is dead, the criminal be whom the judges ufed to confult in capital caufes.
not thoroughly killed, but revives, the fheriff mull EXEGETICA, in algebra, the art of finding, ei-
hang him again. For the former hanging was no ex- ther in numbers or lines, the roots of the equation of a
ecution of the fentence; and, if a falfe tendernefs were problem, according as the problem is either numerical
to be indulged in fuch cafes, a multitude of collufions or geometrical.
might enfue. Nay, even while abjurations were in EXEMPLAR, a model, or original, to be imita-
force, fuch a criminal, fo reviving, was not allowed to ted, or copied. See Model.
take fan&uary and abjure the realm; but his fleeing to Exemplar alfo denotes the idea, or image, concei-
fan&uary was held an efcape in the officer. ved or formed in the mind of the artift, whereby he
Execution, in the law of Scotland. See Law, condutts his work. Such is the idea of Crefar, which
Part III. n° clxxxv. 52. clxxxvi. 15. a painter has in his mind when he goes to make a pic-
Execution, in the French mufic, is ufed to de- ture of Caefar.
note the manner of iinging, or of the performance of EXEMPLIFICATION of letters Patent, denotes
a fong. “ As to the manner of finging, called in an exampler, or copy of letters patent, made from
France execution, no nation may, with any probabi- the inrolment thereof, and fealed with the great feal
lity, difpute it with the French. If the French, of England. Such exemplifications are as effedlual to
by their commerce with the Italians, have gained a be Ihowed, or pleaded, as the letters patent themfelves.
bolder compolition, the Italians have made their ad- EXEMPTION, in law, a privilege to be free from
vantage of the French, in learning of them a more feme fervice or appearance: thus, barons and peers of
polite, moving, and exquifite execution.” St Evre- the realm are, on account of their dignity, exempted
mond. from being fworn upon inquefts ; and knights, clergy-
EXECUTIVE power. The fupreme executive men, and others, from appearing at the (heriff’s turn,
power of thefe kingdoms is veiled by our laws in a Perfons of 70 years of age, apothecaries, &c. are alfo
Angle perfon, the king or queen for the time being, by law exempted from ferving on juries; and juftices of
See the article King. the peace, attorneys, &c. from parilh-offices.
The executive power, in this Hate, hath a right to EXERCISE, among phyiicians, fuch an agitation
a negative in parliament, i. e. to refufe affent to any of the body as produces falutary effedls in the animal
afts offered ; otherwife the other two branches of le- economy.
giflative power would, or might, become defpotic. Exercife may be faid to be either adlive or paffive.
EXECUTOR, a perfon nominated by a teftator, to The aiffive is walking, hunting, dancing, playing at
take care to fee his will and tellament executed or per- bowls, and the like; as alfo (peaking, and other la-
formed, and his effe&s difpofed of according to the hour of the body and mind. The paffive is riding in
tenor of the will. See Law. a coach, on horfeback, or in any other manner. Ex-
Executor, in Scots law', fignifies either the perfon ercife may be continued to a beginning of wearinefs,
intitled to fucceed to the moveable ellate of one decea- and ought to be ufed before dinner in a pure light
fed. or who by law or fpecial appointment is intrulled air ; for which reafon, journeys, and going into the
with the adminillration of it. country, contribute greatly to preferve and re-ellablilh
EXECUTORY, in law, is where an dlate in fee, health,
that is made by deed or fine, is to be executed after- Exercife increafes the circulation of the blood, atte-
wards by entry, livery, or writ. Leafes for years, an- nuate-s and divides the fluids, and promotes a regular
nuities, conditions, &c. are termed inheritances execu- perfpiration, as well as a due fecretion of all the hu-
tory. mours ; for it accelerates the animal fpirits, and facili-
EXECUTRY, in Scots law, is the moveable eflate tates their diftribution into all the fibres of the body,
falling to the executor. Under executry, or moveables,, firengthens the parts, creates an appetite, and helps
is comprehended every thing that moves itfelf, or can digeilion. Whence it arifes, that thofe who accuftom
be moved; fuch as corns, cattle, furniture, ready mo- themfelves to exercife are generally very robuft, and
ney, &c. . _ feldom fubjeft to difeafes.
EXEDRiF, in antiquity, denoted halls with many Boerhaave recommends bodily exercife in difeafes
feats, w-here the philofophers, rhetoricians, and men of a weak and lax fibre. By riding on horfeback, fays
of learning, met for difcourfe and difputation The his commentator, the pendulous vifeera of the abdo-
svords occurs in ecclefiaftical writers as a general name men are fliaken every moment, and gently rubbed as
J
EXE [ 63 ] EXE
F.xercife. Jt w'ere one againft another, while in the mean time the
pure air afts on the lungs with greater force. But it
is to be obferved that a weak man fhould not ride with
a full ftomach, but either before dinner, or after the
digeftion is near finifhed ; for when the ftomach is dif-
tended, weak people do not bear thefe concufiions of
the horfe without difficulty ; but when the pnmae vice
are near empty," the remaining feces are difcharged by
this concuffion. Sailing in a (hip is alfo an exercife of
great ufe to weak people. If the vefl’el moves with an
even motion, by increafing peifpiration it ufually ex¬
cites a wonderful alacrity, creates an appetite, and pro*
motes digeftion'. Thefe exercifes are more especially
ferviceable to weak people; but, in order to ftrengthen
the body by mufcular motion, running, and bodily ex¬
ercifes, are to be ufed. In tl^efe we fhhuld begin with
the moft gentle, fuch as walking, and increafe it by
degrees till we come to running. Thofe exercifes of the
body are more efpecialiy ferviceable which give delight
to the mind at the fame time, as tennis, fencing, &c.;
for which .reafon, the wifdom of antiquity appointed
rewards for thofe who excelled in thefe gymnaftic ex¬
ercifes', that by this means the bodies of their youth
might be hardened for warlike toils.
As nothing is more conducive to health than mode¬
rate exercife, fo violent exercife diffipates the fpirits,
weakens the body, deftroys the elafticity of the fibres,
and exhaufts the fluid parts of the blood. No wonder,
then, that acute and mortal fevers often arife from too
violent exercife of the body ; for the motion of the
venous blood towards the heart being quickened by the
contradlioft of the mufcles, and the veins being thus
‘depleted, the arteries more eafily propel their contain¬
ed humours through the fmalleft extremities into the
now lefs refilling veins; and therefore the velocity of
the circulation will be increafed through all the veflels.
But this cannot be performed without applying the
humours oftener, or in a greater quantity, to the fe-
eretory organs in the fame time, whence the more
fluid parts of the blood-will be diffipated, and what re¬
mains will be infpiflated ; and by the greater adfion of
the veffels upon their contained fluids, and of the re¬
ading fluids upon the veflels, the blood acquires an in¬
flammatory denfity. Add to this, that by the violent
attrition of the folids and fluids, together with the
heat thence ariflng, all the humours will incline to a
greater acrimony, and the falls and oils of the blood
will become more acrid and volatile. Hence, fays Boer-
haave, thofe fevers which arife from too much exercife
or motion, are cured by reft of body and mind, with
fuch aliments and medicines as moiften, dilute, aitd fof-
ten or allay acrimony.
The exercife of a foldier in camp, confidered as con¬
ducive to health, Dr Pringle diftinguifhes into three
heads; the firft relating to his duty, the fecond to his
living more commodioufly, and the third to his diver-
fions. The firft, confifting chiefly in the exercife of
his arms, v/ill be no lefs the means of preferving health
than of making him expert in his duty : and frequent
returns of this, early, and before the fun grows hot,,
will be made more advantageous than repeating it fel-
dom, and flaying out long at a time ; for a camp af¬
fording little convenience for refreffiment, all unnecef-
fary fatigue is to be avoided. As to the fecond article,
cutting boughs for (hading the tents, making trenches
round them for carrying off the water, airing the ftraw, Eserclfe.
cleaning their clothes and accoutrements, and affifting
in the bufmefs of the mefs, ought to be no difagree-
able exercife to the men for fome part of the day. Daft¬
ly, as to diverfions, the men muft be encouraged to
them either by the example of their officers, or by
fmall premiums to thofe who fhall excel in any kind of
fports as fhall be judged moft conducive to health : but
herein great caution is neceffary, not to allow them to
fatigue themfelves too much, efpecially in hot weather
or fickly rimes ; but above all, that their deaths be
kept dry, wet clothes being the moft frequent caufes
of camp-difeafes.
Exercise, in military affairs, is the ranging a body
of foldiers in form of battle, and making them perform
the feveral motions and military evolutions with diffe¬
rent management of their arms, in order to make them
expert therein. See alfo Words of Command.
Exercise, in the royal navy, is the preparatory
pradtice of managing the artillery and fmall arms, in
order to rriake the fhip’serew perfe&ly Hulled therein,-
fo as to direft its execution fuccefsfully in the time
of battle.
The exercife of the great guns was, till lately, very
complicated, and abounding with fuperfluities, in our
navy, as well as all others. The following methods
was then fuccefsfully introduced by an officer x>f di*-
ftinguiffied abilities.
1 ft, Silence.
2d, Caft loofe your guns.
3d, Level ymur guns.
4th, Take out your tompions.
5th, Run out your guns.
6th, Prime.
7th, Point your guns.
8th, Fire.
9th, Spunge your guns.
1 oth, Load with cartridge.
11th, Shot your guns.
12th, Put in your tompions..
13th, Houfe your guns.
14th, Secure your guns. •
Upon beat-to-arms (every body having immediately
repaired to their quarters) the midfhipman command¬
ing a number of guns, is to fee that they are not with¬
out every neceffary article, as (at every gun) a fpunge,
powder-horn, with its priming wires, and a fufficient
quantity of powder, crowy hand fpike, bed, quoin,
train-tackle, &c. fending without delay for a fupply of
any thing that may be amiffing ; and for the greater
certainty of not overlooking any ^deficiency, he is to
give ftrift orders to each captain under him, to make
the like examination at his refpe&ive gun, and to take
care that every requifite is in a ferviceable condition,
which he is to report accordingly. -And (befides the
other advantages of this regulation) for the ftill more
certain and fpeedy account being taken upon thefe oc-
cafions, the midihipman is to give each man his charge
at quarters (as expreffed in the form of the monthly
report), who is to fearch for his particular implements,
and, not finding them, is immediately to acquaint his
captain, that, upon his report to the midihipman, they
may be replaced.
The man who takes care of the powder is to place
himfelf on. the oppofxte fide of the deck from that
where
E X E
Exercife. where we engage, except when fighting both fides at
once> when he is to be amid fhips. He is not to fuf-
fer any other man to take a cartridge from him but
he who is appointed to ferve the gun with that article,
either in time of a real engagement or at exercife.
L 64 1
EXE
hand-fpikes, to efcape the injury they might otherwife Exercife.
receive from their being ftruck againfl them, or fplin-  '
tered by a fhot; and the man who attends the captain
with a match is to bring it at the word, " Point your
guns,” and kneeling upon one knee oppofite the train¬
Lanthorns are not to be brought to quarters in the truck of the caniage, and at fuch a diftance as to be
night, until the midfhipman gives his orders for fo do¬
ing to the perfon he charges with that article. Every
thing’being in its place, and not the leaf! lumber in the
way of the guns, the exercife begins with,
1. “ Silence.” At this word every one is to ob-
ferve a filent attention to the officers.
2. “ Cafl loofe your guns.” The muzzle lafhing
is to be taken off from the guns, and (being coiled up
in a fmall compafs) is to be made fail to the eye-bolt
above the port. The lafhing-tackles at the fame time
to be call loofe, and middle of the breeching feized to
the thimble of the pomillion. The fpunge to be taken
down, and, with the crow, hand-fpike, &c. laid upon
the deck by the gun. N. B. When prepared for en¬
gaging an enemy, the feizing within the clinch of the
breeching is to be cut, that the gun may come fuffi-
able to touch the priming, is to turn his head from the
gun, and keep blowing gently upon the lighted match
to keep it clear from afhes. And as the miffing of an
enemy in aftion, by negleft or want of coolnefs, is
moft inexcufable, it is particularly recommended to
have the people thoroughly inftru&ed in pointing well,
and taught to know the ill confequences of not ta¬
king proper means to hit their mark ; wherefore they
fhould be made to elevate their guns to the utmoft
nicety, and then to point with the fame exaftnefs,
having caught the objeft through the upper fight. At
the word,
8. “ Fire.” The match is inftantly to be put to the
bruifed part of the priming; and when the gun is dif-
charged, the vent is to be clofed, in order to fmother
„ _ any fpark of fire that may remain in the chamber of
ciently within-board for loading, and that the force of the gun ; and the man who fpunges is immediately to
the recoil may be more fpent before it afts- upon the place himfelf by the muzzle of the gun in readinefs j
’ - when, at the next word,
9. “ Spunge your gun.” The fpunge is to be ram¬
med down to the bottom of the chamber, and then
twifted round, to extinguilh effectually any remains of
breeching.
3. “ Level your gttns.” The breech of your me¬
tal is to be raifed fo as to admit the foot of the bed’s
being placed upon the axle-tree of the carriage, with
the quoin upon the bed, both their ends being even fire ; and, when drawn out, to be ftruck a train ft the
 .1. „   XT T3 vxru 1 11_J c - . r .1 , _ . n 1 m r
e with the other. N. B. When levelled for firing,
the bed is to be lafhed to the bolt which fupports the
inner end of it, that it may not be thrown out of its
place by the violence of the gun’s motion when hot
with frequent difcharges.
4. “ Take out your tompions.” The tompion is
to be taken out of the gun’s mouth, and left hanging
by its laniard.
5. “ Run out your guns.” With the tackles hook-
out-fide of the muzzle, to fhake off any fparks or fcraps
of the cartridge that may have come out with it; and
next, its end is to be fhifted ready for loading; and
while this, is doing, the man appointed to provide a
cartridge is to go to the box, and by the time the
fpunge is out of the gun, he is to have it ready ; and
at the word,
10. “ Load with cartridge.” The cartridge (with
the bottom end firft, feam downwards, and a wad
ed to the upper bolts of the carriage, the gun is to . after it) is to be put into the gun, and thruft a little
be bowfed out as clofe as.poffible, without the affill- way within the mouth, when the rammer is to be en-
ance of crows or hand-fpikes ; taking care at the fame tered : the cartridge is then to be forcibly rammed
time to keep the breeching clear of the trucks, hv down : and the cantain at (-be fam* ,‘c k,'„
. - . » by
hauling it through the rings ; it is then to be bent fo
as to run clear when the gun is fired. When the gun
•is out, the tackle-falls are to be laid along-fide the car¬
riages in neat fakes, that, when the gun by recoiling
down ; and the captain at the fame time is to keep his
priming-wire in the vent, and, feeling the cartridge,
is to give the word /lome, when the rammer is to be
drawn, and not before. While this is doing, the man
appointed to provide a ffiot is to provide one (or two.
overhauls them, they may not be fubjea to get foul, as according to the order at . that time) ready at the
they would if in a common coil.
6- “ Prime.” If the cartridge is to be pierced is drawn, at the word.
muzzle, with a wad likewife; and when the rammer
with the priming-wire, and the vent filled with pow¬
der, the pan alfo is to be filled; and the flat fpace, ha¬
ving a fcore through it'at the end of the pan, is to be
covered, and this part of the priming is to be bruifed
Shot your guns.” The (hot and wad upon it
are to be put into the gun, and thnift a little way
down, when the rammer is to be entered as before.
The fliot and wad are to be rammed down to the car-
with the round part of the horn. The apron is to be tridge, and there have a couple of forcible ftrokes ;
laid over, and the horn hung up out of danger from the
ftalh of the priming.
7. “ Point your guns.” At this command the gun  
is, in the firft place, to be elevated to the height of cured
the obje&, by means of the fide-fights; and then the
perfon pointing is to direft his fire by the upper fight,
having a'crow on one fide and a hand-fpike on the o-
when the rammer is to be drawn, and laid out of the
way of the guns and tackles, if the exercife or aftion
is continued; but if it is over, the fpunge is to be fe-
cured in the place it is at all times kept in.
12. “ Put in your tompions.” The tompions to be
put into the muzzle of the cannon.
13. “ Houfe your guns.” The feizing is to be
ther, to heave the gun by his diredlion till he catches put on again upon the clinched end of the breeching,
the object. leaving it no flacker than to admit of the guns beiag
N. B. The men who heave the gun for pointing are houfed with eafe. The quoin is to be taken from un«
£0 Hand between the fhip!
N° 12.2,
fide and their crows
der the breech of the gun, and the bed, ftill refting
upon
Ererci'e.
EXE l 6S } EXE
upon the bolt, within the carriage, thrufl: under, till
J the foot of it falls off the axle-tree, leaving it to reft
upon the end which projefts out from the foot. The
metal is to be let down upon this. The gun is to be
placed exa&ly fquare; and the muzzle is to be clofe
to the wood, in its proper place for palling the muzzle-
lalhings.
14. “ Secure your guns.” ' The muzzle-lalhings
muft firft be made fecure, and then with one tackle
(having all its parts equally taught with the breech¬
ing) the gun is to be lalhed. The other tackle is to
be bowfed taught, and by itfelf made fall, that it may
be ready to caft off for lalhing a fecond breeching.
N. B. Care muft be taken to hook the firft tackle to
the upper bolt of the carriage, that it may not other-
wife obftrudl the reeving of the fecond breeching, and
to give the greater length to the end part of the fall.
No pains muft be fpared in bowfing the lafhing very
taught, that the gun may have the leaft play that is
poflible, as their being loofe may be produdrive of very
dangerous confequences. The quoin, crow, and hand-
fpike, are to be put under the gun, the powder-horn
hung up in its place, &c.
Being engaged at any time when there is a large
fwell, a rough fea, or in fqually weather, &c. as the
fhip may be liable to be fuddenly much heeled, the
port-tackle fall is to be kept clear, and (whenever the
working of the gun will admit of it) the man charged
with that office is to keep it in his hand ; at the fame
time the muzzle-lafhing is to be kept faft to the ring
of the port, and, being hauled taught, is to be faften-
ed to the eye-bolt over the port-hole, fo as to be out
of the gun’s way in firing, in order to haul it in at any
time of danger-
This precaution is not to be omitted, when enga¬
ging to the windward, any more than when to the lee¬
ward, thofe fituations being very fubjedt to alter at too
ffiort a warning.
A train-tackle is always to be made ufe of with the
lee-guns; and the man ftationed to attend it is to be
very careful in preventing the guns running out at an
improper time.
Exercise, may alfo be applied with propriety to
the forming our fleets into orders of failing, lines of
battle, See. an art which the French have termed evo¬
lutions, or tactiques. In this fenfe exercife may be de¬
fined, the execution of the movements which the dif¬
ferent orders and difpofition of fleets occafionally re¬
quire, and which the feveral (hips are diredted to per¬
form by means of fignals. See Tactics.
Exercises, are alfo underftood of what young
gentlemen learn in the academies and riding-fchools,
fuch as fencing, drawing, riding the great horfe, &c.
How ufeful, how agreeable foever, ftudy may be to
the mind, it is very far from being equally falutary to
the body. Every one obferves, that the Creator has
formed an intimate connexion between the body and
the mind ; a perpetual adtion and readfion, by which
the body inftantly feels the diforders of the mind, and
the mind thofe of the body. The delicate fprings of
our frail machines lofe their adlivity and become ener¬
vated, and the veffels are choaked by obRrudrions when
we totally defift from exercife, and the confequences
neceffarily affedf the brain : a more ftudious and fe-
VouVII. Parti.
dentary life is therefore equally prejudicial to the bo¬
dy and the mind. The limbs likewife become ftiff;
we contradt an aukward conftrained manner; a certain
difguftful air attends all our atlions, and we are very
near being as difagreeable to ourfelves as to others. An
inclination to ftudy is highly commendable; but it
ought not, however, to infpire us with an averfion to
fociety. The natural lot of man is to live among his
fellows : and whatever may be the condition of our
birth, or our fituation in life, there are a thoufand oc-
cafions where a man muft naturally defire to render
himfelf agreeable ; to be adtive and adroit; to dance
with a grace ^ to command the fiery fteed ; to defend
himfeif againft a brutal enemy; to preferve his life by
dexterity; as by leaping, fwimming, &c. Many ra¬
tional caufes have therefore given rife to the pradtice of
particular exercifes; and the moft fagacious and bene¬
volent legiflators have inftituted, in their academies and
univerfities, proper methods of enabling youth, who
devote themfelves to ftudy, to become expert alfo in
laudable exercifes.
.EXERC1TOR, in Scots law, he who employs a
fhip in trade, whether he be owner, or only freights
her from the owner.
EXERGESI A. See Oratory, n° 90.
EXERGUM, among antiquarians, a little fpace
around or without the figures of a medal, left for the
infeription, cipher, device, date, &c.
EXETER, the capital city of Devonffiire, fituated
on the river Ex, ten miles north of the Britiffi chan¬
nel: W. Long. 3. 40. N. Lat. 50.44. Anciently the
name of this city was Ifex, and Ifia Dumnoniorum. The
prefent name is a contradtion of Excejler, that is, a
city upon the Ex. It is large, populous, and wealthy,
with gates, walls, and fuburbs: the circumference of
the whole is about three miles. It is the fee of a bi-
fhop, transferred hither from Crediton, by Edward
the Confeffor; and is one of the principal cities in the
kingdom for its buildings, wealth, and number of its
inhabitants. It had fix gates, befides many turrets,
feveral of which are now pulled down. It had
formerly fo many convents, that it was called Monk-
town, till king Athelftan changed its name to Exeter,
about the year 940 ; at which time he alfo fortified
the city (which had before been only inclofed with a
dkch and a fence of timber) with circular walls, em-
battlements, towers, and turrets of fquared ftone, en¬
circling the whole, except the weflern fide, with a
deep moat. Befides chapels and 5 large meeting-hou-
fes, there are now 15 churches within the walls, and
4 without. St Peter’s, the cathedral, is a magnificent
pile ; though little now remains of the ancient fabric
of the church, except that part which is called Our
Lady's Chapel. It has a ring of 12 .bells, reckoned
the largeft -ring of the largeft bells in England ; as is
alfo its organ, whofe largeft pipes are 15 inches in dia¬
meter. In 1763 the cathedral was repaired, beauti¬
fied, and new paved; when, in removing the old pave¬
ment, was found the leaden coffin of bilhop Bitton,
who died in 1307 ; the top of which, being decayed,
afforded an opportunity of viewing the ftceleton lying
in its proper form : near the bones of the finger was
found a fapphire ring fet in gold ; the ftone con-
fiderably large, but of no great value, on account
I of
EXE r 66 1 E X E
Exeter, of feveral flaws in it. Near this flood a fmall neat
■—<—- chalice and patten of iVlver gilt, but the damp had de-
ftroyedthe greateft part of the gilding. In the centre
of the patten was engraved a hand, with the two fore¬
fingers extended in the attitude of benediction. The
top of the crozier was alfo found, but totally decayed.
A moft beautiful modern painted glafs window has been
lately erected at the weflern end of the cathedral, the
eaftern end having before a remarkable tine antique one.
In the other windows there is much fine ancient paint-
ed glafs. The altar is remarkable for its beautiful de-
fign and execution. On the left-hand fide of it there
yet exifls the feat where Edward the Confeffor and
his queen'fat and inftalled Leofricus his chancellor, the
firit bilhop of Exeter; and in the fouth crofs aide is
the monument of the fame Leofricus, who died 1073,
which at the time of his interment was a part of the
church-yard, but by the enlarging of the church by
his fucceffors became nearly the middle of the build¬
ing. The grand wellern end of the church is moft
magnificently adorned with the ftatues of the pa¬
triarchs, &c. The Chapter-houfe was built in 1439.
The beautiful throne for the bifhop was conftrufted a-
bout 1466, and is faid to be the grandeft of the kind in
Britain. The great north tower was completed in
1485, which contains a bell that weighs 12,500 pounds;
and exceeds the great Tom of Lincoln by 2,500 pounds.
This city has had divers charters granted, or con¬
firmed, by moft of our kings; but it was made a mayor
town in the reign of King John, and a county of itfelf
by king Henry V HI. It is governed by a mayor, 24 al¬
dermen, 4 bailiffs, a recorder, chamberlain, fheriff;
town-clerk, &c. They have a fword-bearer, and four
ftewards, four ferjeants at mace wearing gowns, and ftaffi-
hearers in liveries with filver badges. It had anciently
a mint; and in the reigns of king William HI. and
queen Anne, many pieces of filver money were coined
here, which have the letter E under the buft. Here
are 12 or 13 incorporate city-companies. All pleas
and civil caufes are tried by the mayor, recorder, al¬
dermen, and common council; but criminal caufes,
and thofe relating to the peace, are determined by eight
aldermen, who are juftices of the peace. Here are four
principal ftreets, all centring in the middle of the city,
which is therefore called Carfox, from the old Norman
word §>uatre <voix, i. e. the four ways. Near it is a
conduit, lately rr ved from the centre to the fide of
the principal ftreet, which vras firft erefted by Wil¬
liam Duke, mayor of the city, in the reign of Ed¬
ward IV. and there are others well fupplied with wa¬
ter brought in pipes from the neighbourhood. There
is an old caflle in the north-eaft part of the city, call¬
ed Rougemont, from the red foil it Hands on ; from
thence there is a pleafent profpedl from the walls.
It is fuppofed to have been built by the Weft Saxon
kings, and that they refided here, as did afterwards
the earls and dukes of Cornwall. This caftle was re¬
markably ftrong both by nature and art. The gate,
which originally led into it, was walled up by order
of William the Conqueror, in token of his having re¬
duced it to his obedience after a wery obftinate refin¬
ance; and clofe by it an inferior gate was made in the
wall, in which ftate they both remain. The outward
Hone-facing is kept in tolerable repair ; but the infide,
being but earth, is gradually crumbled down. Here
yet remains the ancient chapel, built in 1260, and
kept in good repair, where prayers are read and a
fermon preached in fefiions weeks. The city itfelf
is healthy, and pleafantly iituated on the fides of a
hill, having other hills to its N. W. and S. by which
it is Iheltered from the force of ftorms. The bank
which fuftained the ditch that in a great part furround-
ed the caftle, is planted and gravelled, and accommo-i
dated with feats, it being the place of refort for walk¬
ing for the inhabitants; and the ditch between it and
the caftle being filled up, is now thickly planted with
elms, which form a delightful grove. The .old palace
is now entirely demolifhed,^ and an elegant feflions-
houfe erefted, where the aflizes, quarter-feffions, and
county courts are held. In the. city and fuburbs are
prifons both for debtors and malefaftors; a workhoufej.
alms houfes, and charity-fchools ; an hofpital for the
fick and lame poor of the city and county, upon the
model of the infirmaries of London and Weftminfter ;
and two free grammar-fchools. It has markets on
Wednefdays and Fridays; and four fairs in the year.
Great trade is carried on here for ferges, perpetuanas,
long-ells, and other woollen goods, in which it is com¬
puted that at leaf! 6oo,oool. a-yearis traded for; yet no
markets were ere&ed here for woo!, yarn, and kerfeys, till
the 30th of Henry VIII. Before that time, themerchants
drove a conliderabie trade to Spain and France: they were
incorporated, in the reign of Queen Mary I, by the name
of “ The governor, confuls, and fociety of merchant ad¬
venturers, trading to France.” Here is alfo a weekly
ferge market, the greateft in England, next to the Brigg
market at Leeds in Yorkfhire : it is faid that fome
weeks as many ferges have been fold here as amount to
8o,oool. or 100,0001. ; for befides the vaft quantities
of their woollen goods {hipped for Portugal, Spain,
and Italy, the Dutch give large commiflions for buying
up ferges, perpetuanas, &c. for Holland and Germany.
It is particularly remarked of this city, that it isahnoft
as full of gentry as of tradefmen ; and that more of its
mayors and bailiffs have defeended from, or given rife
to, good families, than in any other city of its big-
nefs in the kingdom ; for the great trade and flourifli-
ing ftate of this city tempted gentlemen to fettle their
fons in it, contrary to the praftice of many of the in¬
land as well as northern counties, where, according to
the vain and ruinous notion of the Normans, trade was
defpifed by the gentry, as fit only for mechanics and
the vulgar. The city was under the jurifdi&ion of the
Romans, whofe coins have been frequently dug up in
and about it. After they left England, the Saxons
drove the Britons out of it into Cornwall, and en-
compafled it with a ditch, befides bulwarks. The
Danes attacked and fpoiled it in 875 ; and afterwards,
in revenge of the general maffacre of the Danes by the
EngHfh, Swain, one of their kings, came hither with
a great force, put the men to the fword, raviflied the
•women, maflacred the children, burnt the city, and
defaced the walls. A long time after this, Juft as it
was reviving, William the Conqueror befieged and took
it; and it was again befieged in the reigns of king
Stephen and Edward IV. In the reign of Henry VII.
it was again befieged by Perkin Warbeck, and batter¬
ed furioully ; but the citizens forced him to raife the
EXE [ 67 ] E X H
fiege; whicli fo pleafed the king, that he came hither, time, it is lowered to L. 500, and is computed to Ex/oliation
and prefented a cap of maintenance to the city, and be worth annually L. 2700. The clergy’s tenth is Ji
gave the very fword from his fide to be borne always L. 1200 : 15 : zi. To the cathedral belong a bifliop, Exhibition.
before the mayor. In the reign of Edward VI. in a dean, four archdeacons, a chancellor, a treafurer, a v
July 15+4, it was fmartly cannonaded by the rebels of chantor, 24 prebendaries, and other inferior officers
Cornwall and Devon, who almofl ftarved it by break- and fervants.
EXFOLIATION, a term ufed by furgeons for the
fcaling of a bone, or its rifing and feparating into thin
laminse or fcales.
ing down its bridges, cutting oft' its water, and hop¬
ping up all paffages; but it held out till the lord John
Ruffel came with a force and raifed the fiege on the
6th of Auguft, which was then appointed as an anni-
verfary day of thankfgiving by the city, and is ftill ob-
fervedas fuch. King Charles I.’s queen, to whom this
city gave flicker in the civil wars, was here delivered
of Henrietta, afterwards duchefs of Orleans ; whofe . ^
picture is in its Guild-Hall, as are alfo General Monk’s magnitudes, by a reductlo ad alfurdum ; (bowing, that
and George I.’s, &c. In the fouth-eaft quarter of the if one be fuppofed either greater or lefs than the other,
city was a houfe called Bedford-houfe, wherein the above there will arife a contradiction.
EXHALATION, a general term for all effluvia or
fleams raifed from the furface of the earth in form of
vapour.
EXHAUSTIONS, in mathematics. Method of
exhauilions, is a way of proving the equality of two
queen was delivered of the princefs. This having lately
been taken dawn, an elegant circus is built on the
fpot, with a theatre adjoining it^ and for the con-
veniency of the inhabitants, a pafi'age has been made
through the town-wall to Southern Hay, on which
green ftands the county hofpital, already fpoken of,
beiides a confiderable number of new buildings. There
are remains of feveral ancient flrudlures, which are
The method of exhauftions was of frequent ufe a-
mong the ancient mathematicians; as Euclid, Archi¬
medes, &c. It is founded on what Euclid fays in his
tenth book; viz. that thofe quantities whofe difference is
lefs than any affignable quantity, are equal; for if they
were unequal, be the difference never fo fmall, yet it
may be fo multiplied, as to become greater than either
of them 5 if not fo, then it is really nothing. This he
daily giving way to modern eredlions; among the reft, affumes in the proof of prop. 1. book x. which imports,
an old building, faid to have been a palace of king
Athelftan. The Guildhall is a fpacious and convenient
that if, from the greater of two quantities, you take
more than its half, and from the remainder more than
building, whofe front or portico proje&s a great way its half, and fo continually, there will, at length, remain
into the ftreet, and was firil ere&ed in 1330, to which
its pvefent front was rebuilt in 1593, and iepaired in
a quantity lefs than either of thofe propofed. On this
foundation it is demonftrated, that if a regular polygon
1720. An arm of the fea formerly flowed nearly up of infinite (ides be infcribed in, or circumfcribed about,
to the city’s wall, till 1316, when Hugh Courtenay a circle; the fpace, which is the difference between
earl of Devon, in revenge for an affront, ruined the the circle and the polygon, will, by degrees, be quite
navigation, by conftrudling wears and damsln the river; exhaufted, and the circle become equal to the polygon,
but to remedy it, in 1539, an a<ff of parliament paffed for EXHERED ATION, in the civil law, with us or-
making a navigable canal, for the better conveyance of dinarily called difinberiting, is the father’s excluding his
goods in barges to and from the city to Topfliam. This fon from inheriting his ellate.
was carried into execution in 1581, but not completed till
1675 ; nor was it after all found fufficient, till the pre-
fent haven was conftru&ed in 1697, when it was ren¬
dered capable of bringing (hips of 150 tons quite to the
quay, conftrufted near the walls of the city. In fliort,
Exeter, by a conftant adherence to its motto, SemperJide-
lis, has been applauded by all hiftorians for its inviolable
^fidelity to its fovereigns, whether they held their crown
by hereditary or parliamentary right. The city fends
two members to parliament; and gives title of Earl to the
There are 14 caufes of exheredation expreffed in
Juftiniau’s Novel; without fome one of which caufes,
he decrees the exheredation. null, and the teftament
inofficious, as the civilians call it. Indeed, by the an¬
cient Roman law, the father might pronounce exhere¬
dation without any caufe ; but the rigour of this law
was reftrained and moderated by Juftinian.
EXHIBIT, in law, is where a ipf^l, or other wri¬
ting, being produced in a chancery fuit to be proved
by witneffes, the examiner, or commiffioner appointed
■Cecils.—The fee of Exeter was once one of the moft for the examination of any fuch, certifies on the back
wealthy in the kingdom ; but its revenues were moft of the deed or writing, that the fame was (hown to the
fhamefully wafted by biftiop Voyfey, who alienated its
.lands. What little he left was fo much incumbered,
that the fee has never been able to recover its former
-grandeur; and fo fmall are its prefent revenues, that
it has been found neceffary for the bifliop to hold fome
•other preferment for the better fupport of his dignity
witnefs at the time of his examination, and by him
fworn to.
EXHIBITION, in law, a producing, or fliowing,
of titles, authorities, and other proofs, of a matter in
conteft.
Anciently they ufed the phrafe, exhibition of a trage-
and rank. This fee hath yielded to the nation three dy, comedy, or the like ; but now we fay reprefentation
lord chancellors, two lord treafurers, one lord prefi- in lieu thereof.
dent of Wales, and one chancellor to the univerfity of Exhibitiok, in our old writers, is ufed for an al-
Oxford. The diocefe contains the entire counties of lowance of meat and drink, fuch as was cuftomary a-
■Devonfliire and Cornwall, wherein are 604 pariflies,
whereof 239 are impropriate. It hath four archdea¬
cons, viz. ;of Cornwall, Exeter, Bamftable, and Tot-
nefs. The diocefe was formerly valued in the king’s
•books at L. 1556 : 14 : 6; but, llnce biihop Voyfey’s
mong the religious appropriators of churches, who
ufually made it to the depending vicar. The benefac¬
tions fettled for the maintaining of fcholars in the uni-
verfities, not depending on the foundation, are alfo call¬
ed exhibitions.
I 2 EX-
E X O [ 68 ] E X O
Eihorta- EXHORTATION, in rhetdric, differs only from
ti°n JuaJion, in that the latter principally endeavours to con-
Exoipetus.vince the underftanding, and the former to work on the
affeftions.
EXHUMATION, (of ex “ out of,” and humus
“ ground),” the aft of digging up a body interred in
holy ground, by the authority of the judge. In
France, the exhumation of a dead body is ordered, up¬
on proof that he was killed in a duel. By the French
laws, a parfon has a right to demand the exhumation
of the body of one of his parilhioners, when interred
out of the parilh without his confent.
EXIGENCE, or Exigency, that whic\a thing
requires, or which is expedient and fuitablc thereto.
EXIGENT, in law, a writ which lies where the de¬
fendant in a perfonal aftion cannot be found, nor any
effefts of his within the county, by which he may be
attached or diftrained.
EXIGENTERS, four officers in the court of com¬
mon-pleas, who make all exigents and proclamations,
in all aftions where procefs of outlawry lies. Writs of
fuperfedeas, as well as the prothonotaries, upon exi¬
gents, were likewife drawn up in their office.
EXILE. See Banishment.
Among the Romans, the word exilium properly
fignified an interdiftion or exclufion from water and
lire ; the neceffary confequence of which was, that
the interdifted perfon mull betake himfelf into fome
other country, lince there was no living without fire
and water.—Thus Cicero, aJi/eran. obferves, that the
form of the fentence did not exprefs exilium, but only
aqute &■ ignis interdiBio. The fame author remarks,
that exile was not properly a punifhment, but a volun¬
tarily flying or avoiding the punifliment decreed: Ex¬
ilium non cfje fupplicium, fed perfugium, partufque fup-
plicii. He adds, that there was no crime among the
Romans, as among other nations, punifhed with exile ;
but exile was a refource to which people flew voluntari¬
ly, in order to avoid chains, ignominy, ftarving, &c.
The Athenians frequently fent their generals and
great men into exile,' out of envy of their merits, or
diltruft of their too great authority. See Ostracism.
EXISTENCE, that whereby any thing has an ac¬
tual effence, or is faid to be. See the article Meta¬
physics.
EXIT, properly expreffes the departure of a player
from off the ftage, when he has afted his part. The
word is alfo ufed in a figurative fenfe, to exprefs any
kind of departure, even death.
EXITERIA, in antiquity, oblations or prayers to
any of. the gods for a profperous expedition or journey.
There were alfo feafts under this denomination, which
were celebrated by the Greeks with facrifices and
prayers, when their generals undertook expeditions a-
gainfl any enemy.
EXOCOETUS, or the Flying-Fish, in icluhyo-
logy, a genus belonging to the order of abdominales.
The head is fcaly, and it has no teeth ; it has 10 radii
in the branchioftege membrane ; the body is whitilh,
cx,xxxvn. and the belly is angular : the peftoral fins, the inftru-
ments of flight, are very large. When purfued by any
other filh, it raifes itfelf from the water by means of
thefe long fins, and flies in the air to a confiderable di-
ftance, till the fins dry, and then it falls down into the
water. It is a fiffi that feems to lead a mod miferahle
life. In its own element, it is perpetually haraffed by Exodlary
the dorados and other filh of prey. If it endeavours to ||
avoid them by having recourfe to the air, it either Exorcifm.
meets its fate from the gulls or the albatrofs, or is —*  
forced down again into the mouth of the inhabitants
of the water, who, below, keep pace with its aerial
excurfion. This filh is caught in the Mediterranean
and fome other feas. It is moft common between the
tropics, and there its enemies are more particularly nu¬
merous. In thefe climates the flying filhes fpring out
of the water by hundreds,*to efcape the rapacity of
the dolphins, (harks, &c. When flying, they have as
formidable enemies to encounter with in that element,
viz. the pelican, eagle, diomfcdea, &c. and frequently
throw themfelves on board the (hips to efcape their
purfuit. Their flelh is faid to be palatable and nourilh-
ing food.
EXODIARY, in the.ancient Roman tragedy, was
the perfon who, after the drama or play was ended,
fung the Exodium.
EXODIUM, in the ancient Greek diama, one of
the four parts or divifions of tragedy, being fo much
of the piece as included the catafirophe and unravel¬
ling of the plot, and anfwering nearly to our fourth
and fifth afts.
Ex odium, among the Romans, confifted of certain
humorous verfes rehearfed by the exodiary at the end
of the Fabulse Atellanas.
Exodium, in the Septuagint, fignifies the end or
conclufion of a feaft. Particularly it is ufed for the
eighth day of the feaft of tabernacles, which, it is faid,
had a fpecial view to the commemoration of the exodus
or departure out of Egypt.
EXODUS, a canonical book of the Old Tefta-
ment; being the fecond of the pentateuch, or five
books of Mofes.
It is fo called from the Greek [exodosj, the “ go¬
ing out” or departure of the children of Ifraelfrom the
land of Egypt; the hiftory of which is delivered in this
book, together with the many miracles wrought on
that occafion.
EXOMPFIALUS, in furger^r, called alfo omphalo¬
cele, and hernia umbilicalis, is a preternatural tumor
of the abdomen, at the navel, from a rupture or dif-
tenfion of the parts which inveft that cavity.
EXORCISM, the expelling of devils from perfons
poffeffed, by means of conjurations and prayers. The
Jews made great pretences to this power. Jofephus
tells feveral wonderful tales of the great fuccefs of feve-
ral exorcifts. One Eleazer, a Jew', cured many daemo-
niacs, he fays, by means of a root fet in a ring. Phis
root, with the ring, was held under the patient’s nofe,
and the devil was forthwith evacuated. The moft part
of conjurors of this clafs were impoftors, each pretend¬
ing to a fecret noftrum or charm which was an over¬
match for the devil. Our Saviour communicated to
his difciples a real power over daemoas, or perhaps over
the difeafes faid to be occafioned by daemons. See
Demoniac.
Exorcifm makes a confiderable part of the fuper-
ftition of the church of Rome, the rituals of which for¬
bid the exorciling any perfon without the bilhop’s leave.
The ceremony is performed at the lower end of the
church, towards the door. The exorcift firft figns the
poffeffed perfpn with the fign of the crofs; makes him
kneel.
I
E X O
ExorcifU kneel, and fprinkles him with holy water. Then fol-
il _ low the litanies, pfalms, and prayer ; after which the
, ^iCot;c exorcift. aflts the devil his name, and adjures him by
* the myileries of the Chriftian religion not to afflidt the
perfon any more : then, laying his right hand on the
demoniac’s head, he repeats the form of exorcifm,
which is this: “ I exorcife thee, unclean fpirit, in the
name of Jefus Chrfft: tremble, O Satan ! thou enemy
of the faith, thou foe of mankind, who haft brought
death into the world; who haft deprived men of life,
and haft rebelled againft juftice ; thou feducer cf man¬
kind, thou root of evil, thou fource of avarice, difcord,
and envy.” The Romanifts likewife exorcife houfes
and other places, fuppofed to be haunted by unclean
fpirits ; and the ceremony is much the fame with that
for perfon s pofleffed.
EXORCISTS, in church-hiftory, an order of men,
in the ancient church, whofe employment it was to ex-
©rcife or call out devils. See the preceding article.
EXORDIUM, in oratory, is the preamble or be¬
ginning, ferving to prepare the audience for the reft of
the difcourfe.
Exordiums are of two kinds; either juft and formal,
or vehement and abrupt. The laft are moil fuitable
on occafions of extraordinary joy, indignation, or the
like. See Oratory, 9° 26.
EXOSTOSIS (from out, and orsov a bone), in
anatomy, an acute eminence or excrefcence, pufliing
preternaturally above the bone.
EXOTERIC and Esoteric, are terms denoting
external and internal, and applied to the double doc¬
trine of the ancient philofophei s : the one was public
or exoteric; the other fecret, or efoteric. The firft was
that which they openly profefled and taught to the
world; the latter was confined to a fmall number of
chofen difciples. This method was derived originally
from the Egyptians; who, according to‘the united
teftimony of Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus, Strabo,
Plutarch, &c. had a twofold philofophy, one fecret
and facred, another public and common. The fame
praftice alfo obtained among the Perfian Magi, the
Druids of the Gauls, and the Brachmans of India.
The Egyptian priefts, with w'hom it originated, fuf-
tained the charadler of judges and rnaglftrates, and
probably introduced this diftindlion with a view to the
public welfare, and to ferve the purpoles of legiflation
and government. Clement of Alexandria informs us,
that they communicated their myfteries principally to
thofe who were concerned in the adminiftration of the
ftate; and Plutarch confirms, the fame declaration.
However, others have fuppofed that they invented the
fables of their gods and heroes, and the other external
ceremonies of their religion, to difguife and conceal
natural and moral truths; but whatever was the mo¬
tive of their pra&ice, it was certainly applied to poli¬
tical purpofes.
EXOTIC, a term properly fignifying foreign or ex¬
traneous, i. e. brought from a remote or ftrange coun¬
try, In which fenfe we fometimes fay exotic or barba¬
rous terms or words, &c. The word is derived from
the Greek £?-><<:* extra, “without, on the outfide.”
Exotic, is chiefly applied to plants which are na¬
tives of foreign countries, particularly thofe brought
from the Eaft and Weft Indies, and which do not na¬
turally grow in Europe,
E X P
The generality of exotics, or exotic plants, do not SxpajifioB’
thrive in England without feme peculiar care and cul- —y—
ture ; they require the warmth of their own climates;
whence the ufe of hot-beds, glafs-frames, green houfes,
&c. See GnEEN-Houfe and Stove.
EXPANSION, among metaphyficians, denotes the
idea we have of lafting diftance, all whofe parts exift
together.
Expansion, in phyfiology, the enlargement or ia-
creafe of bulk in bodies, chiefly by means of heat.
This is one of the moft general effeds of that fubtile
principle, being common to all bodies whatever, whe¬
ther folid or fluid. In fome few cafes, indeed, bodies
feem to expand as they grow cold, as water in the act
of freezing: but this is found to be owing to the ex¬
trication of an infinite number of air-bubbles from the
fluid at a certain time.; and is not at all a regular and
gradual expanfion like that of metals, or any other fo¬
lid or fluid fubftance by means of heat. In certain me¬
tals alfo, an expanfion takes place when they pafs from
a fluid to a folid ftate : but this too is not to be ac¬
counted any proper effed of cold, but of the arrange¬
ment of the parts of the metals in a certain manner;
and'is therefore to be accounted a kind of cryftalliza-
tion rather than any thing- elfe.
The expanfion of bodies by heat is very various, and
in folids does not feem to be guided by any certain
rule. In the 48th volume of the Philofophical Tranf-
a&ions, Mr Smeaton has given a table of the expan-
fions of many different fubftances, from which the fol¬
lowing particulars are extraded. The degree of heat-
employed was i8o degrees of Fahrenheit’s thermome¬
ter, and the expanfion is^expreffed in 10,000th-parts of
an Engliih inch.
A foot of white glafs barometer tube 100
Martial regulus of antimony - j 30
Bliftered fteel - 138
Hard fteel ■■ - 147
Iron » q 151
Bifmuth - - 167
Hammered copper - 204
A mixture of three parts of copper with
one of tin - - 218
Caft brafs - - 225
A mixture of 16 parts of brafs with one
of tin - - 229
Brafs wire - - 232
Speculum metal - 232
Spelter folder, compofedof two parts of
brafs and one of zinc, - 247
Fine Pewter - - 274
Grain tin - - 298
Soft folder,, compofed of two parts of
lead and one of tin, - 301.
A mixture of eight parts of zinc and
one of tin, a little hammered, - 323
Lead. - - 344
Zinc or fpelter - - 353
Zinc hammered an inch/rr foot 373
From this table it appears, that no rule can be de¬
duced concerning the degree of expanfion to which
bodies are fubjed by the fame degree of heat, either
from their fpecific gravity or otherwife. Zinc, which
is much lighter than lead, expands more with heat; bat
glafs, which is lighter than either, expands much lefs;.
tvhilo.
[ 69 ]
E X P [ 70 1 EXP
Expahfton while copper, which is heavier than a mixture of brafs
_ fi -and tin, expands lefs.
don a known fubftances, thofe of the aerial kind
W— ~— expand moft by an equal degree of heat 5 and in ge¬
neral the greater quantity of latent heat that any fub-
ftance contains, the more eafdy is it expanded; though
even here we cannot form any general rule. It is cer¬
tain, however, that the moft denfe fluids, fuch as mer¬
cury, oil of vitriol, &c. are lefs expanfible than water,
fpirit of wine, or ether. This laft indeed is fo eafily
expanded, that were it not for the preflure of the at-
mofphere it would be in a continual ftate of vapour.
After bodies are reduced to a vaporous ftate, their ex-
panfion feems to go on without any limitation, in pro¬
portion to the degree of heat applied ; fo that it is
impoffible to fay what would be the ultimate effects
of that principle upon them in this way. The force
w ith which thefe vapours expand on the application of
high degrees is very great; neither can we fay, that
any obftacle whatever is infuperable by them. On
this principle depend the fteam-engines fo much ufed
in various mechanical operations; like wife fome hy¬
draulic machines; and the inftruments called manome¬
ters, which Ihow the variation of gravity in the exter¬
nal atmofphere, by the expanfion or condcnfation of
a fmall quantity of air confined in a proper veflel. On
this principle alfo perpetual movements might be con-
ftnnfted fimilar to thofe invented by Mr Coxe, on the
principle of the barometer. A variety of other cu¬
rious machines may be conftnnfted on the principle of
aerial expanfion ; of which an account is given under
the articles Hydrostatics and Pneumatics.
The expanfion of folid bodies is meafured by an in-
ftrument named the Pyrometer; and the force with
which they expand is ftill greater than that of aerial
vapours, the flame of a farthing candle producing an
expanfion in a bar of iron capable of countera&ing a
weight of 500 pounds. The quantity of expanfion,
however, is fo fmall, that it has never been applied to
the 'movement of any mechanical engine. On the
principle of the expanfton of fluids Thermometers
are conftrufted; for an account of which, fee that ar¬
ticle. For the effefts of the different expanfions of
metals in corretting the errors of machines for mea-
furing time, fee the article Pendulum.
EXPECTANCY, estates in, are of two forts;
one created by aft of the parties, called a remainder',
the other, by aft of law, called a reverfion.
EXPECTATION, in the doftrine of chances, is
applied to any contingent event, and is capable of be¬
ing reduced to the rules of computation. Thus a fum
of money in expeftation, when a particular event hap¬
pens, has a determinate value before that event hap¬
pens ; fo that if a perfon is to receive any fum, e. gr.
ibl. when an event takes place which has an equal Expedla-
probability of happening and failing, the value of the
expeftation is half that fum or 5I. and in all cafes the
expeftation of obtaining any fum is eftimated by mul¬
tiplying the value of the fum expefted by the fraftion -
which reprefents the probability of obtaining it. The
expeftation of a perfon who has three chances in five
of obtaining !xool. is equal tofXiOO or 60I. and
the probability of obtaining tool, in this cafe is equal
to Ttj5 = r-
EXPECTORANTS, inpharmacy, mediciueswhich
promote Expectoration.
EXPECTORATION, the aft of evacuating or
bringing up phlegm or other matters out of the tra¬
chea, lungs, &c. by coughing, hanking, fpitting, &c.
EXPEDITATION, in the foreit-laws, fignifies
a cutting out the balls of a dog’s fore-feet for the
prefervation of the king’s game.
Every one that keeps any great dog not expeditated
forfeits three (hillings and fourpence to the king. In
maftiffs, not the ball of the feet, but the three claws,
are to be cut to the fljin. Inftit. part iv. p. 308.
This expeditation was to be performed once in every
three years, and was done to every man’s dog who lived
near the foreft, and even the dogs'of the forefters them-
felves.
EXPEDITION, the march of an army to fome
diftant place, with a view of hoftilities. Such were the
expeditions of Cyrus againft Xerxes, and of Bacchus
and Alexander into the Indies.
Expeditions for the -recovery of the Holy Land
were called croifades.
EXPERIENCE, a kind of knowledge acquired
by long life without any teacher. It confifts in
the ideas of things we have feen or read, which the
judgment has refiefted on, to form for itfelf a rule or
method.
Authors make three kinds of experience: The firil
is the Ample ufes of the external fenfes, whereby we
perceive the phenomena of natural things without any
direft attention thereto, or making any application
thereof. The fecond is; when we premeditately and
defignedly make trials of various things, or obferve
thofe done by others, attending clofely to all effefts
and circumftances. The third is that preceded by a
foreknowledge, or at leaft an apprehenfion of the event,
and determines whether the apprehenfion were true or
falfe ; which two latter kinds, efpecially the third, are
of great fervice in philofophy.
EXPERIMENT, in philofophy, is the trial of the
refult or effeft of the applications and motions of cer¬
tain natural bodies, in order to difeover fomething of
their motions and relations, whereby to afeertain fome
of their phenomena or caufes.
EXPERIMENTAL philosophy.
IS that which has its foundation in experience,
wherein nothing is affumed as a truth but what
is founded upon ocular demonftration, or which can¬
not be denied without violating the common fenfe and
^perceptions of all mankind.
In former times philofophers, when reafoning about
natural things, inftead of following this method, af¬
fumed fuch principles as they imagined fufficient for
explaining the phenomena, without confidering whe¬
ther thefe principles were juft or not. Hence for a
great
7*-
EXPERIMENT
great number of ages no progrefs was made in fcience;
but fyftems were heaped upon fyftems, having neither
eonfiftency with one another nor with themfelves. No
proper explanations indeed were given of any thing; for
all thefe fyftema,- when narrowly examined, were found
to confift merely in changes of words, which were often
very abfurd and barbarous. The firft who deviated
from this method of philofophifing, if we may call it
by that name, was Friar Bacon, who lived in the 16th
century, and who fpent 2000 1. (an immenfe fum in
thofe days) in making experiments. The admirable
Crichton, who flourifhed about the year 1580, not only
difputed againft the philofophy of Arillotle, which
had for fo long been in vogue, but wrote a book a-
gainft it. Cotemporary v/ith this celebrated perfonage
was Francis Bacon lord chancellor of England, who is
looked upon to be the founder of the prefent mode of
philofophifing by experiments. But though others
might lay the foundation. Sir Ifaac Newton is juftly.
allowed to have brought this kind of philofophy to
perfedtion; and to him we are certainly indebted for
the greateil part of it. Unfortunately, however, nei¬
ther Lord Bacon nor Sir Ifaac Newton had an oppor¬
tunity of knowing many important fa&s relating to
the principles of fire and electricity, wdiich have iince
been brought to light. Hence all their philofophy
was merely mechanical, or derived from the vifible
opeiations of folid bodies, or of the grolfer fluids upon
one another. In fuch cafes therefore, where the more
fubtile and active fluids were concerned, they fell
into miftakes, or were obliged to deny the exiftence
of the principles altogether, and to make ufe of terms
which were equally unintelligible and incapable of
conveying any information with thofe of their prede-
ceflbrs. A. remarkable inftance of the errors into which
they were thus betrayed, we have in the doArine of
projectiles, where the moft enormous deviations from
truth were fandtified by the greateft names of the laft
century, merely by reafoning from the reflftance of the
air to bodies moving flowly and vifibly, to its refin¬
ance to the fame bodies when moved with high de-
* See Gun grees of velocity*. In other cafes they were reduced
nery. to make ufe of words to exprefs immechanical powers,
as attraction, repulfion, rarefaCtion, &c. which have
fince tended in no fmall degree to embarrafs and con¬
found fcience by the difputes that have taken place
concerning them. The foundations of the prefent fy-
ftem of experimental philofophy are as follow.
I. All the material fubftances of which the univerfe
is compofed are called natural bodies. What we per¬
ceive uniform and invariable in thefe fubftances we call
their properties. Some ®f thefe are ge neral and com¬
mon to all matter, as extenfion ; others are proper to
particular fubftances, for inftance fluidity; while feme
appear to be compounded of the general and particular
properties,-and thus belong to a ftill fmaller number;
as the properties of air, which are derived from the
general property of' extenfion combined with, thofe of
fluidity, elafticity, &e.
It. In taking a particular review of-the properties
of bodies, we naturally begin with that of extenfion.
This manifefts itfelf by the three dimenfions of length,.
breadth, and thicknefs. Hence proceeds the divifi-
bility of matter; which the prefent fyftem fuppofes to
reach even to. infinity: but though this propofition be
A L PHILOSOPHY,
fupported by mathematical demanftrationj, it is im-
poffible w*e ean either have any diftinCt idea of it, or of
the oppofite doCtrine, which teaches that matter is com¬
pofed of exceflively minute particles called alums, whic^
cannot be divided into fmaller ones. The fubtilty in¬
deed to which folid bodies may be reduced by mecha¬
nical means is very furprifing; and in fome cafes is fo
great, that we might be tempted to fuppofe that a
farther divifion is impoflible. Thus, in grinding a fpe-
culum, the inequalities of its furfaee are fo effedually-
worn off, that the whole becomes in a certain degree
inviiible, fliowing not itfelf by the light which falls
upon it, but the image of other bodies; but the fmall-
eft.fcratch which diflurbs the equality of the furface is .
at once diftindiy vifible.
III. From the arrangement of thefe ultimate par¬
ticles of matter, whatever we fuppofe them to be, arife
the various figures df bodies: and hence figure is a
property of all bodies no lefs univerfal than extenfion,.
unlefs we choofe to fpeak of the ultimate particles of
matter, which, as they are fuppofed to be deftitute of
parts, muft confequently be equally deftitute of figure ;
and the fame confequence will follow whether we
adopt this fuppofition or the other. The figures of
bodies are fo extremely various and diflimilar, that it
is impoflible to find any two perfedly alike. It is.
indeed the next thing to impofijble to find two in
which the diflirnilarity may not be perceived by the
naked eye ; but if any fuch fltould be found, the mi-
crofcope will quickly difeover the imbecility of our
fenfes in this refped. Solidity is another property
eflential to all matter. By this we mean that pro¬
perty which one quantity, of matter has of exclud¬
ing any other from the fpace which itfelf occupies
at that time. Hence arifes what we call reftflance, .
which is always an indication of folidity; and no.lefs fo
in thofe bodies which we cA\ fluid than in thofe which
are the moft folid. This may at firft feem to be a <
contradidion ; but fluids yield only when they can get
away from the prefiure; in all other cafes they refill
as violently as the moft folid bodies. Thus water con¬
fined in a tube will as effedually refift the imprdfion of
a pifton thruft down upon it as though it were the
moft folid fubftance. Air indeed will yield for a certain '
time; but this, as appears from feveral experiments,,
is entirely owing to a more fubtile fluid, viz. that of
elementary fire being prefled out from among its par¬
ticles. As long as this fluid can be forced out, either
from among the particles of ai^ water, or any other
more grefs fluid fubftance, the litter will be found com-
prcffihle, as a heap of wet fand would be by fqueezing
the water oufc from it: but when we come to the moft :
fubtile of all elements, fuch as we fuppofe that of fire
to be, there cannot be any poflibility of comprefling
it, even though we had a velfel fo clofe as to prevent
it from efcaping through its fides; becaufe its parts are
already as near each other as they can be.
IV. The diftance of the parts of bodies from each
other is what we call their porofity, and was former¬
ly fuppofed to be owing to a vacuum interfperfed be¬
tween them ; but now it is generally allowed that the
pores of folid bodies as well as of fluids are filled with
an extremely fubtile matter which pervades ail nature.
The porofity of bodies with regard to one another may .
be thus explained. Wood, or a fpongej is porous with
regard .
2
EXPERTMENTA
Tegard to water ; but water itfelf Is porous with re¬
gard to air, which it abforbs in confiderable quantity.
Both air and water are porous with regard to the ele¬
ment of fire, which produces very confiderable changes
•upon them, according to. the quantity of it they con¬
tain, or the manner it afts in their pores. This ele¬
ment itfelf, however, is not porous with regard to any
other fubltance. Its pores, therefore, if it has any, mull
be abfolute vacuities deftitute of any matter whatever.
Yacuities of this kind indeed are fuppofed to be ab-
folutely neceffary to motion : for though we may fay,
matter being divifible almofl: ad infinitum, that a body
or fubftance more folid may move in another fubftance
that is more fubtile, and that will give way to its mo¬
tion, we muft neverthelefs have recourfe to alaft refort,
and admit of an ultimate vacuum, which will give room
fufficient to the leaft corpufcle, that its part yl may take
the place of its part B without the leaft refiftance:
befides, it is not to be imagined, that nature, in faft,
admits of that infinite divifibility which our imagina¬
tion can conceive, and that every thing which is pof-
fible in idea, is at all times practicable. All that
exifts is poffible, but all that is poffible does not how¬
ever exift. By denfity, is underftood the proportion be¬
tween the extenfion and folidity of a body : one body
therefore is more denfe than another, when, under the
fame degree of extenfipn, it contains more folid mat¬
ter : and this quality arifes from condenfation and com-
preffion. Elafticity is nothing more than that effort
by which certain bodies, when compreffed, endeavour
to reftore themfelves to their former ftate; and this
property fuppofes them compreffible. As all thefe na¬
tural properties of bodies are of great utility in ex¬
plaining the principles of phyfics, and in applying them
to all the arts, experimental philofophy proves their
reality by a thoufand examples.
V. We difcover ftill other properties in bodies; fuch
as mobility, which we muft not here confound with
motion. This mobility anfes from certain difpofitions
which are not in an equal degree in all bodies: from
■whence it comes that fome are more eafily moved than
others: and this proceeds from the refiftance to mo¬
tion which is perceived in all bodies, having regard
merely to their maffes ; and this refiftance is called vis
inertia, or inert force. A body is faid to be in mo¬
tion when it is aftually moving from one place to an¬
other; or, whenever a body changes its fituation with
regard to the objedts that furround it, either nearly or
remotely, it is faid to be in motion. There are three
principal matters to be confidered in a moving body ;
its direction, its velocity, and the quantity of its mo¬
tion : and here phyfics explains the force or moving
power; it likewife diftinguiflies between fimple and
compound motion. Simple motion is that which arifes
from only one force, or which tends to only one point.
It defcribes the laws, and explains' the refiftance, of
mediums ; the refiftance of fridtion ; the difficulties of
a perpetual motion ; the alteration of direction occa-
fioned by the oppofition of a fluid matter; refledted or
reverberated motion ; the communication of motion by
the (hock of bodies, &c. Compound motion is that
of a body impelled to move by feveral caufes or powers
which adt according to their different diredtions. Phy¬
fics here likewife inveftigates the laws of motion ; and
is particularly applied to the explaining, under this
N°I22.
L PHILOSOPHY^
head, what are called the centralforces, which produce
a motion that is either circular or in a curve line, and
which inceffantly urge the moving body either to ap¬
proach or recede from the centre. To diftinguifh thefe
from each other, the former is called the centripetal
force, and the latter the centrifugal forte.
VI. By gravity, or ponderolity, is to be underftood
that force which occafions bodies to pafs from a higher
to a lower place, when nothing oppofes their courfe,
or when the obftacles are not fufficient to ftop them.
Speculative philofophy inveftigates its caufe, and per¬
haps in vain. Experimental philofophy contents itfelf
with defcribing the phenomena, and teaching the laws
of gravity, which are thoroughly eftablifhed by a thou¬
fand reiterated experiments. In order properly to un-
derftand this fubjedt, we muft take care not to confound
the term gravity with that of weight. By the former,
we underftand that force which urges bodies to defcend
•through a certain fpace in a given time. By the latter,
is meant the quantity of a heavy body that is contain¬
ed under the fame bulk. The phenomena are explain¬
ed by the experiments themfelves, and by inferences de¬
duced from them.
VII.Hydroftatics is afcience of which the objedt is the
gravity and equilibrium of fluids in particular. Though
the gravity of thefe bodies is the fame with that of
others, and is fubjedf to the fame laws, yet their ftate
of fluidity gives rife to particular phenomena, which it
is of confequence to know. But as hydroftatics can¬
not be fuccefsfully treated on without the affiftante of
calculation, it has been ranked among the mathematical
fciences.
VIII. We fay the fame with regard to mechanics;
which is the art of employing, by the aid of machines,
the motion of bodies, in conformity to its properties
and laws, as well with regard to folids as fluids, either
more commodioufly or more advantageoufly.
IX. After it has made the moft accurate experi¬
ments, and the moft judicious obfervations, on all thefe
different fubjedts, and the properties of bodies in par¬
ticular, Experimental Philofophy paffes to the exami¬
nation of the air, the water, fire, the wind, colours,
&c. The air is a fluid with which we are furrounded
from the inftant of our birth, and without which we
cannot exift. It is by the properties and the influences
of the air, that nature gives increafe and perfedtion to
all that it produces for our wants and conveniencies ;
it is the fpirit of navigation : found, voice, fpeech it¬
felf, are nothing more than percuffions of the air:
this globe that we inhabit is completely furrounded by
air; and this kind of coverture, which is commonly
called the atmofphere, has fuch remarkable fundtions,
that it evidently appears to concur to the mechanifm
of nature. Experimental phyfics, therefore, confiders
the air, i. Of itfelf, independent of its bulk, and the
figure of its whole body : it examines its effential pro¬
perties ; as its gravity, denfity, fpring, &c. The air-
pump is here of indifpenfable ufe; and by this ma¬
chine phyfics examines in what manner fpace, or a va¬
cuum, is made. It likewife Ihows the neceffity of air to
the prefervation of animal life; the effedf it has on
found, fire, and gunpowder, in vacuo; and a hundred
other experiments of various degrees ofeuriofity. 2. It
confi :ers the air as the terreftrial atmofphere, fome-
times as a fluid at reft, and fometimes as in motion.
And
Sea, I.
EXPERIMENTAL philosophy.
And by thefe means it accounts for the variation of the
mercury in the barometer, and why it finks in propor¬
tion as the height of the atmofphere diminifhes; as
-alfo for the figure, the extent, and weight of the at¬
mofphere : it fiiows the method of determining the
height of mountains, the nature of found in general,
of its propagation, and of fonoroUs bodies. The late
difcoveries of Dr. Prieftley and others have added a
new and very confiderable branch to experimental phi-
lofophy in this refpedf, of which an account is given
under the article Aerology.
X. It is here alfo, that experimental philofophy
confiders the nature of the wind; which is nothing
more than agitated air, a portion of the atmofphere
that moves like a current, with a certain velocity and
determinate direftion. This fluid, with regard to
its direction, takes different names according to the
different points of the horizon from whence it comes,
as eaft, weft, north, and fouth. Winds are likewife
diftinguilhed into three forts; one of which is called
general or conftant, as the trade-winds which continually
blow between the tropics: another is the periodical,
which always begin and end within a certain time of
the year, or a certain hour of the day, as the monfoons,
the land-breezes and fea-breezes, which arife conftant-
ly in the morning and evening ; and laftly, fuch as are
’variable, as well with regard to their direction as their
velocity and duration.
M. Mariotte computes the velocity of the moft im¬
petuous wind to be at the rate of 32 feet in a fecond,
and Mr Derham makes it 66 feet in the fame time.
The firft, doubtlefs, meant the wind of the greateft ve¬
locity that had then come to his knowledge. The in¬
vention of aeroftatic machines has tended more to Ihow
the real velocity of the wind than any other invention
as yet made public : but all of them move flower than
the aerial current; fo that the real velocity of the wind
remains yet undetermined.
XI. The force of the wind, like that of other bodies,
depends on its velocity and mafs; that is, the quan¬
tity of air which is in motion : fo the fame wind has
more or lefs force on any obftacle that oppofes it, in
proportion as that obftacle prefents a greater or a lefs
furface : for which reafon it is that they fpread the fails
of a veffel more or lefs, and place the wings of a wind¬
mill in different directions. The machines by which
the winds are meafured, are called anemometers. They
fhow the direction, the velocity, and the duration of
winds. It is by the agitations of the wind that the air
is purified ; that the feeds of trees and herbs are convey¬
ed through the forefts and fields; that fliips are driven
from one pole to the other ; that our mills turn upon
their axes, &c. ; and art, by imitating nature, fome-
times procures us artificial'wands, by which we refrelh
our bodies, invigorate our fires, purify our corn, &c.
XII. Water is an univerfal agent, which nature em¬
ploys in ail her productions. It may be confidered as
in three ftates, 1. As a liquid ; 2. As a vapour ; 3. As
ice. Thefe three different ftates do not in any man¬
ner change its effence, but make it proper to anfwer
different ends. The natural ftate of water would be
that of a folid body, as fat, wax, and all thofe other
bodies which are only fluid when heated to a certain
degree : for water would be conftantly ice, if the par¬
ticles of fire, by w’hich it is penetrated in the tempe-
Vol. VII. Part I.
rate climates, did not render it fluid, by producing a
reciprocal motion among its parts ; and, in a country
where the cold is continually ftrong enough to main¬
tain the congelation, the afliftance of art is neceffaiy
to make it fluid in the fame manner as we do lead, &c.
Water, when not in ice, is a fluid that is infipid,tranfpa-
rent, without colour, and without fmell, and that eali-
ly adheres to the furface of fome bodies, that pene¬
trates many, and extinguifhes fire. Experimental phi-
lofophy inveftigates the origin of fountains; the caufe
of the faltnefs of the fea ; the means of purifying wa¬
ter ; what is its weight, and what are its effeCts when
heated, &c. It likewife examines this flu,id in the ftate
of vapour; and finds that a drop of water, when in
vapour, occupies a fpace vaftly greater than it did be¬
fore. It explains the teolipile and its effe&s; fire en¬
gines ; and the force of vapours that give motion to,
immenfe machines in mines and elfewhere, &c. and
laftly, it confiders water in the ftate of ice. Ice con-
fequently is more cold than water ; and its coldnefs in-
creafes if it continue to lofe that matter, already too
rare, or too little arrive, to render it fluid. Experi¬
mental phyfics endeavours to inveftigate the caufcs of
the congelation of water, and why ice is lighter than
water ; from whence it derives that expanfive force by
which it breaks the containing veffel; the difference
there is between the congelation of rivers and that of
{landing waters; why ice becomes more cold by the
mixture of falls; and many other fimilar phenomena.
XIII. The nature of fire is yet very much unknown
to the moft learned philofophers. As objefts when at a
great diftance are not perceptible to our fenfes, fo when
we examine them too nearly, we difeern them but con-
fufedly. It isftill difputed whether fire be a homogene,
unalterable matter, defigned, by its prefence, or by its
aftion, to produce heat, inflammation, and diffolution,
in bodies; or if its effence confifts in motion only, or
in the fermentation of thofe particles which we call in~
Jlammalle, and which enter as principles, in greater or
lefs quantities, in the compofition of mixed bodies.
The moft learned inquirers into nature incline to the
former opinion ; and to have recourfe to a matter
which they regard as the principle of fire. They fup-
pofe that there is in nature a fluid adapted to this pur-'
pofe, created fuch from the beginning, and that no¬
thing more is neceff’ary than to put it in a£lion. The
numberlefs experiments which are daily made in elec¬
tricity feem to favour this opinion, and to prove that
this matter, this fluid, this elementary fire, is diffufed
through all nature, and in all bodies, even ice itfelf.
We cannot fay to what important knowledge this great
difeovery of eledlricity may lead if we continue our
inquiries concerning it. It appears, however, that we
may believe, without any inconvenience or abfurdity,
that fire and light, confidered in their firft principle,
are one and the fame fubftance differently modified.
XIV. Be this matter however as it may, experi¬
mental philofophy is employed in making the moft in¬
genious and moft ufeful refearches concerning the na¬
ture of fire, its propagation, and the means by which
its power may be excited or augmented ; concerning
the phofphorus and its inflammation; fire excited by
the refledtion of the fun’s rays from a mirror ; and on
the effedls of fire in general; concerning lightning and
itseffe&s; the fufion of metals; gunpowder and its
K explofion;
73
Sear.
?4
EXPERIMENTAL philosophy.
explofion ; flame and the aliments of fire ; and an in¬
finity of like objedts which it explains, or concerning
which it makes new difcoveries, by the aid of experi¬
ments.
XV. By the word light, we underftand that agent
by which nature affefts the eye with that lively and
almoft conftantly pleafing fenfation, which we call fee¬
ing, and by which we difcern the fize, figure, colour,
and fituation of objefts, when at a convenient diftance.
All philofophers agree, that the light, which is diffufed
in any place, is a real body. But what this body is,
and by what means it enters that place where it is per¬
ceived, is a queftion about which philofophers are di¬
vided.
XVI. Experimental philofophy is applied in difco-
vering or proving, by an infinity of experiments, what
is the nature of light, in what manner it is propagated,
what its velocity and progreffive motion. It alfo inve-
iligates and explains the principles of optics properly
fo called, and fhows the dirediions which light ob-
ferves in its motions. From thence it proceeds to the
examen of the principles of catoptrics, and defcribes
the laws and cffe&s of reflefted light. It next treats
of the principles of dioptrics, and explains the laws of
re fra died light ; and laftly, it teaches, from the princi¬
ples of natural and artificial vifion, the conftru&ion of
optical inftruments, as lenfes, concave mirrors, prifms,
telefcopes, &c. &c. and the ufes to which they are ap¬
plied.
XVII. By refolving or feparatinglthe rays of light,
philofophy has obtained true and clear difcoveries of the
nature of colours. We are naturally led to imagine that
colours, and their different degrees, make a part of the
bodies that prefent them to our fight; that white is
inherent in fnow, green in leaves and grafs, and red ?n
a fluff dyed of that colour. But this is farirom being
true. If an objedl, which prefents any colour to our
fight, be not illuminated, it prefents no colour what-
foever. In the night all is black. Colours therefore
depend on light; for without that we could form no
idea of them : but they depend alfo on bodies ; for of
feveral objedts prefented to the fame light, fome appear
white, others red, blue, &c. But all thefe matters
being feparate from our own bodies, we fhould never
acquire any ideas of them, if the light, tranfmitted or
refle&ed by thefe objedls, did not make them fenfible
to us, by flriking upon the organs of our fight, and if
thefe impreflions did not revive in us thofe ideas which
we have been ufed to exprefs by certain terms. For
thefe reafons philofophy confiders colours from three
points of view, x. As in the light; 2. In bodies, as
being coloured ; and, 3. From the relation they have
to our vifual faculties, which they particularly affeft,
and by which we are enabled to diflinguifh them.
It is unneceffary in this place to fay more either on
colour in particular or experimental philofophy in ge¬
neral. The different fubje&s of this colledtive article
are particularly treated under their proper names, in
the order of the alphabet: the reader will therefore
turn, as he has occafion, to Acoustics, Catoptrics,
Chromatics, Dioptrics, Hydrostatics, Mecha¬
nics, Optics, Pneumatics, Electricity, Mag¬
netism, Iffr. &c. &c. Alfo Aerology, Aerosta¬
tion, Atmosphere, BunNiNG-Glafs, Cold, Colour,
Congelation, Evaporation, Fire, Flame, Flui¬
dity, Heat, Ignition, Light, Sound, Steam,.
Water, Wind, &c.
EXP
Lxperimen- EXPERIMENTUM crucis, a capital, leading,
turn or decifive experiment; thus termed, either on account
Ex iation *tS a cr°fs> or direftion-poft placed in
. * ;1 the meeting of feveral roads, guiding men to the true
1 knowledge of the nature of that thing they are inqui¬
ring after ; or, on account of its being a kind of tor¬
ture, whereby the nature of the thing is as it were ex¬
torted by force.
EXPHORESIS. See Oratory, n° 85.
EXPIATION, a religious a£t, by which fatisfac-
tion or atonement is made for the commiffion of fome
crime, the guilt done away, and the obligation to pu-
nifhment cancelled.
Expiations among the Heathens, were of feveral
kinds; as facrifices and religious walhings. They
were ufed for effacing a crime, averting any calamity,
and on numberlefs other occafions, as purifying towns,
temples, and facred places, and armies befoie and
after battle. And they were performed for whole ci¬
ties as well as particular perfons.
The method of expiatiori among the Jews was chief¬
ly by facrifice, whether for fins of ignorance, or to
purify themfelves from certain pollutions.
Feajl of Expiation among the Jews, called by our
tranflators the day of atonement, was held on the tenth
day of Tifri, or the feventh month of the Jewifh year,
anfwering to part of our September and Oftober. It
EXP
was inflituted by God himfelf, Levit. xxiii. 27, &c. Expiation
On that day the high-prieft, the figure or type of Je-
fus Chrift, entered into the molt holy place, and con- Expl -fion.
feffed his fins; and, after feveral ceremonies, made an
atonement for all the people to wafh them from their
fins. Lev. chap. xvi. See ScAPE-Goat.
Expiation, in a figurative fenfe, is applied by di¬
vines to the pardon procured to the fins of the peni¬
tent by the merit of Chrifl’s death. See the article
Christianity.
EXPIRATION, in medicine. See Exspiratiom.
Expiration, is alfo ufed figuratively, for the end
of a term of time granted, agreed on, or adjudgeid.
EXPLICIT, in the fchools, fomething clear, di-
llinft, formal, and unfolded.
EXPLOSION, in natural philofophy, a hidden and
violent expanfion of an aerial or other elallic fluid, by
which it inllantly throws off any obftacle that happens
to be in the way, fometimes with incredible force, and
in fuch a manner as to produce the moft aftonifliing ef¬
fects upon the neighbouring obje£ls.
Explofibn differs from expanfion, in that the latter is a.Difference
gradual and continued power, afting uniformly for fome between ex¬
time ; whereas the former is always hidden, and only plofion and.
of momentary duration. The expanfions of folid fub- cxPan“an*
fiances do not terminate in violent explofions, on ac¬
count of tlteic llownefs, and the fmall fpace through
which.
EXP
[ 75 1
EXP
Iiplefion. which the metal, or other expanding fubltance, moves; the eledtric fluid collects itfelf into balls, the flrength Etplofion.
  though their ftrength may be- equally great with that of the explofion is proportionable to the quantity. E-
of the molt aftive aeiial fluids. Thus we find, that very one has heard of the prodigious effects of light-
Ceneral
Caufes of
explofions,
though wedges of wood, when wetted, will cleave fo-
lid blocks of flone, they never throw them to any di-
ftance, as is the cafe with gun-powder. On the other
hand, it is feldom that the expanfion of any elaftic
fluid burfts a, folid fubftance without throwing the
fragments of it to a confiderable diflance, the effedts
of which are often very terrible. The reafons of this
may be comprifed in the two following particulars :
[. The immenfe velocity with which the aerial fluids
ning when it happens to ftrike buildings, trees, or even
the moft folid rocks ; and in fome cafes, where the
quantity of eledtricity is (till greater than in any flafh
of lightning, we hear of ftill more tremendous confe-
quences enfuing. Dr Prieftiey gives an inftance of a
large fire-ball (undoubtedly a quantity of eledtric mat¬
ter) rolling on the furface of the fea, which after ri-
fing up to the top-mall of a fhip of war, burlt with
fuch violence that the explofion refembled the dif-
expand, when affedted by a confiderable degree of charge of hundreds of cannon fired at once. Great da-
heat ; and, 2. Their celerity in acquiring heat and mage was done by it; but there is not the leaft doubt
being affedied by it, which is much fuperior to that of that moft of its force was fpent on the air, or carried
down to the fea by the maft and iron-work of the fliip.
Indeed, confidering that in all cafes a great part of
the force* of eledtric explofions is diffipated in this man¬
ner, it may juftly be doubted whether they can be
meafured by any method applicable to the menfuration
folxd fubftances. Thus air, heated as much as iron
when brought to a White heat, is expanded to four
times its bulk; but the metal itfelf will not be expand¬
ed the 500th part of the fpace. In the cafe of gun¬
powder, which is a violent and well-known explofive
fubftance, the velocity with which the flame moves is of other forces. Even in artificial eledtricity the force
•calculated by Mr Robins, in his Treatife upon Gunnery,
to be nO lefs than 7000 feet in a fecond, or little lefs
than 79 miles per minute. Hence the impulfe of the
fluid is inconceivably great, and the obftacles on which pounds.
is prodigioufly great; infomuch that Dr Van Marum
calculated that of the great battery belonging to the
machine in Teyler’s mufeum to be upwards of 900
it ftrikes are hurried off with vaft velocity, though
much lefs than that juft mentioned ; for a cannon bul¬
let, with the greateft charge of powder that can be con¬
veniently given, does not move at a greater rate than
2400 feet per fecond, or little more than 27 miles per
In thofe cafes where the eledtrical matter adts like Volcanic
common fire, the force of the explofions, though ex-expl°fi°n3
ceedingly great, is capable of menfuration by compa* llext m.
ring the difiances to which the bodies are thrown with ren^
their weight. This is moft evident in volcanoes, where
minute. The velocity of the bullet again is promoted the projedtions of the burning rocks and lava manifeft
by the fudden propagation of the heat through the
whole body of air as foon as it is extricated from the
materials of which the gunpowder is made ; fo that it
is enabled to ftrike all at once, and thus greatly to aug*.
ment the momentum of the ball. It is evident that
this contributes very much to the force of the explo¬
fion by what happcns"when powder is wetted or mixed
the greatnefs of the power, at th^ fame time that they
afford a method of meafuring it, ' Thefe explofions, as
is ftiown under the article Volcano, are owing to ex¬
trication of aerial vapours, and their rarefadlion by in- ^
tenfe heat. In all of them the air is originally in a In what
ftate of decompofition, viz. its invifible and folid partmanner as-
is joined with fome terreftrial fubftance. Thus, when !.ial exP}°'
J . „ . - , 7 . linns
with any fubftance, which prevents it from taking fire fixed air, for inftance, is expofed to any pure earth
all at once. In this cafe the force of the explofion.
ven when the fame quantity of powder is made ufe of,
cannot be compared to that of dry powder.
Upon thefe principles we may conclude, that the
which attra&s it, as calcined magnefia, a decompofi¬
tion inilantly takes place. All thefe vapours * are • See £/af-
compofed of elementary fire and fome invifible fub-
fiance capable of affuming a folid form. The decom-
force of an explofion depends, 1. On the quantity of pofition juft mentioned is therefore eafily explained; the
Eleftric
plofions th
ftrongefl
elaftic fluid to be expanded ; 2. On the velocity it ac¬
quires by a certain degree of heat; and, 3. On the
celerity with which the degree of heat affects the
whole of the expanfile fluid. Thefe three take place
^‘in the greateft perfeftion where the ele&ric fluid is
folid part of the air joins itfelf to the magnefia, while the
elementary fire or latent heat is difiipated,andpaffesthro’
thefides of the veffel. Were it now in our power fudden-
ly to reftore the latent heat to the whole of the fixed air,
fo that it would at once affume its former expanfion, a
if concerned ; as in cafes of lightning, earthquakes, and violent explofion would follow. This feems to be pre¬
volcanoes. This fluid, as is fhown in many parts of cifely the cafe with the volcanic explofions. An immenfe
this work, differs not from elementary fire or the light quantity of the fixed part of different aerial fluids is
of the fun ; it pervades the whole fyflem of nature; its
expanfion is nothing elfe than its motion from a centre
towards a circumference, for it does not feem capable
of any proper expanfion by a feparation of its parts
like any other fluid.
united to the various fubftances found below the fur-
face of the earth. By means of the eleftric fire which
kindles the volcanoes, the aerial fluids are fuddenly re-
ftored to their elaftic ftate ; and not only fo, but their
Hence, when it begins to expand natural elafticity is greatly augmented, fo that the ex- ^
m this manner, the motion is propagated through it plofions take place with great violence. The cafe is EXpi0flonof
with a velocity far exceeding that of any other fluid the fame with gunpowder ; only that the edndenfed air gunpow-
whatever. Thus, even when the quantity is exceffively in this cafe is at firll of the dephlogifticated kind, but der explain-
fmail, as when an ele&ric fpark is fent through a glafs is quickly phlogifticated by reafon of the combuftible e^‘
full of water or of oil, the expanfion is fo violent as matters mixed with the nitre, while the heat produced
to diflipate the glafs into innumerable fragments with by the inflammation augments the elafticity of the ge-
great danger to the by-ftanders, as is obferved under nerated air to four times what it ufually is, fo that the
the article Electricity. In violent lightning, where whole force of the exploiion. is calculated at 1000
Sxplbfion:
* See the
Article Cun
Explofions
by aqueous
vapours.
Violent ex.
plofion of
water with
melted cop-
per.
10
Probably
owing to a
decompofi-
tion of the
■water.
Particular¬
ly explain-
E x p [ 76 ] EXP
times the preflure of the common atmofphere Thus fiftance, it is far otherwife where the velocity of the Explofios.
the explofions of gunpowder and of volcanoes are efTen- moving body becomes very great. In ail cafes of ex- —^ » 1
tially the fame. The reafofi of the extreme quicknefs plefion alfo there is in the firlt inllance a vacuum made
of thofe of gunpowder is, that it takes fire fo readily by by the exploding fluid; and confequently the weight
the intimate mixture and corfibuftibility of all the ma- of the atmofphere is to be overcome, which amounts
terials. In volcanoes the explofions likewife follow to about 15 pounds on every fquare inch of- furface.
one another very quickly, and are by no means infe- Suppofing the furface of the exploding fluid, then, on
rior in ftrength to thofe of gunpowder: but here the that of melted copper to contain an area of 4 fquat'e
quantity of vapour makes up for the comparative inches, it meets with a reflitance of 60 pounds from
ilownefs with which it is affedted by the heat. Thus, the atmofphere, and confequently communicates an
though we could not by any means contrive to fire equal preflure to the fluid metal. Even this muft of
cannon in quick fuccefiion by means of calcareous confequence throw it about, unlefs the fame preffure
earth as we can do with gunpowder, yet in the huge was exadtly diffufed over every part of the furface :
furnace of a volcano the elaftic matter is fupplied in But much more muft thisaffiedl be increafed by the
fuch quantities, that the explofions are in a manner un- immenfe velocity with which the fluid moves, and by
remitting; and even in ordinary experiments the con- which the refiitance of the atmofphere is augmented
fmement of aerial vapours has often occafioned violent in a prodigious degree, as is explained under the article
explofions in chemical veflels. In one cafe too the ex- .Gunnery. The elaftic fluid generated is then con-
trication of fixed air adds excefllvely to the force of an fined not only by the fluid metal and Tides of the fur-
explofion, viz. 'in that of pulvis fulminans. This is nace, but by the air itfelf, which cannot get out of
compounded of fulphur, faltpetre, and fait of tartar, the way ; fo that the whole rcfembles a cannon clofed
The latter we know contains much fixed air : and it is at the mouth, and filled with inflamed gunpowder,
probable that the violence of the exploflon is occafion- Hence not only the melted metal, but the furnace it-
ed by this air ; for the greater quantity of it that the felf and the adjacent walls of the building, are hurried
alkaline fait contains, the greater force does it explode off as they would be by the firing of a great quantity
with. Fulminating gold emits a quantity of phlogifti- of gunpowder in a fmall fpace, and which is well
cated air, to which its exploflve pow'er is fuppofed to known to produce analogous effedts. 13
be owing, as is explained under the article Che mi- In explaining the phenomenon in queftion, Dr Black!8 not ow_
stry ; but that of fulminating lilver is fo extraordi- fuppofes that the mere heat of the metal applied to the
nary, that fcarce any force of aerial vapour that can be aqueous fteam produces the explofion ; and in proof iteam in-
extricated is likely to produce it, and it feems pro- of this alleges, that copper imbibes a greater quantity tenl'dy
bable that eleftricity itfelf is concerned. of heat during fufion than any other metal. Aqueousheatt^*
Next in ftrength to. the aerial vapours are thofe of fteam, however, feems to be too flow’ for producing
aqueous and other liquids. The moft remarkable ef- fuch fudden and violent effedfs. Explofions, it is true,
fedts of thefe are obferved in fteam-engines ; but there .will be occafioned by it, but then it muft be confined
is one particular cafe from which it has been inferred for a very confiderable time ; whereas the effedfs of vva-
that aqueous fteam is vaftly ftronger than the flame of ter thrown upon melted copper are initantaneous. 13
gunpowder. This is when water is thrown upon melt- It may now be allied, Why fuch explofions do not Why fuch
ed copper : for here the explofion is fo itrong as al- take place with any other metal, iron for inftance, when
moft to exceed imagination; and the moft terrible ac- water is thrown upon its furface in fufion ? In anfwerpj3ce wjt|1
cidents have been known to happen from fuch a flight to this we muft obferve, That though water is decom- other me-
caufe as one of the workmen ipitting in the furnace pofed by being applied to red-hot iron in the form of tab.
"where copper w’as melting. Here, however, it is moft fteam, yet there is a poffibility, that when the fame ele-
probable that a decompolkion of the water takes place, ment is applied in fubftance to the fluid metal, no de-
That this element can be decompofcd or refolved into compofition may enfue. Something like this in-
an aerial and a folid fubftance, is extremely probable from deed happens with copper itfelf; for, notwithftanding
the experiments of Dr Prieftley, as well as thofe of the the violent effedts which take place on the contadt of
French philofophers. The pofition is indeed denied w’ater in fubftance wfith the melted metal, no explo-
by the phlogiftians; but their arguments appear not fion happens though aqueous fteam be blown upon its
to be concluiive ; nor is it a fact which militates in the furface. On the contrary, the upper part of the me-
leaft againft their principles. On the fuppofition that tal is thus cooled, and forms itfelf into cakes, which
the water is decompofed in the prefent cafe, however, are afterwards taken off, and new ones formed in the
the phenomenon in queftion is eafily folved. The water fame manner; neither does aqueous fteam affedt red-hot
being thrown in fubftance upon the melted copper, is copper in the manner that it does iron in the fame ftate.
decompofed by the violent heat; and one part of it A decifive proof that the explofion is not occafioned
adheres to the metal, thus converting it into a kind of by the mere heat of the aqueous fteam may be dedu-
calx, while the other is converted into inflammable ced from the example of melted glafs, which produces
or fome other kind of air, which expanding fuddenly, no explofion though we pour water upon it in that
throws the melted metal all about with the greateft ftate ; and yet the heat of melted glafs is undoubtedly
violence by means of its re-adtion. equal at leaft to that of melted copper. It mult be °b- Exploffo.nv
To underftand the manner in which this is accom- ferved, however, that in all cafes where a very hot when heat-
plifhed, we muft confider fome of the principles of body is thrown upon a fmall quantity of water in fub-ed fubftan-
Gunnery laid down by Mr Robins, and related ftance, an explofion will follow; but here the water u
under that article. One of thefe is, that .though the is confined and fuddenly rarefied into fteam, which can- p^fj^aU*
3ir, in cafes of ordinary velocity, makes no great re- not get away without throwing off the body, which quantities
.* confines of water.
EXP E 77 1 EXP
Sxplofion. confines it. Examples of this kind frequently occur
""r where mafons or other mechanics are employed in fatt¬
ening cramps of iron into Hones ; where, if there hap¬
pens to be a little water in the hole into which the lead
is poured, the latter will fly out in fuch a manner as
fometimes to bum them feverely. Terrible accidents
of this kind have fometimes happened in founderies,
when large quantities of melted metal have been poured
% into wet moulds. In thefe cafes, the fudden" expanfion
of the aqueous lleam has thrown out the metal with
violence ; and if any decompofition has taken place at
the fame time, fo as to convert the aqueous into an
aerial vapour, the explofion muftbe Hill greater.
By pouring To this lalt kind of explolion we muft refer that
cold water which takes place on pouring cold water into boiling
into boiling‘qj. burning oil or tallow. Here the cafe is much the
fame whether we pour the oil on the water, or the
water on the oil. In the former cafe, the water which
lies at the bottom is rarefied into fleam and explodes;
in the latter, it finks down through the oil by its fupe-
rior fpecific gravity, and explodes as it paffes along. In
either cafe, however, the quantity of aqueous fluid
muft be but fmall in proportion to that of the oil: a
very great quantity would put out the flame, or deitroy
j<j the heat, in whatever way we applied it.
Explofions Another kind of explofion is that which takes place
in lolidfub-;n fiibftances, where we can fcarce fuppofe either
planedC*" aqueous or aerial vapours to be concerned. The moft
remarkable of thefe are the volcanic bombs mentioned
by Sir William Hamilton in the great eruption, of Ve-
fuvius in 1779- They were large pieces of Java which
burit in pieces like bombs as they fell to the ground }
but he does not inform us whether their buriting was
attended with any great violence or not. Indeed, amidft
fuch fcenes of/horror, and the continual tremendous
explofions of the volcano, fmaller phenomena of this
kind would probably be overlooked. Other examples
are the GiAss-Tears, of which an account is given un¬
der that article ; the burfting of ele&rical globes, when
put in motion; of other glafs-vefiels fpontaneoufly,
and feemingly without any canfe; and laftly, the buril-
ing of large caft-metal veffels in the a£t of cooling,
Thefe are all fo fimilar to one another, that it is pro¬
bable they depend on one general caufe. All of them
agree in this refpeft, that the extreme parts of them
are confiderably cooled, while the internal remain very
hot. Thus, in the volcanic bombs, the current of air,
formed by their fwift pafiage through it in falling, ne-
oeffarily carries off a great quantity of heat from the
parts which are in contadf with it, while the reft are
fcarce at all cooled. Thq glafs-tears are artificially
cooled on the outfide by dropping them upon water;
and in confequence of this, their explofion is probably
more violent in- proportion to their bulk than that of
the volcanic bombs. Glafs-veffels only burft fponta¬
neoufly when they have not been well annealed; and
we know that this bad annealing confifts only in ap¬
plying cold too fuddenly to the outfide. Something
like this probably takes place when call-iron veffels ex¬
plode ; and we are certain it does fo with eledtrical
globes, for thefe laft are not apt to burft if they have
been well annealed. In all cafes, therefore, there is a
remarkable contradlion of the outward furface by the
cold, while the internal parts remain as much expand¬
ed as ever. In this cafe theie mull be.a continual ef?
fort of that fubtile fluid called elementaryJire, from the Explofion.
internal to the external part, as the contraction gradually ——
proceeds the contrary wayv Thus, when a volcanic
bomb, for inltance, is cooled on the outfide, its parts
are confolidated fo that the internal fluid has not fuch
an eafy paffage through it as is neceffary. In confe¬
quence of this it makes a greater effort, which is Hill
farther augmented by the cooling and contradlion of
the internal parts fqueezing the fluid out from among;
themfelves, and forcing it to recoil upon that in the
centre, as v/ell as to exert itfelf againft the external
part; from which united operation the effedl already
mentioned at lall takes place. This explanation, how¬
ever, does not hold with refpedt to eledlrical globes,
glafs-tears, or ill-annealed glafs: but in order to ac¬
commodate it to all thefe, we have only to remember,
that Jire, and the eledlric fluid acling from a centre
to a circumference, are not in the leall different; fo
that from whatever caufe the ele<flric matter is difpo-
fed to adl in this manner, the fame effedl will follow,
i. e. an explofion will take place if the fubliance does
not afford an equally ready paffage through all its
parts, and that whether any fenfible heat is felt in it
or not. jy
The only other kind of explofion we have to take Explofion of;
notice of is that produced by inflammable and dephlo- mflam-
gifticated air, when mixed together and fet on fire,
This differs from any of thofe hitherto confidered, tkated air,
becaufe in reality there is an abfolute condenfation
rather than an expanfion throughout the whole of
the operation ; and could the airs be made to take
fire throughout their whole fubftance abfolutely at the
fame inftant, there would be no fexplofion, but only a
fudden produdlion of heat. From this caufe alfo is
derived a very Angular phenomenon taken notice of by
Dr Prieltley in his late'experiments on that fubjedt, re- 18
corded in the Phil. Tranf. Having inclofed feverals‘ngular'
quantities of inflammable and dcphlogifticated air in
copper veffel, firing them afterwards by the eledlric ve<} by Ds*
fparks, he found that the force, of the explofion was Pricftley,
diredted more towards one part of the veffel than ano¬
ther ; leaft on that part where the eledtrical difcharge
was made, and moll upon that which was fartheftfrom
it. This inequality was very confiderable; infomuch
that he could not repeat his experiments any number
of times without injuring the veffel in that part which
was fartheft from the difcharge. The reafon he gives
for this is, that the mixture was not fired at the fame
inftant, but firft at the place where the difcharge was
made. This firft explofion would have adled equally
upon all parts of the veffel, had it not been for the
intervention of the air. By the firft momentary ex^-
plofion, however, the air in the farthell part of the
veffel was condenfed, fo that the next explofion was
made ftronger, while the copper in . the fore-part of
the veffel had the whole of this ftrong explofion to
refill, the hinder part being but little concerned, as
the. air in it was condenfed and reduced almoft to a va-
cuum. 19:
Though the phenomena of explofions are fometimes Ufes to
very deftrudlive, they are likewife of confiderable ufe which ex*
in life, by removing obftacles which could fcarcely be P10^0”3 8rs
got the better of by any mechanical power whatever- ** '€
The principal of thefe are the blowing up of rocks, the
feparating of Hones in quarries, and other purpofes of
that
EXP [ 78 ] EXP
Explofion. that kind. The deftruftion occafioned by them in electrical explofxons themfelves are moft remarkable,
'■—•"V—— times of war, and the machines formed upon the prin- though not in the uncommon way juft mentioned
ciple of exploiion for the deftrudlion of the human race, •>
are well known ; and if we cannot call thefe ufefuh we
muft allow them at leaft to be neceffary evils. For the
40 production of explofions, gunpowder is the only fub-
Attempts ftance that has yet been found to anfwer; ncverthelefs,
to fuperfede as ;ts ufe ;s attended with confiderable expence, feveral
Eui pow°-f attemPts have been made to find out a cheap fubfti-
der. tute for it. One of the moft remarkable of thefe was
by mixing fmall quantities of water inclofed in little
bladders or fome eafily deftruftible vehicles along with
a charge of powder. By this contrivance it was hoped,
that the water being converted into vapour when the
powder was inflamed, would augment the force of the
explofion : but inftead of this, it was found greatly to
diminifh it. The reafon was evident, viz. that the
but it is certain, that the influence of a flafti of light¬
ning is diffufed for a great way round the place where
the explofion happens, producing many very perceptible
changes both on the animal and vegetable creation.
EXPONENT, jn algebra, the fame with index.
See Algebra.
Exponent is alfo ufed in arithmetic, in the fame
fenfe as index or logarithm.
EXPORTATION, the {hipping and carrying out
of the kingdom wares and commodities for other coun¬
tries. See the articles Commerce, Trade, and Ship-
EXPOSING, the aft of fetting a thing to public
view. In the Romifh church, the facrament, is laid to
be expofed when it is fhown in public uncovered on fe-
convet fion of the water into fteam required fo much of ftival days, and during the time of plenary indulgences.
the latent heat of the inflamed gunpowder, that enough
was not left to give the neceflary expanfion to the ae¬
rial fluid produced. A mixture of inflammable and
dtphlogifticated air has alfo been tried ; but the ex¬
plofion here has always been found too weak. In
mines, indeed, very terrible effefts are produced by fuch
a mixture, but in thefe the quantity is immenfe; fo
that the comparative weaknefs of the mixture cannot
be difcovered. Eleftricity therefore feems to be the
only refource we have ; except by adding ingredients
to gunpowder which may increafe the ftrength of it.
There can be no doubt indeed that the eleftric fluid
is po fie fled of fuflicient ftrength to perform every thing
we could defire; and eleftricians have fuppofed, per¬
haps juftly enough, that a cannon charged with water
might, by means of eleftricity, become more danger¬
ous than one charged with gunpowder : but this fluid
is fo exceedingly capricious, fo imperceptible and un¬
manageable, that the ufe of it canno^ as yet be thought
lt ptafticable, nor in all probability ever will be fo.
Efeas of The effefts of explofions, when violent, are felt at a
exglofions confiderable diftance, by reafon of the concuffions they
__ .t. ~ ^ atmofpiiere . for> as hag been already hint¬
ed, all of them aft upon the atmofpherical fluid with
the very fame force they exert ’upon terreftrial fub-
ftances fubjefted to their aftion. Sir William Hamil¬
ton relates, that at the explofions of Vefuvius in 1767,
the doors and windows of the houfes at Naples flew
pioff.hcre
and elec¬
tric fluid.
Exposing is alfo ufed with a farther latitude : thus
we fay. It is prohibited to expofe falfe and clipped
mofley. Such a houfe Hands very high, and has a de¬
licious profpeft; but it is expofed to all the four winds.
Such a city being on the frontiers, and not fortified,
is expofed to the infults of every party of forces.
Exposing of Children^ a barbarous cuftom praftifed
by moft of the ancients excepting the Thebans, who
had an exprefs law to the contrary, whereby it was
made capital to expofe children j ordaining at the fame
time, that,fuch as were not in a condition to educate
them ftrould bring them to the magiftrates, in order to
be brought up at the public expence. Among the
other Greeks, when a thild was born, it was laid on
the ground ; and if the father defigned to educate his
child, he immediately took it up j but if he forbore to
do this, the child was carried away and expofed. The
Lacedemonians indeed had a different cuftom : for
with them all new-born children were brought before
certain triers, who were fome of the graveft men in
their own tribe, by whom the infants were carefully
viewed; and if. they were found lufty and well-fa¬
voured, they gave orders for their education, and al¬
lotted a certain proportion of land for their mainte¬
nance ; but if weakly or deformed, they ordered them
to be caft into a deep cavern in the earth, near the
mountain Taygetus, as thinking it neither for the
good of the children themfelves nor for the public in¬
open if unbolted, and one door was burft open though tereft, that defeftive children fhould be brought up.
it had been locked. A great quantity of gunpowder
being put into the ditch of a fortified city, and fet on
fire, deftroyed part of the wall, and broke down one
of the gates. The blowing up of powder-magazines
Many perfons expofed their children only bccaufe they
were not in a condition to educate them, having no
intention that they ftiould perifh. It was the unhappy
fate of daughters efpecially to be thus treated, as re-
or powder-mills will deftrcy buildings and kill people, quiring more charges to educate and fettle them in the
though certainly without the reach of the flame, and world than fobs.
untouched by any part of the {battered magazir
mill. But the moft curious effeft is, that they eleftri*
fy the air and even glafs-windows at a confiderable di-
The parents frequently tied jewels and rings to the
children they expofed, or any other thing whereby
they might afterwards difcoyer them, if Providence
ftance. This is always obfervable in firing the guns of took care for their fafety. Another defign in adorn-
the Tower at London : and fome years ago, after an ing thefe infants was either to encourage fuch as found
explofion of fome powder-mills in the neghbourhood
of that city, a great number of people were alarmed
by a ratttling and breaking of their china-ware; which
by the vulgar was taken for a fupernatural phenome-
them to nourifti and educate them, if alive; or to give
them human burial if dead. The places where it was
ufual to expofe children were fuch as people frequent¬
ed moft. This was done in order that they might be
non, but undoubtedly was owing to fome commotion found, and taken up by compafiionate perfons who
n the eleftrical fluid from the violent concufiion of the
atmofphere,
were in circumftances to be at the expence of their
In this refpeft, however, the effefts of education. With this intention the Egyptians and
6 Romans
EXT r 79 ] EXT
lapofitioii Romans chofe the banks of rivers, and the Greeks the
il highways.
^ Extant. EXPOSITION, in general, denotes the fetting a
■ * thing open to public view. See Exposing.
Exposition, in a literary fenfe, the explaining an
author, paffage, writing, or the like, and fetting their
meaning in an obvious and clear light.
EXPOSITOR, or Expository, a title which fome
writers have given to a leffer kind of dictionaries or
vocabularies,fer.ving to expound or explain the meaning
of the obfcure or difficult words of a language. It is alfo
ufed in the fame fenfe with commentary and para-
phrafe.
EXPOSTULATION, in rhetoric, a warm addrefs
to a perfon who has done another fome injury, repre-
fenting the wrong in the ftrongeft terms, and demand¬
ing red refs.
EXPOSURE, in gardening, the fituation of a gar¬
den wall, or the like, with refpeft to the points of the
compafs, as fouth or eaft. See Gardening.
Ex-poJl-faBo, in law, denotes fomething done after
another thing that was committed before. An eftate
granted may be made good by matter ex-pojl-fafio, that
was not fo at firft by election, &c.
EXPRESSED OILS, in chemiftry, fuch oils as are
obtained from bodies only by prcffing. See Oil.
EXPRESSION,’ in rhetoric, the elocution, dic¬
tion,or choice of words in a difcourfe. See Language,
Oratory, and Poetry.
Expression, in mufic. See Composition.
Expression, in painting, a natural and lively re-
prefentation of the fubjedt, or of the feveral objeCts in¬
tended to be (hown.
The expreffion confifts chiefly in reprefenting the
human body and all its parts, in the action fuitable to
it: in exhibiting in the face the feveral paffions pro¬
per to the figures, and obferving the motions they im-
prefs on-the external parts. See Painting.
Expression Theatrical. See Declamation, ar¬
ticle iv.
EXPRESSION, in medicine, chemiftry, &c. the
a6t of expreffing or extracting the juices or oils of
plants, fruits, or other matters, by fqueezing, wring¬
ing, or preffing them in a prefs. After having let the
herbs infufe a due time, their juice muft be drawn by
cxprefiion in a linen cloth or by a prefs.
EXPULSION, in a general fenfe, the aCt of vio¬
lently driving a perfon out of any city, fociety, Ccc.
Expulsion, in medicine, the aft whereby any thing
is forcibly driven out of the place in which it is : thus
jve fay, the expulfion of the fetus in delivery.
EXSICCATION, (formed of ex and Jtccus, “dry,”)
in chemiftry, &c. the aft of drying up or evaporating
the moifture of a thing.
EXSP1RATION, in phyfic, that part of refpira-
tion by which the air is expelled or driven out of the
lungs. See Anatomy, m 118. and Respiration.
EXSUDATION, or Exudation the aft of fweat-
ing out. In which manner, gums, balfams, &c. are ufu-
ally produced from trees.
EXTANT, fomething that ftill fubfifts, or is in be¬
ing. It is but part of the hiftory of Livy, of the
writings of Cicero, Ctefar, &c. that are extant, the reft
are loft. We have nothing extant of Socrates, though
he wrote a great deal.
EXTASY, a tranfport which fufpends the funftion Extafjr
of the fenfes, by the intenfe contemplation of fome li
extraordinary or fupernatural objeft. Extortion,
Extasy, in medicine, a fpecies of catelepfy, when
a perfon perfeftly remembers, after the paroxyfm is
over, the ideas he conceived during the time it lafted.
EXTENSION, in philofophy, one of the common
and eflential properties of body ; or that by which it
pofleffes or takes up fome part of univerfal fpace, which
is called the place of that body. See Metaphysics,
n > 56.
EXTENSOR, an appellation given to feveral.
mufcles, from their extending or ftretching the parts
to which they belong. See Anatomy, Table of the
Mrjaes.
EXTENT, in law, is ufed in a double fenfe. Some¬
times it iignifies a writ or command to the ftieriff for
the valuing of lands or tenements ; and fometimes the
aft of the ftieriff, or other commiftioner, upon this writ.
Old and New Extent, in Scots law. See Law,
N° clxvi. 6.
EXTENUATION, the aft of diminiftiing or lef-
fening the bulk or fubftance of a thing, efpecially of
the human body. Fevers, agues, long abftinences, &c.
occafion great extenuations or emaciations.
Extenuation, is alfo a figure in rhetoric, oppofite
to the hyperbole. The Greeks call it
EXTERIOR, or External. See External.
EXTERMINATION, in general, the extirpating
or deftroying fomething.
Extermination, or Exterminating, in algebra,
is ufed for taking away. Thus algebraifts fpeak of ex-
tirminating furds, fraftions, and unknown quantities out
of equations. See Maclaur. Algebr. part i. chap. 12.
where we have fome general theorems for the extermi¬
nating unknown quantities in given equations.
EXTERNAL, a term of relation applied to the
furface or outfide of a body, or that part which ap¬
pears or prefents itfelf to the eye, touch, &c. in con-
tradiftinftion to internal.
External is alfo ufed to fignify any thing that is
without fide a man, or that is not within himfelf, par¬
ticularly in his mind ; in which fenfe we fay, external
objefts, &c.
EXTINCTION, in general, denotes the putting
out or deftroying fomething, as a fire or flame. See
Extingulfhing of Fire.
EXTINGUISHMENT, in law, is a confolidation
or union, as where one has due to him a yearly rent
out of lands, and afterwards purchafes the lands out of
which the rent arifes; in this cafe, both the property
and the rent being united in one poffeffor, the rent is
faid to be extinguilhed.
EXTIRPATION, (formed of ex andJlirps, “ root”)
the aft of pulling up or deftroying a thing to the very
roots. Among the prayers of the Romifti jubilee,
there is one for the extirpation of heiefy.
Extirpation is alfo ufed, in’furgery, for cutting
off any part entirely ; as a wen, &c. or the eating it
away, as a wart, &c. by corrofive medicines.
EXTISPEX, in antiquity, the perfon who drew
prefages from viewing the intrails of animals offered in
facrifice. 1
EXTORTION, in law, is an illegal manner of
wrefting any thing from a man, either by force, me¬
nace.
Extra ft
EXT [ So ] EXT
nace, or authority. It is alfo the exa&ion of unlaw¬
ful ufury, winning by unlawful games, and taking
more than is due under pretence of right, as exceffiye
tolls in millers, &c.
At the common law, extortion is punifhable by fine
and imprifonment; and the ftatute of 3 Eliz. r. c. 30.
has enafted, that officers of juftice guilty of extortion
for the expedition of bufmefs, See. (hall render to the
party treble value. There are likewife divers other
fiatutes for punifhing extortions of ffieriffs, bailiffs,
goalers, clerks of the affize and of the peace, attornies,
folicitors, Sec.
EXTRACT, in pharmacy, is a folution of the pu¬
rer parts of a mixed body infpiflated, by diftillation or
evaporation, nearly to the confiftencc of honey.
Extract, in matters of literature, is fomething co¬
pied or colle&ed from a book or paper.
EXTRACTION, in chemiftry and pharmacy, the
operation by which effences, tindtures, Sec. are drawn
from natural bodies. See Extract.
Extraction, in furgery, is the drawing any fo¬
reign matter out of the body by the hand, or by the
help of inftruments. See Surgery.
Extraction, in genealogy, implies the ftock or fa¬
mily from which a perfon is defeended. See De¬
scent.
Extraction of Roots, in algebra and arithmetic, the
methods of finding the roots of given numbers or quan¬
tities. See Algebra, and Arithmetic.
EXTRACTOR, in midwifery, an inffrument or
ibreeps for extra&ing children by the head.
EXTRAJUDICIAL, fomething done out of the
proper court, or the ordinary courfe of law. As when
judgment is given in a caufe, or cafe, not depending
in that court where fuch judgment is given, or where¬
in the judge has no jurifdi&ion.
EXTR AORDINARII, among!! the Romans, was
a body of men confiding of a third part of the foreign
horfe and a fifth of the foot, which was feparated from
the reft of the forces borrowed from the confederate
ftates with great policy and caution, to prevent any
defign that they might poffibly entertain againft the
natural forces. A more choice body of men were
drawn from among the extrabrdinarii under the name
of ablefti. See Ablecti.
EXTRAORDINARY, fomething out of the com¬
mon courfe. .
Extraordinary Couriers, are thofe fent exprefs on
fome urgent occafion.
Extraordinary jimbajfador, or envoy, is fuch a one
as is fent to treat or negociate fome fpecialand impor¬
tant affair, as a marriage, a treaty, confederacy, Sec.
or even on occafion of fome ceremony, as condolence,
congratulation, Sec.
A gazette, journal, or other news-paper extraordi¬
nary, is that publifhed after fome great and notable
event, containing the detail or particulars thereof,
which are not found in the ordinary papers.
EXTRAVAGANTES, thofe decretal epiftles
which were publiftied after the Clementines.
They were fo called, becaufe at firft they were not
digefted or ranged with the other papal conftitutions,
but feemed to be, as it were, detached from the ca¬
non law. They continued to be called by the fame
N°122. ' 4
name when they were afterwards inferted in the body Extravaf*
of the canon law. The firft extravagantes are thofe tion
of John XXII. fucceffor of Clement V. The laft col- II. *
leftion was brought down to the year 1483, and was^xud‘ulon-.
called the common extravagantes, notwithftanding that
they were likewife incorporated with the reft of the
canon law.
EXTRAVASATION, in contufions, fiffures, de-
preffions, fractures, and other accidents of the cranium,
is when one or more of the blood-veffels, that are dif-
tributed in the dura mater, is broke or divided, where-
hy there is fuch a difeharge of blood as greatly op-
preffes the brain, and difturbs its office; frequently-
bringing on violent pains arid other mifehiefs; and at
length death itfelf, unlefs the patient is timely relieved.
See Surgef.y and Medicine.
EXTREME, ia applied to the laft and outermoft
part of any thing ; or that which finiihes and termi¬
nates it on that fide.
Extremes, in logic, denote the two extreme terms
of the conclufionof afyllogifm; viz. the predicate and
fubjeft. They are called extremes, from their relation
to another term, which is a medium or mean between
them. The predicate, as being likewife had in the
firft propofition, is called the majus extremum, greater
extreme ; and the fubjedt, as being put in the fecond
or minor propofition, is called the minus extremum, lef-
fer extreme. Thus, in the fyllogifm, man is an ani¬
mal ; Peter is a man, therefore Peter is an animal;
the word animal is the greater extreme, Peter the lefs
extreme, and the man the medium. See Syllogism.
Extreme and mean proportion, in geometry, is when
a line is fo divided, that the whole line is to the great¬
er fegment, as that fegment is to the other : Or, as
Euclid expreffeth it, when the line is fo divided, that
the re&angle under the whole line, and the leffer feg¬
ment, is equal to the fquare of the greater fegment.
Extreme Unbtion. See Unction.
EXTREMITIES of figures, in painting, is ufed
for the head, hands, and feet. Thefe fhould be drawn
with more nicety and exa&ncfs, or more terminated
than other parts ; and thus help to render the adfion
more expreffive.
EXTRINSIC among metaphyficians, is taken in
various fenfes. Sometimes it fignifies a thing’s not be¬
longing to the effence of another; in which fenfe, the
efficient caufe and end of a thing are faid to be extrin-
fic. Sometimes it fignifies a thing’s not being contain¬
ed within the capacity of another ; in which fenfe,
thofe caufes are called extrinfic which introduce fome¬
thing into a fubjedt from without, as when afire intro¬
duces heat. Sometimes it fignifies a thing added or
applied to another; in which fenfe accidents and ad¬
herents are faid to be extrinfic to the fiibjeds to which
they adhere. Sometimes the vifion is faid to be ex¬
trinfic from fome form which does not exift in that
thing, but is adjacent to it, or by fome means or other
without it.
EXTUBE RANGES, in medicine, are fwellings or
rifings up in the flefti or other parts of the body.
EXUBERANCE, (compounded of ex and uber
“ plentiful ;”) in rhetoric, a redundancy. See Redun¬
dance and Pleonasm.
EXUDATION. See Exsubation.
EXVERRiE*
EYE [8
Exverrse EXVERRjE, in antiquity, a kind of bnifh ufed in
II cleanfmg houfes out of which a dead perfon had been
Eye' carried.
" EXULCERATION, in medicine, the aft of cau-
fing or producing ulcers. Thus, arfenic exulcerates the
inteftines ; corrofive humours exulcerate the flcin.
Exulceration is fometimes alfo ufed for an ulcer
itfelf; but more generally for thofe beginning erofions
which wear away the fubftance, and form ulcers.
EXUVIAE, among naturalifts, denote the caft-off
parts or coverings of animals, as the Ikins of ferpents,
caterpillars, and other infers.
Exuvi.®: is alfo ufed for fome Ihells and other ma¬
rine bodies, frequently found in the bowels of the
earth ; fuppofed to have been depofited there at the
deluge, as being the real fpoils of once living creatures.
See Shell, Fossile, and Deluge.
EY, in our old writers, the fame with infula “ an
ffland from which comes eyet, a fmall ifland or iflet,
vulgarly called eygfo.
EYCK. See Bruges (John of.)
EYE, in anatomy. See Anatomy, n° 142.
A new-born child lhall be obferved, perhaps, never
to keep its eyes fixed on any one objeft, but continual¬
ly changing from one to another, and if you put your
hand before them, the child will not wink. Hence
fome have thought, that new born infants have no
fight: but this is a miftake ; and the true reafon why
their eyes are in perpetual motion is, that they have
not yet acquired the habit of examining one thing at
. once with their eyes : their not winking at the ap¬
proach of the hand, arifes from their want of experience
how eafily their eyes may be hurt; but in a few days
they get the habit of winking, fo that afterwards their
eyes do it fpontaneoufly at the approach of danger.
Artificial eyes are made of concave plates of gold,
. filver, or glafs, and are ftained fo as to refemble the
natural eye. They muft, when fixed in the orbit, be
taken out and cleaned every night, and replaced in
the morning. If no more of a difeafed eye is removed
than what is preternaturally projected, or if enough
is left to preferve the mufcles unhurt, the artificial
eye will have a little motion from the mufcles that re¬
main. If the eye does not fit well, it irritates and in¬
flames the other eye ; in which cafe lay it afide, until
one can be had that fits better.
Bu//’s Eye, in aftronomy. See Aldebaran.
Ere of a Block, in naval affairs, that part of the
rope-ftrop which is faftened to fome neceffary place in
the (hip : the ftrop is a fort of wreath or rope formed
into a rirfg,' and fixed round the block for the double
convenience of ftrengthening the block and fattening
it in any place where it is wanted.
Eye, in agriculture and gardening, fignifies a little
bud or fhoot, inferted into a tree by way of graft. See
Engrafting.
Eye of a Tree, a fmall pointed knot to which the
leaves (tick, and from which the (hoots or fprigs pro¬
ceed. See Gemma.
Eye, a town of Suffolk, 22 miles from Ipfwich and
i ] E Z R
91 from London. It may be called an ifland, becaufe Eye
it is furrounded by a brook near the borders of Nor- II '■
folk, in the road between Ipfwich and Norwich. It Ezra*
was incorporated by king John; has two bailiffs, 10
principal burgeffes, 24 common council, a recorder, and
town-clerk. It is a mean-built place, with narrow
ftreets. The chief manufafture is bone-lace and fpin-
ning. Here is, however, a large handfome church;
and near it are the ruinous walls of an ancient cattle
and monaftery. The market is on Saturday, the fair
on Whit-Monday. It has only fent members to par¬
liament fince the reign of Edward IV.
EYe-Bright. See Euphrasia.
EYMOUTH, a town of Scotland in the county of
Berwick, formerly fortified to curb the garrifon of Ber¬
wick, from which place it is diftant fix miles. W. Long.
1. 50. N. Lat. 55. 50. It gave title of baron in the
kingdom of Scotland to Churchill, afterwards the great
Duke of Marlborough; but he having no male iffue,
it became extinft in him.
EYRAC, or Irac, Arabia, a province of Turkey
in Afia, 345 miles in length, and 190 in breadth ; of
which Bagdad is the capital.
Eyrac Agemi, the principal province of Perfia, an¬
ciently called Parthia.
EYRE, or Eire, in law, the court of itinerant ju-
ftices. See Assize.
EYRIE, in falconry, a brood or nett, a place where
hawks build and hatch their young.
EZEKIEL, a canonical book of the Old Tefta-
ment, referring chiefly to the degenerate manners and
corruptions of the Jews of thofe times. It abounds
with fine fentences and rich comparifons, and difcovers
a good deal of learning in profane matters.
Ezekiel was carried captive to Babylon with Jecho-
niah, and began his prophefies in the fifth year of the
captivity. He was cotemporary with Jeremiah, who
prophefied at the fame time in Judea. He foretold
many events, particularly the deftrudtion of the temple,
the fatal cataftrophe of thofe who revolted from Baby¬
lon to Egypt, and the happy return of the Jews to
their own land.
EZION-gaber. See Asiongaber.
EZRA, a canonical book of the Old Teftament;
comprehending the hiftory of the Jews from the time
of Cyrus’s edidt for their return, to the 20th year of
Artaxerxes Longimanus. It fpecifies the number of
Jews who returned, and Cyrus’s proclamation for the
rebuilding the temple, together, with the laying its
foundation, the obttruftion it met with, and the fi-
nifhing thereof in the reign of Darius.
The illuftrious author of this book was alfo the
reftorer and publifher of the canon of the Old Tefta¬
ment. See Bible.
The books of Ezra, called in the Englifh verfioa
the Firfl and Second Books of Efdras, though held by
fome, particularly the Greeks, for canonical, ate thrown
by the Englifh church into the number of apocryphal
books, being only extant in Greek.
Vol. VII. Part I.
F.
I 32 ]
F 17 THE fourth confonant, and fixth letter of the
II. ’ alphabet. The letter F is borrowed from the
, Fabian digamma or double gamma of the iElians, as is evi-
dent from the infcription on the pedeftal of the Colof-
fus at Delos ; and was undoubtedly formed from the
old Hebrew vau: and though this letter is not found in
the modern Greek alphabet, yet it was in the ancient
one, from whence the Latins received it and tranfmit-
ted it to us.
It is formed by a llrong expreffion of the breath, and
joining at the fame time the upper-teeth and under-lip.
It has but one fort of foi^nd, whiclv has a great affinity
with-<u and ph, the latter being written for it by us in
all Greek words, as philofophy, &c. though theTtalians
write it Jilofqfia.
The Romans for fome time ufed an inverted F,
inftead of V confonant, which had no peculiar figure
in their alphabet. Thus, in infcriptions we meet with
TERMINA^IT, Dili, &c. Lipiiusand others fay,
that it was the emperor Claudius who introduced the
ufe of- the inverted digamma, or j : but it did not
long fubfift after his death; for Quintilian obferves,,
that it was not ufed in his time.
F, or fa, in mufic, is the fourth note in rifing in this
order of the gamut, ut, re, mi, fa. It likewife denotes
one of the Greek keys in mufic, deftined for the bafs.
F, in phyfical prefcriptions Hands for Fiat, or “ Let
it be done.” Thus f. s. a. fignifiesyfa?feuwdum artem.
F was alfo a numeral letter, fignifying 40; accord¬
ing to the verfe,
Sexta quaterdenos gerit qua dijlat ab alpha.
And when a daffi was added at top, thus-?, it figni-
fied forty thoufand.
F, in the civil law. Two f’s joined together thus,j^
fignify the pandects. See Pandects.
F, in criminal law, a ftigma or brand put upon fe¬
lons with a hot iron* on their being admitted to the be¬
nefit of clergy ; by flat. 4H. 7. c. 13.
FAB A, in botany. SeeViciA.
FAB AGO, in botany; a fpecies of bean-caper, br
Zygophyllum.
FABER, in ichthyology; a fpecies of Zeus.
FABIAN (Robert), an alderman of the city of
London, and ffieriff in the year 1494; was a perfon
of learning for the time he lived in, a good poet, and
author of a Chronicle of England and France, intitled
The Concordaunce of Stories, in two volumes folio, be¬
ginning with Brute, and ending with the 20th of
Henry VII. 1504. It contains feveral curious parti¬
culars relative to the city of London, not elfewhere to
be found. Stowe calls it “ a painful labour, to the
great honour of the city and of the whole realm.” We
are told that Cardinal Wolfey caufed as many copies
of this book as he could procure to be. burned, be?
FAB
caufe the author had made too clear a difeovery of the Fabil,
large revenues-of the clergy. Fabian died in 1512. Fa‘liu8i'
FABI1, a noble and powerful family at Rome, who v
derived their name from faba, a bean, becaufe fome of
their anceftors cultivated this pulfe. They were once
fo numerous that they took upon themfelves to wage
a war againft the Veientes. They came to a general
engagement near the Cremera, in which all the fami¬
ly, confifting of 306 men, were totally flain, year of
Rome 277. There only remained one whofe tender
age had detained him at Rome, and from him arofe
the noble Fabii in the following ages.
FABIUS (Maximus Rullianus), was the firflrof the
Fabii who obtained the furname of Maximus, for lef-
fening the power of the populace at elections. He
was mafter ofhorfe, and his victory over the Samnites
in that capacity nearly coil him his life, becaufe he
engaged the enemy without the command of the dic¬
tator; He was five times conful, twice dictator, and:
once cenfor. He triumphed over feven different nations
in the neighbourhood of Rome, and rendered himfelf
illuffrious by his patriotifm.
Fabius (Ruiticus), an hi dorian in the age of Clau¬
dius and Nero. He was intimate with Seneca; and the
encomiums which Tacitus paffes upon his ftyle, make
us regret the lofs of his compofitions.
Q^Fabius (Maximus), a celebrated Roman, who.
from a dull and inactive childhood was raifed to the
higheft offices of the ftate. In his firll confulfhip he
obtained a vidlory over Liguria, and the fatal battle of
Thrafymenus occafioned his ele&ion to the di&ator-
ffiip. In this important office he began to oppofe
Hannibal, not by fighting him in the open field, like
his predeceffors, but he continually haraffed his army
by countermarches and ambufeades, from which he re¬
ceived the furname of Cunttator, or Delayer. Hannibal
fent him word, that “ If he was as great a captain as
he would be thought, he ought to come into the plain
and give him battle.” But Fabius coldly* replied,
“ That if he was as great a captain as he would be
thought, he would do well to force him to fight.”
Such operations for the commander of the Roman ar¬
mies gave offence to fome ; and Fabius was even accm-
fed of cowardice. He, however, continued firm in his ■
firft refolutions; and patiently bore to fee his mafter of
horfe raifed to ffiare the diftatorial dignity with him¬
felf, by means of his enemies at home. When he had
laid down his office of dictator, his fucceffors, for a
while, followed his plan,; but the raffinefs of Varro^and
his contempt for the operations of Fabius, occafioned
the fatal battle of Cannas. . Tarentum wjs'obliged to
furrender to his arms after the battle of Cannse ; and.
on that occafion the Carthaginian enemy obferved that
Fabius was the Hannibal of Rome. When he had
made
FAB
Fabius made an agreement with Hannibal for the ranfotn of
Fabri ^ caPt*ve3» was totally difapproved by the
a n’ . Roman fenate, he fold all his eftates to pay the mo¬
ney, rather than forfeit his word to the enemy. The
bold propofals of young Scipio to go and carry the
war from Italy to Africa, was rejected by Fabius as
chimerical and dangerous. He did not, however, live
to fee the fuccefs of the Roman arms under Scipio,
and the conqueft of Carthage by meafures which he
treated with contempt and heard with indignation.
He died in the xooth year of his age, after he had
been five times conful, and twice honoured with a
triumph. The Romans were fo fenfible of his great
merit and fervices, that the expences of his funeral
were defrayed from the public treafury.—His fon bore
the fame name, and fhowed himfelf worthy of his noble
father’s virtues. During his confullhip he received a
vifit from his father on horfeback in the camp. The
fqn ordered the father to difmount; and the old man
cheerfully obeyed, embracing his fon, and faying, “ I
wiflied to know whether you knew what it is to be
conful.” He died before his father, and Cun&ator
with the moderation of a philofopher delivered a funeral
oration over the dead body of his fon.
Fabius, ftyled Piclor, a Roman general and hifto-
rian. He firft introduced painting at Rome ; and ha¬
ving caufed the walls of the temple of Health to be
painted, fome authors have erroneoufiy reckoned him
a painter. He died about 216 B. C.
FABLE, a tale, or feigned narration, defigned ei¬
ther to inftrudf or divert, difguifed under the allegory
of an adfion, &c.
Fables were the firfl piece's of wit that made their
appearance in the world; and have continued to be
highly valued, not only in times of the greateft fimpli-
city, but in the molt polite ages of the world. Jo-
tham’p fable of the trees is the oldeft that is extant,
and as beautiful as any that have been made fince. Na¬
than’s fable of the poor man is next in antiquity. We
find ^Efop in the moll diftant ages of Greece ; and in
the early days of the Roml^n commonwealth, we read
of a mutiny appeafed by the fable of the belly and the
members. As fables had their rife in the very infancy
of learning, they never flourilhed more than when
learning was at its greateft height ; witnefs Horace,
Boileau, and Fontaine.
Fable is the fineft way of giving counfel, and moft
univerfally pleafing, becaufe leaft Ihocking ; for, in the
reading of a fable, a man thinks he isdirefting himfelf,
whilft he is following the di&ates of another, and con-
fequently is not fenfible of that which is the moft un-
pleafing circumftance in advice. Befides, the mind is
never fo much pleafed as when Ihe exerts herfelf in any
a-ftion that gives her an idea of her own abilities ; this
natural pride of the foul is very much gratified in the
reading of fable.
Fable, is alfo ufed for the plot of an epic or dra¬
matic poem ; and is, according to Ariftotle, the prin¬
cipal part, and, as it were, the foul of the poem. See
Poetry.
FABRI (Honorius), a laborious Jefuit born in the
dioc£fe of Bellay, diftinguifhed himfelf by his Ikill in
philofophy and the mathematics, and by writing a
great number of books. The moft curious of which
treat of geometry, optics, the loadftone, the motion of
FAB
the earth, the ebbing and flowing of the fea, &c. He
died at Rome in 1688.
FABRIANO (Gentile da), painter of hiftory, was
born at Verona in 1332, and became adifciple of Gio¬
vanni da Fiefole. In that early age of painting he
rendered himfelf very famous, and was employed to a-
dorn a great number of churches and palaces at Flo¬
rence, Urbino, Siena, Perufia, and Rome, but parti¬
cularly in the Vatican; and one picture of his, repre-
fenting the Virgin and Child, attended by Jofeph,
which is preferved in the church of S. Maria Maggiore,
was highly commended by Michael Angelo. By or¬
der of the Doge and Senate of Venice, he painted a
pifture in the great council-chamber, which was con-
fidered as fo extraordinary a performance, that his em¬
ployers granted him a penfion for life, and conferred on
him the higheft honour of their ftate, which was, the
privilege of wearing the habit of a noble Venetian.
He died in 1412.
FABRIC, in general, denotes the ftru&ure or con-
ftruftion of any thing ; but particularly of buildings,
as a church, hall, houfe, &c. See Architecture.
FABRic-Lands, thofe formerly given towards re¬
building or repairing of cathedrals and other churches ;
for anciently almoft every body gave more or lefs, by
his will, to the fabric of the parilh-church where he
dwelt.
FABRICIUS (C.), a celebrated Roman, who in
his firft confullhip, year of Rome 470, obtained feve-
ral vi&ories over the Samnites and Lucanians, and was
honoured with a triumph. The riches which were ac¬
quired in thofe battles were immenfe, the foldiers were
liberally rewarded by the conful, and the treafury was
enriched with 400 talents. Two years after, Fabri-
cius went as ambaffador to Pyrrhus, and refufed with
contempt prefents, and heard with indignation offers,
which might have corrupted the fidelity of a lefs vir¬
tuous citizen. Pyrrhus had occafion to admire the
magnanimity of Fabricius ; but his aftoniihment was
more powerfully awakened when he faw him make a
difcovery of the perfidious offeys of his phyfician, who
pledged himfelf to the Roman general for a fum of
money to poifon his royal mafter. To this greatnefs
of foul was added the moft confummate knowledge of
military affairs, and the greateft fimplicity of manners.
Fabricius never ufed rich plate at his table. Afmall falt-
cellar, the feet of which were of horn, was the onjy fil-
ver veffel which appeared in his houfe. This contempt
of luxury and ufelefs ornaments Fabricius wilhed toin-
fpire among the people ; and during his cenforlhip he
banilhed from the fenate Cornelius Ruffinus, who had
been twice conful and dictator, becaufe ire kept in his
houfe more than ten pound weight of filver plate.
Such were the manners of the conqueror of Pyrrhus,
who obferved that he wifhed rather to command thofe
that had money, than poffefs it himfelf. He lived and
died in the greateft poverty. His body was buried at
the public charge, and the Roman people were obliged
to give a dowry to his two daughters when they had
arrived to years of maturity.
Fabricius (George), a learned German, born at
Chenmitz in Mifnia, in 1516 After a liberal educa¬
tion, he vifited Italy in quality of a tutor to a young
nobleman; and, examining all the remains of antiqui¬
ty with great accuracy, compared them with their de-
L 2 fcription*
[ 83 1
FAB [§41 FAC
Fabricius fcriptions in Latin writers. The refultof thefeobfer- FACE, the furface, or firft fide which a body pre-
Fabulous vat'ons was worh intitled Roma, containing a de- fents to the eye. We fay, the face of the earth, of the
» ^ ° S’ fcription of that city. He afterwards fettled at Mife- waters, &c. Polyhedrons have faces. A die,
num, where he conduced a great fchool to the time or cube, has fix faces.
of his death in 1571. He was alfo the author of a Face, is particularly ufed for the vifage of an ani-
great number of facred Latin poems, wrote feven mal, and efpecially of man ; and comprehends, in the
books of the Annals of Mifnia, three of the Annals of latter, all that part of the head which is not covered
Meiffen, and ‘Travels. with the common long hair. The Latins call it facies,
Fabricius Qerom), a celebrated phyfician in the vultus, os, &c.
latter end of the 16th century (furnamed Aquapendente, The human face is called the image of the foul, asbe-
from the place of his birth), was the difciple and fuc-r ing the feat of the principal organs of fenfe ; and the
cefibr of Fallopius. He chiefly applied himfelf to fur- place where the ideas, emotions, &c. of the foul are
gery and anatomy, which he profeffed at Padua for chiefly fet to view. Pride and difdain are fhown in the
40 years with extraordinary reputation. The repub- eye-brows, modefty on the cheeks, majefty in the fore-
lie of Venice fettled a large penfion upon him, and ho- head, &c. It is the face (hows the fex, age, tempera-
noured him with a gold chain and a ftatue. He died in ment, health, or difeafe, &c.
1603; leaving behind him feveral works which are The face, confidered as the. index of the paffions,
much efteemed. habits, &c. of the perfon, makes the fubjedl of phy-
Fabricius (John Albert), one of the moft learned fiognomy. See Physiognomy.
and laborious men of his age, was born at Leipfic in Face, among painters and artifts, is ufed to dt-
1668. He was chofen profdfor of eloquence at Ham- note a certain dimenfion of the human body, adopted
burgh in 1699, and was made doctor of divinity at for determining the proportion which the feveral parts
Kiel. IJis works are numerous ; and he died at Ham- fliould bear to one another. -See Drawing.
burgh in 1736, after a life fpent in the fevereft literary Face, in the military art, a word of command, in¬
application to colleft and publiih valuable remains of timating to turn about: thus, face to the right, is to
ancient learning. turn upon the left heel a quarter-round to the right;
Fabricius ( Vincent), born at Hamburgh in 1613, and, face to the left, is to turn upon the right heel a
was a good poet, a great orator, an able phyfician, quarter-round to the left.
and a learned civilian. He was for fome time coun- FACIES Hippocratica, in medicine, is when
fellor to the bilhop of Lubec, and afterward burgo- the nollrils are fhaip, the eyes hollow, the temples
matter and fyndic of the city of Dantxic; from whence low, the tips of the ears contra&ed and cold, the fore-
he was 13 times fent deputy into Poland, where he head dry and wrinkled, and the complexion pale or li-
died at Warfaw in ,1657, during the diet of that king- vid.—The Hippocratic face is chiefly obferved towards
dom. The moft complete edition of Fabricius’s poems the period of phthifes and other confumptions, and is
and other works was publifhed at Leipfic in 1685, un- held a fure prognoftic of death. If it appears within
der the direftion of his fon Frederic Fabricius. three days after the attack of an acute difeafe, it is
Fabricius (Baron), one of the fineft gentlemen of deemed to indicate death,
his time, and known to the public by his letters rela- FACTION, a cabal or party formed in a ftate, ci¬
ting to the tranfactions of Charles XII. of Sweden ty, or company.
during his refidence in the Ottoman empire, was de- Faction, in antiquity, a name given to the diffe-
feended from a good family in Germany. Fie was rent companies of combatants in the circus. They were
taken early into tbe fervice of the court of Holftein ; four, viz. the white, the red, the green, and the
and was fent in a public charadter to the king of Swe- blue ; to which Domitian added another of purple co¬
den whilft he was at Bender ; where he foon acquired lour. They were fo denominated from the colour of
the good graces of that prince. He accompanied him the liveries they wore ; and were dedicated, according
in his exercifes; gave him a turn for reading ; and it to M. Aur. Caffiodorus, to the four feafons of the
was out of his hand Charle s fnatched Boileau’s fatires, year ; the green being confecrated to fpring, the blue
when he tore out thofe that reprefented Alexander to winter, the red to fummer, and the white to au-
the Great as a madman. Fabricius was alfo in favour tumn. It appears from ancient inferiptions, that each
with Staniflaus, and with our king George I. whom fa&ion had its procurators and phyfician ; and from
he accompanied in his laft journey to Hanover, and hiftory, that party-rage ran fo high among them, that
was with him when he died. A tranflation of his let- in a diffenfion between two faifions, in the time of Jufti-
ters was publifhed in London 1761. nian, almoft 40,000 men loft their lives in the quarrel.
FABROT (Charles Hannibal), one of the moft FACTI T IOUS, any thing made by art, in oppo-
celcbrated civilians of his time, was born at Aix in fition to what is the produce of nature. Thus, fadti-
1681 ; and acquired an extraordinary fkill in the civil tious cinnabar is oppofed to native cinnabar,
and canon law, and in the belles lettres. He publifh- FACTOR, in commerce, is an agent employed by
ed the Bafilicte, or Conftitutions of the Emperors of the merchants refiding at other places, to buy or fell goods,
Eaft, in Greek and Latin, with learned notes, in fe- or negociate bills, or iranfadi any kind of bufinefs on
ven vols folio ; and-editions of Cedrmus, Nicetas, Ana- their account; and intitled to a certain allowance for
Jlafius, Eihliothecarius, Conjlantine Manajfes, and Cujas, his trouble.
with learned and curious notes. A fupercargo differs from a fadlor in this : The bu->
FABULOUS, fomething confifting of, or con- finefs of the former is limited to the care of a particu-
ne&ed with, a fable. lar cargo ; he goes along with it, and generally re-
Fabulous Age, among ancient hiftorians. See Age. turns when his bufinefs is. completed : the latter has a
FAC [ 85 ] FAC
fixed refidence abroad, and executes buunefs for diffe-
‘ rent merchants. But their duties, and the circumftah-
ces for which they are accountable, are the fame.
The duty of a faftor is to procure the beft intelli¬
gence of the ftate of trade at his place of refidence; of
the courfe of exchange ; of the quantity and quality
of goods at market, their prefent price, and the pro¬
bability that it may rife or fall; to pay exadt obedience
to the orders of his employers ; to confult their advan¬
tage in matters referred to his direftion ; to execute
their bufinefs with all the difpatch that circumftances
admit; to be early in his intelligence, diftindi in his
accounts, and pundlual in his correfpondence.
A fadtor’s power is either abfolute or limited. Tho’
xntrufted with ample difcretionary powers, he is not
warranted'to take unreafonable or unufual meafures, or
do any thing contrary to his employer’s intereft; but
it is incumbent on the employer, if he challenge his
proceedings, to prove that he could have done better,
and was guilty of wilful mifmanagement.
When a fadtor’s power is limited, he muft adhere
ftridtly to his orders. If he exceeds his power, though
with a view to his employer’s interell, he is liable for
the confequence. For example, if he gives credit when
not empowered, or longer credit if not empowered, for
the fake of a better price, and the buyer proves infol-
vent, he is liable for the debt. A fadtor has no power
to give credit unlefs authorifed: But if the goods
configned be generally fold on credit at the place of
confignation, the fadtor will be vindicated for felling at
the ufual credit, unlefs exprefsly reftridted.
Although opinion will never juftify the fadtor for
departing from orders, neceflity fometimes will. If he
be limited not to fell goods under a certain price, and
the goods be perifhable, and not in a fituation for be¬
ing kept, he may fell them, to prevent their deftruc-
tion, even under the price limited.
A fadtor is never warranted to deal on trull, ex¬
cept with perfons in good credit at the time. If the
employer challenge the debtors, it is incumbent on
him to prove that their bad circumftances was known
at the time of fale ; and the fadtor will be vindicated,
if he trufted them at the fame time for goods of his
own.
If the fadtor fells his employer’s goods on trull, and,
after the day of payment rs elapfed, receive payment
from the purchafer for a debt of his own, he becomes
liable in equity for the debt.
In cafe of bankruptcy, the fadtor ought immediate¬
ly to lay attachments, and advife his employers ; and
he cannot withdraw his attachments, nor compound
debts without orders.
If a fadtor fells goods belonging to different mer¬
chants to the fame perfon, and the buyer proves infol-
vent, they lhall bear the lofs in equal proportions;
and, if the buyer has paid part before his infolvency,
without fpecifying for which, the payment ought to.
be diftributed in equal proportions; but, if the days
of payment be fixed, and part of the debts only due,
the payment ought to be applied, in the firft place, to
fuch debts as were due.
If he makes a wrong entry at the cuflom-houfe, and
the goods be feized in confequence, thereof, he muft
bear the lofs, unlefs the error be occafioned by a mlf-
take in the invoice,, or letter of advice.-
The owner bears the lofs of goods feized when at¬
tempted to be fmuggled by his orders ; but the fadlor
complying with an unlawful order is liable in fuch pe¬
nalties as the laws exadl.
If a fadlor faves the duty of goods due to a foreign
prince, he lhall have the benefit ; for, if detedled,. he
bears the lofs.
If a fadlor fells goods bought by his employer’s
orders for his own advantage, the employer may reco¬
ver the benefit, and the fadtpr fhall be amerced for the
fame.
If a fadlor receives bad money in payment, he bears
the lofs ; but if the value of the money be lefTenedBy
the government, the employer bears the lofs.
A fadlor is not liable for goods fpoiled, robbed, or
deftroyed by fire.
If a fadlor receives counterfeit jewels from his em¬
ployer, and fells them, the employer is liable to indem¬
nify him for any penalties he may incur.
If a fadlor be ordered to make infurance, and ne-
gledl it, and the fubjedl be loft, he is liable to make it
good, providing he had effedls in his hands.
If a fadtor buys goods for his employer, his bargain
fhall be binding on the employer.
In cafe of a fadtor’s infolvency, the owner may re¬
claim his goods; and, if they be fold on trull, the
owner (and not the fadtor’s creditors) lhall recover
payment of the debts.
Factor, in multiplication, a name given to the mul¬
tiplier and multiplicand, becaufe they conftitute the
produdt. See Arithmetic.
FACTORAGE, called alfo commi/fion, is the al¬
lowance given to fadtors by the merchant who employs^
them.
A fadtor’s commiffion in Britain, on moll kinds of
goods, is per cent. : on lead, and fome other ar¬
ticles, i per cent. •, in Italy, 24- per cent.; in France,
Holland, Spain, Portugal, Hamburgh, and Dantzick,,
2 per cent. ; in Turkey, ^ per cent. ; in North Ameri¬
ca, 5 per cent, on fales, and $ per cent. in . returns ; in
the Weft Indies, 8/>er cewA for commiffion and llorage.
In fome places, it is cuftomary for the fadtors to infure
the debts for an additional allowance, generally per ¬
cent. In that cafe, they are accountable for the debt
when the ufual term of credit is expired.
Fadtorage on goods is fometimes charged at a cer¬
tain rate per caik, or other package, meafure, or weight,
efpecially when the fadtor is only employed to receive
or deliver them.
FACTORY is a place where a confiderable number
of fadtors refide, to negotiate for their mailers or em¬
ployers. See Factor.
The moft confiderable fadtories belonging to the
Britfh are thofe eftabliihed in the Fail Indies, Portu¬
gal, Turkey, &c. There are alfo Engliih fadtories -
eftabliftied at Hamburg, Peterfburg, Dantzic, and in
Holland ; all endowed with certain privileges.
FACTUM, in arithmetic, the prsdudt of two quan¬
tities multiplied by each other.
FACUL./E, in aftronomy, certain bright and fhining
parts, which the modern aftronomers have, by means of1
telefcopes, obferv.ed upon or about the furface of the.
fun : they are but very feldom feen.—The word is pure'
Latin; being a diminutive of “torch;” and fup-
ppfedl
F A E [ 86 1
Faculty p0fed to be here applied from their appearing and dif-
II appearing by turns.
. aernu"-, FACULTY, in law, a privilege granted to a per-
fon, by favour and indulgence, of doing what, by law,
he ought not to do.
For granting thefe privileges, there is a court under
the archbifhop of Canterbury, called the court of the
faculties. The chief officer of this court is ftyled mafler
of the faculties, and has a power of granting difpenfa-
tions in divers cafes; as, to marry without the bans be¬
ing firfl publiihed, to eat fleffi on days prohibited, to
ordain a deacon under age, for a fon to fucceed his
father in hk benefice, a clerk to hold two or more
livings, &c.
Faculty, in the fchools, a term applied to the dif¬
ferent members of an univerfity, divided according to
the arts and fciences taught there : thus in moft uni-
verfities there are four faculties, viz. I. Of arts, which
include humanity and philofophy. 2. Of theology.
3. Of phyfic. And, 4. Of civil law.
Facvlit of Advocates. See Advocates.
Faculty is alfo ufed to denote the powers of the
human mind, viz. underllanding, will, memory, and
imagination. See Metaphysics.
FiECES, in chemiftry, the grofs matter, or fedi-
ment, that fettles at the bottom after diftillation, fer¬
mentation, and the like.—The feces of wine are com¬
monly called Lees.
Fjeces, in medicine, the excrements voided by ftool.
.See Excrements.
FiECULENT, in general, is applied to things
FAG
library, was not difcovered till about 30 year after Fagar*
Faernps’s death. il
FAGARA, Iron-wood : A genus of the mono- Fagopyrum
gynia order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under,the 43d or¬
der, Dumofa. The calyx kquadrifid, the corolla tetra-
petalous, and the capfule bivalved and monofpermous.
There are five fpecies, all natives of the warm parts
of America, rifing with woody items more than 20 feet
high. They are propagated by feeds; but in this
country muft be kept continually in a ftove.
FAGE (Raimond de la), an excellent defigner and
engraver, highly efteemed by Carlo Maratti, was bora
at Touloufe in 1648. He applied himfelf to deiign-
ing, through inclination, in fpite of his parents; and
had no mailer nor any affilfence : but his fuperior ta¬
lents fupplied the want of them, and he became one of
the bed defigners in Europe ; but his performances
on licentious fubjefts are the .moft efteemed. It is re¬
ported of this artift, that he never made ufe of money,
but contracted debts; and when the accounts were
brought him, he drew upon the back of the bills, and
bid the owners fell the drawings to connoiffeurs for the
amount, by which they were generally great gainers.
Several of thofe drawings are in the cabinets of the
curious. He led a loqfe, depraved life ; which his re¬
peated debaucheries put an end to at the age of 42.
FAENSA> a city and bifhop’s fee of Italy, fituated
in the pope’s territories, about 30 miles eaft of Bologna;
E, Long. 12. 38. and N. Lat. 44. 30.
FAGGOT, in times of popery here, was a badge
abounding with feces or dregs: thus the blood and worn on the fleeve of the upper garment of fuch per-
other humours of the human body are faid to be fe¬
culent, when without that purity which is neceffary to
health.
FAENZA, a city of Romania in Italy, with a bi-
ihop’s fee. It is an ancient place, and has undergone
various revolutions. The river Amona wafhes its walls,
and paffes between the city and the fuburbs, which are
joined by a ftone-bridge defended by two good towers.
The city is remarkable for its earthen ware, which is
the beft in all Italy.
FAERNUS (Gabriel), a native of Cremona in Ita¬
ly, was an excellent Latin poet and critic of the 16th
century. He was fo (killed in all parts of polite lite¬
rature, that the cardinal de Medicis, afterward Pope
fons as had recanted or abjured what was then termed
herefy; being put on after the perfon had carried a fag¬
got, by way of penance, to fome appointed place of
folemnity. The leaving off the wear of this badge was
fometimes interpreted a fign of apoftacy.
Faggots, among military men, perfons hired by
officers, whofe companies are not full, to mufter and
hide the deficiencies of the company ; by which means
they cheat the king of fo much money.
FAGIUS (Paul), alias Buchlin, a learned Prote-
ftant minifter, born at Rheinzabem in Germany in
1504. He was a fchoolmafter at Ilna ; but afterwards
became a zealous preacher, and wrote many books.
The perfecution in Germany menacing danger to all
Pius IV. was particularly fond of him. He was the who did not profefs the Romiffi do&rines, he and Bu-
author of fome Latin elegies ; of 100 Latin fables, fe- cer came over to England in 1549, at the invitation of
lefted from the ancients, written in iambic verfe ; and
of feveral pieces of criticifm, as Cenfura emendationum
.Livianarum, De Metris Comicis, &c. He was re¬
markably happy in decyphtring manufcripts, and re-
fforing ancient authors to their purity : he took fuch
pains with Terence in particular, that Bentley has
adopted all his notes in the edition he gave of that
writer. He died at Rome in 1561 ; and Thuanus,
who wrote his eloge, fays, that the learned world was
greatly obliged to him, yet had been ftill more fo, if,
inftead of fuppreffing the then unknown fables of Phae-
archbifhop Cranmer, to perfedl a new tranflation of the
fcriptures. Fagius took the Old Teftament, and Bu-
cer the New, for their refpe&ive parts ; but the defign
was at that time fruftrated by the fudden deaths of
both. Fagius died in 1550, and Bucer did not live
above a year after. Their bodies were dug up and
buried in the reign of queen Mary.
FAGONIA, in botany; A genus of the monogy-
nia order, belonging to the decandria clafs f plants ;
and in the natural method ranking under the 14th or¬
der, Gruinales. The calyx is pentaphyllous ; the pe-
drus, for ft ar of leffening the value of his own Latin tals are five, and heart-lhaped ; the capfule is quin-
fables, written in imitation of Atfop, he had been con¬
tent with imitating them. M. Perault, however, who
tranflated Faernus’s fables into French, has defended
him from this imputation, by affirming that the firft
MS. of Phtedrus’s fables, found in the dull of an old
quelocular, ten-valved, with the cells monofpermous.
There are three fpecies, natives of Spain, Crete, and
Arabia.
* FAGOPYRUM, or Buck-wheat. See Poly¬
gonum.
5 FAGUS,
FAG t 87 ] FAG
FAGUS, the beech-tree : A genus of the poly-
andria order, belonging to the monoecia clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 50th or¬
der, Amentacea. The male calyx is quinquefid and cam
panulated ; there is no corolla; the ftamina are 12: The
female calyx is quinquedentated ; there is no corolla ;
there are three ftyles; the capfule (formerlythe calyx) is
muricated and quadrivalved ; the feeds, two in number.
There are three fpecies. 1. The fylvaticus, or beech-
tree, rifes 60 or 70 feet high, and has a proportion-
able thicknefs, branching upward into a fine regular
head, garniflied with oval ferrated leaves, with flowers
in globular catkins, fucceeded by angular fruit called
majl. 2. The cattanea, or chefnut-tree, hath a large
upright trunk growing 40 or 50 feet high, branching
regularly .round into a fine fpreading head, garniflied
with large fpear-fhaped acutely ferrated leaves naked
on the under fide, having flowers in lonjr amentums,
fucceeded by round prickly fruit, containing two or
more nuts. 3. The pumila, dwarf chefnut-tree, or
chinkapin, rifes eight or ten feet high, with a branch¬
ing flirubby dem, and oval fpear-lhaped and acutely
ferrated leaves? hoary on the under fide.
Culture. The fir ft is very eafily raifed from the mail
or feed. ** For woods (fays Evelyn), the beech muft be
governed as the oak :—In nurferies, as the afh; low¬
ing the mafts in autumn, or later, even after January,
or rathet nearer the fpring, to preferve them from ver¬
min, which are very great devourers of them. But
they dfie likewife to be planted of young feedlings to
be drawn out of the places where the fruitful trees
abound.” Millar fays, the feafon for fowingthe mafts
“ is any time from Oftober to February, only obferving
to fecure the feeds from vermin when early fowed,
which, if carefully done, the-fooner they are fown the
better, after they are fully ripe.” Hanbury orders a
fufficient quantity of mafts to be gathered about the
middle of September, when they begin to fall: thefe
are to be “ fpread upon a mat in an airy pkce fix days
to dry ; and after that you may either proceed to fow
them immediately, or you may put them up in bags in
order to fow them nearer the fpring ; which method I
would rather advife, as they will keep very well, and
there will be lefs danger of having them deftroyed
by mice or other vermin, by which kinds of animals
they are greatly relifhed.” They muft be fown in
beds properly prepared about an inch deep. In the
firft fpring many of the young plants will appear,
whilft others will not come up till the fpring follow¬
ing. Having ftood" two years in the feminary, they
Ihould be removed to the nurfery, where they may re¬
main till wanted.
The propagation of the fecond fpecies is- alfo chiefly
from feeds. Evelyn'fays, “ Let the nuts be firft fpread
to fweat, then cover them in fand ; a month being
paft, plunge them in water, and rejeft the fwimmers ;
being dried for 30 days more, fand them again, and to
the water-orde-al as before. Being thus treated until
the beginning of fpring or in November, fet them as
you woujd do beans; and, as fome pradtife it, drench¬
ed for a night or mote in new milk ; but with half
this preparation they need only to be put into the
holes with the point upmoft, as you plant tulips. If
you defign to fet them in winter or autumn; I counfel
you to inter them in their hulks, which being every
way armed, are a good proteftion againft the moufe,
and a providential integument.”—-“ Being come up,
they thrive beft unremoved, making a great ftand for
at leaft two years upon every tranfplanting ; yet if
needs you muft alter their ftation, let it be done a-
bout November.” Millar cautions us againft pur-
chafing foreign nuts that have been kiln dried, which
(he fays) is generally done to prevent their fprout-
ing in their paflage; therefore he aids, “ If they
cannot be procured frefti from the tree, it will be
much better to ufe thofe of the growth of England;
which are full as good to fow for timber or. beau¬
ty as any of the foreign nuts, though their fruit is
much fmaller.” He alfo recommends preferving them
in fand, and-proving them in water. In fetting thefe
feeds or nuts (he fays) “the beft way is to make a
drill with a hoe (as is commonly pra&ifed for kidney-
beans) about four inches deep, in which you fhould
place the nuts, at about four inches diftance, with
their eye uppermoft ; then dfaw the earth over them
with a rake, and make a fecond drill at about a foot
diftance from the former, proceeding as before, al¬
lowing three of four rows in each bed.—In April
(he does not mention the time of flowing) thefe nuts
will appear above-ground ; you muft therefore obftrve
to keep them clear from weeds, efpecially while young:
in thefe beds they may remain for two years, wdien
you ftiould remove them into a nurfery at a wider dif¬
tance. The beft time for tranfplanting thefe trees is
either in Oftober or the latter end of February, but
Odlober is the beft feafon : the diftance thefe ftiould
have in the nurfery is three feet row from row, and
one foot in the rows. If thefe trees have a downright
tap-root, it ftiould be cut off, efpecially if they are in¬
tended to be removed again : this will occafion their
putting out lateral ftioots, and render them lefs fubjedt
to mifcarry when they are removed for good. The
time generally allowed them in the nurfery is three or *
four years, according to their growth; but the younger
they are tranfplanted, the better they will fucceed. -
Young trees of this fort are very apt to have crooked
ftems; but. when they are tranfplanted out and have
room to grow, as they increafe in bulk.they will grow
more upright, and their ilems will become ftraighf, as
I have frequently obferved where there have been great
plantations.”—Hanbury follows Millar almoft literally;
except that he mentions February as the time of low¬
ing ; and recommends that the young plants, a year
after they have been planted in <the nurfery, be cut
down to within an inch of the ground; which (he fays)
“ will caufe them to ftioot vigoroufly with one ftrong
and ftraight Item.” There is one material objection
againftTowing chefnuts in drills, which are well known
to ferve as guides or conductors to the field-moufe,
who will run from one end to the other of a drill
without letting a fingle nut efcape her: we rather re¬
commend fetting them with a dibble, either promifcu-
oufly or a quincunx, at about fix inches diftance.
Evelyn fays, that coppices of chefnuts may be thick¬
ened- by layering the tender young ftioots; but adds,.
that. “ fuch as fpring from the nuts and matrons are
beft of all.” There is a ftriped-leaved variegation which
is continued by budding ; and the French are faid to-
graft chefnuts for their fruit; but Millar fays, fuch.
grafted trees are unfit for timber. The .chefnuts will :
thrive.
* See Etna,
rfi i8. and
Plate
CLXX XV
FAG L 83 ] F A I
thrive upon almoft any foil which lies out of the wa- nor, and is probably near iooo years old. As an orna- Faint
1 ter’s way ; but difaffefts wet moory land. mental, the chefnut, tho’ unequal" to the oak, the beech, II l
The method of propagating the dwarf chefnut is and the efculus, has a degree of greatnefs belonging F:iir‘
from feeds, which we receive from America. Thefe to it which recommends it flrongly to the gardener’s ’
fhould be planted in drills, as foon as they arrive, in a attention. Its ufes have been highly extolled; and it
moiftilh bed of rich garden-mould. If the feeds are may deferve a confiderable (hare of the praife which
good, they will come up pretty foon in the fpring. has been given it. As a fubftitute for the oak, it is
After they appear, they will require no trouble, ex- preferable to the elm : For door-jambs, window-
cept keeping them clean from weeds, and watering frames, and fome other purpofes of the houfe-carpen-
them in dry weather. They may Hand in the feed- ter, it is nearly equal to oak itfelf; but it is very apt
bed two years, and be afterwards planted in the nurfe- to be lhakey, and there is a deceitful brittlenefs in it
ry-ground, at a foot afunder and two feet diftance in which renders it unfafe to be ufed as beams, or in any
the rows; and here when they are got ftrong plants, other fituation where an uncertain load is required to
they will be fit for any purpofe. be borne. It is univerfally allowed to be excellent for
Properties and Ufes. In ftatelinefs and grandeur of liquor calks; as not being liable to Ihrink, nor to
outline, the beech vies with the oak. Its foliage is change the colour of the liquor it contains: it is alfo
peculiarly foft and pleafing to the eye ; its branches ftrongly recommended as an underwood for hop-poles,
are numerous and fpreading; and its ftem waxes to a Hakes, See. Its fruit too is valuable, not only for
great fize. The bark of the beech is remarkably fwine and deer, but as a human food : Bread is faid to
fmooth, and of a filvery call; this, added to the have been made of it. Upon the whole, the chefnut,
fplendor and fmoothnefs of its foliage, gives a linking whether in the light of ornament or ufe, is undoubted-
neatnefs and delicacy to its general appearance. The ly ^n objeft of the planter’s notice,
beech, therefore, Handing fingly, and fuffered to form FAINT-actign, in law, a feigned a£tion, or fuch
its own natural head, is highly ornamental; and its as, although the words of the writ are true, yet, for
leaves varying their hue as the autumn approaches, ren- certain caufes, the plaintiff has no title to recover
ders it in this point of view Hill more defirable. In thereby.
point of aftiial ufe the beech follows next to the oak Faint-Pleader> in law, a covinous, falfe, or collu-
and the alh : it is almoH as neceffary to the cabinet- fory manner of pleading, to the deceit of a third perfon.
makeisand turners (efpecially about the metropolis), FAINTING. See Lipothymia.
as the oak is to the flup-builder, or the alh to the FAINTS, in the diHillery, the weak fpirituous li-
plough and Cartwright. Evelyn neverthelefs con- quor that runs from the Hill in retlifying the low wines
demns it in pointed and general terms; becaufe “ where after the proof-fpirit is taken off.
it lies dry, or wet and dry, it is exceedingly obnoxious Faints, is alfo the laH runnings of all fpirits diffil-
to the worm.” He adds, however, “ but being put led by the alembic. The clearing the worm of thefe
ten days in water, it will exceedingly rtfiH the worm.” is fo effential a point in order to the obtaining a pure
The natural foil and fituation of the beech is upon fpirit by the fubfequent difiillation, that all others are
dry, chalky, or limeHone heights : It grows to a great fruitlefs without it.
fize upon the hills of Surry and Kent; as alfo upon FAIR, a greater kind of market, granted to a town,
the declivities of the Cotfwold and Stroudwater hills of by privilege, for the more fpeedy and commodious pro-
Glouceflerfhire, and flourifhes exceedingly upon the viding of fuch things as the place Hands in need of.
bleak banks of the Wye, in Hereford and Monmouth The word fair, is formed from the French foirt,
(hires; where it is much ufed in making charcoal. In which fignifies the fame thing; and foire is by fomc
fituations like thofe, and where it is not already preva- derived from the Latin forum, “ marketby others
lent, the beech, whether as a timber-tree or as an un- from the Latinferia, becaufe anciently fairs were always
derwood, is an objeft worthy the planter’s attention. held in the places where the wakes, or feafls of the
The maH, or feeds, yield a good oil for lamps ; dedications of churches, called feria, were held. See
and are a very agreeable food to fquirrels, mice, and Ferine.
fwine. The fat of fwine fed with them, however, is It is incident to a fair, that perfons fiiall be free from
foft, and boils away unlefs hardened by fome other being arrefled in it for any other debt or contraft than
food. The leaves gathered in autumn, before they are what was contrafted in the fame ; or, at leail, promi-
much injured by the froHs, make much better ma- fed to be paid there. Thefe fairs are generally kept
traffes than Hraw or chaff; and laff for feven or eight once or twice a-year; and, by flatute, they fiiall not be
years. The nuts, when eaten by the human fpecies, held longer than they ought, by the lords thereof, on
occafion giddinefs and headach; but when well dried pain of their being feized into the king’s hands, &c.
and powdered, they make wholefome bread. They Alfo proclamation is to be made, how long they are
are fometimes roafled, and fubHituted for coffee. The to continue ; and no perfon fliall fell any goods after
poor people in Silefia ufe the expreffed oil inflead of the time of the fair is ended, on forfeiture of double
butter. the value, one fourth to the profecutor and the refl to
The chefnut-tree fometimes grows to an immenfe fize. the king. There is a toll ufually paid in fairs on the
The largefi in the known world are thofe which grow fale of things, and for Hallage, picage, &c.
upon Mount ./Etna in Sicily *. At Tortworth in Fairs abroad are either free, or charged with toll
Gloucefferftiire, is a chefnut tree 52 feet round. It is and impoff. The privileges of free fairs confifi chief-
proved to have Hood there ever fince the year 1150, ly, firH, in that all traders, &c. whether natives
and was then fo remarkable that it was called the great or foreigners, are allowed to enter the kingdom, and
chef?wt of Port-worth. It fixes the boundary of the ma- are under the royal prote&icn, exempt from duties, im-
N° 12 3. x pofitions,
FAT [ 89 ] F A I
pofiti’ons, tolls, See. Secondly, that merchants, in go¬
ing or returning, cannot be molefted or arrefted, or
their goods flopped. They are eflablifhed by letters-
patent from the prince. Fairs, particularly free fairs,
make a very confiderable article in the commerce of
Europe, efpecially that of the Mediterranean, and in¬
land parts of Germany, &c.
The mofl celebrated fairs in Europe are thofe,
j. Of Francfort, held twice a-year, in fpring and
autumn : the hrft commencing the Sunday before
Palm-Sunday, and the other on the Sunday before
the eighth of September. Each lafts 14 days, or two
weeks; the firti of which is called the <wee& of accep¬
tance, and the fecond the week of payment. They are
famous for the fale of all kinds of commodities; but
particularly for the immenfe quantity of curious books
no where elfe to be found, and whence the bookfellers
throughout all Europe ufed to furnifh themfelves. Be¬
fore each fair, there is a catalogue of all the books to
be fold thereat, printed and difperfed, to call together
purchafers: though the learned complain of divers un¬
fair practices therein; as fiftitious titles, names of
books purely imaginary, &c. befide great faults in the
names of the authors, and the titles of the real books.
«—2. The fairs of Leipfick, which are held thrice a-
vear : one beginning on the firft of January ; another
three weeks after Eafter; and a third after Michael¬
mas. They hold 12 daysoa piece ; and are at leaft
as confiderable as thofe of Francfort. 3. The fairs
of Novi, a little city in the Milanefe, under the do¬
minion of the republic of Genoa. There are four in
the year, commencing on the fecond of February, the
fecund of May, the firft of Auguft, and fecond of
September. Though the commodities bought and
fold here be very confiderable ; yet, what chiefly con¬
tributes to render them fo famous, is the vaft con-
courfe of the moft confiderable merchants and nego-
ciants of the neighbouring kingdoms, for the tranfadt-
ing of affairs and fettling accounts. 4. The fairs of
Riga, whereof.there are two'in the year; one in May,
and the other in September. They are much fre¬
quented by the Englifh, Dutch, and French fhips, as
alfo from all parts of the Baltic. The beft time for
the fale of goods at Riga is during the fairs. Since
the building of the famous city of Peterfburg, thefe
fairs have fuffered fome diminution. 5. Fair of Arch¬
angel, during which all the trade foreigners have with
that city is managed. It holds a month, or fix weeks
at moft, commencing from the middle of Auguft.
The Mufcovite merchants attend here from all parts
of that vaft empire ; and the Englifh, Dutch, French,
Swedifh, Danifh, and other fhips in the port of that
city, on this occafion, ordinarily amount to 3<do. But
this is no free fair as the reft are : The duties of ex¬
portation and importation are very ftriftly paid, and
on a very high footing. 6. The fair of St Germain,
one of the fnburbs of Paris, commencing on the third
of February, and holding till Eafter; though it is on¬
ly free for the firft 15 days. 7. The fairs of Lyons,
which Monf. du Chefne, in his antiquity of cities,'
would infinuate, from a paffage in Strabo, were efta-
blifhed by the Romans; though it is certain, the fairs,
as they now (land, are of a much later date. There
are three in the year, each lafting 20 days, and free
for ever. They begin on Eafter Monday, the 26th
Vol. VII. Part i.
of July, and the firft of December. 8. Fair of Gui-
bray, a fuburb of the city of Falaife, in the Lower
Normandy. It is faid to have been eftablifhed by our
William the Conqueror, in confideration of his being
born at Falaife. It commences on the 16th of Auguft j
and holds 15 days free by charter, and longer by
cuftom. 9. Fair of Beaucaire, held partly in a city
of that name, in Languedoc, and partly in the open
country, under tents, Sec. It commences on the 22d
of July, and only holds for three days; yet it is the
greateft and moft celebrated of all the fairs in that part
of Europe, both for the concourfe of ft rangers from
all parts of the world, and for the traffic of all kind of
goods: the money returned in thefe three days amount*
ing fometimes to above'fix millions oflivres.
The fairs of Porto-bello, Vera Crux, and the Ha-
vanna, are the moft confiderable of all thofe in Ame¬
rica. ‘ The two firft laft as long as the fiota and gal¬
leons continue in thofe parts; and the laft is opened
as foon as the flota or galleons arrive there upon their
return for Spain; this being the place .where the two
fleets join. See Flota, and Galleons.
The principal Brithh fairs are, t. Sturbridge-fair,
near Cambridge, by far the greateft in Britain, and
perhaps in the world. 2. Briftol has two fairs, very
near as great as that of Sturbridge. 3. Exeter.
4. Weft Cliefter. 5. Edinburgh. 6. Wheyhill; and,
7. BurfordTair; both for fheep. 8. Pancras fair,
in Staffordihire, for faddle-horfes. 9. Bartholemew
fair, at London, for lean and Welch black cattle.
10. St Faith’s, in Norfolk, for Scotch runts, it.
Yarmouth fifiiing-fair for herrings, the only filhing fair
in Great Britain. 12 Ipfwuch butter fair. 13. Wood-
borough hill, in Dorfetlhire, for weft-country manu*
failures, as kerfeys, druggits, &c. 14. Two cheefe
fairs at Chipping Norton : with innumerable other fairs,
befides weekly markets, for all forts of goods, as well
our own as of foreign growth.
Fair, in fea language, is ufed for the difpofition
of the wind, when it is favourable to a (hip’s courfe,
in oppolition to that which is contrary or foul. The
term fair is more comprehenfive than large, and in¬
cludes about 16 or 18 points of the compafs ; whereas
large is confined to the beam or quarter, that is, to a
wind which croffes the keel at right angles, or oblique¬
ly from the ftern, but never to one right a-ftern.
Fair (Me), a fmall ifland lying between Orkney
and Shetland, 12 or to leagues E. N. E. from the for¬
mer; and feven, eight, or ro leagues,’ S.W. from the
latter. It is three miles long, and fcarce half a mile
broad, very craggy, with three high rocks which are
vifible both from Orkney and Shetland. There is in
this ifland a fmall quantity of arable land,, which is very
fruitful and well manured ; and there might be conii-
derably more, but the inhabitants are obliged to referve
it for peat and pafturage. They, have for the fize of
the ifland a great many fneep, and thofe very good and
fat: but they have no kind of moor-fowl or other
game ; but there is great plenty of.fea and water fowl,
and ail kinds of fifti upon their coafts. There is in ef¬
fect no port, though they have two that are nominally
fo : one at the fouth end, which"is full of rocks, where
only fmall boats can lie, and that but indifferently;
the other at the north-caft end, larger and fafer in
fummer, fo that it ferves commodioufly enough for
M their
F A I [ 9° 1 F A I
Fa'r, their fifhery. The duke of Medina Sidonia, when
Fairfax. commander of the famous Spanifti armada in 1588,
was wrecked on the eaft coaft of this ifland. The ihip
broke to pieces, but the duke and 200 men made their
efcape. They lived here fo long, that both they and
the inhabitants were almoft famiflied. At length the
duke and the poor remains of his people were carried
over to the main land of Shetland, and then to Dun¬
kirk, by one Andrew Humphry, for which fervice
Andrew was rewarded with 3000 merks. This ifland
produced to its former proprietor between 501. and
601. Sterling, It was fold at Edinburgh, on the 20th
©f June 1766, for about 8501. to James Stewart of
Burgh, Efq.
FAiR-Cunve, is a winding line, ufed in delineating
fliips, whofe fiiape is varied, according to the part of
the fliip which it is intended to defcribe.
Fair-Way, in fea language, the path or channel of
a narrow bay, river, or haven, in which (hips ufually
advance in their pafiage up and down; fo that if any
vefiels are anchored therein, they are faid to lie in the
fair-way.
FAIRFAX (Edward), natural fon of Sir Thomas
Fairfax, was an Englifh poet who lived in the reigns
of Elizabeth and James I. He wrote feveral poetical
pieces, and was an accompliflied genius. Dryden in¬
troduces Fairfax with Spencer, as the leading writers
of the times; and even feems to give the preference to
the former in the way of harmony, when he obferves
that Waller owned himfelf indebted for the harmony
of his numbers to Fairfax’s Godfrey of Boulogne. He
died about the year 1632, at his own houfe called New-
hall, in the pariih of Fuyfton, between Denton and
Knarefborough, and lies under a marble ftone.
Fairfax (Sir Thomas), general of the parliamen¬
tary forces againft Charles I. in 1644. See (Hi/lory
of) Britain, n° 127. et feq. He reiigned in 1650 ;
after which he lived privately, till he w’as invited by
general Monk to aflift him againft Lambert’s army.
He cheerfully embraced the occafion ; and, on the
third of December 1659, appeared at the head of a
body of gentlemen of Yorkftiire; when, upon the
reputation of his name, a body of 12,000 men for-
fook Lambert and joined him. He was at the head
of the committee appointed by the Houfe of Commons
to attend king Charles II. at the Hague, to defire
him fpeedily to return to England ; and having rea¬
dily aflifted in his reftoration, returned again to his
feat in the country ; where he lived in a private man¬
ner till his death, which happened in 1671, in the
60th year of his age.— He wrote, fays Mr Walpole,
memorials of Thomas lord Fairfax, printed in 1699;
and was not only an hiftorian, but a.poet. In Mr
Thorelby’s- mufeum were preferved in manufcript the
following pieces: The Pfalms of David, the Can¬
ticles, the Songs of Mofes, and other parts of Scrip¬
ture, verfified ; a poem on Solitude ; Notes of Ser¬
mons, by his lordftiip, by his lady daughter of Ho¬
race lord Vere, and by their daughter Mary the wife
of George fecond duke of Buckingham; and a Trea-
tife on the Shortnefs of Life. But of all lord Fairfax’s
works, fays Mr Walpole, the moft remarkable were
the verfes he wrote on the horfe on which Charles II.
lode to his coronation, and which had been bred and
prefe.nted to the king by his lordfhip. How muft that.
merry monarch, unapt to keep his countenance on Fairford,
more ferious occafions, have fmiled at this aukward Fairy-
homage from the old victorious hero of republicanifm —
and the covenant! He gave a colkftion of manufcripts
to the Bodleian library.
FAIRFORD, a town in Gloucefter/hire, with a
market on Thurfdays. It is remarkable for the church,
which has curious painted glafs-windows. They are
faid to have been taken in a fliip by John Tame,
Efq; tov/ards the end of the 15th century, who built
the church for their fake. They are preferved en¬
tire, and the figures are extremely well drawn and-
coloured. They reprefent the moft remarkable hif-
tories in the Old and New Teftament. They are-
frequently vifited by travellers, and many go on pur-
pofe to view them, as one of the greateft curiofities in
England. The painter was Albert Durer. W. Long.
1. 46. N. Lat. 51. 42,
FAIRY, in ancient traditions and romances, fig-
nifies a fort of deity, or imaginary genius, converfant
on the earth, and diftinguirtied by a variety of fantaf-
tical adions either good or bad.
They were moft ufually imagined to be women of
an order fuperior to human nature, yet fubjeft to
wants, paflions, accidents, and even death; fprightly
and benevolent while young and handfome; morofe,
peevifli, and malignant, if ugly, or in the decline of
their beauty; fond of appearing in white, whence
they are often called the white ladies.
Concerning thefe imaginary beings, no lefs a perfon
than Jervaife of Tilkberry, marftial of the kingdom
of Arles, who lived in the beginning of the 13th cen¬
tury, writes thus in a work infcribed to the emperor
Otho IV. “ It has been aflerted by perfons of un¬
exceptionable credit, that fairies ufed to choofe them-
felves gallants from among men, and rewarded their
attachment with an affluence of wordly goods ; but
if they married, or boafted of a fairy’s favours, they
as feverely fmarted for fuch indifcretion.” The like
tales ftill go current in Languedoc; and, throughout
the whole province, there is not a village without fome
ancient feat or cavern which had the honour of being
a fairy’s refidence, or at leaft fome fpring where a
fairy ufed to bathe. This idea of fairies has a near
affinity with that of the Greeks and Romans, concern¬
ing the nymphs of the woods, mountains, and fprings;
and an ancient fcholiaft on Theocritus fays, “ The-
nymphs are demons which appear on the mountains
in the figure of women and what is more furpri-
fing, the Arabs and other orientals have their ginn and
peri, of whom they entertain the like notions.
But fairies have been likewife defcribed as of either-
fex, and generally as of minute ftature, though capable
of afluming various forms and dimenfions. The moft ;
charming reprefentation imaginable of thefe children
of romantic fancy, is in the Midfummer-nightys Dream
of Shakefpear; imreferring to which, we will no doubt-
have been anticipated by the recolleftion of almoft every
reader.
Spenfer’s Fairy Queen is an epic poem, under the
perfons and characters of fairies. This fort of poetry
raifes a pleafing kind of horror in the mind of the read¬
er, and amufes his imagination with the ftrangenefs-
and novelty of the perfons who are reprefented in it ;
but, as a vehicle of inftru&ion, the judicious objeft to^
F A I [9
Fairy, It, as not having probability enough to make any moral
Faith. . impreflion.
^"~v The belief of fairies Hill fubfifts in many parts of our
own country. The
“ Swart fairy of the mine,”
(of German extra&ion^, hasfcarce yet quitted our fub-
terraneous works; (wV. next article.) Puck, or Ro¬
hm Good-Fellow, (till haunts many of our villages.
And in the highlands of Scotland, new born children
are watched till the chriftening is over, left they {hould
be ftolen or changed by fome of thefe phantaftic'al
exiftences.
Fairy of the Mine; an imaginary being, an inhabitant
of minqs. The Germans believed in two fpecies; one
fierce and malevolent; the other a gentle race, appear¬
ing like little old men drefled like the miners, and not
much above two feet high. Thefe wander about the
drifts and chambers of the works ; feem perpetually
employed, yet do nothing ; fome leem to cut the ore,
or fling what is cut into veflels, or turn the windlafs ;
but never do any harm to the miners, unlefs provoked ;
as the fenfible Agricola, in this point credulous, relates
in his book de Ammantlbus Suhterraneis.
Fairy Circle or Ring, a phenomenon pretty fre¬
quent in the fields, &c. fuppofed by the vulgar to be
traced by the fairies in their dances. There are two
kinds of it; one of about feven yards in diameter, con¬
taining a round bare pathj a foot broad, with green
grafs in the middle of it. The other is of different
bignefs, encompaffed with a circumference of grafs.
Meff. Jeffopand Walker, in the Philofophical Tranfac-
tions, afcribe them to lightning ; which is thought to
be confirmed by their being moft frequently produ¬
ced after ftorms of that kind, as well as by the colour
and brittlenefs of the grafs-roots when firft obferved.
Lightning, like all other fires, moves round, and
burns more in the extremity than in the middle: the
fecond circle arifes from the firft, the grafs burnt up
growing very plentifully afterwards. Others maintain
that thefe circles are made by ants, which are fre¬
quently found in great numbers therein.— Mr Cavallo,
who hath publifhed an efteemed treatife on eleftricity,
does not think that lightning is at all concerndid in the
formation of them : “ They are not (fays he) always
of a circular figure ; and, as I am informed, they feem
to be rather beds of mulhrooms than the effe&s of
lightning.”
"FAITH, in philofophy and theology, that affent
which we give to a propofition advanced by another,
the truth of which we do not immediately perceive from
our own reafon or experience ; or it is a judgment or
affent of the mind, the motive whereof is not any in-
trinfic evidence, but the authority or teftimony of fome
other who reveals or relates it. Hence, as there are
two kinds of authorities and teftimonies, the one of
God, and the other of man, faith becomes diftinguilhed
into divine and human.
Divine Faiyh, is that founded on the authority of
God ; or it is that affent we give to what is revealed
by God.
The objefts of this faith, therefore, are matters of
revelation. See Revelation and Religion.
Human Faith, is that whereby we believe what is
told us by men. The objeift hereof is matter of human
teftimony and evidence. See Metaphysics.
i ] F A 1
Faith, in praftical theology, makes the firft of the F-’i'b
theological virtues or graces. Faithorn*
Faith in God, in this fenfe, denotes fuch a convic- "f
tion of his being, perfedtions, charafter, and govern¬
ment, as produces love, truft, worfhip, obedience, and
refignation.
Faith in Chrift, as it has been defined by fome, is a
mere affent to the gofpel as true; according to others,
it fignifies fuch a perfuafion that he is the Meffiah, and
fuch a defire and expedlation of the blefiings which he
has promifed in his gofpel to his fincere difciples, as
engage the mind to fix its dependence upon him, and
fubjetl itfelf to hirn in all the ways of holy obedience.
See Theology.
Faith, likewife, in refpedft to futurity, is a moral
principle,, implying fuch a convidlion of the reality and
importance of a future ftate, as is fufficient to regulate
the temper and condudl.
Faith, or Fidelity, (Fides), was deified by the an¬
cient Romans, and had a temple in the Capitohconfe-
crated to her by Attilius Catalinus. Her priefts wore
white veils : unbloody facrifices were offered to her,
and the greateft oaths were taken in her name. Ho¬
race clothes her in white, places her in the retinue of
Fortune, and makes her the.filler of Juftice, Od. 24,
jj. 1. i. Public faith is reprefented in a great number
of medals; fometimes with a balket of fruit in one
hand, and fome ears of corn in the other ; and fome¬
times holding a turtle-dove. But the moft ufual fym-
bol is two hands joined together. The infcriptions are
generally, Fides Augufli, Fides Exerciius, or Fides Mi- #
litum, &c.
FAITHFUL, an appellation affumed by the Ma¬
hometans. See Mahometans.
FAITHORN (William), an ingenious Englilh ar-
tift, a native of London, was the difciple of Peak the
painter, and worked with him three or four years.
At the breaking out of the civil w^ar. Peak efpoufed
the caufe of his fovereign; and Faithorn, who ac¬
companied his matter, was taken prifoner by the re¬
bels at Baringhoufe, from whence he was fent to Lon¬
don, and confined in Alderfgate. In this uncomfort¬
able fituation he exercifed his graver; and a fmall
head of the firft Villars duke of Buckingham, in the
ftyle of Melan, is reckoned among his performances at
that time. The folicitations of his friends in his fa¬
vour at laft prevailed; and he was releafed from pri-
fon, with peimillion to retire to the continent. In
France he found prote&ion and encouragement from
the Abbe de Marolles ; and at this time it was that
he formed an acquaintance with Nanteuil, from whofe
inftrudtions he derived very confiderable advantages.
About the year 1650 he returned to England, and
foon after married the filler of a Captain Ground.
By her he had two fons; Henry, who was a bookfel-
ler, and William an engraver in mezzotinto. Fai¬
thorn opened a Ihop near Temple-Bar, where he fold
not only his own engravings, but thofe of other Eng-
lilh artifts, and impoited a confiderabie number of
prints from Holland, France, and Italy. About the
year 1680, he retired from his Ihop, and refided in
Printing-Houfe Yard ; but he ftill continued to work
for the bookfellers, efpecially Royfton, Martin, and
Peake the younger, his former mafter’s brother. He
painted portraits from the life in crayons ; which art
M2 he
FAK te2] FAL
he learned of Nanteuil during his abode in France.
He alfo painted in miniature; and his performances
in both thefe ftyles were much eileemed. His fpirits
were broken by the indifcretion and diflipation of his
fon William ; and a lingering confmnption put an end
to his life in 1691. He wrote a book Upon Drawing,
Graving, and Etching, for which he was celebrated by
his friend Thomas Flatman the poet.
FAKIRS, Indian monks or friars. They out-do
the feverity and mortification of the ancient Ancho¬
rets or Solitaries. Some of them make a vow of con¬
tinuing all their lifetime in one pofture, and keep it
effetfually. Others never lie down j but continue in
a Handing pofture all their lives, fupported only by a
itick, or rope under their arm-pits. Some mangle
their bodies with fcourges and knives. They look
tipon themfelves to have conquered every paffion, and
triumphed over the world ; and accordingly fcruple
not, as if in a ftate of innocence, to appear entirely
naked in public.
The common people of Eaft India are thoroughly
perfuaded of the virtue and innocence of the fakirs ;
notwithHanding which, they are accufed of commit¬
ting the moft enormous crimes in private.
They have alfo another kind of fakirs, who do not
praftife fuch feverities: thefe flock together in com¬
panies, and go from village to village, prophefying,
and telling fortunes. They are wicked villains, and it
is dangerous for a man to meet them in a lone place :
neverthelefs the Indian idolaters have them in the ut-
moft veneration. They make ufe of drums, trumpets,
and other mufical inftruments, to roufe their fouls, and
work themfelves up to an artificial ecftafy, the better
to publifii their pretended prophecies.
Some of the votaries of thefe fages nioft devoutly
kifs their privy parts ; and they receive this monftrous
declaration of refpedf with a kind of ecftatic pleafure.
The moft fober and difcreet Indians confult them in
this prepofterous attitude; and their female votaries
converfe with them a confiderable time with the moft
indecent freedom.
The fire they burn is made of cow’s dung, dried in
the fun. When they are difpofed to fleep, they repofe
themfelves on cow’s dung, and fometimes on ordure
itfelf. They are fo indulgent towards every living
creature, that they fuffer themfelves to be over-run
with vermin, or ftung by infedts, without the leaft re-
luclancy or complaint.
It is more than probable, thefe Indian friars have
fome fecret art to lull their fenfes afleep, in order to
render themftlves in a great meafure infenfible of the
exctffive torments they voluntarily undergo. Gving-
ton affures us, that “ as he was one day in an affem-
bly of fakirs, he obferved, that they drank opiates in-
fufed in water; the intoxicating virtue whereof was
enoiigh ro turn their brain.”
The garment of the chief fakirs confifts of three or
four yards of orange-coloured linen, which they tie
round them/and a tyger’s&in, which hangs over their
fhoulders. Their hair is Woven in treftes, and forms a
kind of turban. The fuperior of the fakirs is diftin^
guilhed from the reft by having a greater number of
pieces in his garment, and by a chain of iron, two yards
long, tied to his leg. When he defigns to reft in any
place, a garment is fpread upon the ground; on which
he fits and gives audience, whilft his difciples publi/h
his virtues.
Some perfons of quality in India have become fa¬
kirs among others, five great lords belonging tq the
court of Cha-gehan, Mogul of the Indies. It is laid,
there are about two millions^of fakirs in the Eaft
Indies. *
FALASHA, a people of Abyfiinia, of Jewifh ori¬
gin, deferibed by Mr Bruce, who was at great pains to
acquaint himfelf with their hiftory by cultivating the
ffiendlhip of the moft learned perions among them he
could meet'with.
According to the accounts received from them, the
Falafha are_ the defeendants ofr'thofe Jews who came
from Paleftine into Ethiopia, as attendants of Menilek
the fon of the queen of Sheba or Saba by Solomon.
They agree in the relations given by the Abyflinians
of that princefs, which are mentioned under the ar¬
ticle Ethiopia ; but deny that the pofterity of thofe
who came with Menilek ever embraced the Chriftian
religion, as the Abyffinians fay they did. They fay,
that at the decline of the Jewilh commerce, when the
ports of the Red Sea fell into the hands of other na¬
tions, and ho intercourfe took place betwixt them and
Jerufalem, the Jewifh inhabitants quitted the fea-coafts
and retired into the province of Dtmbea. While they
remained in the cities on the Red Sea, they exercifed
the trades of brick and tile making, pottery, thatching
houfes, &c. and after leaving the fea-coafts, they ehofe
the country of Dembea on account of the plenty of
materials it afforded for exercifing the trades they pro-
feffed. Here they carried the art of pottery to a
great degree of perfection, multiplied exceedingly,
and became very numerous and powerful about the
time that the Abyffinians were converted to Chiiftia-
nity. As this event was accounted by them an apo-
ftacy from the true religion, they now Separated them¬
felves from the Abyffinians, and declared one Phineas,
of the line of Solomon, their king. Thus they fay,
they have ftill a prince of the houfe of Judah for their
fovereign, though their affertion is treated with con¬
tempt, and a nick-name beftowed on the Falafhan fa¬
mily by the other Abyffinians. About the year 960,
the queen of this people, after extirpating the Abyffi-
nian princes on the rock Damo, affumed the fove¬
reign ty of the whole empire, which they retained for
fome time, as is related under the article Ethiopia ;
but their power being by degrees reduced, they were
obliged to take up thtir refidence among the rugged
•mountains of Samen; one of which they chofe for
their capital, and Which has ever fince been called the
Jews Rod. About the year 1600, they were almoft
entirely ruined by an overthrow from.the Abyffinians,
in which both their king and queen were ffain ; fince.
which time they have been in fubje&ion to the empe¬
rors of that country, but are ftill governed by their
own princes. When Mr Bruce was in Abyffinia they
were fuppofed to amount to about '100,000 effective
men. Gideon and Judith were the names of the king
and queen at that time ; and thefe* according to our
author, feem to be preferred to otfrers for the royal
family.
The language of this people is very different from
the Hebrew, Samaritan, or any other which the Jews
ever fperke in their own country. On being interro¬
gated
F A L [ 93 ] F A L
palafha gated concerning it by Mr Bruce, they faid, that it
|| was probably one of thofe fpoken by the nations on the
Falco, j^e(j Sea,.among whom they had fettled at their firft
v"""1 coming. They arrived in Abyffinia fpeaking Hebrew,
and with the advantage of having books in that lan¬
guage ; but had now forgot it, which indeed is not to
be wondered at, as they had loft their Hebrew books,
and were entirely-ignorant of the art of writing. At
the time of their leaving Jerufalem, they were m pof-
,/effion both of the Hebrew and Samaritan copies of
the law; but when their fleet was deftroyed in the
time of Rehoboam, and no faither communication with
Jerufalem took place, they were obliged to ufe tranf-
lations of. the fcriptures, or thofe copies which were
in pofleffion of the Ihepherds, who, they fay, were all
Jews before the time of Solomon. On being aflced,
however, where the Shepherds got their copy, and
being told, that, notwithftanding the invafion of E-
gypt by Nebuchadnezzar, there was ftill a commu¬
nication with Jerufalem by means of the Iftimaelite
Arabs through Arabia, they frankly acknowledged
that they could not tell j neither had they any memo¬
rials of the hiflory either of their own or any other
country ; all that they believed in this cafe being de¬
rived from mere tradition, their hiftories, if any ex-
ifted, having been deftroyed by the famous Moorilh
Captain Gragne, of whom an account is given urn
der the article Ethiopia. They fay, that the firft
book of Scripture they ever received was that of Enoch;
and they place that of Job immediately after it, fup-
pofing that patriarch to have lived foon after the flood.
They have no copy of the Old Teftament in the Fa-
laftia language, what they make ufe of being in that of
Geez. This is fold to them by the Abyffinian Chri-
ftians, who are the only feribes in that country. No
difference takes place about corruptions of the text ;
nor do the Falafha know any thing of the Jewifti Tal¬
mud, Targum, or Cabala.
FALCADE, in the manege, the motion of a horfe
when he throws himfelf upon his haunches two or three
times, as in very quick curvets; which is done in form¬
ing a flop and halt ftop. See Stop.
FALCATE!), fometking in the form of a fickle :
thus, the moon is faid to be falcated when fhe appears
horned.
FALCO, in ornithology, a genus belonging to the
order of accipitres, the chara&ers of which are thefe :
The beak is crooked, and furniftied with wax at the
bafe: the head is thick-fet with feathers, and the
tongue is cloven. The eagle and hawk form this genus.
IPlateCXC 1 • The leucocephalus, bald, or white-headed eagle
of Catelby, is afh-coloured, with the head and tail
white; the iris of the eye is white, over which is a pro¬
minence covered with a yellow fldn ; the bill and the
cere or wax are yellow, as are likewife the legs and
feet ; and’ the talons are black. Though it is an eagle
of fmall fize, it weighs nine pounds, is ftrong and full
of fpirit, preying on lambs, pigs, and fawns. They
always make their nefts near the fea or great rivers,
and ufually upon old dead pine or cyprefs trees, con¬
tinuing to build annually on the fame tree till it falls.
Though he is fo formidable to-all birds, yet he fuffers
them to build near his royal neft without moleftation;
particularly the fiftiing hawk, herons, &c. which all
-build on high trees, and in fome places are fo near one
another, that they appear like a rookery. The neffs Falc*.
are very large and very fetid by reafon of the reli&s  v—'
of their prey. Lawfon fays they breed very often,
laying again under their callow young; whofe warmth
hatches the eggs. In Bering’s Ifle they make their
nefts on the cliffs near fix feet wide and one thick ;
and lay two eggs in the beginning of July. This fpecies
inhabits both Europe and America ; but is more com¬
mon in the latter. Befides flelh, it feeds alfo on
fifti. This, however, it does not procure for itfelf;
but fitting in a convenient fpot, watches the diving of
the ofprey into the water after a fifh, which the mo¬
ment it has felzed the bald eagle follows clofe after,
when the ofprey is glad to efcape by dropping the fiih
from his bill ; and fuch is the dexterity of the former,
that it often feizes the prey before it can fall to the
g-ound. Catefby fays the male and female are much
alike.
2 The ofiifragus, or fea-eagle, with yellow wax, and
•half-feathered legs; it is about the fize of a peacock
the feathers are white at the bafe, iron-coloured in the
middle, and black at the points ; and the legs are yel¬
low. It is found in feveral parts of Great Britain and;
Ireland. Mr Willoughby tells us, that there was an
aery of them in Whinfield Park, Weftmoreland ; and
the bird foaring in the air with a cat in its talons
(which Barlow drew from the very fact which he.faw
in Scotland), is of this kind. The cat’s refiltance
brought both animals to - the ground, when Barlow
took them up ; and afterwards-caufed the event to be
engraved in the 36th plate of his Colledtion of Prints.
Turner fays, that in his days this bird was too well
known in England; for it made horrible deftrudkion .
among the fifii. All authors indeed agree, that it feeds
principally on filh, which it takes as they .are fwim-
ming near the furface, by darting itfelf down upon
them ; not by diving or fwimming, as fome authors
have pretended, who furnifh it for that purpofe with
one webbed foot to fwim with, and another divided
foot to take its prey with. Martin, fpeaking of what
he calls the great eagles of the Weftern Ifles, fays,
that they faften their talons in the hack of the fifti.,.
commonly of falmon, which are often above the water,
or very near the furface. Thofe of Greenland will
even take a young feal out of the water. Turner,
above mentioned, fays, that the fifhermen were fond of
anointing their baits with the fat of this, bird, imagi¬
ning that it had a peculiar alluring quality : they were
even fuperftitious enough to believe, that whenever the
fea-eagle hovered over a piece of water, the filh (as if
charmed) would rife to the furface with their bellies
upwards; and in that manner prefent themfelves to
him. It alfo preys on water fowl. This fpecies is
alfo frequent in North America, and was alfo met
with in Botany Ifland by Captain Cooke.
3. The chryfaetos,’or golden eagle, weighs about 12
pounds and is in length about three feet, the wings
when extended meafuring about feven feet four inches.
The light and fenfe of fmelling are very acute : the
head and neck,are clothed with narrow, lharp-pointed
feathers, of a deep brown colour bordered with taw-
ney ; the hind part of the head in particular is of a
bright ruft colour. Thefe birds are very dellruittive to
fawns, lambs, kids, .and all kinds of game; particularly
in the breeding leafon, when they bring a vaft quan -
3. tityy
FAX, [ 94 1 FAX,
Fa?co, tity of prey to their young. Smith, in his Hiftory of
u—~v  Kerry, relates, that a poor man in that country got a
comfortable fubfiftence for his family, during a fummer
of famine, out of an eagle’s neft, by robbing the ea¬
glets of the food the old ones brought; vyhofe attend¬
ance he protrafted beyond the natural time, by clip¬
ping the wings and retarding the flight of the former.
It is very unfafe to leave infants in places where eagles
5frequent; there being inflances in Scotland of two be¬
ing carried off by them; but, fortunately, the theft
was difcovered in time, and the children were reftored
unhurt out of the eagles nefts. In order to extirpate
thefe pernicious birds, there is a law in the Orkney
ifles, which intitles every perfon that kills an eagle to
-a hen out of every houfe in the parifli where it was
killed. .Eagles feem to give the preference to the car-
cafes of dogs and cats. People who make it their bu •
finefs to kill thofe birds, lay one or other of thefe car-
cafes by way of bait; and then conceal themfelves
within gunfhot. They fire the inflant the eagle alights ;
for fhe, that moment, looks about before fire begins to
prey. Yet, quick as her fight may be, her fenfe of hear¬
ing feems kill more exquifite. If hooded crows or ra¬
vens happen to be nearer the carrion, and refort to it
firk, and give a Angle croak, the eagle is certain of
inllantly repairing to the fpot.
Eagles are remarkable for their longevity, and for
theft power of fukaining a long abkinence from food.
Mr Keyfler relates, that an eagle died at Vienna after
a confinement of 104 years. This pre-eminent length
of days probably gave occafion to the faying of the
Pfalmik, “ Thy youth is renewed like the eagle’s.”
One of this fpecies, which was nine years in the pof-
feffion of Owen Holland, Efq; of Conway, lived 32
years with the gentleman who made him a prefent of
•it; but what its age was when the latter received it
from Ireland is unknown. The fame bird alfo fur-
nilhes us with a proof of the truth of the other remark;
having once, through the negleft of fervants, endured
hunger for 21 days without any fukenance whatever.
4. The fulvus, or white-tailed eagle of Edwards,
has the whole plumage of a dulky brown: the break
marked with triangular fpots of white, but which are
wanting in the Britilh kind: the tail is white, tipt
with black ; but in young birds dulky, blotched with
white : the legs are covered to the toes with foft ruk-
•coloured feathers. Thefe birds inhabit Hudfon’s Bay
and northern Europe as far as Diontheim. They are
found on the highek rocks of the Uralian chain, where
it is not covered with wood; but are mok frequent on
the Siberian, where they make their nek on the loftiek
rocks. They are rather inferior in fize to the fea-
eagle ; but are generous, fpirited, and docile. The
independent Tartars train them for the chafe of hares,
foxes, antelopes, and even wolves. The ufe is of con-
fiderable antiquity ; for Marco Polo, the great travel¬
ler of 1269, obferved and admired the diverfion of the
great cham of Tartary; who had feveral eagles, which
were applied to the fame purpofes as they are at pre¬
fent. The Tartars alfo ekeem the feathers of the tail
as the bek they have for pluming their arrows. This
fpecies is frequent in Scotland ; where it is called the
Hack eagle, from the dark colour of its plumage. It
is very dekruftive to deer, which it will feize between
the horns; and by inceffantly beating it about the
eyes with its wing?, foon makes a prey of the haraiTed Falc*.
animal. The eagles in the ifle of Rum have nearly T”“
extirpated the kags that ufed to abound there. They
generally build in clefts of rocks near the deer-foreks;
and make great havoc not only among them, but alfo
among the white hares and ptarmigans. Mr Wil¬
loughby gives the following curious account of the nek
of this fpecies. “ In the year of our Lord 1668, in
the woodlands near the river Darwent, in the peak of
Derbylhire, was found an eagle’s nek made of great
kicks, refling one end on the edge of a rock, the other
on two birch trees; upon which was a layer of rufties,
and over them a layer of heath, and upon the heath
ruflies again ; upon which- lay one young one and an
addle egg; and by them a lamb, a hare, and three
heath poults. The nek was about two yards fquare,
and had no hollow in it. The young eagle was black
as a hobby, of the fliape of a gofhawk, almck of the
weight of a goofe, rough-footed, or feathered down to
the foot: having a white ring about the tail.”
5. The cyaneus, or hen-harrier, with white wax,
yellow legs, a whitilh blue body, and a white ring
round the eyes and throat. It is the blue hawk of
Edwards, and is a native of Europe and Africa. Thefe
birds ate extremely dekru&ive to young poultry and
to the feathered game : they fly near the ground,
flamming the furface in fearch of prey. They breed on
the ground, and never are obferved to fettle on trees.
6. The albiulla, or cinereous eagle, is inferior in fize
to the golden eagle ; the head and neck are of a pale
afh-colour ; the body and wings cinereous, clouded
with brown; the quill-feathers very dark; the tail
white ; the legs feathered but little below the knees,
and of a very bright yellow. The male is of a .darker
colour than the female. The bill of this fpecies is
rather kraighter than is ufual in the eagle ; which
feems to have induced Linnaeus to place it among the
•vultures. But Pennant obferves, that it can have
no title to be ranked with that genus, the chara&er-
ikical mark of which is, that the head and neck are
either quite bare, or only covered with down; whereas
this bird is wholly feathered. This fpecies is in fize
equal to the black eagle, and inhabit^ Europe as high
as Iceland and Lapmark. It is common in Greenland,
but does not extend to America ; or, according to
Mr Pennant, if it does, it varies into the white-headed
eagle, to which it has great affinity, particularly in its
feeding much on filh; the Danes therefore call it
Fijke-orn. It is common in the fouth of Ruffia, and
about the Volga, as far as trees will grow ; but is very
fcarce in Siberia. It inhabits Greenland the whole
year, fitting on the rocks with flagging wing, and flies
flowly. It makes its nek on the lofty cliffs, with
twigs, lining the middle with mofles and feathers; lays
two eggs; and fits in the latter end of May or begin¬
ning of June. Thefe birds prey on young feals, which
they feize as they are floating on the water; but oft-
times, by fixing their talons in an old one, they are
overmatched, and drawn down to the bottom, fcream-
ing horribly. They feed alfo on fifh, efpecially the
lumpfifh, and a fort of trout; on ptarmigans, auks, and
eider-ducks. They fit on the top of rocks, attentive
to the motion of the diving birds; and with quick eyes
obferve their courfe by the bubbles which rife to the
furface of the water, and catch the fowls as they rife
i!
■
F A L [ 95 ] F A L
Falco. for breath. The Greenlanders ufe their lkins for
1 cloathing next to their bodies; eat the fleih; and keep
the bill and feet for amulets. They kill them with
the bow; or take them in nets placed in the fnow pro¬
perly baited; or tempt them by the fat of feals, which
the eagles eat to an excefs; which occaiions fuch a
torpidity as to make them an eafy prey. They are
common in Scotland and the Orkneys; where they
feed on fifti, as well as on land animals.
7. The crying eagle (Ar£t. Zocl. p. 215.), with a
dufky bill and yellow cere; the colour of the plumage
is a ferruginous brown ; the coverts of the wings and
fcapulars are elegantly varied with oval white fpots;
the ptimaries dulky, the ends of the greater white;
the breaft and belly are of a deeper • colour than the
reft of the plumage, ftreaked downwards with dull
yellow; the tail is dark brown, tipt with dirty white;
the legs are feathered to the feet, which are yellow.
The length of the bird is two feet.—This fpecies is
found in many parts of Europe, but not in Scandina¬
via ; is frequent in Ruffia and Siberia; and extends
even to Kamtfchatka. It is lefs generous and fpirited
than other eagles, and is perpetually making a plain¬
tive noife; from which it was ftyled by the ancients
*Arift Hift.planga & clanga*; and anataria, from its preying on
lib. 9. ducks, which Pliny-]' defcribes with great elegance.
^ Lib.x c.3. The Arabs ufed to train it for the chace ; but its
quarry was cranes and other birds; the more generous
eagle beirig flown at antelopes and various quadrupeds.
This fpecies was itfelf an objeft of diverfion, and made
the game of even fo fmall a falcon as the fparrow hawk;
which would purfue it with great eagernefs, foar above,
then fall on it, and fattening with its talons, keep beating
it about the head with its wings, till they both fell to¬
gether to the ground. This Sir John Chardin has
feen pra&ifed about Tauris.
8. The milvus, or kite, is a native of Europe, Afia,
and Africa. This fpecies generally breeds in large
-forefts or woody mountainous countries. Its neft is
compofed of flicks, lined with feveral odd materials,
fuch as rags, bits of flannel, rope, and paper. It lays
two, or at moft three, eggs; which, like thofe of other
birds of prey, are much rounded and blunt at the
fmaller end. They are "white, fpotted with dirty yel¬
low. Its motion in the air diftinguiflres it from all
other birds, being fo fmooth and even that it is fcarce
perceptible. Sometimes it will remain quite motion-
lefs f(Jr a confiderable fpace ; at others glide through
the fky without the leaft apparent aftion of its wings;
from thence deriving the old name of glead or glede,
from the Saxon glida. They inhabit the north of Eu¬
rope, as high as jarliberg, in the very fouth of Nor¬
way ; but do not extend farther. They quit Sweden
in flocks at the approach of winter, and return in
fpring. Some of them winter about Aftrakan, in
lat. 46. 30: but the far greater part are fuppofed to
retire into Egypt, being feen in September paffing by
Conftantinople in their way from the north; and again
in April returning to Europe, to ihun the great heats
of the eaft. They are obferved in vaft numbers about
Cairo, where they are extremely tame, and feed even
on dates, probably for want of other food. They alfo
breed there ; fo that, contrary to the nature of other
rapacious birds, they increafe and multiply twice in the
year; once in the mild winters of Egypt, and a fecond
time in the fummers of the north. It makes its ap¬
pearance in Greece in the fpring; and in the early '
ages, fays Ariftophanes, “ it governed that country ;
and men fell on their knees when they were firft bleffed
with the fight of it, becaufe it pronounced the flight
of winter, and told them to begin to (hear theirvernal
fleeces.” In Britain they are found the whole year.
Lord Bacon obferves, that when kites fly high, it por¬
tends fair and dry weather.
9. The gentilis, or gentil falcon, inhabits the north
of Scotland, and was in high efteem as a bold and fpi¬
rited bird in the days of falconry. It makes its neft
in rocks: it is larger than the gofhawk ; the head of
alight ruft colour, with oblong black fpots; the whole
under fide fromchin to tail white, tinged with yellow;
the back of a brown colour; the tail barred with four
or five bars of black, and as many of afh-colour; the"
very tips of all the tail-feathers white.
10. The fubbuteo, or hobby, was ufed like the kef-
trel in the humbler kind of falconry; particularly in
what was called daring of larks: the hawk was caft
off; the larks, aware of their moft inveterate enemy,
were, fixed to the ground for fear; by which means
they became a ready prey to the fowler, by drawing
a net over them. The back of this bird is brown ;•
the nape of the neck white; and the belly pale, with
oblong brown fpots. It is a bird of paffage; but'
breeds in Britain, and migrates in O&ober.
11. The buteo, or buzzard, is the moft common of
the hawk kind in England, It breeds in large woods;
and ufually builds on an old crop’s neft, which
it enlarges, and lines with wool and other foft mate¬
rials. It lays two or three eggs, which are fometimes
perfe&ly white, fometimes fpotted with yellow. The
cock buzzard will hatch and bring up the young if
the hen is killed. The young keep company with the
old ones for fome little time after they quit the neft ;
which is not ufual with other birds of prey, who al¬
ways drive away their brood as foon as they can fly.
This fpecies is very fluggifli and inadlive, and is much'
lefs in motion than other hawks; remaining perched
on the fame bough for the greateft part of the day,
and is found at moft times near the fame place. It7
feeds on birds, rabbits, moles, and mice ; it will alfo
eat frogs, earthworms, and infedls. This bird is fub-
jeft to fome variety in its colour. Some have their
breaft and belly of a brown colour, and are only marked'
crofs the craw with a large white crefcent; but ufually-
the breaft is of a yellowifli white, fpotted with oblong
ruft-coloured fpots, pointing downwards : the back of
the head, neck, and coverts of the wings, are of a
deep brown, edged with a pale ruft-colour : the middle.:
of the back covered only with a thick white down.*.-
The tail is barred with black, and afh-colour, and
fometimes with ferruginous.
12. The tinnunculus, or keftrel, breeds in the hol¬
lows of trees, in the holes of high rocks, towers, and-',
ruined buildings. It feeds on field-mice, fmall birds,
and infe&s; which it will difcover at a great diftance.>
This is the hawk that we fo frequently fee in the air
fixed in one place; and, as it were, fanning it withs
its wings ; at which time it is watching for its prey.-
When falconry was in ufe in Great Britain, this bird'
was trained for catching fmall birds and young par-*
tridgea. It is eafily diltinguilhed from all other hawks
f a r. [ 95
by its colours. The crown of the head and the-greater
part of the tail are of a fine light grey; the back and
coverts of the wing of a brick-red, elegantly fpotted
with black: the whole under fide of the bird of a pale
ruft-colour fpotted with black.
13. The fufflator, with yellowilh wax and legs; the
body is of a brownilh white colour; and the covers of
the eyes are bony. He has a flelhy lobe between the
noftrils ; which when angry or terrified, he inflates till
his head becomes as big as his whole body. He is a
native of Surinam.
14. The cachinnans, or laughing hawk, has yellow-
ifli legs and-wax, and white eye-brows; the body is
variegated with browm and white ; and it has a black
ring round the top of the head. It makes a laughing
kind of noife when it obferves any perfon, and is a
native of America.
15. The columbarius, or pigeon-hawk of Catefby,
weighs about fix ounces. The bill is black at the point,
and whitifh at the bafe ; the iris of the eye is yellow ;
the bafe of the upper mandible is covered wuth a yel¬
low cere or wax ; all the upper part of the body,
wings, and tail, are brown. The interior vanes of
the quill-feathers have large red fpots. The tail is
marked with large! regular tranfverfe white lines; the
throat, breaft, and belly, are white, mixed with brown;
the fmall feathers that cover the thighs reach within
half an inch of the feet, and are white, with a tinc¬
ture of red, befet with long fpots of brown ; the legs
and feet are yellow. It inhabits America, from Hud-
fon’s Bay as low as South Carolina. In the laft it at¬
tains to a larger fize. In Hudfon’s Bay it appears in
May on the banks of Severn river, breeds, and retires
fouth in autumn. It feeds on fmall birds ; and on
the approach of any perfon, flies in circles, and makes
a great Ihrieking. It forms its neft in a rock, or fome
hollow tree, with Hicks and grafs; and lines it with
feathers : and lays from two to four eggs, white, fpot¬
ted with red. In Carolina it preys on pigeons, and
young of the wild .turkies.
16. The furcatus, or fwallow-tailed hawk, has a
black bill, lefs hooked than ufual with rapacious birds:
the eyes are large and black, with a red iris: the head,
neck, breaft, and belly, are white ; the upper part of
the back and wings .a dark purple; but more dufley to¬
wards the lower parts, with a tindlure of green. The
wings are long in proportion to the body, and, when
extended, meafure four feet. The tail is dark purple
mixed with green, and remarkably forked. This moft
elegant fpecies inhabits only the fouthern parts of
North America ; and that only during fummer. Like
fwallovvs, they feed chiefly flying ; for they are much
on wing, and prey on various forts of infefts. They
alfo feed on lizards and ferpents ; and will kill the lar-
geft of the regions i.t frequents with the utmoft eafe.
They quit North America before winter, and are
fuppofed to retreat 4o Peru.
17. Halisstus, the filhing-hnwk of Catefby, of the
ofprey, weighs three pounds and a quarter; it mea-
fures, from one end of the wing to the other, five feet
and a half. The till is black, wuth a blue cere or
wax ; the iris of the eye is yellow, and the crown of
the head brown, with a mixture of white feathers ;
from each eye, backwards, runs a brown ilripe ; the
N° 1*2,3.
1 F A L
back, wings, and tail, are of a dark brown; the
throat, neck, and belly, white ; the legs and feet are
rough and fcaly, and of a pale blue colour; the talons
are black, and nearly of an equal fize; fhe feathers of
the thighs are fliort, and adhere clofe to them, con¬
trary to others of the hawk kind, wdiich nature Teems
to have defigned for the more eafily penetrating the
w'ater. Notvvithftanding the ofprey is fo perfecuted
by the bald eagle, yet it always keeps near its haunts.
It is a fpecies of vail quicknefs of light; and will fee
a filh near the furface from a, great diftance : defeend
with prodigious rapidity, and carry the prey with
an exulting feream high into the air. The eagle hears
the note, and inllantly attajis the ofprey; who drops
the filh, which the former catches before it can reach
the ground or w'ater. The lower parts of the rivers
and creeks near the fea in America, abound with
thefe eagles and hawks, where fuch diverting contefts
are often feen. It fometimes happens that the ofprey
perilhes in taking its prey ; for if it chances to fix its
talons in an over-grown fifli, it is drawn under water
before it can difengagq itfelf, and is drowned:
18. The Iceland falcon (G. Mag. 1771, p. 297),
or gyrfalco Lin. has a ftrong bill, much hooked, the
upper mandible fliarply angulated on the lower edges,
with a bluilh wax : the head is of a very pale ruft-co¬
lour, llreaked downwards with dufley lines : the neck,
breaft, and belly, are white, marked with cordated
fpots ; the thighs white, crofled with Ihort her 3 of deep
brown : the back and coverts of the wings are duf-
ky, fpotted and edged with white ; the exterior webs
of the primaries dufley mottled with reddilh white, the
inner barred with white : the feathers of the toil are
croffed with 14 or more narrow bars of dilfky and
white ; the dufley bars regularly oppofing thofe of
white: the wings, when doled, reach almoft to the
end of the train : legs are ftrong and yellow. The
length of the wing, from the pinion to the tip is
16 inches.—This fpecies is an inhabitant of Iceland,
and is the moft efteemed of any for the fport of fal¬
conry.
19. The fufeus, or Greenland falcon, has dulky irides;
lead-coloured wax and fefet; brown crown, marked
with irregular oblong white fpots ; whitilh forehead,
blackilh cheeks ; the hind part of the head and throat
white ; breaft and belly of a yellowilh white, ftriped
downwards with dufley ftreaks ; the back dufley, tin-'
ged with blue, the ends of the feathers lighteft, and
fprinkled over with a few white fpots, efpecially to¬
wards the rump ; the wings of the fame colours, va¬
riegated beneath with white and black ; the upper part
of the tail dufley crofled very faintly with paler bars,
the under fide whitilh. It inhabits all parts of Green¬
land, from the remoteft hills to thofe which impend
over the fea. They are even feen on the iflands of ice
remote from. Ihore. They retire in the breeding-feafon
to the fartheft part of the country, and return in .au¬
tumn with their young. They breed in the fame
manner as the cinereous eagle, but in more diftant
places; and lay from three to five eggs.. The tail of
the young is black, with great brown fpots on the ex¬
terior webs. They prey on ptarmigans, auks, and all
the fmall birds of the country. They have frequent
difputes with the raven, but fddom come off vidtors ;
F A L [
for the raven will, on being attacked, fling itfelf on
its back ; and either by defending itfelf with its claws*
or by calling, with its creaking, numbers of others to
its help, oblige the falcon to retire. The Greenland*
ers ufe the (kin, among others, for their inner gar¬
ments ; the wings for brufhes; the feet for amulets:
but feldom eat the fleih, unlefs compelled by hunger.
20. The gyrfalcon (Br. Zool. n3 47.) has a yel¬
low wax ;■ the billbluiih, and greatly hooked ; the eye
dark blue ; the throat of a pure white : the whole bo¬
dy, wings, and tail, of the fame colour, moft ele¬
gantly marked with duiky bars, lines, or fpots, lea¬
ving the white the far prevailing colour. There are
inftances, but rare, of its being found entirely white.
In fome, the whole tail is croifed by remote bars of
black or brown ; in others, they appear only very
faintly on the middle feathers: the feathers of the
thighs are very long and unfpotted : the legs ftrong,
and of a light blue. Its weight is 45 ounces Troy ;
length, near two feet; extent, four feet two. This
fptcies has the fame manners and haunts with the for¬
mer. It is very frequent in Iceland; is found in
Lapmark and Norway ; and rarely in the Orknies and
North Britain. In Alia, it dwells in the bigheft points
of the Urallian and other Siberian mountains, and dares
the coldeft climates throughout the year. It is kept
in the latitude of Peterfburg, uninjured in the open air
during the fevereft winters. -This fpecies is pre-emi¬
nent in -courage as well as beauty, and is the terror of
other hawks. It was flown at all kinds of fowl, how
great foever they were ; but its chief game ufed to be
herons and cranes.
TJje three laft fpecies are in high efteem for fport
They are referved for the kings of Denmark; who
fend their falconer with two attendants annually into
Iceland to purchafe them. They are caught by the
natives; a certain number of whom iri every diftrift
are licenfed for that purpofe. They bring all they
take, about midfummer,.to Beffefted, to meet the royal
falconer; and each brings 10 or 12, capped, and
perched on a crofs pole, which they carry on hbrfe-
back and reft on the ftirrup. The falconer examines
the birds, reje&s thofe which are not for his purpofe,
and gives the feller a written certificate of the qualities
of each, which intitles him to receive from the king’s re¬
ceiver-general feventeen rixdollers for the pureft white
falcon (n" 20.), ten for n° 19. or thofe which are leaft
white ; and feven for n° 18. This brings into the ifland
between 2000 and 3000 mdollars annually. They are
taken in the following manner:—Two pofts are fa-
ftened in the ground, not remote from their haunts.
To one is tied a ptarmigan, a pigeon, a cock or hen,
faftened to a cord that it may have means of flutter¬
ing, and fo attraft the attention of the falcon. On
the other poft is placed a net, diftended on a hoop, a-
bout fix feet in diameter. Through this poft is intro¬
duced a firing, above too yards long, which is faften¬
ed to the net, in order to pull it down ; and another
is faftened to the upper part of the hoop, and goes
through the poft. to which the bait is tied. As foon as
the falcon fees the fowl flutter on the ground, he takes
a few circles in the air, to fee if there is any danger,
then darts on its prey with fuch violence as to ftrike
off the head, as nicely as if it was done with a razor.
Ke then ufually rifes again, and takes another circle,
Vai. VII. Part I.
5? ) V A L
to explore the place a fecond time: after which it
makes another ftoop ; when, at the inftant of its de-
fcending, the man pulls the dead bird under the net ;
and, by means of the other cord, covers the falcon
with the net at the moment it has feized the prey ;
the perfon lying concealed behind fome ftones, or elfe
lies flat on his belly, to elude the fight of the falcon.
As foon as one is caught, it is taken gently out of the
net, for fear of breaking any of the feathers of the
wings or tail; and a cap is placed over its eyes. If any
of the tail-feathers are injured, the falconers have the
art of grafting others; which fometimas has occafion-
ed a needlefs multiplication of fpecies.
The Iceland falcons are in the higheft efteem. They
will laft 10 or r 2 years; whereas thofe of Norway,
and other countries, feldom are fit for fport after two
or three years ufe. Yet the Norwegian hawks were i»
old times in great repute in this kingdom, and even
thought bribes worthy of a king. Geoffry Le Pierre,
chief jufticiary, gave two good Norway hawks to
King John, that Walter Le Madina might have leave
to export 100 weight-of cheefe. John the fon of Ord-
gar, gave a Norway hawk to have the king’s requeft
to the king of Norway, to let him have his brother’s
chattels; and Ralf Havoc fined to King Stephen in
two girfals (gyrfalcons) and two Norway hawks, that
he might have the fame acquittance that his father had.
21. The aviporus, with black wax, yellow legs,
half naked, the head of an alh colour, and having an
afti-coloured ftripe on the tail, which is white at the
end. It is the honey-buzzard of Kay, and had its
name from the combs of wafps being found in its neft.
It is a native of Europe, and feeds on mice, lizards,
frogs, bees, &c. It runs very fwiftly, like a hen.
22. The aeruginofus, or moor-buzzard, with greeniftr
wax, a greyiftr body, the top of the head, nape of the
neck, and legS, yellowilh ; is a native of Europe, and
frequents moors, marftry places, and heaths : it never
foars like other hawks; but commonly fits on the
ground or on ftnall bufhes. It makes its neft in the
midft of .a tuft of grafs or rufhes. It is a very fierce and^
voracious bird ; and is a great deftroyer of rabbits,
young wild-ducks, and other water-fowl. It preys,
like the ofprey, on fiflr.
23. The palumbarius, with black wax edged wich
• yellow ; yellow legs, a brown body, the prime fea- .
thers of the tail marked with pale ftreaks; and the
eye-brows white. It is the goftiawk of Ray ; and was
formerly in high elleem among falconers, being flown
at cranes, geefe, pheafants, and partridges. It breeds
in Scotland, and builds its neft in trees. It is very
deftru&ive to game, and dallies through the woods af¬
ter its quarry with vaft impetuofity; but if it cannot
catch the objedl of its purfuit almoft immediately, de-
fifts, and perches on a bough till fome new game pre-
fents itfelf.—This fpecies is common in Mufcovy and
Siberia. They extend to the river Amur; and are
ufed by the emperor of China in his fporting progref-
fes, attended by his grand falconer, and 1000 of the
fubordinate. Every bird has a filver plate faftened to
its foot, with the name of the falconer who had the
charge of it; that in cafe it flrould be loft, it might be
brought to the proper perfon : but if he could not be
found, the bird is delivered to another officer,, called
the guardian of lojl birds; who keepjs it till it is de-
N manded
V A L l 98 ] F A L
Fako. manded by the falconer to whom it belonged. That
—' this great officer may the more readily be found a-
mong the army of hunters who attend the emperor, he
erefts a ftandard in the moft confpicuous place.
24. The nifus, or fparrow-hawk, with green wax,
yellow legs, a white belly undulated with grey, and the
tail marked with blackiffi belts. This is the moft per-
tiicious hawk we have; and makes great havoc among
pigeons as well as partridges. It builds in hollow trees,
in old nefts of crows, large ruins, and high rocks : it
lays four white eggs, encircled near the blunter end
with red fpecks.
25. The minutus, with white wax, yellow legs, and
the body white underneath. It is the leaft hawk of
Briffons, being about the fize of a thrufti; and is found
on the ifland Melita.
There are near 100 other fpecies diftinguiftied by
ornithologifts. Among thefe are two defcribed by Mr
Bruce ; one of which deferves particular notice here, as
being not only the largeft of the eagle kind, but, in our
author’s opinion, the largeft bird that flies. He calls
it the golden eagle ; by the natives it is vulgarly called
alon duchn, ox father long-beard. It is not an object of
any chace, nor flood in need of any ftratagem to bring
it within reach. Upon the higheit top of the mountain
Lamalmon, while Mr Bruce’s fervants were refrefhing
themfelves from that toilfome rugged afcent, and enjoy¬
ing the pleafure of a moft delightful climate, eating
their dinner in the outer air with feveral large dirties of
boiled goats flefh before them, this eagle fuddenly made
its appearance ; he did not ftoop rapidly from a height,
but came flying ftowly along the ground, and fat down
clofe to the meat within the ring the men had made
round it. A great Ihout, or rather cry of diftrefs, which
they raifed, made the bird Hand for a minute as if to re-
colleft himfelf, while the fervasts ran for their lances
and fhields. His attention was fully fixed upon the flefti.
He put his foot into the pan where was a large piece
in water prepared for boiling j but finding the fmart
which he had not expedted, he withdrew it, and for-
fook the piece which he held. There were two large
pieces, a leg and a fhoulder, lying upon a wooden platter;
into thefe he trufled both his claws and carried them olf;
Ikimming flowly along the ground as he had come, till he
difappeared behind a cliff. But being obferved at his de¬
parture to look willfully at the large piece which remain¬
ed in the warm water, it was concluded that he would
foon return : in expectation of which Mr Bruce loaded
a rifle-gun with ball, and fat down clofe to the platter
by the meat. It was not many minutes before he came,
and a prodigious Ihout was raifed by the attendants,
“ He is coming, he is comingl” enough to have dif-
couraged a lefs courageous animal. Whether it was not
quite fo hungry as at the firft vifit, or fufpe&ed fome-
thing from Mr Bruce’s appearance, it madea fmall turn,
and fat down about ten yards from him, the pan with
the meat being between them, fn this fituation Mr
Bruce fired, and Ihot him with the ball through the
middle of his body about two inches below the wing,
fo that he lay down upon the grafs without a Angle
flutter. Upon laying hold of his mooli rous carcafe,
our author was not a little furprifed at feeing his hands
covered and tinged with yellow powder or dull. Upon
turning him upon his belly, and examining the feathers
his back, they produced a brown dull, the colour
of the feathers there. This duft was not in fmall quan- Fake,
tities ; for upon ftriking his breaft, the yellow powder Falcon>
flew in fully greater quantity than from a hair-dreffer’s
powder puff. The feathers of the belly and breaft,
which were of a gold colour, did not appear to have
any thing extraordinary in their formation, but the
large feathers in the (boulder and wings feemed appa¬
rently to be fine tubes, which upon preffure fcattered
this dull upon the finer part of the feather, but this
was brown, the colour of the feathers of the back.
Upon the fide of the wing, the ribs, or hard part of the
feather, feemed to be bare as if worn, or, in our au¬
thor’s opinion, were rather renewing themfelves, having
before failed in their fundion. What is the reafon of
this extraordinary provifion of nature, our author does
not pretend to determine. But as it is an unufual one,
it is probably meant, he thinks, for a defence againft
the climate in favour of thofe birds which live in thofe
almoft inacceffible heights of a country doomed even in
its lower parts to feveral months of exceffive rain. Ac¬
cording to Mr Bruce’s defcription, this bird, from
wing to wing, was 8 feet 4 inches; from the tip of
his tail to the point of his beak when dead, 4 feet
7 inches. He was remarkably fhort in the legs, being
only four inches from the joining of the foot to where
the leg joins the thigh, and from the joint of the thigh
to the joining of his body fix inches. The thicknefs
of his thigh was little lefs than four inches ; it was ex¬
tremely mufcular, and covered with flefti. His middle
claw was about two inches and a half long, not very
(harp at the point, but extremely ftrong. From the
root of the bill to the point was three inches and a
quarter, and one inch and three quarters in breadth at
the root. A forked brulh of ftrong hair, divided at
the point into two, proceeded from the cavity of his
lower jaw at the beginning of his throat. His eye was
remarkably fmall in proportion to his bulk, the aper¬
ture being fcarcely half an inch. The crown of his
head was bare or bald, as was alfo the front where the
bill and fkull joined.
FALCON, or Faucon, a bird of prey of the hawk
kind, fuperior to all others for courage, docility, gentle-
nefs, and noblenefs of nature *. Several authors take * See Fates.
the namefalconto have been occafioned by its crooked ta¬
lons or pounces, which refemble a falx or fickle. Giral-
dus derives it a falcando, becaufe it flies in a curve.
The falcon, or falcon gentle, is both for the fill and
for the lure. In the choice, take one that has wide
noftrils, high and large eye-lids, a large black eye; a
round head, fomewhat full on the top ; barb feathers
on the clap of the beaks, which (hould be Ihort, thick,
and of an azure colour ; the breaft large, round, and
flelhy; and the thighs, legs, and feet, large and
ftrong ; with the fear of the foot foft and bluifh: the
pounces Ihould be black, with wings long and croffing
the train, which Ihould be Ihort and very pliable.
The name falcon is reftrafned to the female : for the
male is much fmaller, weaker, and lefs courageous, than
the female; and therefore is denominated tajfel, or
tircelet. The falcon is excellent at the river, brook,
and even field ; and flies chiefly at the larger game, as
wild-goofe, kite, crow, heron, crane, pye, Ihoveler,
&c, For further particulars, fee Falconry, Hawk,
and Hawking.
The cuftpjn of carrying a falcon extended to many
coua
F A L t 99 ] PAL
Fufconer, cfluntriee, and was efteemed a diflinftion of a man of a manner, that, as the feeling flackens, Ihe may fee F*Icoftrj^
, Falconry. rany._ The Wellh had a faying, that you may know what provifion lies before her ; but care ought to be v——*
“ ir~v" a gentleman by his hawk, horfe, and grehound. In taken, not to feel her too hard. A falcon or hawk
fadf, a peri'on of rank fcldom went without one on his newly taken (hould have all new furniture, as new jef-
hand. Harold, afterwards king of England, is painted fes of good leather, mailled lealhes with buttons at the
going on a moft important embafly, with a hawk on his end, and new bewets. There fhould alfo be provided
hand and a dog under his arm. Hetiry VI. is repre- a fmall round ftick, to ftroke the hawk; becaufe, the
fented at his nuptials, attended by a nobleman and his softener this is done, the fooner and better will fhe be
falcon. Even the ladies were not without them in manned. She muft alfo have two good bells, that
earlier times; far in an ancient fculpture in the church Are may be found when Are fcattereth. Her hood
of Milton Abbas, in Dorfetfhire, appears the confort of flrould be well fafhioned, raifed, and emboffed againft
king Athelftan with a falcon on her royal fill tearing a her eyes, deep, and yet llrait enough beneath, that it
laird.
FALCONER, a perfon who brings up, tames, and
makes, that is, tutors and manages, birds of prey ; as
falcons, hawks, &c. See Falconry.
The grand feignior ufually keeps 6000 falconers in
his fervice.—The French king has a grand falconer,
which is an office difmembered from that of great hunt,
grand venur. Hiftorians take notice of this poll as
early as the year 1250.
A falconer (hould be well acquainted wdth the qua¬
lity and mettle of his hawks, that he may know
wdrich of them to fly early and w-hich late. Every
night after flying he (fiould give them calling ; one
while plumage, fometimes pellets of cotton, and at
another time phyfic, as he finds neceflary. He ought
alfo every evening to make the place clean under the
porch, that by her calling he may know whether fhe
wants fcouring upwards or downwards. Nor mull he
forget to water his hawk every evening, except on fuch
days as Ihe has bathed; after which, at night, fhe
fhould be put into a warm room, having a candle
burning by her, where fhe is to fit unhooded, if fhe
be not ramage, that fhe may pick and prune herfelf.— now begin to unhood her in the day-time ; but it mult
A falconer Ihould always carry proper medicines into be far from company, firlt giving her a bit or two,
the field, as hawks frequently meet wdth accidents then hooding her gently, and giving her as much more*
there. Neither mull he forget to take with him any When Ihe is lharp fet, he may now unhood her, and
of his hawking implements; and it is neceflary he give her fome meat juft againft his face and eyes, which
fhould be fkilful in making lures, hoods of all forts, will make her lefs afraid of the countenances of others,
jeffes, bewets, and other furniture. Neither ought he She muft be borne continually on the fill, till fire i
may fallen about her head without hurting her; and
her beak and talons mull be a little coped, but not fo
near as to make them bleed.
If it be a foar-falcon, which hath already palled thd
feas, Ihe will indeed be harder to reclaim, but will
prove the bell of falcons. Her food muft be good and
warm, and given her twice or thrice a-day, till Ihe
be full gorged : the belt for this purpofe is pigeons,
larks, or other live birds} becaufe Ihe muft be broken
off by degrees from her accuftomed feeding. When
fhe is fed, you muft hoop and lure, as you do when
you Call a hawk, that fhe may know when you intend
to give her meat. On this occafion fhe muft be un¬
hooded gently ; and after giving her two or three bits,
her hood muft be put on again, when fhe is to get two
or three bits more. Care muft be taken that fhe be
clofe feeled; and after three or four days, her diet may
be leflened: the falconer fetting her every night to
pearch by him, that he may awaken her often in the
night. In this manner he muft proceed, till he find
her to grow tame and gentle ; and when fhe begins to
feed eagerly, he may give her a fheep’s heart. He may
to be without his coping irons, to cope his hawk’s
beak when overgrown, and to cut her pounces and ta¬
lons as there fhall be occafioh : nor fhould his cauteri¬
zing irons be wanting.
Falconer (William), an ingenious Scots failor,
who, about the year 1762, came up to London with
a pretty pathetic poem, called the Shipwreck, found¬
ed on a difafter of his own experience. The publica-
properly manned, caufing her to feed in company, gi¬
ving her in the morning, about fun-rife, the wing of a
pullet; and in the evening, the foot of a hare or co¬
ney, cut off above the joint, flead and laid in water,
which being fqueezed, is to be given her with the pi¬
nion of a hen’s wing. For two or three days give her
wafhed meat, and then plumage in more or lefs quan-
ty as fhe is thought to be more or lefs fotll within.
tion of this piece recommended him to the late duke After this, being hooded again, fhe is to get nothing
of York; and he would in all probability have been till fhe has gleamed and caft, when a little hot meat
fuitably preferred, if a fecond Ihipwreck, as may be may be given her in company; and, towards evening,
fuppofed, had not proved fatal to him, and to many fhe may be allowed to plume a hen’s wing in company
gentlemen of rank and fortune with whom he failed, alfo. Cleanfe the feathers of her cafting, if foul and
In 1760, he went out a volunteer in the Aurora fri¬
gate fent to carry Meffrs Vanfittart, Serafton, and
Ford, the fupervifors appointed to regulate our Eaft
India fettlements; which veffel, after it had touched
at the Cape of Good Hope, was never more heard of.
Before his departure, he publifhed a very ufeful Ma-
' e Dictionary, in x vol. 4to.
llimy; if fhe be clean within, give her gentle callings;
and when fhe is reclaimed, manned, and made eager
and fharp fet, he may venture to feed her on the lure.
However, three things are to be confidered before
the lure be fhowed her, 1. That fhe be bold and fami¬
liar in company, and not afraid of dogs and horfes.
2. Sharp fet and hungry, having regard to the hour
FALCONRY, the art of training all manner of of morning and evening, when you would lure her.
hawks, but more efpecially the larger ones called_/u/- 3. Clean within, and the lure well garnifhed with meat
rmr, to the exercife of hawking. See Hawking. on both fides ; and when you intend to give her the
When a falcon is taken, fhe muft be feeled in fuch length of a leafh, you muft abfcond yourfelf.
N 2 She
F A L
She muft alfo be unhooded, and have a bit
given her on the hire as {lie fits on your fill;; afterwards
take the lure from her, and hide it that flie may not
fee it; and when fhe is unfeeled, caft the lure fo near
her, that five may catch it within the length of her
leafh, and as foxm as fhe has feized it, ufe your voice as
falconers do, feeding her upon the'lure, on the ground,
with the heart and warm thigh of a pullet.
Having fo lured your falcon, give her but little meat
in the evening ; and let this luring be fo timely, that
you may give her plumage, and a juck of a joint next
morning on your firft. When fhe has caft and gleam¬
ed, give her a little reaching of warm meat. About
noon, tie a creance to her leafh; and going into the
field, there give her a bit or two upon her lure : then
unwind the creance, and draw it afteryou a good way;
and let him who has the bird hold his right hand on the
taffel of her hood, ready to unhood her as foon as you
begin to lure ; to which if fhe come well, ftoop round¬
ly upon it, and haftily feize it, let her caft two or
three bits thereon. Then, unfeizing and taking her off
the lure, hood her and give her to the man again ; and,
going farther off, lure and feed her as before.
In this manner is the falconer to proceed, luring
her every day farther and farther off, till five is aecU-
ftomed to come freely and eagerly to the lure; after
which fhe may be lured in company, taking care that
nothing affright her. When fhe is ufed to the lure on
foot, five is to be lured on horfeback; which may be
effe&ed the fooner, by caufing horfemen to be about
her when fhe is lured on foot.
When fhe has grown familiar to this way, let fome-
body on foot hold the hawk, and he on horfeback muft
call and caft the lure about his head, the holder taking
off the hood by the taffel; and if fhe feize eagerly on
the lure without fear of man or horfe, then take off
the creance, and lure her at a greater diftance. And
if you would have her love dogs as well as the lure, call
dogs when you give her her living or plumage. See
the article Hawking.
FALERII (anc. geog.), a town of Etruria, on
the weft or right fide of the Tiber ; Falifci, the people
of the town and territory. The territory was famous
for its rich paftures ; hence the gramen Falifcum in au¬
thors. Eutropius and Frontinus call the town Falifci;
which, according to the laft, was furnamed Colonia Ju-
nonia. The Falifci are called Aequi by Virgil; be-
caufe they afforded fupplimental laws to the 12 tables,
(Servius). Here they made an excellent faufage, call¬
ed Venter Falfcus (Martial).
When the Falifci were belieged by Camillas, a fchool-
mafter went out of the gates of the city with his pupils,
and propofed to betray them into the hands of the Ro¬
man enemy,, that by fuch a poffeflion he might eafily
oblige the place to furrender. Camillus heard the pro-
pofal with indignation, and ordered the man to-be ftrip-
ped naked, and whipped back to the town by thofe
whom his perfidy wifhed to betray. This inftance of
generofity operated upon the people fo powerfully that
they furrendered to the Romans.
FALERNUS, Mans MaJJicus fo called,. (Martial);
Falernus ager, a diftriift at the foot of mount Mafii-
cus in Campania; famoys for its generous wines,
(Horace, Pliny). Now called Monte MafTico.
FALISCI. See Faler.ii.
F A L
FALKIA, in botany: A genus of the trigynia
order, belonging to the hexandria clafs of plants. The
calyx is monophyllous ; the corolla monopetalous; the
feeds four in number.
FALKIRK, a town of Stirlingftvire in Scotland,
fituated in W. Long. 3 48. N. Lat. 56. 20. It is a
large ill-built place, and is fupported by great fairs
for black cattle from the Highlands, it being compu¬
ted that 24,000 head are annually fold there. A great
deal of money is alfo got here by the carriage of goods
landed at Carron wharf to Glafgow. This town is re¬
markable for a battle fought in its neighbourhood
between Edward I of England, and the Scots com¬
manded by the Steward of SRvtland, Cummin of Ba-
denoch, and Sir William Wallace. The latter had
been inverted with the fupreme command ; but percei¬
ving that this gave umbrage to the nobility, he re-
figned his power into the hands of the nobleman above
mentioned, referring to himfelf only the command of
a fmall body who- refufed to follow another leader.
The Scots generals placed their pikemen along the
front, and lined the intervals between the three bodies
of which their army was compofed, with archers; and
dreading the great fuperiority of the Englifti cavalry,
endeavoured to feeure their front by pallifadoes tied to¬
gether with ropes. The battle was fought on the 22d
of July 1298. The king of England divided his army
likewife into three bodies; and by the fuperiority of
his archers, defeated the Scots with great {laughter.
Wallace alone preferved entire the troops he command¬
ed ; and retiring behind the Carron, marched leifurely
along the banks of that river, which protedted him from
the enemy. In this battle fell John de Graham, a
gentleman much celebrated for his valour, and ftyled
the right-hand of the gallant Wallace. His epitaph
is ftill to be feen on a plain ftone in the church yard of
Falkirk. On the 18th of January 1746, a battle was
fought here between the king’s forces commanded by
general Hawley, and the Highlanders headed by Charles
Stuart. The former was feized with a panic, and
fled ; but Colonel Hulk with two regiments, who kept
their ground, prevented the Highlanders from purfuing
their vidtory. Extenfive ruins are perceived in the
neighbourhood of this town, fuppofed by fome anti¬
quarians to have been the capital of the Pidtifti govern¬
ment; but others believe them to be the remains of
fame Roman ftations.
FALKLAND, a fmall town of Fifeffiire in Scot¬
land, made a royal burgh by James II. in 1458.
Here flood one of the feats of the Macduffs earls of
Fife. On the attainder of Munro Stewart, the 17th
earl, it became forfeited to the crown in 1424. James V.
who grew very fond of the place, enlarged and im¬
proved it. The remains evince its former magnificence
and elegance, and the fine tafte of the princely archi-
tedl. The gateway is placed between two fine round
towers; on the right-hand joins the chapel, whofe roof
is of wood, handfomely gilt and painted, but in a moft
ruinous condition. Beneath are feveral apartments.
The front next to the court was beautifully adorned
with ftatues, heads in bafs-relief, and elegant columns
not reducible to any order, but of fine proportion,
with capitals approaching the Ionic fcroll. Beneath
fome of thefe pillars was infcribed L R. M. G. 15371
or Jacobus Rex, Maria, de -This place was alfo
[ rco 1
or two
F A L [ 10,1 1 F A L
Falkland a favourite refidence of James VI. on account of the which turned every way, to guard the paffage to the
Fa'1- fine pari d plenty of deer. The call fide was acci- tree of life.
v dentally burnt in the time of Charles II. and the park This concife account being, at firft. view, incumber-
ruined during Cromwell’s ufurpation; when the fine ed with fome difficulties, feveral learned and pious
oaks were cut down in order to build the fort at Perth, men have been inclined to believe the whole ought to
—This place gives title of vifcount to the Englifh fa- be taken in an allegorical fenfe, and not according to
mily of Carey; Sir Henry Carey being fo created by the ftri&nefs of the letter: they allege, that the an-
James VI. 1620. His fon was the celebrated Lucius, cients, and particularly the eaftern nations, had two
who facrificed his life in a fit of loyal defpair at the different ways of delivering their divinity and philofo-
battle of Newbury, and from whom Lucius Charles phy, one popular, and the other myfterious; that the
the prefent vifcount is the fifth in lineal defeent. feripture ufesboth occafionally; fometimes accommoda-
Falkland (Lord) See Carey. ting itfelf to the capacities of the people, and at other
FALL, the defeent of a heavy body towards the times to the real but more veiled truth ; and that, to
centre of the earth. It is alfo the name of a meafure of obviate the many difficulties which occur in the literal
length ufed in Scotland, containing fix ells. hiitory of this fad cataftrophe, the fafell way is to un-
Fall of Man, in facred hiftory, that terrible event derftand it as a parabolical ftory, under which the real
by which fin and death were introduced into the world, circumflances are difguifed and concealed, as a myftery
See Adam, and Antediluvians, Original Sin. not fit to be more explicitly declared.
The account which Mofes gives of this tranfaddion is Though it cannot be denied that fome of the an-
extremely brief and concife. The ferpent, he informs cient philofophers affedfed fuch an allegorical way of
us, being more fubtile than any bead of the field, afked writing, to conceal their notions from the vulgar, and
the woman, whether it was true that God had not keep their learning within the bounds of their own
granted her and her hufband leave to eat of every tree fchool; yet it is apparent Mofes had no fuch defign
in the garden ? fhe anfwered, that God had allow ed and as he pretends only to relate matters of faff, juft
them to eat of all, except only the fruit of the tree as they happened, without art or difguife, it cannoi. be
in the midft of the garden : which he commanded they fuppofed but that this hiftory of the fall is to be taken
fhould not tafte, nor fo much as touch, left they fhould in a literal fenfe, as well as the reft of his writings. It
die. The ferpent replied, that they fhould not die ; is generally agreed, that the ferpent which tempted
for God knew the virtue of the tree ; and that, fo foon Eve was the Devil, who envying the privileges of man
as they eat of it, their eyes would be opened, and they in innocence, tempted him, and was the caufe of his -
would become like gods, knowing good and evil, forfeiting all thofe advantages which he had received
Eve, feeing the fruit tempting to the view, took of fr om God at his creation ; and that to this end he af-
the fruit and ate; and gave alfo to her hufband of it, fumed the form of a ferpent. Thefe interpretations
and he did eat. Immediately the eyes of both were are fupported by many paffages of Scripture, where
opened ; when perceiving they were naked, they fewed the Devil is called the ferpent, and the oldferpent, (See
fig-leaves together, and made themfelves aprons. A- John viii. 44. 2 Cor. xi. 3. and Rev. xii. 9.) Some be-
dam and Eve, hearing the voice of God walking itr the lieve that the ferpent had then the ufe of fpeech, and
garden in the cool of the day, hid themfelves among converfed familiarly with the woman, without her con-
the trees; but, on God’s calling for Adam, he excu- ceiving any diftruft of him ; and that God, to punifh
fed himfelf for not appearing, becaufe h* was* naked, the malice with which: he had abufed Eve, deprived
God demanded of him, who it was that told him he him of the ufe of fpeech. Others maintain, that a
was naked ; and whether he had difobeyed his com- real ferpent having eaten of the forbidden fruit, Eve
mand, in eating the fotbidden fruit l Adam confeffed from thence concluded, that fhe too might eat of it
that the woman had offered him the fruit, and he had without danger; that in effe&fhe did eat of it, and
tailed it. She, being examined likewife, acknow- incurred the difpleafure of God by her difobedience.
ledged what fhe had done ; but faid, the ferpent had This, fay thefe laft authors, is the plain matter of fa&
feduced and deceived her. God then proceeded to which Mofes would relate under the allegorical reprp-
judgment; he firft eurfed the ferpent above all hearts, fentation of the ferpent converfing with Eve.
and condemned him to go on his belly, and eat the The opinion of fuch as believe this was not a real
dull; adding, that he would put enmity between him ferpent, but only the Devil under that name, is no lefs
and the woman, and their offspring; that the feed of liable to. exception than any of the reft. For though
the woman fhould bruife the ferpent’s head, who fhould the Devil is frequently ftyled in Scripture the ferpent,
bruife the other’s heel. - The woman was fubje&ed to and the nidi ferpent, yet why he fhould be called the
the pains of childbirth, as well as to the dominion of moflfubtle leaf of tbefeld, we cannot conceive; neither
her hufband; and as to the man, God curfed the will the punifhment imlifted on the ferpent fuffer us
ground for his fake, declaring, that it fhould bring to doubt, but that a ferpent’s body at leaft was employ*
forth thorns and thirties, and he fhould earn his bread ed in the ttanfa&ion.
by the fweat of his brow, till he returned to the duft, The nature of the forbidden fruit is another circum-
from whence he was taken. At laft, having clothed ftance in this relation that has occafioned no lefs va-
them both with fkins, he turned them out of the gar- riety of conjeftures. The Rabbins believe it was the
den, left they fhould take of the tree of life, and vine; others that it was wheat; and others, from the
eat, and live for ever : then, to prevent any attempt circumftance of Adam and Eve’s covering themfelves
to return to their former habitation, he placed die- with fig-leaves immediately after their tranfgreffion',
cubims at the eaft of the garden, and a flaming fword, tell us, that this fruit muft have been the fig; fome
H/v
F A L [ 102 1 F A L
Fallacy
t!
Fallopius.
think it was the cherry; and the generality of the
Latins will have it to be the apple.
Thofe who admire allegorical interpretations, will
have the forbidden fruit to have been no other than the
fenfual adl of generation, for which the punilhment in-
flifted on the woman was the pain of child-bearing.
But this opinion has not the leaft foundation in the
words of Mofes, efpecially if we confider that Adam
knew not his wife till after their expulfion out of Pa-,
radife.
Many have been the fuppolitions and conje&ures
upon this fubjeft in general; and fame have fo far in¬
dulged their fancy in the circumftances of the fall,
that they have perverted the whole narration of Mofes
into a fable full of the moft lhameful extravagancies.
FALLACY, a deception, fraud, or falfe appear¬
ance.
The Epicureans deny that there is any fuch thing as
a fallacy of the fenfes : for, according to them, all our
fenfations and perceptions, both of fenfe and phanta-
fy, are true; whence they make fenfe the primary cri¬
terion of truth.
The Cartefians, on the other hand, maintain, that
w’e fhould fufpeft as falfe, or at moft as dubious, every
thing that prefents itfelf to us by means only of the
external fenfes, becaufe they frequently deceive us.
They add, that our fenfes, as being fallacious, were
never given us by nature for the difcovery of truth, or
the contemplation of the principles of things ; but only
for pointing out to us what things are convenient or
hurtful to our bodies.
The Peripatetics keep a middle conrfe. They fay,
that if a fenfible objeft be taken in its common or ge¬
neral view, the fenfe cannot be deceived about it; but
that if the objeft be taken under its fpecific view, the
fenfe may be miftaken about it, from the want of the
difpofitions neceffary to a juft fenfation, as a difor-
der in the organ, or any thing uncommon in the me¬
dium : thus, in fome diforders of the eye, all objects
appear yellow; a flick in water appears broken or
crooked, &c.
FALLING sickness, or Epilepsy. See Medi-
Index.
Falling Stars. See Star.
FALLOPIAN tubes, in anatomy, two dudls ari-
fmg from the womb, one on each fide of the fundus,
and thence extended to the ovaries, having a confider-
able (hare in conception. They are called tuba, from
their form, which bears fome refemblance to a trum¬
pet ; and their denomination, Fallopianx, they take
from Gabriel Fallopius, mentioned in the next article.
See Anatomy, p. 740. col. 2.
FALLOPIUS (Gabriel), a moft celebrated phyfi-
cian and anatomift, was born at Modena in Italy, in
the year 1523, and defcended of a noble family. He
made feveral difcoveries in anatomy, one of which was
that of the tubes, called from him the Fallopian tubes.
He travelled through the greateft part of Europe, and
obtained the charafier of being one of the ableft: phy-
ficians of his age. He was made profeflbr of anatomy
at Pifa in the year 1548, and at Padua in the year
1551 : here he died in 1562, aged 39. His writings,
which are numerous, were firft printed feparately, and
afterwards colleaed under the title of “ Opera genui-
na omnia, tarn praflica quam thcoretica, in tres to¬
mes diftributa.” They were printed at Venice in >585,
and in 1606 ; at Francfort in 1600, cum operum ap-
pendice ; and in 1606, irt folio.
FALLOW, a pale red-coloqr, like that of brick
half-burnt; fuch is that of a fallow-deer.
Fa LLorr- Field, or Fallow-ground; land laid up, or
that has been untilled for a confiderable time.
FALLOWING of land, a particular method of
improving land. See Agriculture, n° 14, 15, i8j.
FALMOUTH, a port-town of Cornwall in Eng¬
land, fituated in W. Long. 5. 30. N. Lat. 50. 15. on
a fine bay of the Englilh channel. It is the richeft and
moft trading town of the county, and larger than any
three of its boroughs that fend members to parliament.
It is fo commodious a harbour, that (hips of the great-
eft burden come up to its quay. It is guarded by the
caftle of St Mawes and Pendennis, on a high rock at
the entrance ; and there is fuch fhelter in the many
creeks belonging tp it, that the whole royal navy may
ride fafe here in any wind, it being next to Plymouth
and Milford-Haven, the beft road for (hipping in Great
Britain. It is well-built ; and its trade is confider-
ably increafed fince the eftabliftiment of the packet-
boats here for Spain, Portugal, and the Weft Indies,
which not only bring vaft quantities of gold in fpecie
and in bars, on account of the merchants in London ;
but the Falmouth merchants trade with the Portuguefe
in (hips of their own, and they have a great fhare alfo
in the gainful pilchard trade. The cuftom-houfe for
moft of the Cornilh tdwns, as well as the head collec¬
tor, is fettled here, where the duties, including thofe of
the other ports, are very confiderable. It is a corpo¬
ration, governed by a mayor and aldermen. Here is a
market on Thurfday, and fairs July 27. and O&ober3o.
FALSE, in general, fomething contrary to truth,
or not what it ought to be: thus we fay a falfe ac¬
tion, falfe weights, falfe claim, &c.
False Anion, if brought again ft one whereby he is
call into prifon, and dies pending the fuit, the law
gives no remedy in this cafe, becaufe the truth or falfe-
hood of the matter cannot appear before it is tried :
and if the plaintiff is barred, or non-fuited at com¬
mon law, regularly all the puniftiment is amercement.
False Imprifonment, is a trefpafs committed againft
a perfon, by arrefting and imprifoning him without
juft caufe, contrary to law ; or where a man is un¬
lawfully detained without legal procefs : and it is al¬
fo ufed for a writ which is brought for this trefpafs. If
a perfon be any way unlawfully detained, it is falfe
imprifonment ; and confiderable damages are recover¬
able in thofe aftions.
False News, fpreading of, in order to make difeord
between the king and nobility, or concerning any great
man of the realm, is punilhable by common law with
fine and imprifonment ; which is confirmed by ftatutes
Weftm. 1. 3 Edw. T. cap. 34. 2 Ric. II. flat. I. cap.
5. & 12 Ric. II. cap. 1 f.
False Oath. See Perjury.
False Prophecy. See Prophecy.
False Quarter, in farriery. See Quarters.
False Bay, a bay lying to the eaftward of the Cape
of Good Hope ; frequented by veffels during the pre¬
valence of the north-wefterly winds, which begin to
exert their influence in May, and render it dangerous
to remain in Table Bay. It is terminated to the eaft-
6 ward
Falfl
Fama.
F A M
ward by Falfe Cape, and to the we ft ward by the Cape
of Good Hope. It is 18 miles wide at its entrance,
and the two capes bear due eaft and weft from each
other.
FALSI crimen, in the civil law, is fraudulent
fubornation or concealment, with defign to darken or
hide the truth, and make things appear otherwife than
they are. The crimen falft is committed, I. By words,
as when a witnefs fwears falfely. 2. By writing, as
when a man antedates a contradL or the like. 3. By
deed, as when he fells by falfe weights and meafures.
FALSIFY, in law, is ufed for proving any thing
to be falfe. Hence we find
Falsifying a record, for fliowing it to be errone¬
ous. Thus lawyers teach, that a perfon purchafing
land of another, who is afterwards outlawed of felony,
&c. may falfify the record, not only as to the time
wherein the felony is fuppofed to have been committed,
but alfo as to the point of the offence. But where a man
is found guilty by verdift, a purchafer cannot falfify as
to the offence ; though he may for the time where the
party is found guilty generally in the indiftment, be-
caufe the time is not material upon evidence.
EALSTAFF. See Fastolff.
FALX, in anatomy, a part of the dura mater, de-
fcending between the two hemifpheres of the brain, and
feparating the fore-part from the hinder. It is called
falx. i. e. “ fickle,” becaufe of its curvature, occafioned
by the convexity of the brain. It divides the brain as
low as the corpus callofum.
FAMA clamosa, in the judicial procedure of the
church of Scotland, a ground of aftion before a pref-
bytery againft one of its members, independent of any
regular complaint by a particular accufer. See Pres¬
bytery.
Any perfon who is of a good charafter, may give
to the prefbytery a complaint againft one of their
members ; but the prefbytery is not to proceed to the
citation of the perfon acctifed, until the accufer under
his hand gives in the complaint, with fome account of
its probability, and undertakes to make out the libel,
under the pain of being confidered as a flanderer. When
fuch an accufation is brought before them, they are
obliged candidly to examine the affair. But, befides
this, the prefbytery confiders itfelf obliged to proceed
againft any of its members, if a fama clamofa of the
fcandal is fo great that they cannot be vindicated un-
lefs they begin the procefs. This t^ey can do with¬
out any particular accufer, after they have inquired in¬
to the rife, occafion, and authors, of this report. It
is a maxim in the kirk of Scotland, that religion muft
fuffer if the fcandalous or immoral aftions of a mini-
fter are not correfted. And wherever a minifter is re¬
puted guilty of any immorality (although before the
moft popular preacher in the kingdom), none almoft
will attend upon his miniftry. Therefore the prefby¬
tery,for the fake of religion,is obliged to proceed-againft
a minifter in cafe of a fama clamofa. This, however,
is generally done with great tendernefs. After they
have confidered the report railed againft him, then
they order him to be cited, draw out a full copy of
what is reported, with a lift of the witneffes names to
be led for proving this allegation. He is now to be
formally fummoned to appear before them; and he
F A M
has warning given him, at leaft 10 days before the Fame
time of his compearance, to give in his anfwers to p
what is termed the libel; and the names of the witnef- ami .
fes ought alfo to be fent him. If at the time appoint¬
ed the minifter appear, the libel is to be read to him,
and his anfwers are alfo to be read. If the libel be
found relevant, then the prefbytery is to endeavour to
bring him to a confeflion. If the matter confeffed be
of a fcandalous nature, fuch as uncleannefs, the pref¬
bytery generally depofe him from his office, and ap¬
point him in due time to appear before the congrega¬
tion where the fcandal was given, and to make public
confeffion of his crime and repentance. If a minifter
abfent himfelf by leaving the place, and be contuma¬
cious, without making any relevant excufe, a new ci¬
tation is given him, and intimation is made at his own
church when the congregation is met, that he is ta
be holden as confefled, fince he refufed to appear be¬
fore them ; and accordingly he is depofed from his
office.
FAME, a heathen goddefs, celebrated chiefly by
the poets. She is feigned to have been the laft of the
race of Titans produced by the earth, to have her pa¬
lace in the air, and to have a vaft number of eyes, ears,
and tongues. She is mentioned by Hefiod, and par¬
ticularly deferibed by Oyid and Virgil.
FAMES canina, the fame with Bulimy.
FAMIA, or Afamia, the modern name of one
of the ancient Apameas. See Apamea.
FAMILIARS of the Inquisition, perfons who
affift in apprehending fuch as are accufed, and carry¬
ing them to prif m. They are affiftants to the inquifi-
tor, and called familiars, becaufe they belong to his
family. In fome provinces of Italy they are called
crofs-bearers, and in others the fcholars of St Peter the
martyr; and they wore a crofs before them on the out-
fide garment. They are properly bailiffs of the inqui-
fition ; and the vile office is efteemed fo honourable,,
that noblemen in the kingdom of Portugal have been
ambitious of belonging to it. Nor is this furprifing,
when it is confidered that Innocent III. granted very
large indulgences and privileges to thefe familiars; and
that the fame plenary indulgence is granted by thq
pope to every Angle exercife of this office, as was
granted by the Lateran council to thofe who fuccour-
ed the Holy Land. When feveral perfons are to be
taken, up at the fame time, thefe familiars are com¬
manded to order matters, that they may know nothing
of one another’s being apprehended ; and it is related,,
that a father and his three fans, and three daughters,
who lived together in the fame houfe, were carried pri-
foners to the inquifition without knowing any thing of
one another’s being there till feven years afterwards,
when they that were alive were releafed by an aft of
feith.
FAMILY, denotes the perfons that live together
in one houfe, under the direftion of one head or chief
manager. It alfo- fignifies the kindred or lineage of a
perfon ; and is ufed by old writers for a hide or por¬
tion of land fuffiefent to maintain'one family. See
Hide.
Family, in natural hiftory, a term ufed by authors
to exprefs any order of animals, or other natural pro-
duftions of the fame clafs. See Class and Order.
FA-
[ ]
PAN [ 104 ] FAN
Famine, FAMINE, dearth, or fcarcity of food. Forpre-
3?an. fervatives againil hunger in times of famine, fee the
article Hunger.
FAN, a machine ufed to raife wind, and cool the
air by agitating it.
That the ufe of the fan was known to the ancients
is vety evident from what Terence fays,
Cape hoc flabellum, et ventulum luicfic factio;
and from Ovid, Art. Amand. i. 161.
Profuit et tenues ventos movijfe flabello.
The fans of the ancients were made of different ma¬
terials ; but the moft elegant were compofed of pea¬
cocks feathers, or perhaps painted, fo as to reprefent
a peacock’s tail.
The cuftom which now prevails among the ladies of
wearing fans, was borrowed from the call, where the
hot climate renders the ufe of fans and umbrellas al-
moft indifpenfable.
In the eaft they chiefly ufe large fans made of fea¬
thers, to keep off the fun and the flies. In Italy and
Spain they have a large fort of fquare fans, fufpended
in the middle of their apartments, and particularly over
the tables : thefe, by a motion at firft given them, and
Which they retain a long time on account of their
perpendicular fufpenfion, help to cool the ,air and
drive off flies.
In the Greek church, a fan is put into the hands of
the deacons in the ceremony of their ordination, in al-
lufion to a part of the deacon’s office in that church,
which is to keep the flies off the priefts during the ce¬
lebration of the facrament.
What is called a fan amongft us and throughout the
chief parts of Europe, is a thin fkin, or piece of pa¬
per, taffety, or other light fluff, cut femicircularly,
and mounted on feveral little flicks of wood, ivory,
tortoife-fhell, or the like. If the paper be Angle, the
flicks of the mounting are palled on theleaft ornamen¬
tal fide : if double, the flicks are placed betwixt them.
Before they proceed to place the flicks, which they
call mounting the fan, the paper is to be plaited in fuch
manner, as that the plaits may be alternately inward
and outward-
It is in the middle of each plait, which is ufually
aboitt half an inch broad, that the flicks are to be
pafted; and thefe a^ain are to be all joined and ri-
vetted together at the other end ; they are very thin,
and fearce exceed one-third of an inch in breadth; and
where they are pafted to the paper, are ftill narrower,
continuing thus to the extremity of the paper. ' The
- two outer ones are bigger and ftronger than the others.
The number of flicks rarely exceeds 22. The flicks
are ufually provided by the cabinet-makers or toy¬
men ; the fan-painters plait the papers, paint, and
mount them.
The common painting is either in colours or gold-
leaf, applied on a fllvered ground, both prepared by
the gold beaters. Sometimes they paint on a gold
ground, but it is rarely ; true gold being too dear,
and falfe too paltry. To apply the Alver leaves on the
paper, they ufe a compofttion, which they pretend is
a great fecret, but which appears to be no other than
gum Arabic, fugar-candy, and a little-honey melted
in common water, and mixed with a little brandy.
This compoAtion is laid on with a fponge ; then lay-
N° 133.
ing the Alver leaves thereon, and preffing them gently
down with a linen ball fluffed with cotton, they catch
hold, and adhere together. When, inftead of Alver,
gold ground is laid, the fame method is obferved. The
ground being well dried, a number of the papers are
well beaten together on a block, and by this means
the Alver or gold get a luftre as if they had been bur-
nifhed.
Fan is alfo an inftrument to winnow corn.—The
machine ufed for this purpofe by the ancients feemsto
have been of a form Amilar to ours. The fan, which
Virgil calls myjlica vannus lacchi, was ufed at initiations
into the myfteries of the ancients: -For as the perfons
who were initiated into, any ofc the myfteries, were to
be particularly good, this inftrument, which feparates
the wheat from the chaff, was the Atteft emblem that
could be of fetting apart the good and virtuous from
the vicious and ufelefs part of mankind. It is Agu-
ratively applied in a ftmilar manner in Luke iii. 17.
FANATIC^, wild, enthufiaftic, viAonary perfons,
who pretend to revelation and infpiration.
The ancients called thofe fanatici who paffed their
time in temples (fana), and being often feized with-
a kind of enthuftafm, as if infpired by the divinity,
fhowed wild and antic geftures. Prudentius reprefents
them as cutting |ind flafhing their arms with knives.
Shaking the head was alfo common among the fana¬
tici ; for Lampridius informs us, that the emperor
Heliogabulus was arrived to that pitch of madnefs, as
to {hake his head with the gafhed fanatics. Hence the .
word was applied among us to the Anabaptifts, Qua¬
kers, &c at their Arft rife, and is now an epithet gi¬
ven to the modern prophets, muggletonians, &c.
FANCY, or imagination. See Imagination.
FANIONS, in the military art, fmall flags carried
along with the baggage.
FANSHAW (Sir Richard), famous for his em*
baffies and writings, was the tenth and youngeft font
of Sir Henry Fanlhaw of Ware Park in Hertfordlhire,
where it is fuppofed he was born about the year 1607.
He diftinguifhed himfelf fo early by his abilities, that
in 1635 he was taken into government-employments
by King Charles I. and lent refldent to the court of
Spain; whence being recalled in the beginning of the
troublesin 1641, he adhered to the royal interell, and
was employed in feveral important matters of ftate.
During his vacant hours he wrote divei's poems, and
made feveral tranflations. At the reftoration it was
expe&ed he would have been made one of the fecyeta-
ries of ftate : however, he was made mafter of the re-
quefts ; a ftation in thofe times of conftderable proflt.
Afterwards, on account of his Ikill in the Latin lan¬
guage, he was made fecretary for that tongue. In
1661, he was fent envoy to the king of Portugal. In
1662, he was again fent to that court with the title of
ambaffaclor, and negociated the marriage of his mafter
king Charles II. with the infanta Donna Catherina.
Upon his return he was made one of the privy-coun¬
cil. In 1664, he was fent ambaffador to both the
courts of Spain and Portugal ; at which time the foun¬
dation of peace betwixt thofe crowns and England was
laid by him. His conduft during his former employ¬
ments in thofe courts gained him fuch high efteem
there, that his reception was magniAcent, exceeding
all that were before, which thofe kings declared was
4 not
FAR L 105 ] FAR
Fantafia not to be a precedent to fucceeding ambafladors. He
Fare at I666, on the very day he-had fix-
ed for fetting out on his return to England. Befides
fbme original poems, and others tranflations, he pub-
liflred a tranflation of Bathifta Guarini’s Pajlor Fido,
and another of the Lvfiadof Camoen’s. Among his poft-
humous publications are, “ Letters during his embaf-
fies in Spain and Portugal; with his life prefixed.”
FANTASIA, in the Italian mufic, fignifies fancyj
and is ufed for a compofition, wherein the compofer
ties himfelf to no particular time, but ranges accord¬
ing as his fancy leads, amidft various movements, dif¬
ferent airs, &c. This is ctherwife called the capricious
Jlyle: before fonatas were ufed, there were many of
this kind, fome of which remain even now.
• FANUM, among the Romans, a temple or place
confecrated to fome deity. The deified men and wo¬
men among the heathens had likewife their fana; even
the great philofopher Cicero ere&ed one to his daugh¬
ter Tullia.
Fanum Vacuna, (anc. geog.}, a village of the Sa¬
bines, fituated between Cures and Mandela; where flood
the temple of Vacuna, goddefs of the idle or unem¬
ployed, in an old decayed flate ; and hence the epithet
putre, ufed by Horace. Now called Voconet in the Ec-
clefiaftic State.
FARANDMAN, a traveller, or merchant flran-
ger, to whom, by the laws of Scotland, juftice ought
to be done with all expedition, that his bufinefs or
journey be not hindered.
FARCE, was originally a droll, petty fhow, or en¬
tertainment, exhibited by charletans, and their buf¬
foons, in the open flreet to gather the crowd together.
—The word is French, and fignifies literally, “ force¬
meat or fluffing.” It was applied on this occafion, no
doubt, on account of the variety of jefts, gibes, tricks,
&c. wherewith the entertainment was interlarded.
Some authors derive farce from the Latin facetia ; o-
thers from the Celtic farce, “ mockery;” others from
the Latin farcire, “ to fluff.”
At prefent it is removed from the flreet to the
theatre ; and inflead of being performed by merry-
andrews to amufe the rabble, is acled by comedians
and becomes the entertainment of a polite audience.
Poets have reformed the wildnefs of the primitive far¬
ces, and brought them to the tafle and manner of co¬
medy. The difference between the two on our flage
is, that comedy keeps to nature and probability, and
therefore is confined to certain laws prefcribed by an¬
cient critics; whereas farce difallows of all laws, or ra¬
ther fets them afide on occafion. Its end is purely to
make merry ; and it flicks at nothing which may con¬
tribute thereto, however wild and extravagant. Hence
the dialogue is ufually low, the perfons of inferior
rank, the fable or action trivial or ridiculous, and na¬
ture and truth every where heightened and exaggera¬
ted to afford the more palpable ridicule.
FARCIN, or Farcy, a difeafe in horfes, andfome-
times in oxen, &c. fomewhat of the nature of a fca-
bies or mange. See Farriery, fe£k. xxiv.
FARDING-deal, the fourth part of an acre of
land. See Acre.
FARE, mofl commonly fignifies the money paid
for a voyage, or paffage by water ; but, in London, it
Von. VII. Parti.
is what perfons pay for being conveyed from one part Farewell,
of the town to another in a coach or chair. CaPe ,
FAREWELL-cape, the moft foutherly promon- „ ^
tory of Greenland, in W. Long. 50°, and N. Lat. 6o°. .
FARIN, or Farm. See Farm.
FARINA, a Latin term fignifying meal, or the
flour of corn. See Corn.
Farina Fcecundans, among botanifts, the fuppofed
impregnating meal or dull on the apices or anthers of
flowers. See Pollen.
The manner of gathering the farina of plants for
naicrofcopical obfervations is this : Gather the flowers
in the midfl of a dry funfhiny day when the dew is
perfectly off, then gently fhake off the farina, or light¬
ly brufh it off with a foft hair-pencil, upon a piece of
white paper; then take a fingle talc or ifinglafs be¬
tween the nippers, and, breathing on it, apply it in-
flantly to the farina, and the moifture of the breath
will make that light powder flick to it. If too great
a quantity be found adhering to the talc, blow a little
of it off; and, if there is too little, breathe upon it a-
gain, and take up more. When this is done, put the
talc into the hole of a Aider, and, applying it to the
microfcope, fee whether the little grains are laid as you
defire; and if they are, cover them up with another
talc, and fix the ring '; but be careful that the talcs do
not prefs upon the farina in fuch a manner as to alter
its form.
FARLEU, money paid by the tenants in the weft
of England, in lieu of a heriot. In fome manors of
Devonfliire, farleu is often diftinguiflied to be the befl
goods, as heriot is the beft beaft, payable at the death
of a tenant.
FARM, farin, or Perm, (Firma), in law, fignifies
a little country meffuage or diflridt; containing houfe
and land, with other conveniencies; hired, or taken by
leafe, either in writing, or parole under a certain year¬
ly rent. See Lease.
This in divers parts is differently termed: in the
north, it is a iack; in Lancafhire, a fermeholt; in Ef-
fex, a ivike, &c.
In the corrupted Latin, frtna fignified a place in-
clofed or fhut in: whence, in fome provinces, Menage
obferves, they call cloferie, or clofure, what in others
they call a farm. Add, that we find locare adfirmam,
to fignify to let to farm ; probably on account of the
fure hold the tenant here has in companfon of tenants
at will.
Spelman and Skinner, however, choofe to derive the
word farm from the Saxon fearme, or feorme, that is,
viSus, “ provifion ;” by reafon the country people
and tenants anciently paid -their rents in vi&uals and
other neceffaries, which were afterwards converted in¬
to the payment of a fum of money. Whence a farm
was originally a place that furniflied its landlord with
provifions. And among the Normans they flill di-
flinguifh between farms that pay in kind, i. e. provi¬
fions, and thofe which pay in money ; calling the for¬
mer Amply fermes, and the latter blancheferme, “ white
ferm.”
Spelman fhows, that the word Jirma, anciently fig¬
nified not only what we now call a farm, but alfo a
feaft or entertainment, which the farmer gave the pro¬
prietor or landlord, for a certain number of days, and
O at
FAR [ io5 ] FAR
Farm. at a certain rate, for the lands he held of him. Thus
e., y-— jtarrne jn t}je iaws 0f King Canute is rendered by Mr
L.ambard, viStus : and thus we read of reddere firmam
unius metis, and reddebat unum diem de Jirma ; which
denote provifion for a night and day, the rents abouc
the time of the conqueft being all paid in provifions ;
which cuftom is faid to have been firft altered under
King Henry I. We alfo lay to farm duties, impofts,
&c.
Culture of a Farm. See Agriculture.
Farm, as connedfed with gardening, and fufceptible
of embeliifhment. See Gardening.
In fpeculation, it might have been expefted that the
firft effays of improvement Should have been on a farm,
to make it both advantageous and delightful; but the
fait was otherwife : a fmall plot was appropriated to
pleafure ; the reft was referved for profit only. And
this may, perhaps, have been a principal caufe of the
vicious tafte which long prevailed in gardens. It
vvas imagined that a fpot fet apart from the reft fhould
not be like them : the conceit introduced deviations'
from nature, which were afterwards carried to fuch an
excels, that hardly any objedfs truly rural were left
within the enclofure, and the view of thofe without
was generally excluded. 1’he firft ftep, therefore, to¬
wards a reformation, was by opening the garden to
the country, and that immediately led to affimilating
them ; but ftill the idea of a fpot appropriated to plca-
fure only prevailed, and one of the lateft improve¬
ments has been to blend the ufeful with the agreeable;
even the ornamental farm was prior in time to the
more rural; and we have at laft returned to llmplicity
by force of refinement.
Of a pa- i. The ideas of paftoral poetry feem now to be the
ftoral farm ftsndard of that fimplicity; and a place conformable
to them is deemed a farm in its utmoft purity. An al-
lufion to them evidently enters into the defign of the
Keafowes (a), where they appear fo lovely as to en¬
dear the memory of their author; and juftify the re¬
putation of Mr Shenftone, who inhabited, made, and
celebrated the place: it is a perfedt pi&ure of his
mind, fimple, elegant, and amiable; and will always
fuggeft a doubt, whether the fpot infpired his verfe, or
whether, in the feenes which he formed, he only rea_-
lized the paftoral images which abound in his fongs.
The whole is in the fame tafte, yet full of variety; and,
except in two or three trifles, every part is rural and
natural. It is literally a grazing farm lying round the
houfe; and a walk, as unaffefted and as unadorned
as a common field-path, is condu&ed through the fe-
veral enclofures. But for a detail of the plan and
feenery, as illuftrative of the prefent fubjedf, the read¬
er is referred to the particular defeription of the Lea-
fowes publiftied by the late MrDodfley. We fltall only
take notice of one or two circumftances independent on
the general delineation.
The art with which the divifions between the fields
are diverlified is one of them. Even the hedges are
diftinguifhed from each other: a common quickfet
fence is in one place the fc-paratiom; in another, it is a
lofty hedge-row, thick from the top to the bottom ;
in a third, it is a continued range of trees, with all their Farms
ftems clear, and the light appearing in the intervals —
between their boughs, and the bufties beneath them ;
in others, thefe lines of trees are broken, a few groupes
only being left at different diftances ; and fometimes a
wood, a grove, a coppice, or a thicket, is the apparent
boundary, and by them both the lhape and tbe ftyle
of tbe enclofures are varied.
The inferiptions, which abqund in the place, are an¬
other ftriking peculiarity : they are well known and
juftly admired ; and the elegance of the poetry, and
the aptnefs of the quotations, atone for their length
and their number. But, in general, inferiptions pleafe
no more than once : the utrrmft they can pretend to,
except when their allufions are emblematical, is to
point out the beauties, or deferibe the effeifts, of the
fpots they belong to; but thofe beauties and thofe ef-
fe<fts muft be very faint, which ftand in need of the af-
fiftance. Inferiptions, however, to commemorate a de¬
parted friend, are evidently exempt from the cenfure ;
the monuments would be unintelligible without them ;
and an urn, in a lonely grove, or in the midft of a field,
is a favourite embelliftiment at the Leafowes: they are
indeed among the principal ornaments of the place
for the buildings are moitly mere feats, or little root-
houfes ; a ruin of a priory is the largeft, and that has
no peculiar beauty to recommend it: but a multiplici¬
ty of objects are unneceffary in the farm ; the country
it commands is full of them ; and every natural advan¬
tage of the place within itfelf has been difeovered, ap¬
plied, contrafted, and carried to the utmoft perfection,
in the pureft tafte, and with inexhauftible fancy.
Among the ideas of^ paftoral poetry which are here
introduced, its mythology is not omitted : but the al¬
lufions are both to ancient and to modern fables;
fometimes to the fairies; and fometimes to the naiads
and mufes. The objefts alfo are borrowed part¬
ly from the feenes which this country exhibited fome
centuries ago, and partly from thofe of Arcadia : the
priory, and a Gothic feat, ftill more particularly cha-
rafterifed by an infeription in obfolete language and
.the black letter, belong to the one ; the urns, Virgil’s
obeli/k, and a ruftic temple of Pan, to the other. All
thefe allufions and objeCIs are indeed equally rural :
but the images in an Englifh and a claffical eclogue are
not the fame ; each fpecies is a diftinft imitative cha¬
racter. Either is proper; either will raife the farm it
is applied to' above the ordinary level; and within the
compafs of the fame place both may be introduced ^
but they fliould be feparate: when they are mixed, they
counteract one another ; and no reprefentation is pro¬
duced of the times and the countries they refer to. A
certain diftriCt fliould therefore be allotted to each, that
all the fields which .'belong to the refpeCtive characters
may lie together, and the correfponding ideas be pre-
ferved for a continuance.
2. In fuch an affoitment, the more open and poliftied Of an an-
feenes will generally be given to the Arcadian fliep-cient ^arni*
herd ; and thofe in a lower degree of cultivation, will
be thought more conformable to the manners of the
ancient Britifh yeomanry. We do not conceive that
the
(a) In Shropftiire, between Birmingham and Stourbridge.
FAR
[
tlie country in their time was entirely cleared,
ftin&ly divided ; the fields were furrounded by woods,
not by hedges ; and if a confiderable traft of improved
land lay together, it ftill was not feparated into a num¬
ber of inclofures. The fubje&s, therefore, proper to re¬
ceive this character, are thofe in which cultivation feems
to have encroached on the wild, not to have fubdued
it; as the bottom of a valley in corn, while the fides
are ftill overgrown with wood ; and the outline of that
wood indented by the tillage creeping more or lefs up
the hill. But a glade of grafs, thus circumftanced,
does not peculiarly belong to the fpecies: that may
occur in a park or paftoral farm ; in this, the paftures
fhould rather border on a wafte or a common : if large,
they may be broken by ftraggling bufhes, thickets, or
coppices ; and the fcattered trees Ihould be befet with
brambles and briars. All thefe are circumftances
which improve the beauty of the place ; yet appear to
be only remains of the wild, not intended for embellifh-
ment. Such interruptions muft, however, be lefs fre¬
quent in the arable parts of the farm; but there the
opening may be divided into feveral lands, diftinguifh-
T07 ] FAR
di- which in another part of the place may be formed on Fsrtn.
Arcadian ideas ; or even to be fubftkuted in their Head,  v—w*
if they are omitted.
3. A part may alfo be free from either of thefe imita-Of a fimj la
tive charadters, and laid out in a common fimple farm,^arra*
Some of the greateft beauties of nature are to be found
in the fields, and attend an ordinary ftate of cultiva¬
tion : wood and water may there be exhibited in feve¬
ral forms and difpofitions; we may enlarge or divide
the inclofures; and give them fuch ftiapes and bounda¬
ries as we pleafe ; every one may be an agreeable fpot;
together, they may compofe beautiful views; the arable,
the pafture, and the mead, may fucceed one another;
and now and then a little wild may be intermixed with¬
out impropriety ; every beauty, in fhort, which, is not
unufual in an inclofed country, whether it arife from
negleft or improvement, is here in its place.
The buildings, alfo, which are frequent in fuch a
country, are often beautiful obje&s ; the church and
the manfion are confiderable; the farm-yard itfelf, if
an advantageous fituation be chofen for it; if the
ricks, and the barns, and the out-houfes, are ranged
ed, as in common fields, only by different forts of with any defign to form them into groupes, and if they
grain. Thefe will fufficiently break the famenefs of are properly blended with trees; may be made a pi&u-
the fpace ; and tillage does not furnifti a more pleafing
feene, than fuch a fpace fo broken, if the extent be mo¬
derate, and the boundary beautiful.
As much wood is eflential to the charafter, a fpot
may ealily be found, where turrets rifing above the co¬
vert, or fome arches feen within it, may have the re-
femblance of acaftle or an abbey. The partial conceal-
refque compofition. Many of them may be detached
from the groupe, and difperfed about the grounds :
the dOve-cote, or the diary, may be feparated from
the reft ; they may be elegant in their forms, and pla¬
ced wherever they will have the beft effeft. A com¬
mon barn, accompanied by a clump, is fometimes
pleafing at a diftance ; a Dutch barn is fo when r
ment is almoft neceffary to both ; for to accord with and an hay-fta'ck is generally an agreeable circum-
the age, the buildings muft feem to be entire ; the ftance in any pofition. Each of thele may be fingle;
ruins of them belong to later days: the difguife is, and befides thefe, all kinds of cottages are proper,
however, advantageous to them as obje&s ; none can
be imagined more pi&urefque, than a tower bofomed
in trees, or a clufter appearing between the ftems and
the "hranches. But the fuperftitions of the times fur<-
nifh other obje&s which are more within compafs :
hermitages were then real; folitary chapels were com¬
mon ; many of the fprings of the country being deem¬
ed holy wells, were diftinguifhed by little Gothic domes
built over them ; and every hamlet had its crofs; even
this, when perfe&, fet on a little ruftic pillar, and that
raifed upon a bafe of circular fteps, may in fome feenes
be confiderable : if a fituation can be found for a May-
pole, whence it would not obtrude itfelf on every view,
that alfo might not be improper; and an ancient church,
however unwelcoftie it may be when it breaks into the
Among fo many buildings, fome may be converted to
other purpofes than their conftru&ion denotes ; and,
whatever be their exterior, may within be made agree¬
able retreats, for refr&hment, indulgence, or {belter.
With fuch opportunities of improvement, even to
decoration within itfelf, and with advantages of pro-
fpe& into the country about it, a fimple farm may un¬
doubtedly be delightful. It will be particularly ac¬
ceptable to the owner, if it be clofe to his park or his
garden: the obje&s which conftantly remind him of
his rank, impofe a kind of conftraint; and he feels
himfelf relieved, by retiring fometimes from the fplen-
dor of a feat into the fimplicity of a farm : it is more
than a variety of feene ; it is a temporary change of
fituation in life, which has all the charms of novelty,
defign of a park or a garden, in fuch a farm as this cafe, and tranquillity, to recommend it. A place,
would be a fortunate accident: nor would the old yew
in the church-yard be indifferent; it would be a me¬
morial of the times when it was ufeful.
Many other obje&s, fignificant of the manners of our
anceftors, might perhaps, upon recolle&ion, occur; but
thefe are amply fufficient for a place of confiderable
extent; and cottages muft abound in every age and
every country; they may therefore be introduced in
different forms and pofitions. Large pieces of water
are alfo particularly proper; and all the varieties of
rills are conliftent with every fpecies of farm. From
the concurrence of fo many agreeable circumftances in
this, be the force or the effe& of the chara&er what it
may, a number of pleafing feenes may be exhibited ei¬
ther in a walk or riding, to be contrafted to thofe
therefore, can hardly be deemed perfe&, which is not
provided with fuch a retreat. But if it be the whole
of the place, it feems inadequate to the manfion : a vi-
fitor is difappointed ; the maftei is diffatisfied ; he is
not fufficiently diftinguiffied from his tenants; he
miffes the appendages incidental to his feat and his
fortune; and is hurt at the limilarity of his grounds
with the country about them. A paftoral or an an¬
cient farm is a little above the common level; but e-
ven thefe, if brought clofe up at the door, fet thtf1
houfe in a field, where it always appears to be neglec¬
ted and naked. Some degree of polilh and ornament
is expe&ed in its immediate environs ; and a garden,
though it be but a fmall one, ffiould be interpofed be¬
tween the manfion and any fpecies of farm.
O 2 4. A
FAR [ ioS ] FAR
Farm. A fenfe of the propriety of fuch improvements
v' v about a feat, joined to a tafte for the more Ample de-
namented t^ie countr7> probably fuggefted the idea of
ferm.. an ornamentedfarm, as the means of bringing every ru¬
ral circumftance within the verge of a garden. This
idea has been partially executed very often ; but no
where, perhaps, fo completely, and to fuch an extent, as
at Woburn farm, (nearWeybridge in Surry.) The place
contains 150 acres: of which near 35 are adorned to the
higheft degree ; of the reft, about two thirds are in pa-
fture, and the remainder is in tillage* The decorations
,are, however, communicated to every part: for they are
difpofed along the fides of a walk, which, with its ap¬
pendages, forms a broad belt round the grazing-
grounds ; and is continued, though on a more con-
trafted fcale, through the arable. This walk is pro¬
perly garden ; all within it is farm ; the whole lies
on the two fides of a hill, and on a flat at the foot of
it: the flat is divided into corn-fields ; the paftures
occupy the hill; they are furrounded by the walk,
and croffed by a communication carried along the
brow, which is alfo richly dreffed, and which divides
them into two lawns, each completely encompaffed
with garden.
Thefeare in themfelves delightful; the ground in-
both lies beautifully ; they are diverfified with clumps
and Angle trees ; and the buildings in the walk feem
to belong to them. On the top of the hill is a large
odtagon ftrudture ; and, not far from it, the ruin of a
chapel. To one of the lawns the ruin appears, on the
brow of a gentle afcent, backed and grouped with
wood ; from the other is feen the oftagon, upon the
edge of a fteep fall, and by the fide of a pretty grove,
which hangs down the declivity. This lawn is further
embellilhed by a neat Gothic building; the former by
the houfe, and the lodge at the entrance ; and in both,
other objects of lefs confequence, little feats, alcoves,
and bridges, continually occur.
The buildings are not, however, the only orna¬
ments of the walk ; it is fhut out from the country,
for a confiderable length of the way, by a thick and
lofty hedge-row, which is enriched with woodbine, jef-
famine, and every odoriferous plant whofe tendrils will
entwine with the thicket. A path, generally of fand
or gravel, is pondu&ed in a waving line, fometimes
dole under the hedge, fometimes at a little diftance
from it ; and the turf on either hand is diverfified with
little groupes of Ihrubs, of firs, or the fmalleft trees,
and often with beds of flowers: thefe are rather too
profufely ftrewed, and hurt the eye by their little-
ndfes; but then they replenilh the air with their per¬
fumes, and every gale is full of fragrancy. In fome
parts, however, the decoration is more chafte ; and the
walk is carried between larger clumps of evergreens,
thickets of deciduous Ihrubs, or ftill more confiderably
Open plantations. In one place it is entirely Ample,
without any appendages, any gravel, or any funk fence
to feparate it from the lawn ; and is diftingnilhed on¬
ly by the richnefs of its verdure, and the nicety of its
prefervation. In the arable part it is alfo of green
{'ward, following the dire&ion of the hedges about the
feveral inclofures: thefe hedges are fometimes thicken¬
ed with flowering Ihrubs; and in every corner or va¬
cant fpace, is a rofary, a clofe- or an open cluipp, or a
bed of flowers: but if the parterre has been rifled for
the embellifitment of the fields, the country has on the
other hand been fearched for plants new in a garden ;
and the Ihrubs and the flowers which ufed to be deem¬
ed peculiar to the one, have been liberally transferred
to the other ; while their number feems multiplied by
their arrangement in fo many and fuch different difpo-
fitions. A more moderate ufe of them would, how¬
ever, have been better; and the variety more pleafing,
had it been lefs licentious.
But the excefs is only in the borders of the walk ;
the fcenesthrough which it leads are truly elegant, every
where rich, and always agreeable. A peculiar cheer-
fulnefs overfpreads both the lawns, arifing from the
number and the fplendor of the objefts with which
they abound, the lightnefs of the buildings, the ine¬
qualities of the ground, and the varieties of the plan¬
tations. The clumps and the groves, though feparate-
ly fmall, are often maffed by the perfpe&ive, and ga¬
thered into confiderable groups, which are beautiful in
their forms, their tints, and their politions. The brow
©f the hill commands two lovely profpefts: the one
gay and extenfive, over a fertile plain, watered by the
Thames, and broken by St Anne’s Hill and Windfor
Caftle; a large mead, of the moft luxuriant verdure,
lies juft below the eye, fpreading to the banks of the
river; and beyond it the country is full of farms, vil¬
las, and villages, and every mark of opulence and cul¬
tivation. The other view is more hooded : the fteeple
of a church, or the turrets of a feat, fometimes rife
above the trees ; and the bold arch of Walton Bridge
is there a confpicuous objedf, equally Angular and
noble. The inclofures on the flat are more retired
and quiet; each is confined within itfelf; and all toge¬
ther they form an agreeable contrail to the open ex-
pofure above them.
With the beauties which enliven a garden are every
where intermixed many properties of a farm : both the
lawns are paftured ; and the lowings of the herds, the
bleating of the fheep, and the tinklings of the bell-wed-
der, refound through all the plantations : even the
clucking of poultry is not omitted; for a menagerie of
a very Ample delign is placed near the Gothic building;
a fmall ferpentine river is provided for the water-fowl ;
while the others ftray among the flowering Ihrubs on the
banks, or ftraggle about the neighbouring lawn : and
the corn-fields are the fubje&e of every rural employ¬
ment which arable land from feed-time to harveft can
furnilh. But though fo many of the circumftances
occur, the fimplicity of a farm is wanting ; that idea
is loft in fuch a profufion of ornament; a rufticity of
charadler cannot be preferved amidft all the elegant
decorations which may be lavilhed on a garden.
FARMER, he that tenants a farm, or is leffee
thereof. Alfo generally every leffee for life, years, or
at will, is called farmer. As this word implies no my-<
ftery, except it be that of hulbandry, hufbandmah is
the proper,addition for a farmer.
Farmer, in mining, is the lord of the field, or one
that farms the lot and cope of the* king.
FARN islands, two groups of little iflands and
rocks, 17 in number, lying oppofite to Bamborough
caftle in Northumberland. At low water the points
of feveral others are villble, befides the 17 juft mention¬
ed,.
Farr*
II 1
FAR [ 100 ] FAR
Fam cd. The neareft ifland to the fhore is called the Houfe-
Farnham an<^ ^es exa^ly one mile and 68 chains from the
i. ' coaft. The moil diftant is about feven or eight miles.
Their produce is kelp, feathers, and a few feals, which
the tenant watches and fhoots for the fake of the oil
and ikins. Some of them yield a little grafs that may
ferve to feed a cow or two; which the people tranf-
port over in their little boats. The largeft or Houfe
ifland is about one mile in compafs, and has a fort and
a lighthoufe. It contains about fix or feven acres of
rich paflure ; and the fhore abounds with good coals
which are dug at the ebb of tide. St Cuthbert is faid
to have pafled the two laft years of his life on this
ifland. A priory of BenediiSlines was afterwards efta-
bliflied here, for fix or eight monks, fubordinate to
Durham. A fquare tower, the remains of a church,
and fomr other buildings, are ftill to be feen on this
ifland ; and a ftone coffin, which is pretended to be
that of St Cuthbert. At the north end of the ifle is
a deep chafm, from the top to the bottom of the
rock, communicating with the fea ; through which,
in tempeftuous weather, the water is forced with
great violence and noife, and forms a fine jet d’eau of
60 feet high. It is called by the inhabitants of the
oppofite coaft, the Churn. One of the iflands in the
moil diilant groupe is called the Pinnacles, from
fome vaft columnar rocks at the fouth end, even at
their Tides, flat at the tops, and entirely covered with
guillemots and (hags. The fowlers pafs from one to
the other of thefe columns by means of a board, which
they place from top to top, forming a narrow bridge
over fuch a dreadful gap that the very fight of it ftrikes
one with horror.
FARNABIE (Thomas),Ton of a carpenter at
London, born in 1575, ftaid a ftiort while at Oxford ;
where being enticed to abandon his religion, he went
to Spain, and was there educated in a college belong¬
ing to the Jefuits. Being weary of their fevere difci-
pline, he went with Sir John Hawkins and Sir Francis
Drake in their laft voyage in 1595. He was after¬
wards a foldier in the Low Countries: but being redu¬
ced to great want, returne'd to England, where wan¬
dering about for fome time under the name of Thomas
Bainrafe, the anagram of liis name, he fettled at Mat¬
tock in Somerfetfhire, and taught a grammar-fchool
with good reputation. He removed to London, and
opened a fchool with large accommodations for young
gentlemen. Whilc*he taught thisTchool, he was made
matter of arts at Cambridge, and incorporated into the
univerfity of Oxford. Thence he removed, in 1636,
to Seven-oaks in Kent; and taught the fons of feveral
noblemen and gentlemen, who boarded with him, with
great fuccefs, and grew rich. His works gained him
reputation. Upon the breaking out of the civil com¬
motions in 1641, he was caft into prifon. It was de¬
bated in the houfe of commons, whether he ftiould be
fent to America ; but this motion being rejefted; he
was removed to Ely-houfe in Holborn, and there he
died in 1647. Farnabie was a very eminent gram¬
marian ; and many writers have fpoken with great ap¬
probation of his labours. M. Bayle in particular fays,
“ His notes upon moft of the ancient Latin poets have
been of very great ufe to young beginners ; being fhort,
learned, and defigned chiefly to clear up the text.”
FARNHAM, or F-ern ham ; a town of Surry, and
capital of the hamlet of its own name, 41 miles from Farnham
London on the Winchefter road. It is a large popu- „ ^
lous place, fituated on the river Wey, and fuppofed to _ r‘f
have its name from the fern which abounded here. It
was given by the Weft Saxon king Ethelbald to the
fee of Winchefter-; the biflrops of which have general¬
ly refided in the cattle here, in the fummer time, ever
fince the reign of king Stephen, whofe brother, its then
bi/hop, firft built it. It was a magnificent ftrutlure,
with deep moats, ftrong walls and towers at proper
diftances, and a fine park ; but it is much decayed.
The town, which has many handfome houfes, and well
paved ftreets, is governed by 12 matters or burgefles,
of whom two are bailiffs, (cbofen annually). They
have the profit of the fairs and markets, and the affize
of bread and beer; and hold a court every three weeks,
which has power of trying and determining all adtions
under 40s. From Michaelmas to Chriftmas here is a
good market for oats; and one of the greateft wheat
markets in England, efpecially between All-Saints day
and midfummer. The toll-dilh here was once reckon¬
ed worth 2001. a-year ; but it is much duniniflied,
fince the people about Chichefter and Southampton be¬
gan to fend their meal to London by fea. But this lofs
is amply made up by the vaft growth of hops here, of
which there are 300 or 400 acres of plantations about
this town, and they are faid to outdo the Kentilh hop-
yards both in quantity and quality. This town fent
members to parliament in the reign of Edward II.
but never fince. The magiftrates have their privileges
from the bifhop of Winchefter, to whom they pay an
acknowledgment of I2d. a-year. The market is on
Thurfday: fairs, Holy Thurfday, June 24. and Novem¬
ber 2. Here are a free fchool, and a great market fop-
Welfti hofe.
FARNOVIANS, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, a fed of
Socinians-, fo called from Staniflaus Farnovius, who fe-
parated from the other Unitarians in the year 1568,
and was followed by feveral perfons eminent for their'
learning. This feft did not laft long ; for having
loft their chief, who died in 1615, it was fcattered
abroad and reduced to nothing. Farnovius was enga¬
ged by Gonelius to prefer the Arian fyftem to that of
the Socinians, and confequently afferted, that Chrift
had been produced out of nothing by the Supreme Be¬
ing before the creation of this terreftrial globe. His
fentiments concerning the Holy Ghoft are not certain¬
ly known ; however, it appears tharhe warned his dif-
ciples againft paying the tribute of religious worfliip to
the Divine Spirit.
FARQUHAR (George), an ingenious poet and
dramatic writer, the fon of a clergyman in Ireland,
was born at Londonderry in 1678. He was fent to
Trinity College, Dublin; but his volatile difpofition not
reliftiing a college life, he betook himfelf to the ftage ;
where, having dangeroufly wounded a brother-aftor in -
a tragic fcene, by forgetting to change his fword for
a foil, it Ihoeked him fo much that he left the Dublin
theatre and went to London. Here he procured a lieu¬
tenant’s commiffion by the intereft of-the earl of Or¬
rery; which he held feveral years, and gave many '
proofs both of courage and condud. In 1698, he wrote
his firft comedy called Love and a Bottle; which, for
its fprightly dialogue and bufy fcenes, was well recei¬
ved, In the beginning of the year 1700, which was
thee
FAR [ no ] FAR
the jubilee year at Rome, he brought out \\\s Conftant
Couple, or a Trip to the Jubilee: and fuited Mr Wilks’s
talents fo well in the chara&er of Sir Harry Wildair,
that the player gained almoft as much reputation as
the poet. This tempted him to continue it in another
comedy called Sir Harry Wildair, or The fequel of the
Trip to the Jubilee; in which Mrs Oldfield acquired
great applaufe. In 1702, he publilhed his Mifcella-
nies, which contain a variety of humorous fallies of
fancy. In 1703, appeared the Incinflant, or the Way
to win him ; in 1704, a farce called the Stage coach;
in 1705, The Twin Rivals ; and in 1706,. the Re¬
cruiting Officer, founded on his own obfervations while
on a recruiting party at Shrewfbury. His lafl: comedy
was the Beaux Stratagem, of which he did not live to
enjoy the full fuccefs. Mr Farquhar married in 17O3.
Before Chat time his manner of life had been rather dif-
fipated. The lady, therefore, who afterwards became
his wife, having fallen violently in love with him, but
judging that a gentleman of his humour would not ea-
fily be drawn into the trammels of matrimony, contri¬
ved to have it given out that ihe was poffeffed of a large
fortune; and finding means afterwards to let Mr Far-
q'uhar know her attachment to him, interell and vanity
got the better of his paffion for liberty, and the lady and
he were united in the hymeneal bands. But how great
was his difappointment, when he found all his profpetls
overclouded fo early in life (for he was then no more
than 24), by a marriage from which he had nothing to
expedl. but an annual increafe of family, and an enlarge¬
ment of expence in confequence of it far beyond what
bis income would fupport. Yet, to his honour be it told,
though he found himfelf thus deceived in a moll effen-
tial particular, he never was known once to upbraid his
wife with it; but generoufiy forgave an impofition which
love for him alone had urged her to, and even behaved to
her with all the tendernefs and delicacy of the moll in¬
dulgent hulband. Mrs Farquhar, however, did not very
long enjoy the happinefs (he had purchafed by this llra-
tagem; for the circumftances that attended this union
were in fome refpeft perhaps the means of Ihortening
the period of the captain’s life. For, finding himfelf con-
fiderably involved in debt in confequence of their increa-
fing family, he was induced to make application to a cer¬
tain noble courtier, who had frequently profelfed the
greatell friendfiiip for him, and given him the ftrongeft
affurances of his intended fervices. This pretended pa¬
tron repeated his former declarations; but, expreffing
much concern that he had nothing at prefent immediate¬
ly in his power, advifed him to convert his commiffion
into money to anfwer his prefent occafions, and affured
him that in a Ihort time he would procure another for
him. Farquhar, who could not bear the thoughts of
his wife and family being in diftrefs, followed this ad¬
vice, and fold his commiffion ; but, to his great morti¬
fication and difappointment, found, on a renewal of his
application to this inhuman nobleman, that he had ei¬
ther entirely forgotten, or had never intended to per¬
form, the promife he had made him. This diftradling
fruftration of all his hopes fixed itfelf fo ftrongly on our
author’s mind, that it fpon brought on him a fure, tho’
not a very hidden, declenfion of nature, which at length
carried him off the ftage of life in 1707, before he ar¬
rived at 30 years of age.— His comedies are fo diverting,
and the charadlers fo natural, that his plays Hill con¬
tinue to be reprefented to full houfes.
FARRIER, one whofe employment is to fiboe hor-
fes, and cure them when difeafed or lame.
FARR
HE art of preventing, curing, or palliating, the dif-
eafes of horles.
The pratlice of this ufeful art has been hitherto
almoft entirely confined to a fet of men who are totally
ignorant of anatomy and the. general principles of me¬
dicine. It is not therefore furprifing, that their pre-
fcriptions Ihould be equally abfurd as the reafons they
give for adminiftering them. It cannot indeed be ex-
pe&ed that farriers, who are almoft univerfally illiterate
men, Ihould make any real progrefs in their profeffion.
They prefcribe draughts, they rowel, cauterife, &c.
without being able to give any other reafon for thei'r
pra&ice, but becaufe their fathers did fo before them.
How can fuch men deduce the caufe of a difeafe from
its fymptoms, or form a rational method of cure, when
they are equally ignorant of the caufes of difeafes and
the operation of medicines ?
The miferable llate of this ufeful art has determined
us to feledl, from the bell authors, fuch a fyftem of
praftice as feems to be formed on rational principles;
this, we hope, will be a fufficient apology for being fo
full upon this article.
Sect. I. General DireSlions with regard to the
Management of Horfes.
I. It ought to be laid down as a general rule, to
I E R Y,
give horfes as few medicines as poffible ; and by no
means to comply with the ridiculous cuftom of fome,
who are frequently bleeding, purging, and giving balls,
though their horfes be in perfedt health, and have no
indication that requires fuch treatment.
2. Proper management in their feeding, exercife, and
dreffing, will alone cure many diforders, ami prevent
moll; for the fimplicity of a horfe’s diet, which chiefly
confifts of grain and herbage, when good in kind, and
difpenfed with judgment, fecures .bim from thefe com¬
plicated diforders \\hich are the general effcdts of in¬
temperance in the human body.
3. In France, Germany, and Denmark, horfes are
feldom purged; there they depend much on alteratives;
the ufe of the liver of antimony we have from the
French, which is in general a good medicine for that
purpofe, and may, in many cafes, be fubftituted in the
room of purging.
4. As hay is fo material an article in a horfe’s diet,
great care fhould be taken to procure the beft : when
it is not extraordinary, the dull Ihould be well fhook
out before it is put in the rack ; for fuch hay is very
apt to breed vermin.
5. Beans afford the ftrongeft nouriffiment of all grain;
but are fittell for laborious horfes, except on particu¬
lar occafions. In fome feafons they breed a kind of
vermin called the red bugs, which is thought to be dan¬
gerous;
Sea. I.
FARRIERY.
Manage- gerous ; the heft method in fuch a cafe is to procure
nicnt of them well dried and fplit.
}l0rf::s' 6. Bran fcalded is a kind of panada to a fick horfe :
11 but nothing is worfe than a too frequent ufe of it, ei
ther dry or fcalded; for it relaxes and weakens the
bowels too much. The bolts in young horfes may be
Owing to too much mufty bran and chaff, given with
other foul food to make them up for fale ; particular
Care therefore ftiould be taken that the bran be always
fweet and new.
7. Oats, well ripened, make a more hearty and du¬
rable diet than barley, and are much better fuited to
the conftitutions of Britifh horfes. A proper quan¬
tity of cut draw and hay mixed with them, is fome-
times very ufeful to horfes troubled with botts, indi-
geftion, &c.
8. Horfes who eat their litter, fhould particularly
have cut draw and powdered chalk given them with
their feed ; as it is a fign of a depraved domach, which
wants correcting.
9. The fait marfhes are good padure for horfes who
have been furfeited, and indeed for many other difor-
ders : they purge more by dung and urine than any
other padure, and make afterwards a firmer fleih; their
water is for the mod part brackilh, and of courfe, as
well as the grafs, faturated with halts from the fea-
water.
10. A fummer’s grafs is often neceffary; more par¬
ticularly to horfes glutted with food, and which ufe
little exercife : but a month or two’s running is pro¬
per for mod ; thofe efpecially who have been worked
hard, and have diff limbs, dwelled legs, or wind-galls.
Horfes whofe feet have been impaired by quitters, bad
fhoeing, or any other, accidents, are alfo bed repaired
at grafs. Thofe lamenedes particular!)? require turn¬
ing out to grafs, where the mufcles or tendons are con-
traded or fhrunk; for by the continual gentle exercife
in the field, with the affidanee of a pattin-dioe on the
oppofite foot, the ihortened limb is kept on the dretch,
th e waded parts are redored to their ordinary dimenfions,
and the limb again recovers, its ufual tone and drength.
11. 'Hie fields which lie near great towns and are
much dunged, are not proper padure for horfes ; but
on obfervation appear very injurious to them, if they
feed thereon all the fummer.
12. Horfes may be kept abroad all the year, where
they have a proper dable or died to dicker them from
the weather, and hay at all times to come to. So
treated, they are feldom fick; their limbs are always
clean and dry; and, with the allowance of corn, will
hunt, and do more bufinefs than horfes kept condantly
within doors.
13. If horfes, when taken from grafs, drould grow
hot and eodive, mix bran and chopt hay with their
corn ; and give them fometimes a feed of fcalded bran
for a fortnight, or longer: let their exercife and diet
be moderate for fome time, and increafe both by de¬
grees.
14. When horfes are foiled in the dable, care fhould
be taken that the herbage is young, tender, and full of
fap ; whether it be green bailey, tares, clover, or any
thing elfe the feafon produces ; and that it be cut frefh
once every day at lead, if not oftener.
15. When horfes lofe their flefh much in foiling, they
fhould in time be taken to a more, foild diet: for it is
not in foiling as in grazing ; where, though a horfe
lofes his flefh at fird, yet after the grafs has purged him,
he foon grows fat.
16. Young horfes, who have not done growing, mud
be indulged more in their feeding than thofe come to
their maturity; but if their exercife is fo little as to
make it necedary to abridge their allowance of hay, a
little frefh draw fhould condantly be put in their racks
to prevent their nibbling the manger, and turning crib-
biters ; they fhould alfo be fometimes drapped back i»
order to cure them of this habit.
17. It is obvious to every one, what care fhould be
taken of a horfe after violent exercife, that he cool not
too fad, and drink no cold water, &c. for which reafou
we fhall wave particular dire&ions.
18. Mod horfes fed for fale have the interdices of
their mufcles fo filled with fat, that their true fbapes
are hardly known. For which reafsn a horfe jud come
out of the dealer’s hands fhould at fird be gently ufed.
He ought to lofe blood, and have his diet lowered,
though not too much : walking exercife is mod proper
at fird, two hours in the day; in a week or fortnight
two hours at a time, twice a-day ; after this ufage fer
a month, bleed him again, and give him two or three
times a-week fcalded bran, which will prepare him for
purging phyfie, that may now be given fafely, and re¬
peated at the ufual intervals.
19. When a horfe comes out of a dealer’s hands, his
cloathing mud be abated by degrees, and care taken
to put him in a moderately warm dable ; otherwife the
fudden tranfition would be attended with the word con-
fequences.
Sect. II. Of Blood-letting.
1. Horses who dand much in dable, and are full
fed, require bleeding now and then ; efpecially when
their eyes look heavy, dull, red, and indamed ; as alfo,
when they feel hotter than ufual, and mangle their
hay.
Young horfes fhould be bled when they are fhedding
* their teeth, as it takes off thofe feverifh heats they
are then fubjedi to. But the cafes that chiefly require
bleedipg, are colds, fevers of mod kinds, falls, bruifes,
hurts of the eyes, drains, and all inflammatory dif-
orders* &c.
It is right to bleed a horfe when he begins to grow
flefhy at grafs, or at any other time when he looks
heavy : and it is generally proper to bleed before'pur-
ging.
Let your horfe always be bled by meafure, that
you may know what quantity you take away : two or
three quarts are a! .'ays enough at one time ; whetryou
repeat it, allow for the diforder and the horfe’s con»
dilution.
Although the operation of blood-letting is generally
thought to be pretty well known, yet there are many-
untoward accidents that frequently happen from the
unfkilful and unexperienced in performing it. The
following diredfions and cautions on this head are ex-
tracted from Mr Clark's Treatife on the Prevention of
Difeajes incidental to Horfes.
As horfes are naturally timorous and fearful, which
is too frequently increafed by bad ufage and improper
chadifement, they require in fome cafes, particularly
in this of bleeding, to be taken unawares or by fur-
prife.
ii2 FARR
Blood- prlfe, and the orifice made into the vein before their
letting. fears
are alarmed. For this reafon, the fleam and blood-
v flick, as it is called, have been long in ufe, and in ikil-
ful hands are not improper inflruments for the purpofe;
although with many practitioners the fpring-fleam
would be much fafer, and on that account ought to be
preferred. When a lancet is ufed, the inftant the
horfe feels the point of it, he raifes or (hakes his head
and neck, in order to fliun the inftrument before the
operator has time to make a proper orifice, which fre¬
quently proves too fmall or too large-; for this reafon,
thofe who have tried the lancet have been obliged to
lay it afide.
Many perfons tie a ligature or bandage round the
neck, in order to raife the vein, and that they may
flrike the fleam into it with the greater certainty;
but a flight view of its effects in preventing this, and
its other confequences, will (how the impropriety of
the pra&ice.
When a ligature is tied round the neck previous to
Heeding in the jugular veins, it is to be obferved, that
it flops the circulation in both veins at the fame time;
hence they become turgid and very full of blood, in-
fomuch that they feel under the finger like a tight
cord; and as the parts around them are loofe and foft,
when the ftroke is given to the fleam, the vein by its
hardnefs or tightnefs flips to one fide, of courfe it e-
ludes the ftroke ; hence a deep wound is made by the
fleam to no purpofe, and this is fometimes too fre¬
quently repeated. Unlkilful people have likewife a
cuftom of waving or ftiaking the blood-flick before they
ftrike the fleam in view of the horfe, whofe eye is fixed
on that inftrument; and when they intend to give the
ftroke, they make a greater exertion: hence the horfe
being alarmed by its motion, raifes his head and neck,
and a difappointment follows. The ftruggle thatenfues
by this means prolongs the operation ; the ligature at
the fame time being ftill continued round the neck, a
total ftagnation of the blood in the veflels of the head
takes place; and hence it frequently happens, that
the horfe falls down in an apoplediic fit. In fuch
cafes the operator being difconoerted, generally de-
fifts from any farther attempts to draw blood at
that time, under the idea that the horfe was vicious
and unruly, although the very treatment the horfe
had juft undergone rendered bleeding at this time
the more neceflary, in order to make a fpeedy re-
vulfion from the veflels of the head. Therefore, a li¬
gature or bandage ought never to be ufed till fuch time
as the opening is made into the vein; and even then it
will not be neceflary at all times if the horfe can {land
on his. feet, as a moderate preffure with the finger on
the vein will make the blood flow freefy; but if the horfe
is lying on the ground, a ligature will be neceflary.
But farther, the concuflion or ftrock the horfe re¬
ceives from his falling down in the above fituation,
which will always happen if the ligature is too long
continued, may caufe a blood-veflel within the head
to burll, and death may be the confequence.
Another cuftom equally abfurd is allowing the blood
to fall in a dunghill amongft itraw, in dry rand, or in
dry duft, by which means no diftindl idea can be form¬
ed of the quantity that is or ought to be taken away.
In fuch cafes horfes have fallen down in a faint from
the lofs of too much blood, before the operator thought
N°I23.
I E R y. Sea.ir.
of flopping up the orifice. For this and a variety of Blood-
other reafons which might be mentioned, a meafure, letting. .
as above obferved, ought always to be ufed, in order ’ "
to afcertain the quantity of blood that is taken away.
In pinning up the orifice, fome have a cuftom of
railing or drawing out the fldn too far from the vein ;
hence the blood flows from the orifice in the vein into
the cellular fubftance between it and the (kin, which
caufes a large lump or fwelling to ttfke place immedi¬
ately: this frequently ends in what is called a /welled
neck; a fuppuration follows, which proves both tedious
and troublefome to cure. In cafes where a horfe may
be tied up to the rack after bleeding in the neck, pin¬
ning up the external orifice may be difpenfed with;
but when a horfe is troubled with the gripes or any
other acute difeafe, in which he lies down and tumbles
about, it is neceflary that the orifice be pinned up with
care, in order to prevent the lofs of too much blood.
As the neck or jugular vein on the near fide is com¬
monly opened forconveniency by thofe who are right-
handed, the young prailitioner (hould learn to perform
on both fides of the neck. This he will find in prac¬
tice to be not only ufeful but neceflary, as he may fre¬
quently have occafion to draw blood from horfes in very
aukward fituations; he will likewife find his account
in it in a variety of cafes, which it is needlefs here to
particularize.
The proper place for making the opening in the
neck or jugular vein is likewife neceflary to be attend¬
ed to : for when the orifice is made too low, or about
the middle of the neck, where the vein lies deep under
the mufcular teguments, the wound becomes difficult
to heal, and frequently ends in a fuppuration, with a
jetting out of proud fleftt from t|?e orifice; which, un¬
luckily, is as unfkilfully treated in the common method
of cure, viz. by introducing a large piece of corrofive
fublimate into the "wound : this not only deftroys the
proud flefh in the lips of the wound, but a confiderable
portion of the flefh around it; and in farriery it is called
coreing out the vein. It frequently happens, that this
corrofive application deftroys the vein likewife ; and
fometimes violent hemorrhagies follow, fo as to endan¬
ger the life of the animal.
The moft proper place for making the opening in
the jugular veins is where the teguments are thinneft,
which is about a hand-breadth from the head, and about
one inch below the branching or joining of the vein
which comes from the lower jaw, and which may be
diftin&ly feen when any preffure is made on the main
branch of the vein.
In performing the operation with a fleam, the ope¬
rator fhould hold the fleam between the fore-finger and
thumb of the left hand; with the fecond finger he is to
make a flight preffure on the vein, and before it be¬
comes too turgid or full make the opening ; the fame
degree of preffure is to be continued on the vein, till
fuch time as the quantity of blood to be taken away is
received into a proper meafure.
Another great error, which generally prevails in open¬
ing the veins with a fleam, is the applying too great
force, or giving too violent a ftroke to it, by which it
is forced through the oppofite fide of the vein : hence
there is danger of wounding the coats of the arteries,
as they generally lie under the veins; or, in fome parti¬
cular places, of wounding the tendons, efpecially when
ii
Sea. ir. Farr
B!o.>d- tills operation is performed in the legs, thighs, See. or
, lettll'g- in the veins, commonly called theplate veins, under the
* bread, the confequences are frequently very trouhlefome
to remove, and in fome cafes prove fatal. Mr Gibfon, in
his Treatife on the Difeafes of Horfes, mentions a cafe
of a fine horfe that was blooded in the plate veins for
a lamenefs of the fhoulder, which was followed with a
hard oval fwelling about the fize of a goofe egg, which
extended upwards on the bread, and likewife down the
leg, attended with exceffive pain, fever, deadnefs in the
horfe’s looks, and all the other fymptoms of a begin¬
ning mortification.
In order to avoid the confequences fometimes attend¬
ing thefe local operations in the bread, legs, &c. and
as horfes are more or lefs troublefome and redlefs,
whereby accidents of this kind may happen, it will
perhaps be advifeable, in mod cafes of lamenefs, Sec.
to draw blood from the larger veins in the neck only,
where there is lefs danger of accidents, more efpecially
if a fpring fleam is ufed : for although it might be of
fome advantage in particular cafes to draw blood as
near the affected part as poffible, yet the bad confe¬
quences frequently attending it ought to counterba¬
lance any advantages that maybe expefted from it,
efpecially as the quantity of blood drawn from the
fmall veins is but incohfiderable, and of courfe no great
benefit can be expended from it in horfes when they
are difeafed.
The principal view in drawing blood is the leffening
of its quantity, by which the remaining mafs circulates
with more freedom in the veffels ; it likewife takes
off the inflammatory tendency of the blood, removes
fpafms, See. and prevents other bad confequences that
may follow, efpecially in plethoric habits: and it ought
always to be remembered, that when the figns or
fymptoms of a difeafe are taken from the motion of
the blood, the diforders arifing from it depend upon its
circulation being either increafed or diminiflied; hence,
therefore, all the changes which take place in the tex¬
ture, quantity, and quality of the blood, are attended
with a diminution or increafe of its velocity.
Although the cafes which may require bleeding are
numerous, yet one general caution is neceffary, namely,
never to take away blood but when it is abfolutely ne¬
ceffary; for it is a fluid that may be eafily.taken away,
but cannot be fo eafily replaced ; befides, the pra&ice
of bleeding frequently, or at Hated times, is exceeding¬
ly improper, as it difpofes the body to become lax,
weak, and plethoric. In bleeding, therefore, a due
regard muff always be had to the conftitution, age,
ftrength, See. of horfes, and the ftate or habit of body
they are in at the time.
Although we ought to be fparing of drawing blood
from horfes on trifling occafions when they may be
faid to be in health, yet when cafes occur that do re¬
quire it, it may not only fafely, but ufefully, be recom¬
mended to take away a greater quantity at once than
is generally done; that is, from fix to eight pounds,
which will be about three or four quarts Englifh mea-
fure, according to the urgency of the fymptoms. See.
at the time, ffrength and age of the horfe confidered.
For as horfes are very fubjeft to inflammatory difeafes
and thofe that are of the fpafmodic kind, and as bleed¬
ing plentifully relaxes the whole fyftem in thefe cafes,
the taking away a fmall quantity of blood, about one
Vol.VII. Parti.
I E R Y. 113
quart or two pounds, is in fadi trifling with the dif- Purging,
cafe ; the horfe is faid to have been Hooded, and that T--3*
fatisfies his owner and the farrier; time is loft; the difeafe
acquires ftrength ; it will then be beyond the power of
art to mitigate or to conquer it: hence the horfe fallr
a facrifice to timidity and ignorance. It is to be re¬
membered, that inflammatory difeafes, particularly
when the bowels are affe&ed, make a very rapid
progrefs in horfes; and if they are not overcojne at the
beginning by bleeding plentifully, the horfe commonly
dies in 24 or 30 hours of a gangrene and mortification
in the inteftines.
Sect. III. Of Purging.
Purging is often neceffary in grofs full horfes, in
fome diforders of the ftomach, liver, &c. but fliould be
direfted with caution. Before a purge is given to any
horfe, it is neceffary fome preparation ftiould be madV
for it, in order to render the operation more fafe and
efficacious: thus a horfe that is full of fle/h Ihould firft
be bled, and at the fame time have his diet lowered
for a week, efpecially thofe that have been pampered
for fale ; feveral mafhes of fealded bran fhould alfo
previoufly be given, in order to open the bowels, and
unload them of any indurated excrement, which fome¬
times proves an obftacle to the working of the phyfic,
by creating great ficknefs and griping.
Let it be remembered, that a horfe is purged with
difficulty ; that the phyfic generally lies 24 hours in
the guts before it works; and that the traft of bowels
it has to pafs through is above 30 yards, all lying
horizontally: confequently refinous and other improper
drugs may, and often do, by their violent irritation,
occafion exceffive gripings and cold fweats, fhave off
the very mucus or lining of the guts, and bring on in¬
flammations, which often terminate in mortifications and
death. It is remarkable too, that the ftomach and guts
of a horfe are but thin, compared to fome other animal*
of the fame bulk, and therefore muft be more liable to
inflammation and irritation.
Horfes kept much in the liable, who have not the
proper benefit of air and exercife in proportion to
their food, ftiould in fpring have a mild purge or two
after a previous preparation by bleeding, lowering their
diet, and fealded mafhes. 4 „
Horfes that fall off in their ftomach, whether it
proceeds from too full feeding, or ingendering crudi¬
ties and indigefted matter, fhould have a mild purgq
or two.
Horfes of 4 hot temperament will not bear the com¬
mon aloetic purges; their phyfic therefore Ihould be
mild and cooling.
Purging is always found very beneficial in ftubborn
dry coughs: but mild mercurials joined with them make
them yet more efficacious.
Horfes of a watery conftitution, who are fubjeft to
fwelled legs, that run a lharp briny ichor, cannot have
the eaufes removed any way fo effeftually as by pur¬
ging-
The firft purge you give to a horfe fhould be mild,
in order to know his conftitution.
It is a miftaken notion, that if a proper prepared
purge does not work to expeftation, the horfe will be
injured by it; for though it does not pafs by ftool, its
operation may be more efficacious as an alterative to
P purify
Purging.
FARR
purify the blood, and it may pafs by urine or other
fecretions.
Purging medicines are very fuccefsfully given in
fmall quantities, mixed with others; and aft then as
alteratives.
If mercurial phyfic is given, eare Pnould be tahen:
that it be well prepared ; and warmer cloathing and.
greater circumfpeftion are then required.
Purges fhould be given early in the morning upon
an empty ftomach: about three or four hours after the
horfe has taken it, he fhould have a feed of fcalded bran ;
and a lock or two of hay may then be put into his
rack., The fame day give him two more mafhes; but
fhould he .refufe warm meat, he may be allowed raw
bran.
All his water fhould be milk-warm, and have a hand¬
ful of bran fqueezed in it; but if he refufes to drink
white water, give it him without bran.
Early the next morning give him another mafh; but
if he refufes to eat it, give him as much warm water as
he will drink: let him be properly cloathed, and rode
gently about. This fhould be done two or three times
a-day, unlefs he purges violently; once or twice will
then be fufficient: at night give him a feed of oats mixed
with bran.
During the working, a horfe fhould drink plenti¬
fully; but if he will not drink warm water, he muff
be indulged with cold, rather than not drink at all.
We fhall here infert fome general forms of purges.
Take focotorine aloes ten drams, jalap and fait of
tartar each two drams, grated ginger one dram,
oil of cloves 30 drops; make them into a ball with
fyrup of buckthorn. Or,
Take aloes and cream of tartar each one ounce, ja¬
lap two drams, cloves powdered one dram, fyrup
of buckthorn a fufficient quantity.
Or the following, which has an eftablifhed charafter
among fportfmen :
Take aloes from ten drams to an ounce and an half,
myrrh and ginger powdered each half an ounce,
faffron and oil of anifeed each half a dram.
Mr Gibfon recommends the following:
Take focotorine aloes ten drams, myrrh finely pow¬
dered half an ounce, faffron and frefh jalap in
powder of each a dram ; make them into a ftiff
ball with fyrup of rofes, then add a fmall fpoon-
ful of reftified oil of amber.
The focotorine aloes ffiould always be preferred to
the Barbadoes or plantation aloes, though the latter
may be given to robuft ftrong horfes; but even then
fhould always be prepared with the fait or cream of
tartar, which, by opening its parts, prevents its ad-
hefion to the coats of the ftomach and bowels ; from
whence horrid gripings, and even death itfelf, has often
enfued. This caution is well worth remarking, as
many a horfe hath fallen a facrifice to the negleft of it.
Elalf an ounce of Caftile foap, to a horfe of a grofs
conflitution, may be added to any of the above ; and
the proportions may be increafed for ftrong horfes.
When mercurial phyfie is intended, give two drams
cf calomel over night, mixed up with half an ounce of
diapente and a little honey, and the purging ball the
next morning.
The following, •when it can be affoided, is a very
gentle and effeftual purge, particularly for fine delicate
I E R Y. Sea. HR
horfes ; and if prepared with the Indian rhubarb, will Purging,
not be expenfive. ——y—
Take of the fineft focotorine aloes one ounce, rhu¬
barb powdered half an ounce or fix drams, ginger
grated one dram; make Into a ball with fyrup of
rofes.
The following purging drink may be given with
the utmoft fafety; it may be quickened or made
ftronger, by adding an ounce more fenna, or two drams
of jalap.
Take fenna two ounces; infufe it in a pint of boil¬
ing water two hours, with three drams of fait of
tartar;- pour off, and diffblve in it four ounces
of Glauber’s falts, and two or three of cream of
tartar.
This laft phyfic is cooling, eafy, and quick, in its
operation ; and greatly preferable in all inflammatory
cafes to any other purge, as it pafles into the blood,
and opera tes alfo by urine.
When horfes lofe their appetite after purging, it is
neceffary to give them a warm ftomach-drink made of
an infufion of camomile-flowers,. anifeeds, and faffron:
or the cordial ball may be given for that purpofe.
Should the purging continue, too long, give an ounce
of diafcordium in an Englifti pint of Port-wine; and
repeat it once in 12 hours, if the purging continues.
Plenty of gum-arabic water ffiould alfo be given; and
in cafe of violent gripes, fat broth glyfters or tripe li¬
quor fhould be often thrown up, with too drops of
laudanum in each.
The Arabic folution may be thus prepared.
Take of gum arabic and tragacanth of each font,
ounces, juniper-berries and carraway-feeds of each
an ounce, cloves bruifed half an ounce ; fimmer
gently in a gallon of water till the gums are dif-
folved give a quart at a time in half a pail of
water ; but if he will not take it freely this way,
give it him often in a horn.
When a purge does not work, but makes the horfe
fwell, and refufe his food and water, which is fometimes -
the effeft of bad drugs or catching cold, warm diuretics
are the only remedy ; of which the following are re¬
commended.
Take a pint of white-wine, nitre one ounce ; mix
with it a dram of camphire, diffolved in a little
reftified fpirit of wine ; then add two drams of
oil of juniper, and the fame quantity of unrefti-
fied oil of amber, and four ounces of honey or
fyrup of marflimallows.
When a horfe fwells with much phyfic, do not fuf-
fer him to be rode about till he has fome vent ; but
rather lead him gently in hand till fome evacuation is
obtainedi
As it is obferved, that horfes more willingly take
fweet and palatable things than thofe that are bitter
and of an ill tafle, care fhould be taken that the latter
be given in balls, and that their drinks be always con¬
trived to be as little naufeous as poffible, and fweetened
either with honey or liquorice. Thofe that are pre¬
pared with grofs powders are by no means fo agreeable
to a horfe as thofe made by infufion; as the former
often clam the mouth, irritate the membranes about
the palate and throat, and frequently occafion. the
cough they are intended to prevent.
Boils fhould be of an oval fhape, and not exceed the
fize
Sefl.lV. FARR
Glyflers. fxze of a pullet’s egg : when the dofe is larger, it fliould
be divided into two ; and they fhould be dipt in oil,
to make them flip down the ealier.
The following cathartic balls are recommended by
• StMt Mr Taplin *; the ingredients of which are differently
Direftory, proportioned, fo as to fuit different circumftances in
f • S0- refpect to ftrength, age, iize, and conftitution :
-I. Socotorine aloes one ounce; India rhubarb two
-drachms; jalap and cream of tartar each one
drachm ; ginger (in powder) twro fcruples ; effen-
tial oil of cloves and anifeed each twenty drops ;
fyrup of buckthorn a fufficient quantity to form
the balls.
2. Socotorine aloes ten drams; rhubarb, jalap,
and ginger, each two drams ; cream of tartar
three drams, and fyrup of buckthorn to make
the ball.
3. Barbadoes aloes nine drams; jalap, Caftile foap,
and cream of tartar, of each two drams ; dia-
grydium and ginger (in powder) each a dram;
fyrup of buckthorn fufficient to make the ball.
4. Barbadoes aloes ten drams; Caitile foap and
jalap (in powder) of each half an ounce ; cream
of tartar and ginger each two drams; oil of
anifeed forty drops; of cloves twenty drops;
which form into a ball with fyrup of rofes or
buckthorn.
S? Sect. IV. Of Clyjlcrs
■Objerva- Clysters adminiftered to horfes, are of greater
importance in relieving them from many acute com¬
plaints, than is generally imagined ; and it were to be
wiffied, that, in place of the more expenfive cordial
drenches, &c. which are but too frequently given in
molt of thefe cafes, a fimple clyffer of warm water, or
thin water-gruel, were fubftituted in their ftead; the
latter proving of great benefit, whiltl the former too
frequently prove hurtful.
Clyfters ferve not only to evacuate the contents of
the inteftines, but aifo to convey very powerful medi¬
cines into the fyftem, when perhaps it is not prafti-
cable to do it by the mouth : for although they are
only conveyed into the larger inteftines, and perhaps
hardly penetrate into the fmaller; ftill they are ex¬
tremely ufeful, by fomenting as it were the latter, and
at the fame time by foftening the hardened excrement
that is accumulated in the former, and rendering it fo
foft as to be expelled out of the body, by which flatu¬
lencies or other offending matters that may be pent
up in them are likewife expelled. Befides, by their
warmnefs and relaxing powers, they add as a fomenta¬
tion to the bowels: hence they may be of coniider-
able fervice in removing fpafmodic conftridlions in the
bowels, carrying off flatulencies, and in preventing in¬
flammation in the inteftines, &c.; or, by conveying
opiates to the parts affedded, give fpeedy relief in cho-
lics, &c. &c.
The ufe of emollient clyfters in fevers are confider-
able. They add by revulfion, and relieve the head when
too much affedded. Befides, by throwing in a quanti¬
ty of diluting liquor into the inteftines, it not' only re¬
laxes and cleanfes them, but may be faid to cool the
body in general; at the fame time, a confiderable pot-
tion of the liquid is abforbed and conveyed into the
mafs of blood, by which means it is diluted; and, in
I E r Y.
particular complaints in the bowels, clyfters give al-
moft immediate relief, as the remedies, when judici-
oufly preferibed, pafs immediately to the parts affedd¬
ed, with little or no alteration from the powers of
the body.
Nor is the ufe of clyfters confined to medicines only ;
food and nourifhment may be conveyed into the fy-
flem in this way, when a horfe is unable to fwallow
any thing by the mouth- Horfes have frequently
been fupported for feveral days together by nourifliing
clyfters, made of thick water-gruel, during violent in¬
flammations or tumors in the throat, till fuch time as
they have been difeuffed or fuppurated.
Nor will thefe effedds appear ftrange to thofe who
have an acquaintance with the anatomical ftruddure of
the body. For the fake of thofe who have not, it may
juft be fufficient to obferve, that certain veffels called
laddeals, whofe mouths open into the inner cavity of
the inteftines, abforb or drink up the chyle or nourifli-
ment that is produced from the food, and convey it
into the mafs of blood. The fame procefs takes place
when nourifliment is conveyed into the inteftines by
the aniis or fundament: only the food requires to be
fo far prepared, broken down and diluted with water,
as to render it fit to be abforbed by the veffels men¬
tioned above.
In adminiftering clyfters, it ought always to be ob-
ferved, that the contents of the clyfter be neither
too hot nor too cold, as either of thefe extremes
will furprife the horfe, and caufe him to ejedd or
throw it out before it has had time to have any ef-
fedd. Previous to introducing the clyfter-pipe, the
operator, after anointing his hand and arm with oil,
butter, or hog’s-lard (obferving, at the fame time,
that the nails of his fingers are Ihort), may introduce
it into the reddum, and draw out the hardened dung
gradually. This operation, in farriery, is termed back-
racking ; and becomes the more neceffary, as it fre¬
quently happens that great quantities of hardened
dung is, in fome cafes, colledted in the, reddum, and
which the horfe cannot void eafily without affiftance
of this kind.
The compofition of clyfters fhould be extremely
fimple : on that account they will be eafily prepared,
and as eafily adminiftered, provided the operator is
furniflred with a fuitable inftrument for the purpofe.
The generality of clyfter-pipes that are ufed, are
by far too fmall and too fhort: although it may
appear a kind of paradox, yet it is a fadd, that a
clyfter-pipe -of a larger fize than the ordinary ones,
and of a proper thicknefs, is much eafier introduced
into the anus than one that is confiderably fmaller.
It is likewife obvious, that when the pipe is too (hort,
it renders clyfters of no ufe, becaufe it cannot convey
the clyfters fo far up into the inteftines as is neceffary
for them to be retained ; a fmall fliort pipe of fix or
‘ eight inches long, is not capable of conveying the inr
jedtion to the end of the reddum, which, in a horfe of
a middling fize, is about 16 or 18 inches long.
But farther, after the hardened dung is taken out
of the reddum by the operation above mentioned, the
bladder being diftended and full of urine, it cannot ex¬
ert its contradding power immediately, fo as to expel
its contents ; it therefore preffes up the empty reddum,
and forms as it were a kind of tumor in it: if the pipe
P 2 is
n6 FARR
Clyfters. is too fhort, it cannot reach beyond this rifing in the
.‘““—V'-— reftum, which fornas as it were a declivity back to¬
wards the anus; and hence the liquor regurgitates or
flows back at the anus as foon as it is difcharged from
the pipe.
The fmallnefs of the bag or bladder, which is gene¬
rally proportioned to that of the pipe, is another
very material objeftion to thefe inftruments, as it fel-
dom contains one quart of liquid ; from which cir-
cumftahce, very little benefit can be derived from the
ufe of them in fuch large inteftines as thofe of a horfe.
Do&or Bracken, in his firft volume, page 203. has a
very judicious remark on the ufe of clyfters. He ob-
ferves, that “ the colon of a horfe feems to be three
guts, by reafon of the two necks of about half a yard
each, is drawn up into many cells or purfes by means
of two ligaments, one of which runs along the upper
and the other the under fide of it, which, with the af-
fiftance of a valve or flap at its beginning, hinder the
excrements either from returning back into the fmall
guts, or falling too foon downwards, before the chyle
or milky fubftance prepared from the food be feat in¬
to its proper veflels. And, indeed, the cascum or
blind gut, which is the firft; of the three larger guts,
feems to be fo contrived in the manner of a valve, to
hinder the aliment and chyle from palling too foon into
the colon; for, if the aliment and chyle were not in fome
meafure hindered in their palfage through thefe large
guts, the body could not be fufficiently fupplied with
nourilhment. The firft of thefe colons is about a yard
and a half in length, the fecond about a yard, and the
third, or that part which joins the reftum or arfe-gut,
near fix yards in length ; fo that the colon of a horfe
14 hands high, may be faid to be nearly eight yards
and a half long; and, from it, along the re&um or
ftraight gut to the anus, where the excrements are
difcharged, is not above half a yard ; fo that it is plain,
clyfters operate moftly in the colon; though I muft
lay they are given in too fmall quantities ; for what
fignifies two quarts of liquor in a gut nine yards long,
and four or five inches diameter, in a natural ftate ;
but in the colic, it is fo diftended with flatulencies,
that its diameter exceeds feven or eight inches, as I
have frequently obferved in thofe dying of that di-
ftemper.”
Large fyringes are frequently ufed for the purpofe
of giving clyfters ; but of all the inftruments ever
invented, they feem the moft improper for horfes.
The fhortnefs and fmallnefs of their ivory pipes,
are not only a material objection againft the ufe
of them, but they are apt to tear and wound the gut;
for if a horfe mould prove reftlefs, either from pain,
as in cafes of the gripes, or from vicioufnefs, the fy-
ringe and pipe being quite inflexible, in the ftruggle^
to throw up the injection the gut may be wounded
Or hurt, by which a difcharge of Hood and other bad
confequences may follow. But although there was
not the leaft chance of their hurting the horfe or
wounding rhe gut, yet the force with which they
throw up the liquor, always caufesa furprife, of courfe
a refiftance, attended with a vigorous effort to throw
it out ; which indeed frequently happens before the
pipe of the fyringe is withdrawn, and frequently upon
the operator.
The moft proper inftrument for. the giving of cly-
i E r Y. Sea. iv.
fters, is a Ample bag or ox-bladder, which will hold Clyfters.
two or three quarts, tied to the end of a wooden pipe —-v——^
about 14 or 15 inches long, one inch and a half dia¬
meter where the bag is tied, and of a gradual taper
to the extremity, where the thicknefs fhould fuddenly
iucreafe, and be rounded off at the point, and made
as fmooth as pollible ; the perforation or hole through,
the pipe may be made fufficiently large, fo as to ad¬
mit the end of a common funnel, for pouring in the
liquor into the bag. By the flexibility of the blafd-
der at the end of this inftrument, no danger can hap¬
pen to the horfe ; the clyfter is conveyed fo far up in¬
to the inteftines that it will be retained ; it caufes no
furprife (providing the liquor* be neither too hot nor
too cold, but milk warm), as no other force is requir¬
ed to throw it up than the holding the bag a little
higher than the level of the pipe ; by which means
the liquor flows gently into the gut, without any fur¬
prife to the horfe. After ufing the bag, it may be
blown full of wind, a cork put into the pipe, and hung
up in fome dry place to prevent it from rotting; by
which means it will laft a confiderable time.
Clyfters are diftinguifhed by different names, which
denote the quality of the ingredients of which they
are compofed, as emollient, laxative, diuretic, ano¬
dyne, &c. As the more general ufe of clyfters, in
the pradlice of farriery, would be attended with the '
moft falutary efFefts, efpecially in acute difeafes, where
the fpeedieft afliftance is neceffary, we ftiall here fub-
join fome forms of recipes for compofing them, toge¬
ther with the cafes in which they may be adminiftered
with advantage.
1. Emollient clyjler. Two or three quarts of thin
water-gruel, falad oil and coarfe fugar, of each
fix ounces. Diffolve the fugar in the water-gruel,
then add the falad oil—Give it milk warm.
2. Laxative clyjler. Two or three quarts of thin
water-gruel, Glauber’s falls eight ounces, falad
oil fix ounces.
When Glauber’s falls are not at hand, common fait
may be ufed in its Head.
A great variety of recipes might be added for ma¬
king clyfters, coinpofed of the infufion of different
herbs, feeds, &c. But the above ingredients are always
eafily got; and they will be found to anfwer all the
intentions required under this head, which is to foften
the hardened excrements, to lubricate the inteftines,
and, by exciting a gentle ftimulus, promote a free dif¬
charge of their contents; which, when,once obtained,
feldom fails of giving relief in inflammatory cafes,
fpafms, &c.
3. Purging clyjler. Infufe two ounces of fenna in
two-quarts of boiling water ; ftrain it off; then
add fyrup of buckthorn and common oil, of each
four ounces.
This clyfter will operate more briikly than the for¬
mer, and, on that account, may be preferred when an
immediate or fpeedy difcharge is neceffary.
4. Anodyne clyjler. The jelly of ftarch, or infufion
of Untfeed, one pint; liquid laudanum, one ounce
or about two table fpoonfuls.
When there is reafon to apprehend inflammation in
the bowels, opium may be given in place of laudanum,
from 20 to 30 grains, in proportion to the urgency of
the fymptoms 5 it ought to be well triturated or rub¬
bed
Sea. IV.
V
R
R
Clyfters. bed in a mortar, with a little of the liquid, till it has
u—y—. thoroughly diftolved. The fmallnefs of the quantity
t)f liquid here recommended, gives it the better chance
of being the longer retained, as the good effe&s to be
derived from the opium depend entirely on this cir-
cumftance. This clyfter is proper to be given in vio¬
lent gripings, attended with purging, in order to blunt
the fharpnefs of the corroding humours, and to allay
the pain ufually attending in fuch cafes. The ftarch
will in fome meafure fupply the deficiency of the natu¬
ral mucus, or covering of the inteftines, which has
been carried off by violent purging. It may be re¬
peated, if the fymptoms continue violent, only dimi-
niftiing the quantity of laudanum or of the opium.
5. Nouri/hing clyfter. Thick water-gruel three quarts.
When clyfters of this kind are found neceflary, they
may be given four or five times in the day, according
as circumftances may require ; they are of confiderable
fervice in cafes where the horfe cannot eat fufficiently
to fupport him, or fwallow any thing, from inflamma¬
tion of the throat, jaws, &c. or in convulfions, attend¬
ed with a locked jaw, &c.
6. Diuretic clyjler. Venice turpentine two ounces ;
Caftile foap one ounce. Diffolve the foap in
two quarts of warm water ; then add the turpen¬
tine, after it has been well beat up with the yolks
of two eggs.
This diuretic clyfter is of great ufe in the ftran-
gury, and obftructions in the urinary paffages ; and
as it is immediately applied to the parts affedled, it fel-
dom fails of giving relief, and has a much better effedl
when prefcribed in this manner than when given by
the mouth : by this laft way it mixes with the whole
mafs of fluids, and may lofe a confiderable portion of
its diuretic quality before it reaches the kidneys; but,
by being adminiftered in the form of a clyfter, it is
readily abforbed by the neighbouring veffels, and pro¬
motes a free difcharge of urine.
It would be needlefs to add more forms of clyfters,
as thofe above mentioned will anfwer moft cafes, with¬
out any material alteration, but what may be ealily
fupplied by the judicious praftitioner.
There are a variety of cafes where clyfters may
be adminiftered with great fuccefs, befides thofe al¬
ready hinted at; as in inflammatory fevers, fpafmodic
conftrictions, and cholicky complaints in the bowels ;
in recent coughs, apoplexy, convulfions, paralytic com¬
plaints, or fwelling of the belly whether from air pent
up in the bowels or from hardened excrements ; in
cafes where horfes are troubled with worms, as the
afcarides which lodge in the lower part of the in¬
teftines, or when bott-worms are obferved flicking in
the anus, or voided with the dung ; in very coftive
habits, before laxative or opening medicines are. given
by the mouth ; in wounds which penetrate deep into
the mufcular or tendinous parts, or in the belly, &c.
in inflammations of the eyes, or when the head feems
particularly affe&ed ; in inflammatory fwellings on
any part of the body, when a horfe cannot fw.allow
any food, &c. whether it proceeds from fpafm in the
mufcles of the throat, inflammations, or fwellings.
Clyfters compofed of mucilaginous fubftances, as ftarch,
Kntfeed, &c. are of great benefit in violent diarrhoeas
or loofenefs, whether it proceeds from a natural dif-
sharge, or from too ftrong purging medicines.
^ a
117
It ought always to be remembered, that clyfters Rowels and
fhould be repeated frequently, till fuch time as the, Sctons- j
diforder for which they are given is either removed v
or greatly abated. This injunftion may be the more
readily complied with, as the adminiftering clyfters
to horfes is not attended either with much trouble or
difturbance to them.
Sect. V. Rowels and Setons *. *
fame.
I. Rowels for horfes, anfwer the fame purpofe as
iffues in the human body. The method of introducing
them is by making an incifion through the flcin, about
three-eighths of an inch long, and then feparating the
fkin from the flefh with the finger, or with a blunt
horn, all round the orifice, as far as the*finger will ea-
fily reach ; then introducing a piece of leather, very
thin, fhaped round, about the fize of a crown piece,
having a large round hole in the middle of it. Previ¬
ous to introducing the leather, it fhould be covered
with lint or tow, and dipped into fome digeftive oint¬
ment ; a pledget of tow, dipped in the fame ointment,
fhould likewife be put into the orifice, in order to keep
out the cold air: the parts around it foon fwell, which,
is followed with a plentiful difcharge, from the orifice,
of yellow ferum or lymph ; and, in two or three days
at moft, the difcharge turns into thick grofs white
matter: the rowel is then faid to fuppurate.
Thefe artificial vents adt by revulfion or derivation ;
and hence they *become of great ufe in many cafes, as
they empty the furrounding veffels by a regular flow
difcharge of their contents, and are even of great fer¬
vice when there is a redundancy or fulnefs of humbure
in general, which may require a gradual difcharge, in
preference to greater evacuations by purging medi¬
cines, &c. Rowels fhould be placed (efpecially in
fome particular cafes) as near the affedted part as pof-
fible ; and, at all times, they ought to have a depending
orifice, in order to admit of a free difcharge of the
matter that may be contained in them.
The parts where they ought to be inferted, and
where they are found to anfwer heft, are the belly, in-
fide of the thighs, the breaft, and outfide of the fhoul-
ders and hips ; they are fometimes, but very injudici-
oufly, put in between the jaw-bones under the root of
the tongue, where they never come to a proper fuppu-
ration, on account of the conftant motion of the part*
in eating, &c. neither do they anfwer any good pur¬
pofe from being placed in that fitnation. In fome dif-
orders it is found neceffary to put in feveral of them
at once, in order to make a hidden revulfion from the
parts affe&ed; but this fhould be determined by the
horfe’s age, ftrength, and circumftances that require
them.
But though rowels are found very beneficial in
fome cafes, yet, like a number of other operations
common to horfes, they fometimes, by the improper
ufe of them, become hurtful to the conftitution ; and,
in fome difeafes, they frequently, inftead of fuppura-
ting, turn gangrenous. Thus, in violent fevers,
where they are frequently very improperly appli¬
ed, they never fuppurate properly: whether this
proceeds from the quicknefs of the pulfe, together
wich the violent rapidity with which the fluids in.
general are then carried through the veflels, or from
the violent agitation in which the whole fyftem ia
thrown^
fiS P A R R
i<« welsand thrown, It Is difficult to determine ; but experience con-
J-ctons. firms the obfervation, when properly attended to. In
fuch cafes, the furrounding parts where the rowel is
placed, feldom or never fwell (as in the ordinary
courfe, when they fuppurate properly), but appear
dry, or much in the fame -ftate as when they were firft
put in; there is little or no difcharge from the orifice;
and the little that does come is thin, ichorous, and
bloody. In fuch cafes, they ought to be taken out im¬
mediately, and the parts well fomented with a ftrong
infnfion of camomile, or an emollient poultice applied,
if it can be properly fixed, and frequently repeated ;
at intervals, the parts ought li-kewife to be bathed with
ardent fpirits, as that of wine, turpentine, &c. covering
the parts from the external air; and, provided there is
no fever at the time, two or three ounces of Peruvian
-bark may be given through the day, either made into
balls or given in a liquid ; and this continued till the
threatening fymptomB are removed.
Rowels are of great ufe in carrying off rheums or
defluxions from the eyes-; in great fwellings of the
glands, &c. about the throat and jaws, which threaten
a fuffocation; or when the head feems particularly
affedted, as in the vertigo or flaggers, apoplexy, &c.
See.; in recent lamenefs; fwellings of the legs and
heels, attended with a difcharge of thin ichorous mat¬
ter, &c.; in large and fudden fwellings in any part of
the body-; or when extravafations of the fluids have
taken place, from blows, bruifes, &c. or when a horfe
has had a fevere fall, &c. and in a variety of other
-cafes, which will occur to the judicious practitioner.
2. Setons are of great ufe in carrying off matter
from deep feated tumors or abfeeffes in different parts
-of the body. They ought all times to be ufed in
preference to making deep incifions into the mufeuiar
parts, which not only'disfigure horfes, but fuch deep
incifions are very difficult to heal up in them, on
account of the fituation of fome of thefe tumors, and
the horizontal polition of the body, which is unfa¬
vourable in many cafes for procuring a depending
■opening in order to carry off the matter, as in tumors
on the back, withers, and upper part of the neck im¬
mediately behind the ears, which are very common.
Befides the horizontal pofition of the body, the natu¬
ral refileffnefs and impatience of horfes renders it im-
pradlicable to fix proper bandages on thofe elevated
parts ; the fituation of them likewife will not admit of
proper dreffings being fixed on them with any degree
of certainty of their remaining for any length of time ;
by which means the openings made into fuch tumors
or abfeeffes-are frequently left bare, and expofed to the
cold air, &c.: hence fuch openings degenerate into
very foul ulcers, and produce a great deal of proud
flefli, and which require to be repeatedly cut away
with the knife, as the ftrongeft cauftics that can be
applied are not fufficient to keep it under.
Setons are introduced by long, thin, fliarp-pointed
inftruments or needles, fhaped like a dart at the point,
and having at the other extremity an eye to receive
the end of the cord, which is to be left in the tumor.
The fize of the inllrument may be determined by that
of the tumor, and the thicknefs of the cord which is
to follow it, and which at all times ought to be fmaller
than the perforation made by the point of the needle.
Every praditioatr in farriery fhould always have a
2
I E U Y. SeaVL
number of thefe needles by him, of different fizes, Alterative
that is, from 6 to 14 or 15 inches long, a little bended Medicines,
on the flat or under fide. The following is the me- .
thod of applying them in cafes of tumors, &c. When
the matter is found to fluctuate in the tumor, the
needle, armed with a cord at the other end, is to be
introduced at the upper part of it, and the (harp point
of the inftrument direfled to, and brought out at the
’under or lowermoft part of the tumor, including the
frvhole length of it; or, if needful, through the found
mufcular flefli on the under part, in order to make a
depending orifice for the matter to run freely off; the
cord fliould be dipped in fome digeftive ointment,
and then tied together at botl!&ends with a thread, in
order to prevent its flipping out. But if, from the
length of the perforation, the cord fliould not admit
of being tied together at the ends, a fmall button of
wood, or fome fuch fubftance, may be fixed at each
end : only, from this circumflance, the cord will re¬
quire, when fhifted, occafionally to be drawn upwards
and downwards; whereas, when the ends of it are
tied together, it forms a circle, and may always be
fliifted downwards to the lower orifice. When the mat¬
ter in the tumor appears to be wholly difeharged or
dried up, and no thicknefs appearing but where the
cord is, it may then be cut out, and the orifices fuf-
fered to heal up.
When the needle for introducing the feton is to
pafs near to any large blood-veffels or nerves; in order
to prevent the chance of their being wounded, it may
be concealed in a canula or cafe, open at both ends 5
and after an opening is made at the upper part of the
tumor fufficient to admit the needle with its cafe, it
may then be direfted with fafety to pafs the blood-
veffels, &c. it may then be puflied forward through the
canula and the oppofite fide of the tumor, and, having
only the common teguments to perforate, all danger
will be avoided.
Sect. VI. Of Alterative Medicines.
By alteratives, or altering medicines, are to be un*
derftood fuch as, having no immediate fenfible opera¬
tion, gradually gain upon the conftitution, by changing
the humours or juices from a ftate of diftemperature
to health. This intention in fome cafes may perhaps
be effedled by correfting the acrimony of the juices,
and accelerating the blood’s motion ; and in others by
attenuating or breaking its particles, and dividing
thofe cohefions which obftruft the capillaries or finer
veffels, and fo promote the due fecrctions of the various
fluids. It is certain, that many have but an indifferent
opinion of a medicine that does not operate externally,
and gratify their fenfes with a quantity of imagined
humours eje<£ted from the body : but let fuch people
remember, that there are good humours as well as bad,
which are thrown off together ; that no evacuating me¬
dicine has a power of felefting or feparating the bad
from the good ; and confequently that they are thrown
out only in a proportionate quantity. Thefe few hints
may be fufficient to convince the judicious reader of the
great advantages arifing from alteratives, and the pre¬
ference due to them in moil cafes over purgatives; un-
lefs it could be proved, as already mentioned, that the
latter could cull out and feparate from the blhod the
bad humours folely, leaving the good behind: but
Setf.vr. FARR
Alterative this iele&ive power has long been juftly exploded as
^Medicines ridJculous and uncertain; fmee it is plain, that all kinds
vof purging medicines differ only in degree of ilrength,
and operate no otherwife upon different humours than
as they ftimulate more or lefs.
We fhall therefore take this opportunity of recom¬
mending fome alterative medicines which are not fo
generally known as they ought to be ; and that too on
the fureft grounds, a proper experience of their good
effe&s in repeated trials. The firfl, then, is nitre or
purified falt-petre; which has long been in great efleem,
and perhaps is more to be depended on in all inflamma¬
tory fevers- than any other medicine whatever: but be-
fides this extenfi-ve power of allaying inflammatory dif-
orders, it is now offered as an alterative remedy, taken
in proper quantities for furfeits, molten-gr-eafe, hide¬
bound, greafe-heels, &c. And as it has been known
to fucceed even in the cure of the farcy ; what other
dillempers in horfes, arifing from vitiated fluids, may
it not be tried on, with a ftrong probability of fuc-
I
T.
and the fame fymptoms have arifen,-.’where only two Colds,
drams of crude mercury has been given, and continued “""v-”
about the fame fpace of time.
Diet-drinks—i. A decoftion of logwood, prepared
like that of guaiacum, is alfo fuccefsfully given in fur¬
feits.
2. Lime-water prepared with fhavings of faflafras
and liquorice, is a good diet-drink to fweeten andcor-
re& a horfe’s blood ; and may be given with the nitre-
balls for that purpofe.
3. Tar-water alfo,,may in many cafes be wrnll worth
trial: but let it be remembered, that all medicines of
this kind ftionld be continued a. confiderable time in
obftinate cafes.
Sect. VII. Of Colds.
By taking cold, we mean that the pores and outlets
of the fkin (which in a natural healthy ftate of body
are continually breathing out a fine fluid, like the fleam
arifing from hot water, or fmoke from fire) are fo far
II9
cefs ? This great advantage will arife from the ufe of Amt up, that thele fleams^ Or perfpirable matter, not'
this medicine over moft others, that, as its operation
is chiefly by urine, it requires no confinement or cloath-
ing; but the horfe may be wmrked moderately through¬
out the whole courie.- This medicine has been found
equally efficacious (by many trials made in one of our
hofpitalsj in correfting the acrimony of the juices, and
difpofing the moft obftinate and inveterate fores to heal
having a free paflage through them, are hindered from,
going off in tire ufual manner; the confequence of which-
is, their recoiling on the blood, vitiating its quality,
overfilling the veffels, and affedking the head, glands or
kernels of the neck and throat, the lungs, and other
principal parts.
To enumerate the various caufes of colds would be
up ; and hence probably it came recommended as an endlefsthe mofl ufual are, riding horfes till they are
alterative to our horfes.
The quantity of nitre given at a time fhould be from
two to three ounces a-day; let it be finely powdered,
and then mix wfith it by little at a time as much honey as
hot, and fuffering them to ftand in that condition where
the air is cold and piercing ; removing a horfe from a
hot ftable to a cold one, and too fuddenly changing his.
cloathing; whence it is that horfes often catch fuchfe-
v. ill form it into a ball: give it every morning faffing vere colds after they come out of dealers hands, and by
for a month; or it may be given at firft for a fortnight not being carefully rubbed.down when they come in
only, intermitting a fortnight, and then repeat it. If hot off journies.
it be obferved that the horfe ftsows an uneafinefs at the Where there is a conffant attention and care, the
ftomach after taking it, a horn or two of any liquor effects of cold are not only foon difcovered, but an
fttould be given after it, or it may be diffolved at firfl: obfervation may be very early made to what part it
in his water, or mixed with his corn ; though the ball, more immediately directs its attack. F.or inftance, if
where it agrees, is the eafieft method of giving. the nervous fyftem be the moft irritable, the affection
When horfes take drinks with great reluctance, pow- is quickly perceived in the eyes; if the glandular, upon
ders muft be given in their feeds: thus crude antimony, the neck, throat, under the ears, or in the head: or
or liver of antimony finely powdered, may be given to if more particularly the fyftem of'circulation has been,
the quantity of half an ounce, night and morning; but- afteCted, the confequences are foon.apparent upon the
in all furfeits, gum guaiacum mixed with antimony is lungs ;, and will be exerted more or lefs in a cough,,
found more efficacious. Thus, or difficulty of breathing; according to the. feverity of
Take of crude antimony finely powdered, or, where attack, from the repuliion of perfpirable matter, and
' it can be afforded, cinnabar of antimony, and gum its confequent abforption into the circulation. As ,
guaiacum, of each a pound: mix together with foon as the horfe is in this ftate, a fymptomatic fever,
an oilv neftle to nrevent the ernm’s cakino-; HiviHe attends : which is to be underitood as no more than a
an oily peftle to prevent the gum’s caking: dividf
the whole into 32 dofes, viz. an ounce each dole:
let one be given every day in the evening-feed.
Gr, Take of cinnabar of antimony, gum guaiacum,
and Caftile or Venice foap, of each half a pound ;
fait of tartar, four ounces: beat them up into a
mafs, and give an ounce every day. To thefe may
be added very advantageoufly an ounce and an
half of camphor.
iEthiops mineral, given to the quantity of half an
ounce a day, is a very, good fweetener and corrector of
the blood and juices; but it has been obferved, after
having been taken a week or ten days, to make fome
horfes llabber, and unable to chew thcir.hay and. oats;
attends; which is.to be:underftood as no more than a.
degree of febrile heat or irritability dependant on the
original caufe, which gradually ceafes as the primary
difeafe is found to decline.
From an affection of the different parts above fpeci- -
lied, various diforders enfue, which are treated.of under,
their proper heads. Here we have only to conlider
that kind of cold fixed on the lungs, which-produces
cough; and which, if taken in its firft ftage, generally
yields to very Ample, remedies.
As foon as the attack has been obferved, bleeding,
ffiould be inftantly performed, according to fymptoms,
fize, ftate, and condition; and the blood preferved a
few hours to afeertain its ftate : if livid or black,.
with-.
y A R R
with a coat of fize upon its fur face, there is no douht
of its vifeidity, and of the obftnn&ed circulation of that
fluid through the finer veffels of the lungs. In three or
four hours after bleeding, give a ma(h prepared as
follows:
Take of bran and oats, equal parts. Pour on boil¬
ing -water a fufficient quantity: then ftir in anifeed
and liquorice powders, each one ounce; honey,
four onces. In two hours after the malh give a
gallon or fix quarts of foft water moderately warm,
in which has been diffolved two ounces of nitre.
Thefe maihes Mr Taplin diredts to be “ continued
■■every night and morning, giving a moderate feed of
dry oats in the middle of the day, good fweet hay in
fmali quantities, and the fame proportion of nitre to be
repeated in the water after eachmafh. To thefe mutt
be added the neceffary regulations of good drefiing
and gentle exercife, which in general foon effedt the
cure of fuch colds as are counteradted upon the firft
attack.”
To humour thofe who are not fatisfied without
fome formal compofitions, the following may be. exhi¬
bited when the fever does not run high.
PeEloral Horfe-ball. Take of the frefh powders of
anifeed, elecampane, carraway, liquorice, tur-
merick, and flour of brimftone, each three ounces;
juice of liquorice four ounces, difiblved in a fuffi-
cient quantity of mountain ; faffron powdered half
an ounce, falad-oil and honey half a pound, oil
of anifeed one ounce: mix together with wheat-
flour enough to make them into a pafte.
t)r the following from Dr Bracken.
Take anifeed, carraway feed, and greater carda¬
moms, finely powdered, of each one ounce, flour
of brimllone two ounces, turmerick in fine powder
one ounce and a half, faffron two grains, Spanifh
juice diflblved in water two ounces, oil of anifeed
half an ounce, liquorice powder one ounce and a
half, wheat-flour a fufficient quantity to make
into a ftiff pafte by beating all the ingredients
well in a mortar-
Thefe balls confift of warm opening ingredients ;
and, given in fmall quantities, about the fize of a pul¬
let’s egg, will encourage a free perfpiration.
To a horfe loaded with flefh, a rowel may fometimes
be neceflary, as may alf> a gentle purge or two to fome
when the diftemper is gone off.
When the diforder has been neglefled, and made a
rapid progrefs, ffiould the cough be violent and con-
ftant, the horfe very dull and refufiug his food, and
the fymptomatic fever run high, the blood will confe-
quently prove as before deferibed. In this cafe the
fymptoms will not perhaps yield to the above plan fo
foon as may be wifhed. It will therefore be neceflary
to repeat the bleeding in two or three days at fartheft,
according to circumftances. The mafties may at the
fame time be altered to equal parts of malt and bran,
fealded with boiling water ; into which, when nearly
cool enough for the manger, ftir elecampane, anifeed
arnd liquorice powders, each one ounce : this maffi to
be repeated every night and morning; continuing alfo
the noon-feed dry, and the nitre two ounces in the wa¬
ter, as before direfted. By a due attention to thefe
meafures, relief will foon be obtained, and a cure ge¬
nerally effe&ed in the courfe of a few days: Whereas,
N° *23.
I E R Y. Sea.VIir.
by delay or negleft, a confirmed Cough, afthma, bro- Fevers in
ken wind, or confumption, may be the confequence. general.
Sect. VIII. Of Fevers in general.
1. The fymptoms of a fever are, Great reftlefs-
nefs; the horfe ranging from one end of his rack to
the other ; his flanks beat; his eyes are red and in¬
flamed ; his tongue parched and dry ; his breath is
hot, and fmells itrong; he lofes his appetite, and
nibbles his hay, but does not chew it, and is fre¬
quently fmelling to the ground; the whole body is
hotter than ordinary (though not parched, as in fome
inflammatory diforders); he dungs often, little at a
time, ufually hard, and in fmall bits; he fometimes
ftales with difficulty, and his urine is high-coloured ;
and he feems to thirft, but drinks little at a time and
often ; his pulfe beats full and hard, to 50 ftrokes and
upwards in a minute.
The firft intention of cure is bleeding, to the quan¬
tity ot two or three quarts, if the horfe is ftrong and in
good condition: then give him a pint of the following
drink, four times a-day ; or an ounce of nitre, mixed
up into a ball with honey, may be given thrice a-day
inftead of the drink, and wafhed down with three or
four horns of any fmall liquor.
Take ofbaum, fage, and camomile-flowers, each a
handful, liquorice-root fliced half an ounce, fait
primel or nitre three ounces; infufe in two quarts
of boiling water; when cold, ftrain off, and fqueeze
into it the juie'e of two or three lemons, and
fweeten with honey.
As the chief ^ingredient to be depended on in this
drink is the nitre, it may perhaps be as well given in
water alone ; but as a horfe’s ftomach is foon patted,
and he requires palatable medicines, the other ingre¬
dients may in that refpeft have their ufe. Soleyfel for
this pur pole advifes two ounces of fait of tartar, and
one of fal ammoniac, to be diffolved in two quarts of
water, and mixed with a pail of common water, add¬
ing a handful of bran or barley-flour to qualify the un¬
plea fant tafte: this may be given every day, and is a
ufeful medicine.
His diet flrould be fealded bran, given in fmall quan¬
tities ; which if he refufes, let him have dry bran
fprinkled with water: put a handful of picked hay
into the rack, which a horfe will often eat wdien he
will touch nothing elfe ; his water need not be much
warmed, but ffiould be given often and in fmall quan¬
tities : his cloathing fhould be moderate; too much
heat and weight on a horfe being improper in a fever,
which fcarce ever goes off in critical fweats (as thofe
in the human body terminate), but by ftrong perfpi¬
ration.
If in a day or two he begins to eat his bran and
pick a little hay, this method with good nurfing will
anfwer: but if he refufes to feed, more blood Ihould
be taken away, and the drinks continued; to which
may be added two or three drams of faffron, avoiding
at this time all hotter medicines: the following glyfter
ffiould be given, which may be repeated every day,
efpecially if his dung is knotty or dry.
Take two handfuls of marffimallows, and one of ca¬
momile flowers; fennel-feed an ounce; boil in
three quarts of water to two ; ftrain off, and add
four
Sea. VIH. F A R I
Fevers in four ounces of treacle, and a pint of linfeed oil
, general or any common oil.
" y—Two quarts of water-gruel, fat broth, or pot-liquor,
with the treacle and oil, will anfwer this purpofe ; to
which may be added a handful of fait. Thefe forts of
glylters are more proper than thofe with purging in¬
gredients.
The following opening drink is very effeftual in
thofe fevers ; and may be given every other day, when
the glyflers fhould be omitted ; but the nitre-balls or
drink may be continued, except on thofe days thefe
are taken.
Take of cream of tartar and Glauber’s falts, each
four ounces; diffolve in barley-water, or any o-
ther liquor: an ounce or two of lenitive ele&uary
may be added, or a dram or two. of powder of ja¬
lap, to quicken rhe operation in fome horfes.
Four ounces of Glauber’s falts, or cream of tartar,
with the fame quantity of lenitive ele&Uary, may be
given for the fame purpofe, if the former fhould not
open the body fufficiently.
In four or five days the horfe generally begins to
pick his hay, and has a feeming relifh for food; tho’
his flanks will heave pretty much for a fortnight : yet
the temper of his body and return of appetite fhow,
that nothing more is requifite to complete his reco¬
very than walking him abroad in the air, and allow¬
ing plenty of clean litter to reft him in the ftable.
This method of treating a fever is Ample, accord¬
ing to the laws of nature ; and is confirmed by long
experience to be infinitely preferable to the hot method.
The intention here is to leflen the quantity of blood,
promote the fecretion of urine and perfpiration, and
cool and dilute the fluids in general.
2. ‘ There is another fort of fever that hbrfes are fub-
je£t to, of a more complicated and irregular nature
than the former; which, if not properly treated, often
proves fatal.
The figns are, A flow fever, with languifhing, and
great depreffions : the horfe is fometimes inwardly hot,
and outwardly cold; at other times hot all over, but
not to any extreme ; his eyes look molft and languid :
he has a continual moifture in his mouth, which is the
rcafon he feldom cares to drink, and when he does, it
is but little at a time. He feeds but little, and leaves
off as foon as he has eat a mouthful or two ; he moves
his jaws in a feeble loofe manner, with an unpleafant
grating of his teeth ; his body is commonly open; his
dung foft and moift, but feldom gteafy ; his ftaling is
often irregular, fometimes little, at other times pro-
fufe, feldom high-coloured, but rather pale, with little
or no fediment.
When a horfe’s appetite declines daily, till he refu-
fes all meat, it is a bad fign. When the fever doth
not diminilh, or keep at a Hand, but increafes, the
cafe is then dangerous. But when it fenfibly abates,
and his mouth grows drier, the grating of his teeth
ceafes, his appetite mends, and he takes to lie down
(which perhaps he has not done fora fortnight), thefe
are promiflng figns. A horfe in thefe fevers always
runs at the nofe, but not the kindly white difeharge,
as in the breaking of a cold, but of a reddifh or greenifh
dufky colour, and of a confiftence like glue, and flicks
like turpentine to the hair on the infide of the noftrils:
If this turns to a gleet of qlear thin water, the horfe’s
Vox.. VII. Part I.
I I E R Y. j*3
hide keeps open, and he mends in his appetite ; thefe Fevers i»
are certain fins of recovery. general.
The various and irregular fymptoms that attend this v
flow fever, require great fkill to diredt the cure, and
more knowledge of the fymptoms of horfes difeafes
than the generality of gentlemen are acquainted with.
The experienced farrier fhould therefore be confuited
and attended to, in regard to the fymptoms; but very
feldom as to the application' of the remedy, which is
generally above their comprehention ; though it may¬
be readily feledled, by duly attending to the obferva-
tions here inculcated.
Firft, then, a moderate quantity of blood, not ex¬
ceeding three pints, may be taken away, and repeated *-
in proportion to his flrength, fulnefs, inward forenefs,
.cough, or any tendency to inflammation. After this,
the fever-drink firft above-mentioned may be given,
with the addition of an ounce of fnake-root, and three
drams of faffron and camphor diflblved firft in a little
fpirit of wine; the quantity of the nitre may be leflen-
ed, and thefe increafed as the fymptoms indicate.
The diet fhould be regular ; no oats given, but fcald-
ed or raw bran fprinkled; the heft flavoured hay fhould
be given by handfuls, and often by hand, as the horfe
fometimes cannot lift up his head to the rack.
As drinking is fo abfolutely neceflary.to dilute the
blood, if the hqrfe refufes to drink freely of warm wa¬
ter or gruel, he muft be indulged with having the chill
only taken off by ftanding in the ftable: nor will any
inconvenience enfue, but oftener an advantage; for the
naufeous warmth of water, forced on horfes for a time,
palls their ftomachs, and takes away their appetites,
which the cold water generally reftores.
Should the fever after this treatment increafe, the
horfe feed little, ftale often, his urine being thin and
pale, and his dung fometimes loofe, and at other times
hard; fhould the moifture in his mouth continue, his
fkin being fometimes dry and at others moift, with his
coat looking ftarting and furfeited : upon thefe irre¬
gular fymptoms, which denote great danger, give the
following balls, or drink ; for in thefe cafes there is no
time to be loft.
Take of contrayerva-root, myrrh, and fnake-ro'ot,
powdered, each two drams, faffron one dram, mi-
thridate or Venice treacle half an ounce ; make
into a ball with honey, which fhould be given
twice or thrice a-day, with two or three horns of
an infufion of fnake-voot fweetened with honey ;
to a pint and a half of which may be added half
a pint of treacle-water or vinegar, which latter
is a medicine of excellent uF in all kinds of in¬
flammatory and putrid diforders, either external
or internal.
Should thefe balls not prove fuccefsful, add to each,
a dram of camphor, and, where it can be afforded, to
a horfe of value, the fame quantity of caftor. Or the
following drink may be fubftituted in their ftead for
fome days.
Take contrayerva and fnake-root of .each two
ounces, liquorice-root,one ounce, faffron two
drams ; infufe in two quarts of .boding w ater dofer
covered for two hours ; .ftrain off, and add half a
pint of diftilled vinegar, four ounces of fpirit of
wine, wdrerein half an ounce of camphor is diffol-
ved, and ttvo ounces of mithridate or Venice
treacle;
12 2 FARR
Severs in treacle ; give a pint of this drink every four, fix,
. g^1- , or eight hours.
‘ Should the horfe be coftivc, recourfe muft be had to
glyfters, or the opening drink : ftiould he purge, take
care not to fupprefs it, if moderate ; but if, by con¬
tinuance, the horfe grows feeble, add diafcordium to
his drinks, inftead of the mithridate; if it increafes,
give more potent remedies.
Let it be remembered, that camphor is a very power¬
ful and effeftual medicine in thefe kinds of putrid fe¬
vers ; being both a&ive and attenuating, and particu¬
larly calculated to promote the fecretions of urine and
perfpiration.
Regard fhould alfo be had to his ftaling; which if
iu too great quantities, fo as manifeftly to deprefs his
fpirits, fliould be controlled by proper reftringents, or
by preparing his drinks with lime-water. If, on the
contrary, it happens that he is too remifs this way, and
Rales fo little as to occafion a fulnefs and fwelling of
the body and legs, recourfe may be had to the follow¬
ing drink:
Take of fait prunella, or nitre, one ounce; juniper-
berries, and Venice turpentine, of each half an
ounce: make into a ball with oil of amber.
Give him two or three of thefe balls, at proper in¬
tervals, with a decottion of marfh-mallovvs fweetened
with honey.
But if, notwithftanding the method we have laid
down, a greenifh or reddifh gleet is difcharged from his
noftrils, with a frequent fneezing ; if he continues to
lofe his fieih, and becomes hide-bound; if he altoge¬
ther forfakeshis meat, and daily grows weaker; if he
fwells about the joints, and his eyes look fixed and
dead; if the kernels under his jaws fwell, and feel
loofe : if his tail is raifed, and quivers ; if his breath
fmells ftrong, and a purging enfues with a difcharge
of fetid dark-coloured matter ; his cafe may then be
looked on as defperate, and all future attempts to fave
him will be fruitlefs.
The figns of ahorfe’s recovery are known by his hide
keeping open, and his ikin feeling kindly; his ears and
feet will be of a moderate warmth, and his eyes bride
and lively ; his nofe grows clean and dry ; his appetite
mends, he lies down well, and both Hales and dungs
regularly.
Be careful not to overfeed him on his recovery: let
his diet be light, feeds fmall, arrd increafed by degrees
as he gets ftrength; for, by overfeeding, horfes have
frequent relapfes or great forfeits, which are always
difficult of cure.
If this fever fhould be brought to intermit, or prove
of the intermitting kind, immediately after the fit is
over give an ounce of Jefuit’s bark, and repeat it every
fix hours till the horfe has taken four or fix ounces:
fhould eruptions or fwellings appear, they ought to be
encouraged; for they are goodfymptoms at the decline
of a fever, denote a termination of the diftemper, and
that no farther medicines are wanted.
The true reafons, perhaps, why fo many horfes mif-
carry in fevers, are, that their maflers, or doftors, will
not wait with patience, and let nature have fair play :
that they generally neglect bleeding fufficiently at firft;
and are conftantly forcing down fugar-fops, or other
food, in a horn, as if a horfe muft be ftarved in a few
days if he did not eat: then they ply him twice or
I E it Y. Sea. VIII.
thrice a-day with hot medicines and fpirituous drinks, Fevers in
which (excepting a very few cafes) muft be extremely geaeral» ^
pernicious to a horfe, whofe diet is naturally fimple, v~ *
and whofe ftomach and blood, unaccuftomed to fuch
heating medicines, muft be greatly injured, and with¬
out doubt are often inflamed by fuch treatment.
Dilute the blood with plenty of water, or white
drink ; let his diet be warm bran-maflies, and his hay
fprinkled. Should the fever rife, which will be known
by the fymptoms above deferibed, give him an ounce
of nitre thrice a-day in his water, or made up in a ball
with honey. Let his body be kept cool and open, with
the opening drink, given twice or thrice a-week ; or
an ounce of fait of tartar m*y be given every day,
diffolved in his water, for that purpofe, omitting
then the nitre. After a week’s treatment in this
manner, the cordial ball may be given once or twice
a-day, with an infufion of liquorice-root fweetened
with honey; to which may be added, when the phlegm
is tough, or cough dry and bulky, a quarter of a pint
of linfeed or fallad oil, and the fame quantity of oxy-
mel fquills.
The following cooling purge is very proper to give
at the decline of the diftemper, and may be repeated
three or four times.
Take two ounces of fenna, anifeed and fennel brui-
fed each half an ounce : fait of tartar three drams;
let them infufe two hours in a pint of boiling wa¬
ter; ftrain off, and diffolve in it three ounces of
Glauber’s fait, and two of cream of tartar ; give
for a dofe in the morning.
This purge generally works before night veiy gen¬
tly' ; and in fevers, and all inflammatory diforders, is
infinitely preferable to any other phyfic.
Before we clofe this fedtion on fevers, it may be no
improper hint to the curious, to take notice, that a
horfe’s pulfe Ihould more particularly be attended to
than is cuftomary, as a proper eftimate may thereby be
made both of the degree and violence of the fever pre-
fent, by obferving the rapidity of the blood’s motion,
and the force that the heart and arteries labour with
to propel it round. The higheft calculation that has
been made of the quicknefs of the pulfe in a healthy
horfe, is, that it beats about 40 ftrokes in a minute ;
fo that in proportion to the increafe above this num¬
ber, the fever is riling, and if farther inereafed to above
50 the fever is very high.
How often the pulfe beats in a minute may eafily
be difeovered by meafuring the time with a ftop-
watch or minute fand-glafs, while your hand is laid
on the horfe’s near fide, or your fingers on any artery;
thofe which run up on each fide the neck are gene¬
rally to be feen beating, as well as, felt, a little above
the cheft ; and one withinfide each leg may be traced
with the finger.
A due attention to the pulfe is fo important an ar¬
ticle, in order to form a proper judgment in fevers, ,
that it would appear amazing it has fo much been ne-
gle&ed, if one did not recoiled!, that the generality of
farriers are fo egregioufty ignorant, that they have no
manner of conception of the blood’s circulation, nor in
general have they ability enough to diftinguilh the dif¬
ference between an artery and a vein.—With fuch
pretty guardians do we intruft the healths and lives of
the moft valuable of animals!
.6
Sect.
Sea. IX.
FARR
Of a Fleurify, and an Inflammation of
Pleurify, SECT. IX.
the Lungs, 6c.
wliyi—_ i. These diforders have fcarce been mentioned by
any writer on farriery before Mr Gibfon; who, by fre¬
quently examining the carcafes of dead horfes, found
them fubjeft to the different kinds of inflammations
here defcribed.
In order to diflinguifh thefe diforders from others,
we fhall deferibe the fymptoms in Mr Gibfon’s own
words.
“ A pleurify, then, which is an inflammation of the
pleura; and a peripneamony, which is an inflamma¬
tion of the lungs ; have fymptoms very much alike ;
with this difference only, that in a pleurify a horfe
/hows great uneafinefs, and fhifts about from place to
place ; the fever, which at firft is moderate, rifes fud-
denly very high ; in the beginning he often llrives to
lie down, but ftarts up again immediately, and fre¬
quently turns his head towards the affedted fide, which
has caufed many to miftake a pleuritic diforder for the
gripes, this fign being common to both, though with
this difference: in the gripes, a horfe frequently lies
down and rolls ; and, when they are violent, he will
alfo have convulfive twitches, his eyes being turned up,
and his limbs ftretched out, as if he were' dying ; his
ears and feet are fometimes occafionally hot, and fome-
times as cold as ice ; he falls into profufe fvveats, and
then into cold damps ; ftrives often to ftale and dung,
but with great pain and difficulty; which fymptoms
generally continue till he has fome relief: but, in a
pleurify, a horfe’s ears and feet are always burning
hot, his mouth parched and dry, his pulfe hard and
quick: even fometimes, when he is nigh dying, his
fever is continued and increafing} and though in the
beginning he makes many motions to lie down, yet af¬
terwards he reins back as far as his collar will permit,
and makes not the leaft offer to change his pofture,
but /lands panting with fhort flops, and a difpofition
to cough, till he has fome relief, or drops down.
“ In an inflammation of the lungs, feveral of the
fymptoms are the fame ; only in the beginning he is
lefs adlive, and never offers to lie down during the
whole time of his ficknefs ; his fever is flrong, breath¬
ing difficult, and attended with a fhort cough; and
whereas, in a pleurify, a horfe’s mouth is generally
parched and dry ; in an inflammation of the lungs,
when a horfe’s mouth is open, a ropy flime will run
out in abundance ; he gleets alfo at the nofe a reddifh
or yellowifh water, which flicks like glue to the infide
ofhis noflrils.
“ In a pleurify, a horfe heaves and works violently
at his flanks, with great reflleffnefs, and for the moft
part his belly is tucked up: but in an inflammation of
the lungs, he always {hows fulnefs ; the working of
his flanks is regular, except after drinking and fhifting
his poflure ; and his ears and feet are for the moft part
cold, and often in damp fvveats.”
2. The cure of both thefe diforders is the fame. In
the beginning a ftrong horfe may lofe three quarts of
blood, the next day two quarts more ; and, if fymp¬
toms do not abate, the bleedings ntiuft be repeated, a
quart at a time ; for it is fpeedy, large, and quick-re¬
peated bleedings that are in thefe cafes chiefly to be de¬
pended on. But if a horfe has had any previous weak-
R Y.
»
123
nefs, or is old, you mull bleed him in lefs quantities, Pleurify,
and oftener. Mr Gibfon recommends rowels on each Inflanuna-
fide the breaft, and one on the belly ; and a bliftering ^^
ointment to be rubbed all over his brifket upon the °^’ ^
foremoft ribs.
The diet and medicines fhould be both cooling, at¬
tenuating, relaxing, and diluting. After the opera¬
tion of bleeding, therefore, Mr Taplin * dire&s “ to * Genth-
have ready fome bran and very fweet hay cut fmall, and“‘*"!f.s,a'
fealded together ; which place hot in the manger, that ] *
the fumes may be imbibed as an internal fomentation
to relax the rigidity of the glands, and excite a dif-
charge from the noftrils fo foon as poffible. The very
nature of this cafe, and the danger to which the horfe
is expofed, fufficiently point out the propriety and con-
fiftency of exerting all poffible alacrity to obtain relief,
or counteraA the difeafe in its firft flage : therefore let
the fumigation of fealded bran and hay be repeated
every four or five hours, and the following decotlion
prepared without delay :
“ Pearl barley, raifins fplit, and Turkey figs fliced,
each fix ounces; flick liquorice brififed, two oun¬
ces. Boil thefe in a gallon of water till reduced
to three quarts ; ftrain off; and, while hot, ftir in
one pound of honey, and, when cold, a pint of
diftilled vinegar; giving an ounce of nitre in a
pint of this decoftion every four, five, or fix
hours, according to the ftate and inveteracy of the
difeafe.
“ If relief is not obtained fo foon as expected, and
the horfe is coftive, give a glyfter, with
* Two quarts of common griiel; coarfe fugar fix
ounces; Glauber falts four ounces ; tindlure of
jalap two ounces; and a quarter of a pint of olive
oil. This muft be repeated every 24 hours, or of¬
tener, if neceffary.
“ Should the fymptoms {till continue violent, with¬
out difeovering any figns of abatement; after waiting
a proper time for the effedt of previous adminiftrations,
let the bleeding be repeated, in quantity proportioned
to the urgency of fymptoms, continuing the decodlion
and nitre every three or four hours, and repeating thd
glyfter if plentiful evacuations have not been obtained
by the former injedlion.
“ The dilifting drink, before preferibed, is introdu¬
ced here in preference to a ball, that its medicinal effi¬
cacy may be expeditioufly conveyed to the feat of dif¬
eafe. So foon as the wifhed-for advantages are obfer-
ved, and the predominant and dangerous fymptoms be¬
gin to fubfide, when he labours lefs in refpiration, is
brifker in appearance, heaves lefs in the flank, dungs
frequently, Hales freely, runs at the nofe, eats his warm
mafhes of fealded bran, with four ounces of honey to
each, and will drink thin gruel for his common drink
(in each draught of which fhould be diffolved two oun¬
ces ©f cream of tartar) ; in fhort, fo foon as every ap¬
pearance of danger is difpelled, the management may¬
be the fame as in a common cold ; giving one of the
following balls every morning for a fortnight, leaving
off the mafhes and diluting drink by degrees, and vary¬
ing the mode of treatment as circumftances may didlate.
“ Castile foap, fix ounces; gum ammoniacum, two
ounces; anife and cummin feeds (in powder),
each four ounces ; honey fufficient to form the
mafs, which divide into a dozen balls.
0^2 “ To
i 24 FARR
Pleurify, “ To prevent any III effects that may arife from the
Inflam-na^ ^a(j conj;t;on 0f the matter that has fo long overloaded
JLungs, &c. t^le veffels °f ^e lungs, fuch as the formation of ul-
■■■ - cers, knots, or tubercles) the beft method will be, fo
foon as the horfe (with great care, gentle exercife, mo¬
derate and regular feeding) has recovered in a tolerable
degree his natural llr-ength, to put him upon the fol¬
lowing gentlte eourfe of phyfic; and it will become
more immediately neceffary, where the horfe bears a-
bout him remnants of the diflemper, either in a gleet
from the nofe, rattling in his throat, difficulty of
breathing, or heaving in the flanks.
“ Socotorine aloes nine drams; rhubarb and jalap
each a dram and a half; gum ammoniacum,
calomel, and ginger, each a dram ; oil of juni¬
per fixty drops ; fyrup of buckthorn fufficient to
make a ball.
w Six clear days or more, if the horfe is weak, Ihould
be allowed between each dofe.”
There is alfo an external pleurify, or inflammation
of the mufcles between the ribs, which, when not pro¬
perly treated, proves the foundation of that diforder
called the chejl-fomder ; for if the inflammation is not
difperfed in time, and the vifcid blood and juices fo
attenuated by internal medicines that a free circula¬
tion is obtained, fuch a ftiffnefs and ina&ivity will re¬
main on thefe parts, as will not eafily be removed,
and which is generally known by the name of chejl-
founder.
The figns of this inflammation, or external pleurify,
are a ftiffnefs of the body, (boulders, and fore-legs;
attended fometimes with a (hort dry cough, and a
(hrinking when handled in thofe parts.
Bleeding, foft peftorals, attenuants, and gentle purges,
are the internal remedies; and, externally, the parts
affedted may be bathed with equal parts of fpirit of fal
ammoniac and ointment of marftimallows or oil of ca¬
momile.
Thefe outward inflammations frequently fall into the
jnfide of the fore-leg, and fometimes near the (boulder ;
forming abfcefles, which terminate the diforder.
Sect. X. Of a Cough, and Afthma.
The confequences of colds negle&edor injudicioufly
treated, are fettled habitual coughs, afthmas, broken-
wind, and copfumption.
Of coughs two are chiefly diftinguiflted. The one
is loofe, almoft continual, and increafing to violence
upon the lead motion : the other is a (hort dry cough,
preceded by a huflty hollow kind of wheezing, as if
refpiration was obftrudted by fragments of hay or corn
retained in the paflage. This laft is the kind of
cough called ajlhma by mod writers, and for which
mercurial purges have been recommended. Thefe,
however, Mr Taplin obferves, may perhaps be exhibi¬
ted with more propriety after the adminidration of a
courfe of the following balls, (hould they fail in the de-
flred effeft. Bleeding mud be fird performed, and oc-
caflonally repeated in fmall quantities, till the glandular
inflammation and irritability are allayed, and the blood
fo attenuated by the conflant ufe of nitre, as to
render the circulation free through the finer veflels of
the lungs, from the obflru&ions in which all the diffi¬
culties proceed. Bleeding having taken place with the
I E R Y. Sea.X.
neceflary circumfpedion as to quantity, let the two Cough and
ounces of nitre be given punctually every night and A^hma‘ ,
morning in the water, as particularized under the ar- v
tide Colds, continuing one of the following balls every
morning for a fortnight or three weeks, that a fair and
decifive trial may be obtained.
Detergent Pectoral Ball.—Take of CaAile foap, ani-
feed, and liquorice powders, each five ounces;
Barbadoes tar, fix ounces; gum ammoniacum,
three ounces; balfam of roll), one ounce ; honey
(if required) to make a mafs; which divide into a
dozen balls.
If there (hould appear no alMtement of the fymp-
toms after the above trial, bleeding muft be repeated,
and mercurials had recourfe to. Mr Taplin advifes
“ two dofes of mercurial phyfic to be given eight days
apart, add prepared by the addition of a dram and a
half of calomel to either of the purging balls (under the
articles of purging) bed calculated for the horl'c’s
ftrength and condition. After which repeat the above
pedloral balls, with the addition of gum myrrh, Ben¬
jamin and Venice turpentine, each two ounces ; divi*
ding the mafs into balls of two ounces each, repeating
them every morning till the above proportion (with
thefe additions) are totally confumed.”
The other kind, or that long loud hollow cough
which is almoft inceflant, and continually increafing
upon the leaft hurry in exercife, proceeds equally from
irritability and the aftion of the (limy mucus upon the
glands in refpiration, as well as the vifcidity and flug-
gi(h motion of the blood through the finer paflages ;
but yields to remedies with much lefs difficulty^ than the
afthmatic. In this cafe, as in the other, bleeding muft
bepremifed, and followed byamafti compounded of equal
parts of bran and oats, into which muft be ftirred and
diflblved, while hot, honey four ounces. This ma(h
muft be repeated, with two ounces of nitre in the wa¬
ter, without intermiffion, every night and morning; gi¬
ving alfo every morning the following ball, being an
improvement by Mr Taplin upon the cordial ball of
Braken.
Take Turkey figs, Spanifli liquorice, anifeed, and
liquorice powders, each four ounces; carraway
feeds, elecampane, and anifated balfam, each two
ounces ; faffron, ginger (in powder), and oil of
anifeed, each fix drachms; honey fufficient to
form the mafs; and divide into twelve balls; of
which let one be given every morning.
The figs and faffron are to be beat to a pafte in the
mortar previous to their incorporation with the other
articles, the Spanifli liquorice is to be foftened over
the fire by boiling in a fmall quantity of (pring-water,
and the whole of the ingredients mixed in a proper
manner. “ Thefe balls (fays our author) are power¬
fully cordial and red oral ive ; they promote glandular
excretion, warm and ftimulate the ftomach to the ex-
pulfion of wind, enliven the cireulation, and invigorate
the whole frame, as has been fufficiently afeertained by
their inftantaneous effedt in the chafe, where then ex¬
cellence has been repeatedly eftabliihed.; but more par¬
ticularly in deep fwampy countries, when, after afevere
burft, or a repetition of ftrong leaps, the horfe has been
fo off his wind, or in faft, nature fo exhaufted, as not
to be able to proceed a ftroke farther ; the immediate
adminiftrationof a fingle ball has not only afforded in-
ftant
Sea. XT. FARR
Broken ftant relief, but the horfe gone through the day with his
. wiud- ufual alacrity.”
"" ~v Before clofing this fe&ion, it may be neceflary to
obferve, that fome young horfes are fubjeft to coughs
on cutting their teeth ; their eyes alfo are affefted
from the fame caufe. In thefe cafes, always bleed ;
and if the cough is obftinate, repeat it, and give warm
malhes ; which, in general, are alone fufficient to re¬
move this complaint.
Sect. XI. Of a Broken Wind.
This diforder, Mr Gibfon is inclined to think, fre¬
quently originates from injudicious or hafty feeding of
young horfes' for fale ; by which means the growth of
the iungs, and all the contents within the cheft, are fo
increafed, and in a few years fo preternaturally enlar¬
ged, that the cavity of the cheft is not capacious enough
for them to expand themfelves in and perform their
fun&ions.
A narrow contra&ed cheft with large lungs may
fometimes naturally be\the caufe of this diforder : and
it has been obferved, that horfes rifing eight years old
are as liable to this diftemper, as, at a certain period of
life, men are to fall into afthmas, confumptions, and
chronic difeafes.
The reafon why it becomes more apparent at this
age, may be, that a hdrfe comes to his full ftrength
and maturity at this time-; at fix, he commonly ftnifh-
es his growth in height; after that time he lets down
his belly and fpreads, and all his parts are grown to
their full extent; fo that the preffure on the lungs and
midriff is now more increafed.
But how little weight foever thefe reafons may have,
repeated diffe&ions have given ocular proofs of a pre¬
ternatural largenefs, not only of the lungs of broken-
winded horfes, but of their heart and its bag, and of
the membrane which divides the cheft; as well as of
a remarkable thinnefs in the diaphragm or midriff.
This difproportion has been obferved to be fo great,
that the heart and lungs have been almoft of twice
their natural fize, perfectly found, and without any
ulceyation whatever, or any defeft in the wind-pipe or
its glands. Hence it appears, that this enormous fize of
the lungs, and the fpace they occupy, by hindering the
free action of the midriff, is the chief caufe of this dif¬
order : and as the fubftance of the lungs was found
more flefliy than ufual, they of courfe muft lofe a great
deal of their fpring and tone.
Whoever confiders a broken-wind in this light, muft
own that it may be reckoned among the incurable dif-
tempers of horfes ; and that all the boafted pretenfions
to cure are vain and frivolous, fince the utmoft fkill can
amount to no more than now and then palliating the
fymptoms, and mitigating their violence.
We fhall therefore only lay down fuch methods as
may probably prevent this diforder, when purfued in
time. But if they flrould not fucceed, we fhall offer
feme remedies and rules to mitigate its force, and make
a horfe as ufeful as poffible under this malady.
It is ufual, before a broken-wind appears, for a horfe
to haye a dry obftinate cough, without any vifible fick-
nefs or lofs of appetite; but, on the contrary, a dif-
pofition to foul feeding, eating the litter, and drinking
much water.
In order then to prevent, as much as poffiblej this
I E R Y. 125
diforder, bleed him, and give him the mercurial phyfic Broken
above preferibed, which fhould be repeated two or three W'nci' ,
times. ’
The following balls are then to be taken for fome
time, which have been found extremely efficacious in
removing obftinate coughs.
Take aurum mofaicum, finely powdered, eight oun¬
ces; myrrh and elecampane, powdered, each four
ounces ; anifeeds and bay-berries, each an ounce ;
faffron, half an ounce ; make into balls with oxy-
mel fquills.
The aurum mofaicum is made of equal parts of quick-
filver, tin,’ fal ammoniac, and fulphur. We give this
medicine as ftrongly recommended by Mr Gibfon; but
how far the aurum mofaicum may contribute to its ef¬
ficacy, may perhaps juttly be difputed: as a fubftitute
in its room, therefore, for this purpofe, we recommend
the fame quantity of powdered fquills, or gum ammo-
niacum, or equal parts of each.
Broken-winded horfes Ihould eat fparingly of hay,
which as well as their corn may be wetted with cham¬
ber lye, or fair water; as this will make them lefs cra¬
ving after water.
The volatile falls in the urine may make it prefer¬
able to water, anfl may be the reafon why garlic is
found fo efficacious in thefe cafes ; two or three cloves
given at a time in a feed, or three ounces of garlis
bruifed, and boiled in a quart of milk and water, and
given every other morning for a fortnight, having been
found very ferviceable ; for by warming and ftimula-
ting the folids, and diffolving the tenacious juices which
choke up the veffels of the lungs, thefe complaints are
greatly relieved.
Careful feeding and moderate exercife has greatly
relieved broken-winded horfes.
Horfes fent to grafs in order to be cured of an ob¬
ftinate cough, have often returned completely broken-
winded, where the pafture has been rich and fucculent,
fo that they have had their beliies conftantly full. As
the ill confequences therefore are obvious, where you
have not the conveniency of turning out your horfe
for a conftancy, you may foil him for a month or
two with young green barley, tares, or any other young
herbage.
To purfive thick-winded, horfes, Barbadoes and
common tar have often been given with fuccefs, to the
quantity of. two fpoonfuls, mixed with the yolk of an
egg, diffolved in warm ale, and given falling two or ’
three times a-week, efpecially thofe days you hunt or
travel.
But in order to make all thefe forts of horfes of any
real fervice to you, the grand point is to have a parti¬
cular regard to their diet, obferving a juft economy
both in that and their exercile; giving but a moderate
quantity of hay, corn,.or water, at a time, and moift-
ening the former, to prevent their requiring too much
of the latter, and never exercifing them but with mo¬
deration, as has before been obferved. The following
alterative ball may be. given once a fortnight or three
weeks; and as it operates very gently, and requires no
confinement but on thofe days it is given (when warm
meat and water are neceffary ), it may. be continued fc»
two or three months.
Take focotorine aloes fix drams; myrrh, galbanum,
and ammeniacum, of c«;ch two drams $ bay-ber^
rics.
ti 26 FARR
Broken rieslialf an ounce: make into a ball with a fpoon-
, Wl11'1- < ful of oil of -amber, and a fufficient quantity of
v r'L" fyrup of buckthorn.
Mr Taplin ridicules the idea of overgrown lungs,
and fuggefts the following as grounds of a more ra¬
tional opinion concerning the fource of this difeafe.
“ Whether horfes who have been in the habit of
full or foul feeding, with a very trifling portion of ex-
ercife, and without any internal cleanfing from evacu¬
ations, compulfively obtained by purgatives or diure¬
tics, may not conftantly engender a quantity of vifcid,
tough, phlegmatic, matter ; which accumulating by
flow degrees, may fo clog and fill up fome of that in¬
finity of minute palfages with which the lungs are
known to abound, as probably to obftruft the air vef-
fels in their neceffary expanfion for the office of refpr-
ration ? And whether this very probable obftruftion
or partial fuppreffion may not in fudden, hafty, and
long continued exertions, rupture others, and by fuch
local deficiency affeft the elafticity of the whole? The
probability, and indeed great appearance of this pro-
grefs, has ever influenced me moft forcibly to believe,
that fuch obftruftions once formed, the evil accumu¬
lates, till a multiplicity of the veffels become imper¬
vious, and render the lungs, by their conftant accumu¬
lation and diftention, too rigid for the great and ne-
ceffary purpofe of refpiration.”
That fuch a defeft may fometimes occur, as a cheft
too narrow for lungs of an uncommon extenfion, that
conftitute naturally what are called thick-winded horfes,
our author does not deny: in which cafes, it is agreed,
there is no hope of a cure, nor fcarcely of any allevia¬
tion. But he will by no means admit the above de¬
formity to be a cafe of common occurrence, far lefs
that it is the univerfal or even the moft ordinary caufe
of broken wind.
“ It cannot but be obferved (fays he) what an anxious
defire a broken-winded horfe always difplays to obtain
water ; a fdf-evident convidlion he is rendered uneafy
by fome glutinous adhefive internal fubftance, that in-
liinct alone .prompts the animal to expeft drinking
may waffi away: on the contrary, if, as Bartlet and
Gibfon fuppofe, ‘ the lungs are too large for the cheft,’
every thing that increafes the bulk of the abdomen or
vifcera (and confequently the preffure upon the dia¬
phragm) muft increafe the difquietude, which is natural
to believe from the fagacity of animals in other in-
ftances, they would in this moft carefully avoid.”
Mr Taplin therefore concludes, that if his hypothe-
fis is founded in fadt (which circumftances will not al¬
low him the leaft reafon to doubt), a cure may certain¬
ly be expected, provided the attempt is made upon the
iirft appearance of the difeafe; though he does not
hold out the probability where the original caufe has
been of long Handing, and no attempts made to re¬
lieve.
In attempting the cure, the natural and obvious in¬
dications are, To promote the neceflary evacuations in
the firft inftance, to attenuate the vifcidity of the glu¬
tinous obftrudted matter, and to deterge the paffages
by a ftimulation of the folids. Bleeding is therefore
the firft meafure ; and it ought to be repeated at pro¬
per intervals in moderate quantities, till divefted of the
coat of fize and livid appearancd that are certain figns
of the lungs being obftrucled either by vifcidity or in-
1 e r y. Sea.xir.
flammation. After bleeding, the horfe muft go thro* Confump*
a regular courfe of the mild purging balls prefcribed , t:on' „
after recovery from plenrefy. They are flightly im- -
pregnated with mercurial particles, and blended with
the gums form a moft excellent medicine for the pur¬
pofe. In three days after the operation of the third
dofe, Mr Taplin direfts to begin upon the following
detergent balfamics, and continue to give one ball
every morning, fo long as may be thought neceflary
to form a fair opinion whether the advantage is gained
or relief likely to be obtained.
Take of the beft white foap eight ounces ; gum
guaiacum and ammoniacum, each three ounces,;
myrrh and Benjamin, anifeed and liquorice, each
two ounces ; balfam of Peru, Tolu, and oil of a-
nifeed, each half an ounce ; Barbadoes tar fuffi¬
cient to make a mafs, which divide into twenty
balls.
It is neceffary to be ftriftlv obferved, that during
this courfe hay and water are to be difpenfed with a
very fparing hand, fo as to prevent too great an accu¬
mulation in the ftomach or inteftines, that an obferva-
tion may be made with the greateft certainty, whether
any hopes ©f fuccefe from medicine may be juftly en¬
tertained ; if not, farther expence will be unadvifable,
as it will appear, after fuch trial, an incurable malady
at all events, and only fufceptible of palliation.
Sect. XII. Of a Confumption.
When a confumption proceeds from a defeA in a
horfe’s lungs or any principal bowel, the eyes look
dull; the ears and feet are moftly hot; he coughs fharply
by fits ; fneezes much, and frequently groans with it;
his flanks have a quick motion : he gleets often at the
nofe, and fometimes throws out a yellowiflr curdled
matter ; and he has little appetite to hay, but will eat
corn, after which he generally grows hot.
As to the cute, one of the principal things is bleed¬
ing in fmall quantities (a pint, or pint and half, from
fome horfes is fufficient), which ftiould be repeated as
often as the breath is more than ordinarily opprefled.
Pectorals may be given to palliate prefent fymptoms ;
but as difledtions have difcovered both the glands of
the lungs and mefentery to be fwelled, and often indu¬
rated, the whole ftrefs lies on mercurial purges, and
the following ponderous alteratives, given interme¬
diately.
Take native cinnabar, or cinnabar of antimony, one
pound, powdered very fine, and add the fame
quantity of gum guiacum and nitre; give the hbrfe
an ounce of this powder twice a-day, wetting his
feeds.
The fpring-grafs is often extremely ferviceable; but
the fait maftres are to be preferred, and to be more
depended on than medicines ; for great alterations are <
thereby made in the blood and juices, and no fmall be¬
nefit arifes from open air and proper exercife.
Sect. XIII. Of Apoplexy or Staggers, Lethargy,
Epilepfy, and Palfy.
Farrters generally include all diftempers of the
head under two denominations, viz. f aggers and cbnvuL
Jions, wherein they always fuppofe the head primarily
aft'edled. But in treating thefe diforders, we will di-
ftinguifh
'
Sea. XIII. FARR
Apoplexy, ftinguifli between thofe that are peculiar to the head,
Lethargy, ag havjng their fourpe originally thence; and thofe that
. are only concomitants of fome other difeafe.
In an apoplexy a horfe drops down fuddenly, with¬
out other fenfe or motion than a working at his flanks.
The previous fymptoms are, drowiinefs; watery
eyes, fomewhat full and inflamed; a difpofition to reel;
feeblenefs; a bad appetite; the head almoft conftantly
hanging, or refting on the manger; fometimes with
little or no fever, and icarce any alteration in tire dung
or urine; the horfe is fometimes difpofed to rear up,
and apt to fall back when handled about the head ;
which is often the cafe with young horfe?, to which it
does not fuddenly prove mortal, but with proper help
they may fometimes recover. If the apoplexy pro¬
ceeds from wounds or blows on the head, or matter oh
the brain ; befides the above fymptoms, the horfe will
be frantic by fits, efpecially after his feeds, fo as to
fiart and fly at every thing. Thefe cafes feldom ad¬
mit ot a perfeft recovery ; and when horfes fall down
fuddenly, and work, violently at their flanks, without
any ability to rife after a plentiful bleeding, they fel¬
dom recover.
All that can be done is to empty the veflels as fpee-
«Jily as pofiible, by linking the veins in feveral parts at
once, bleeding to four or five quarts; and to raife up
the horfe’s head and fhoulders, fupporting them with
plenty of ftrave. If he furvives the fit, cut feveral
rowels: give him night and morning glyfters prepared
with a llrong decoftion of fenna and fait, or the pur-
ging glyfter mentioned in the direftions; blow once
a day up his noftrils a dram of powder of afarabacca,
which will promote a great difcharge ; afterwards two
or three aloetic purges fhould be given ; and to fecure
him from a relapfe, by attenuating and thinning his
blood, give him an ounce of equal parts of antimony
and crocus metallorum for a month ; or, which is pre¬
ferable, the fame quantity of cinnabar of antimony and
gum guaiacum.
If the fit proceeds only from fulnefs of blood, high
feeding, and want of fufficient exercife, or a fizy blood
(which is often the cafe with young horfes, who though
they reel, flagger, and fometimes fuddenly fall down,
yet are eafily cured by the above method), an opening
diet with fcalded bran and barley will be neceffary for
fome time; and the bleeding may be repeated in fmall
quantities.
As to the other diforders of the head, fuch as le¬
thargy or fleeping evil, epilepfy or falling-ficknefs, ver¬
tigo, frenzy, and madnefs, convulfions, and paralytical
diforders, as they are moil of them to be treated as the
apoplexy and epilepfy, by bleeding and evacuations,
with the alteratives there direfted, we fhall wave treat¬
ing of them feparately; but mention fome particular
rules to diflinguifh them, according to the plan we laid-
down; and then offer fom-’ general remedies for the fe¬
veral purpofes..
In an epilepfy or falling ficknefs, the horfe reels and
flaggers, his eyes are fixed in his head* he has no fenfe
of what he is doing, he flaks and dungs infenfibly, he
runs round and falls fuddenly ; .fornetimes he isimmove-
, able, with his legs ftretched out [as 'if he was dead,
except only a quick motion of his heart and lungs,
which caufes a violent working of his flanks; fometimes
hr has involuntary motions, and fhaking of his limbs.
I E R Y. 12-
fo ftrong, that he has not only beat and fpurned his Apoplexy,
litter, but the pavement with it; and with thefe alt( r-*
nate fymptoms a horfe has continued more than three, | ■
hours, and then has as furprifingly recovered : at the
going off of the fit, he generally foams at the mouth,
the foam being white and dry, like what comes from a
healthful horfe when he champs on the bit.
But in all kinds of gripes, whether they proceed from
diforders in the guts or retention of urine, a horfe is
often up and down, rolls and tumbles about; and when
he goes to lie down, generally makes feveral motions
with great feeming carefulnefs, which fliows he has a
fenfe of his pain ; and if he lies ftretched out for any
time, it is generally but for a fhort fpace.
Epilepfies and convulfions may arife from blows on
the head, too violent exercife, and hard {training; and
from a fulnefs of blood, or impoverifhed blood, and
forfeits; which are fome of the caufes that denote the
original diforder.
In lethargic diforders, the horfe generally refts his
head with his mouth in the manger, and his pole often
reclined to one fide; he will (how an inclination to eat,
but generally falls afleep with his food in his mouth,
and he frequently fwallows it whole without chewing:
emollient glyfters are extremely qeceffary in this cafe, ,
with the nervous balls recommended for the flaggers
and convulfions; ftrong purges are fiot requifite, nor
muft you bleed in too large quantities, unlefs the horfe
be young and lufty. In old horfes, rowels and large
evacuations are improper; but volatiles of all kinds are
of ufe when,they can be afforded: the alterative purge
mentioned at the end of this fedlion may be given and-,
repeated on amendment.
This diftemper is to be cured by tbefe means, if the
horfe is not old and paft his vigour. It is a good fign
if he has a tolerable appetite, and drinks freely with-'
out flabbering, and if he lies down and rifes up care¬
fully, though it be but feldom.
But if a lethargic horfe does not lie down ; if he is
altogether ftupid and carelefs, and takes no notice of
any thing that comes near him; if he dungs and ftales
feldom, and even while he deeps and dozes, it is a bad
fign; if he runs at the nofie thick white matter, it may
relieve him ; but if a vifcid gleet, that fticks to his
npftrils like glue, turn to a profufe running of ropy^
reddifti, and greenifti matter, it is an infallible fign ofa-
great decay of nature,.and that it will prove deadly.
Young horfes from four to fix years, are very fub-
je£I to convulfions, from botts in the fpring; and the.
large coach breed more than the faddle. They arz.
feized without any previous notice^; and if botts and
worms are difcovered in their dung, the caufe feems to
be out of doubt, more efpeciaily if they have lately
come out of a dealer’s hands.
When this convulfion proceeds from a diftempera-
ture of the midriff, or any of the principal bowels, itis-
to be drilinguifiied' from botts and vermin by previous-
fymptoms; the horfe falls off his ftomach, and grows
gradually weak, feeble, and difpirited, in his work,- and ;
turns fhort-breathed with the kaft exercife.
The lively defcription of that univerfal cramp or con¬
vulfion, called by fome the flag-evil, which feizes all tl c .
mufcks of tlje body at once, and locks up the jaws, fq
that it is impoffibk almoft to force them open, we fhall.
give in Mr Gibfon’s own-words, who fays: As foon as..
thsr
??8 F A R R I
Apoplexy, the horfe is feized, his head is raifed with his nofe to-
Lwhargy, warc]s tjle racjS) j^jg ears pnCted up, and his tail cocked,
looking with eagernefs as an hungry horfe when hay is
put down to him, or like a high-fpirited horfe when he
is put upon his mettle ; infomuch, that thofe who are
ftrangers to fuch things, when they fee a horfe Hand in
this manner, will fcarce believe any thing of confe-
quence ails him ; but they are foon convinced, when
they fee other fymptoms come on apace, and that his
neck grows ftiff, cramped, and almoll immoveable: and
if a horfe in this condition lives a few; days, feveral knots
will arife on the tendinous parts thereof, and all the
mufcles both before and behind will be fo much pulled
and cramped, and fo firetched, that he looks as if he
was nailed to the pavement, with, his legs ftiff, wide,
and ftradling; his fkin is drawn fo tight on all parts of
the body, that it is almoft jmpoffible to move it; and if
trial be made to make him walk, he is ready to fall at
every ftep, unlefs he be carefully fupported ; his eyes
are fo fixed with the inaition of the mufcles, as give
him a deadnefs in his looks; he fnorts and fneezes of¬
ten, pants continually with fhortnefs of breath; and this
fymptom increafes continually till he drops dowm dead;
which generally happens in a few days, unlefs fqme
fudden and very effeftual turn can be given to the dif-
temper.
In all thefe cafes the horfe fnould firft be bled
plentifully, unlefs he is low in flefh, old, or lately
come off any hard"continued duty ; then you muft be
more fparing of his blood; afterwards give the fol¬
lowing ball:
Take afafetida half an ounce, Ruffia caftor powdered
two drams, valerian root powdered once ounce ;
make into a ball with honey and oil of amber.
This ball may be given twice a-day at firft; and then
once, waflred down with a decodtion of mifletoe or va¬
lerian fweetened with liquorice or honey : an ounce of
afafetida may be tied up in a piece of ftrong coarfe
linen rag, and put behind his grinders to champ on.
The laxative purges and emollient glyfters fhould be
given intermediately to keep the body open; but when
the former balls have been taken a week or ten days,
the following may be given once a-day with the vale¬
rian deco&ion.
Take cinnabar of antimony fix drams; afafetida
half an ounce; ariftolochia, myrrh, and bay-ber¬
ries, of each two drams ; make into a ball wjth
treacle and oil of amber.
This is the moft effedtual method of treating thefe
diforders; but when they are fufpe&ed to arife from
botts and worms, which is generally the cafe, mercurial
medicines muft lead the way, thus :
Take mercurius dulcis and philonium, of each half
an ounce; make into a ball with conferves of rofe's,
and give the horfe immediately : half the quantity
may be repeated in four or five days.
The following infufion fiiould then be given, to the
quantity of three or four horns, three or four times a-
day, till the fymptoms abate; when the above nervous
balls may be continued till they are removed.
Take penny-royal and rue of each two large hand¬
fuls, camomile flower's one handful, afafetida and
caftor of each half an ounce, faffron and liquorice-
root fliced of each two drams; infuie in two
N9 124.
E R Y. Sea. XIII.
quarts of boiling-water; pour off from the ingre-Apoplexy,
clients as wanted. Lethargy,
If the caftor is omitted, add an ounce of afafetida. , c~ ^
The following ointment may be rubbed into the
. cheeks, temples, neck, fhoulders, fpine of the back, and
loins, and wherever there is the greateft 'contra&ions
and ftiffnefs.
Take nerve and marflimallow ointment of each four
ounces, oil of amber two ounces, with a fufficient
quantity of camphorate fpirit of wine ; make a li¬
niment.
When the jaws are fo locked up that medicines can¬
not be given by the mouth, it is more eligible to give
them by way of glyfter : for forcing open the jaws by
violence often puts a horfe intofuch agonies, that the
fymptoms are thereby increafed.
In this cafe alfo he muft be fupported by nourilhing
glyfters, made of milk-pottage, broths, See. which muft
be given to the quantity of three or four quarts a-day :
glyfters of this kind will be retained, and abforbed into
the blood ; and there have been inftancesof horfes thus
fupported for three weeks together, who muft otherwife
have'periftied.
Mr Gibfon mentions fome extraordinary inftances of
fuccefs in cafes of this fort by thefe methods, and re¬
peated frictions, which are extremely ferviceable in all
convulfive diforders, and often prevent their being jaw-
fet; they Jhould be applied with unwearied diligence,
every twro or three hours, wherever any ftiffnefs or con-
tra&iohs in the mufcles appear; for a horfe in this
condition never lies down till they are in fome meafure
removed.
The ufe of rowels in thefe cafes is generally unfuc-
cefsful, the Ikin being fo tenfe and tight, that they fel-
dom digeft kindly, and fometimes mortify : fo that if
they are applied, they ftiould be put under the jaws, and
in the breaft.
The red-hot iron fo frequently run through the fore¬
top and mane, near the occipital bone, for this purpofe,
has often been found to have deftroyed the cervical li¬
gament.
In paralytic diforders, where the ufe of a limb or
limbs is taken away, the internals above recommended
fhould be given, in order to wrarm, invigorate, and at¬
tenuate the blood; and the following llimulating em¬
brocation fhould be rubbed into the parts affefted.
Take oil of turpentine four ounces, nerve ointment
and oil of bays of each two ounces, camphor rub¬
bed fine one ounce, reftified oil of amber three
ounces, tin&ure of cantharides one ounce.
With this liniment the parts affefted fliould be well
bathed for a coniiderable time, to make it penetrate;
and when the hind parts chiefly are lame, the back and
loins fhould be w-ell rubbed with the fame. To the
nervous medicines above recommended may be added
fnake-root, coatrayerva,muftard-feed, horfe-radifli root,
fteeped in ftrong beer, or wine wdiere it can be afford¬
ed. Take the following for an example, which may
be given to the quantity of three pints a-day alone, or
two horns full may be taken after the nervous bails.
Take fnake-root, contrayerva, and valerian, of each
half an ounce ; muftard-feed and horfe-radifh root
fcrap.ed, of each two ounces; long pepper two
drams : infufe in three pints of ftrong wine.
When
4
Sea. XIV. FARR
Strangles When the horfe is recovering from any of the above
and Vives. dJforders, the following alterative purge may be repeat-
ed two or three times, as it operates very gently.
Take focotorine aloes one ounce, myrrh half an
ounce, afafetida and gum ammoniacum of each
two drams, faffron one dram; make into a ball
with any fyrup.
Where a retention of dung is the caufe of this dif-
order, the great gut fhould firft be raked thoroughly
with a fmall hand, after which plenty of emollient oily
glyfters fhould be thrown up, and the opening drink
given, till the bowels are thoroughly emptied of their
imprifoned dung. Their diet fhould for fome days be
opening, and confift chiefly of fcalded bran, with flour
of brimftone, fcalded barley, &c.
Sect. XIV. Of the Strangles, and Vives.
I. The Strangles is a diftemper to which colts and
young horfes are very fubjeft. The fymptoms and
progrefs of this difeafe are as follows: A dull heavinefs
and ina&ivity, lofs of appetite, and a hollow bulky
cough, occafioned by the irritability of the inflamed
glandular parts in the throat and about the root of the
tongue. To excite a degree of moifture in the mouth
that may allay this difagreeable fenfation, the horfe is
often picking his hay, but eats little or none ; a degree
of fymptomatic heat comes on, and a confequent clam-
minefs and thirft is perceptible. As the diftemper ad¬
vances, he becomes proportionally languid and inatten¬
tive ; a fwelling (with fometimes two or three fmaller
furrounding it) is now difcovered to have formed itfelf
between the jaw-bones, which is at firft very hard,
exceeding painful, and vifibly increafing ; he now fwal-
lows with difficulty, heaves in the flanks, and his whole
appearance gives figns of the greateft diftrefs.
The firft objeft for confideration is the ftate of the
fubjeft: if the evacuations are regular (as they ge¬
nerally are), and the feverilh fymptoms moderate,
let the fwelling be examined, and its fuppuration
promoted. For this purpofe (firft clipping away all
the long or fuperfluous hairs that cover or fur-
round the part), foment with fmall double flannels,
dipt in a ftrong deco&ion of camomile, marfh-mal-
lows, or rofemary, for ten minutes, as hot as can be
conveniently fubmitted to; and then apply a poultice
prepared as follows.
Take of coarfe bread, barley meal, and camomile or
elder flowers, each a handful; boil over the fire
in a fufficient quantity of milk, or in the decoc¬
tion for the fomentation ; into which ftir about a
third (of the whole quantity) of white-lily root,
wafhed clean and pounded to a pafte ; adding
linfeed and fenugreek (in powder) of each an
ounce; ftirring in, while hot, of turpentine two
ounces, and of lard four, laying it on moderate¬
ly warm, and bandaging firm. To ferve for two
poultices.
Both the fomentation and poultice mull be re¬
peated every night and morning till an opening in
the fwelling is effefted, which generally happens in
the courfe of five or fix days. Upon the appearance
of difcharge, the aperture may be a little enlarged with
a biftory or the point of any lharp inftrument ade¬
quate to the purpofe, though this will be unneceffary
if the difcharge is made freely and eafily of itfelf. The
Vol. VII. Part L.
I E R Y. 129
part ftiould then be dreffed with the following oint- Strangle*
ment fpread on tow, ftill continuing the poultice over ,arlkl
it to promote the digeftion, and prevent any remain-
ing hardnefs.
Take rofin and Burgundy pitch of each a pound
and a half, honey and common turpentine each
eight ounces, yellow wax four ounces, hog’s-lard
one pound, verdigris finely powdered one ounce ;
melt the ingredients together, but do not put in
the verdigris till removed from the fire ; and it
ffiould be ftirred in by degrees till the whole is
grown ftiff and cool.
If the fever and inflammation run high, and the fwel¬
ling be fo fituated as to endanger fuifocatiofl, a mode¬
rate quantity of blood muft be taken away.
In this diforder, mafties muft be the conftant food,
in fmall proportions, to prevent wafte: in each of
which Mr Taplin dire&s to put of liquorice and ani-
feed powders half an ounce, and about two ounces of
honey, or in lieu of this laft a quart of malt : The
drink, confifting of warm water impregnated with a
portion of fcalded bran or water-gruel, fhould be given
in fmall quantities and often. The head muft be kept
well covered with flannel, as the warmth will greatly
tend to affift in promoting the neceffary difcharge:
tho’, unlefs circumftances and weather forbid, the horfe
need not be confined, but (hould have the advantage of
air and fhort gentle exercife. Nor fhould regular dref-
fing, and the accuftomed courfe of liable difcipline, be
omitted, but only ufed in a lefs degree than formerly
when in health.
This, diftemper is feldom dangerous, unlefs from ne-
gledl, ignorant treatment, or cruel ufage. It general¬
ly terminates with a running at the nofe, in a greater
or lefs degree; which fhould be frequently cleanfed from
the infide of the noftrils, by means of a fponge fuffi-
ciently moiftened in warm water, to prevent its acqui¬
ring an adhefion to thofe parts, or a foulnefs and fetor
that would fhortly become acrimonious.
If a hardnefs remains after the fores are healed up,
they may be anointed with the following mercurial
ointment.
Take of crude mercury or quickfilver one ounce,
Venice turpentine half an ounce ; rub together in
a mortar till the globules of the quickfilver are no
longer vifible ; then add, by little and little, two
ounces of hog’s-lard, juft warm and liquefied;
and let the whole be kept clofe covered for ufe.
When the horfe has recovered his ftrength, pur¬
ging will be neceffary.
If a copious and offenfive difcharge from the noftrils
fhould continue after the abfcefs is healed up, there will
be reafon to fufpecl the difeafe called glanders, treated
of in a fubfequent fedtion.
2. The Vives or Ives differ from the flrangles only
in this ; that the fwellings of the kernels feldom gather
or come to matter, but by degrees perfpire off and dif-
perfe by means of warm cloathing, anointing with the
marfhmallow ointment, a moderate bleeding, and a
dofe or two of phyfic. But fhould the inflammation
continue notwithftanding thofe means, a fuppuration
muft be promoted by the methods recommended in the
ftrangles.
When thefe fwellings appear in an old or full-aged
horfe, they are figns of great malignity, and often of
R an
I30 F A R R
Difeafes of an inward decay, as well as forerunners of the glan-
.the ders.
Sect. XV. Of the Difeafes of the Eyes.
i. TwEcafesthat moft frequently occur,requiring me¬
dical aid, or admitting of cure, are generally the eifecls
...cither of cold, or of blows, bites, or other external inju¬
ries. In thofe proceeding immediately from cold, there is
perceived an inflammation upon the globe of the eye,
and internal furrounding parts, as the edges of the eye¬
lids, &c. Pnitead of its former tranfparency, the eye has
a thick cloudy appearance upon its outer covering, and
is cohllantly difeharging an acrid ferum, which in a
fhort time almolt excoriates the parts in its palfage.
The horfe drops his ears, becomes dull and fluggifh,
is frequently lhaking his head as if to (hake off the
ears, and in every a&ion difeovers pain and difquietude.
In this cafe, after bleeding, the treatment preferibed in
'the Se&ion of Colds muft be adopted and perfevered in;
apd to cool the parts, and allay the irritation occafion-
ed by the fealding ferum, let the eyes and furrounding
parts be gently walked twice or thrice every day with
a fponge or tow impregnated with the following folu-
tio’n ;
Sugar of lead one dram, white vitriol two
fcruples, fpring water half a pint, brandy or cam¬
phorated fpirits one ounce or two table-fpoonfuls.
If the inflammation fhould not feem likely to abate,
but to wear a threatening appearance, the following
diuretic medicine muft be adminiftered.
Castile foap twelve ounces, yellow rofin and nitre
(in powder) each eight ounces, powdered cam-
phire or.e ounce, and oil of juniper fix drams;
mixed with a fufficient quantity of fyrup or ho¬
ney. The mafs is to be divided in.to 12 balls,
rolled up in liquorice or anifeed- powder; one of
which is to be given every morning, ufing alfo
gentle work or moderate exercife.
■i. The effe&s arifing from blowts or bites form diffe-
. rent appearances, according to the ieverity of the injury
fuftained. Should inflammation and fwelling proceed
from either caufe, bleeding will be neceffary without
delay, and may be repeated at proper intervals till the
fymptoms appear to abate ; and let the parts be plen¬
tifully embrocated four times a day with the following
preparation of Goulard’s cerate.
Extract of Saturn three drams ; camphorated
fpirits one ounce ; rivet or pond water one pint.
The extraft to be firft mixed with the fpirits, and
then the water to be added.'
If a large fwelling, laceration, or wound, attends;
after wafning with the above, apply a warm poultice of
bread, milk, and a little of the lotion, foftened with a
fmall portion of hog’s lard or olive oil. In cafes of lefs
danger, or in remote fituations where medicines are
not eafdy procured, the following may be ufed as a
fubftitute.
Best white-wine vinegar half a pint, fpring water
a quarter of a- pint, and beft brandy a wine glafs
or half a gill.
3. As to the gutta ferena, cataract, film, &c. thefe
are cafes in which relief is very feldom obtained.
The gutta ferena is a partial oruniverfal lofs of fight,
where no palpable deleft or fault appears in the eye,
Except that the pupil is a little more enlarged or con-
I E R Y. Sea. XV.
traffed. The appearances of this blemiih are various, Difeafes of
as well as the caufes and eftefts, fome of its fubjefts die
being totally blind, and others barely enabled to diflia- U”"V“—*
guiflr between light and darknefs. The figns are a
blacknefs of the pupil, an alteration of the .fize of the
eye, and its not contrafling or dilating upon a hid¬
den expofure to any degree of light. In order to the
cure, it is neceffary to attend to the caufe, and to ap¬
ply fuch remedies as that may indicate : though ia
truth it is a diforder in which, from whatever caufe ori¬
ginating, no great expeftation can be formed from
medicine either internally or externally ; more particu¬
larly from the former, the feat of difeafe being fo
far out of the reach of medicinal aflion. If the defect
Ihould be o.ving to a contraftion of or compreflion up¬
on the optic nerve,very little can he done with any ex-
peflation of fuccefs ; and much lefs if it arifes from a
palfy of that or any neighbouring part.
A cataract is a defect in the cryftaliine humour of the
eye, which, becoming opaque, prevents the adnriffion of
thofe rays upon the retina that conftitute vilion. The
diforder called moon eyes, are only cataraffs forming;
Thefe generally make their appearance when a horfe
is turned five coming fix ; at which time one eye be¬
comes clouded, the eye-lids being fwelled, and very often
{hut up ; and a thin water generally runs from the dif-
eafed eye down the cheek, fo (harp as fometimes to
excoriate the (kin ; the veins of the temple, under
the eye, and along the nofe, are turgid and full: though
fometimes it happens that the eye runs but little.
This diforder conies and goes till the cataraA is ripe;
then aft pain and running difappears, and the horfe be¬
comes totally blind, which is generally in about two
years. During this time fome horfes have more fre¬
quent returns than others ; which continue in fome a
week or more, in others three or four; returning
once in two or three months, and they are feldom fo
long as five without a relapfe. There is another kind
of moon-blindnefs which is alfo the forerunner of cata¬
racts, where no humour or weeping attends. The eye
is never fhut up or clofed here, but will now and tWn
look thick and troubled, at which time the horfe fees
nothing diftindtly: when the eyes appear funk and pe-
rifliing, the cataraCts are longer of coming to maturity;
and it is not unufual in this cafe for one eye to efcape.
Thefe cafes generally end in blindnefs of one if not
of both eyes. The moft promifing figns of recovery are
when the attacks come more feldom, and their conti¬
nuance grows fiiorter, and that they leave the cornea
dear and tranfparent, and the globe plump and full.
In all blemilhes or defeds, where a thickening of
fome one of the coats, membranes, or humours of the
eye, has formed an appearance of cataraft or film, it
has been an eftablifhed cuftom among molt farriers to
bdftow a plentiful application of corrofive powders, un¬
guents, and folutions, for the purpofes of obliteration ;
without refle&iqg (asMrTaplin obferves) upon the
abfurdity of endeavouring todeftroy by corrofion, what
is abfolutely feparated from the furface by a variety of
membranous coverings, according to the diftimft feat
of difeafe ; with which it is impoffible to bring the in¬
tended remedy into contaft, without firft deftroying
the intervening or furrounding parts by which the in¬
ner delicate ftrufture is ’fo numeroufly guarded. But
in all diforders of this fort, whether moon eyes or con¬
firmed
Sea. XVI. FARR
©landers, firmed catarafts with a weeping, general evacuations
*'*” v with internal alteratives can only take place. Indeed
the attempts to cure catarafts have hitherto generally
. produced only a palliation of the fymptoms, and fome-
times have proved entirely dellru&ive. Yet early care,
it is faid, has in fome inftances proved fuccefsful. To
this end rowelling is prefcribed, with bleeding at pro¬
per intervals, except where the eyes appear funk and
perifhing. It is alfo diredted, during the violence of
the fymptoms, to obferve a cooling treatment; giving
the horfe two ounces of nitre every day mixed into a
ball with honey ; and bathing the parts above the eye
with verjuice or vinegar wherein rofe-leaves are infu-
fed, to four ounces of which half a drachm of fugar of
lead may be added. The fwelling on the lid may af¬
terwards be bathed with a fponge dipt in equal parts of
lime and Hungary water mixed together; and the fol¬
lowing cooling phyfic fhould be given every fourth day,
till the eye becomes clear.
Lenitive eledhiary and cream of tartar of each four
ounces, Glauber’s falls three ounces, fyrup of buck¬
thorn two ounces.
When the weeping is by thefe means removed, the al¬
terative powders (fee the Section Of Alterative Me¬
dicines) fhould be given every day, till two or three
pounds are taken, and after an interval of three months
the fame courfe fhould be repeated. This method, it
is affirmed, has often been attended with good fuccefs,
where the eyes have been full and no way perifhed.
4. The haws is a fwelling and fponginefs that grows
in the inner corner of the eys, fo large fometimes as to
cover a part of the eye. The operation here is eafily
performed by cutting part of it away; but the farriers
are apt to cut away too much: the wound may be
dreffed with honey of rofes; and if a fungus or fpongy
fiefh arifes, it fhould be fprinkled with burnt alum, or
touched blue with vitriol.
Sect. XVI. Of the Glanders.
M. de la Fosse has diflinguifhed feven different
kinds of glanders, four ef which are incurable.
The firft proceeds from ulcerated lungs, the purulent
matter a# which comes up the trachea, and is dif-
charged through the noftrils, like a whitifh liquor,
fometimes appearing in the lumps and grumes : in this
diforder, though the matter is difcharged from the no¬
ftrils, yet the malady is folely in the lungs.
. The fecond is a wailing humour, which ufually feizes
horfes at the decline of a difeafe, caufed by too hard
labour ; this defluxion alfo proceeds from the lungs.
The third is a malignant difcharge, which attends
the ftrangles fometimes, and falls upon the lungs, which
runs off byr the noftriis.
The fourth is, when an acrimonious humour in the
farcy feizes thefe parts, where it foon makes terrible
havock.
The fifth kind we fhall defcribe by and by, as arifing
from taking cold.
The ffxth kind is a difcharge from the ftrangles,
which fometimes vents itfelf at the noftrils.
In the feventh fort, which he calls the real glanders^
the difcharge is either white, yellow, or greenifh, fome-
times ftreaked or tinged with blood : when the dif-
eafe is of long ftanding, and the bones are fouled, the
matter turns blackifh, and becomes very fetid ; and is
I E R Y.
*3*
always attended with a fwelling of the kernels or glands Glanders,
under the jaws ; in every other refpeft the horfe is ge-
nerally healthy and found, till the diftemper has been
of fome continuance.
It is always a bad fign when the matter flicks to the
infide of the noftrils like glue or ttiff pafte ; when the
infide of the nofe is raw, and looks of a livid or lead
colour ; when the matter becomes bloody, and ftinks;
and when it looks of an afh-colour. But when only a
limpid fluid is firft difcharged, and afterwards a whitifh
matter, the gland under the jaw not increafing, and
the diforder of no long continuance, we may expedl a
fpeedy cure ; for in this cafe, which arifes from taking
cold after a horfe has been overheated, the pituitary
membrane is but flightly inflamed, the lymph in the
fmall veffels condenfed, and the glands overloaded, but
not yet ulcerated.
Our author affirms this difeafe to be altogether lo¬
cal; and that the true feat of it is in the pituitary mem¬
brane which lines the partition along the infide of the
nofe, the maxillary finufes or cavities of the cheek¬
bones on each fide the nofe, and the frontal finufes or
cavities above the orbits of the eyes : that the vifoera,
as liver, lungs, &c. of glandered horfes, are in general
exceeding found ; and confequently that the feat of
this diforder is not in thofe parts, as has been afferted
by moft authors. But on nicely examining by dif-
feftion the heads of fuch horfes, he found the cavities
above mentioned more or lefs filled with a vifcous
flimy matter; and the membrane wdiich lines both
them and the noftrils inflamed, thickened, and cor¬
roded with fordid ulcers, which in fome cafes had eat
into the bones.
It is a curious remark of our author, that the fub-
lingual glands, or the kernels fituated under the jaw¬
bone, which are always fwelled in this diftemper, do
not difcharge their lymph into the mouth, as in man,
but into the noftrils ; and that he conftantly found them
obftruttion agree with the difcharge : if one gland
only was afledted, then the horfe difcharged from one
noftril only ; but if both were, then the difcharge was
from both.
The feat of this diforder thus difcovered, the mode
of cure he had recourfe to was by trepanning thefe
cavities, and taking out a piece of bone, by which
means the parts affefted may be waflred with a proper
injeiftion, and in fine the ulcers deterged, healed, and
dried up; and his fuccefs, by his own account, w'as
very great.
But as, from the obfervations fince made by this gen¬
tleman, there are different fpecies of the glanders; fo
the cure of the milder kinds may firft be attempted by
injections and fumigations. “ Thus, after taking cold,
ftiould a horfe for 15 or 20 days difcharge a limpid fluid
or whitifli matter from one or both noftrils, the glands
under the jaw rather growing harder than diminilhing,
we may expedl it will degenerate into a true glanders.
To prevent which, after firft bleeding, and treating
him as we have diredted for a cold, let an emollient in¬
jection, prepared with a decodtion of lintfeed, marffi-
mallows, elder, camomile flowers, and honey of rofes,
or fuch like, be thrown up as far as pcffible with a
ftrong fyringe, and repeated three times a-day : ftiould
the running not leffen or be removed in a fortnight by
the ufe of this injedtion, a reftringent one may now be
R. a pre-
[32 PARR
Glanders, prepared with tin&ure of rofes, lime-water, &c. and
u'“—v  the noftrils fumigated with the powders of frankincenfe,
maftich, amber, and cinnabar, burnt on an iron heated
for that purpofe ; the fume of which may eafily be con¬
veyed through a tube into the noftrils.” Such is the
method recommended by Bartlet, which he fays has
been found fuccefsful when ufed in time. But a more
particular courfe of procedure will be afterwards de-
feribed, that the reader may have the fulleft informa¬
tion concerning this moil difficult difeafe.
When the diforder is inveterate, recourfe muft be
had to the operation above deferibed, according to
the doftrine of M. la Foife.
The pretenfions of that gentleman, however, have
been lately expofed with feeming juftice by Mr Tap-
lin ; and the following circumftances quoted from the
French farrier’s work feem fufficient of themfelves to
throw fufpicion upon the whole. We are told of three
horfes he trepanned, each in two places : the internal
parts were conftantly fyringed, and they were perfeft-
ly recovered ; “ the wound and perforation filling up
in 26 days, the horfes fuffering no inconvenience from
the operation, though after this experiment they were
put ro death.” We are at laft confidently affured,
that fuch operations being performed, “ after opening
the cavities, fhould it by probing be difeovered that
the bones are carious (or, in other wmrds, rotten), the
heft way then will be to difpatch the horfe, to fave un-
necefiary trouble and expence.” Which Mr Taplin
interprets in plain Englilh thus : “ Deprive the horfe
of half his head, in compliment to the pecuniary feel¬
ings of the farrier ; and if you find the remaining half
will not anfwer the purpofe of the whole, cut his
throat, or fhoot him through the head, to fave the
operator’s credit.”
Mr Taplin alfo condemns the diftinftion of the dif¬
order into different fpecies ; and the various fymptoms
that appear, he confiders as only marking different fta-
ges of the fame difeafe. The fa£f according to him
appears to be, “ that any corrofive matter difchaiged
from the noftrils, and fuftered to continue for a length
of time, fo as to conftitute ulcerations and corrode the
bones, will inevitably degenerate into and conftitute
the difeafe generally underftood by the appellation of
glanders ; every ftagnant, acrimonious, or putrid mat¬
ter, is poffeffed of this property, and more particularly
when lodged (or by finufes confined) upon any parti¬
cular part. Divefted of profeffional trick, chicanery,
and deception, this is the incontrovertible explanation,
whether proceeding from an ulceration of the lungs,
or the inveterate glandular difeharges from the head
(where the cafe is of long Handing, and the bone ca¬
rious) they are equally incurable.” In this view, there¬
fore, prevention, rather than cure, being the rational
©bjett of attention, it remains only to point out fuch
methods as feem likely to obviate the diforder upon the
flighteft appearance of its approach, or upon the at¬
tack of any other difeafe that may be likely to termi¬
nate in it.
Where the lungs, then, are the feat of difeafe, as in
the firft attack of coughs, &c. no better treatment
can be purfutd than that laid down under the Se&ions
©f Colds and Coughs. But where a fwelling ftiows that
matter is forming under the ears, jaws, or about the
I E R Y. Sed. XVI.
root of the tongue, let every poffible method be taken Glanders,
to produce a fuppuration and difeharge of matter;  
for, in moft cafes, an external evacuation becomes the
crifis, and is greatly preferable to the chance of mif-
chiefs that may be produced by the morbid matter be¬
ing abforbed into the fyftem.
Should cough, difficulty of breathing, or a great
degree of inflammatory heat, attend, draw blood from
a remote vein in moderate quantity, to mitigate either
of thofe fymptoms ; and when the fwellings about the
parts have acquired an evident prominence, foment
them twice a day, for two or three days, with flannels
dipped in the following decodlion :
Camomile, wormwood, marftimallows, and elder
flowers, of each a large handful, boiled in three
quarts of water for a quarter of an hour, and then
ftrained off. Let the liquor be ufed hot, and ap¬
ply the herbs warm by way of poultice to the
parts.
In two or three days a judgment may be formed
whether a fuppuration is likely to take place. If fo,
the tumors will increafe in fize, and feel foft and yield¬
ing in the middle when preffed ; in which cafe apply
the poultice, and proceed as dire&ed above for the
Strangles. If, on the contrary, the fwellings continue
hard and immoveable, a running coming on at the
nofe ; obferve whether the matter is of a white colour
and without fmell; or is of different tinges, and ftreak-
ed with blood. The former is a favourable fign ; and
in that cafe the treatment may be as dire&ed under
the Sections of Cold and Cough. But if the matter
fhould prove of the latter defeription, every precaution
ought to be inftantly ufed, to prevent in its infancy
what would foon become a cafe of much trouble. In
the firft place, therefore, in order to foften the vifeid
matter in the paffages, and relax the inflammatory
ftrifture of the glands, prepare a vapour bath of rofe-
mary, lavender flowers, fouthernwood and marjoram
(each a handful), boiled in two or three quarts of
water. Put this into a pail, and let the horfe’s head
be fixed over it as near as can be borne, and fo long
as the fumes palling up the noftrils can be fuppofed
to take effedt as an internal fomentation. This ope¬
ration fhould be repeated twice every day ; and much
of the treatment recommended under coughs and
ftrangles with glandular difeharges from the noftrils,
will at the fame time appear proper to be obferved, as
being applicable to many of the prefent fymptoms..
Let it be particularly remembered, that, during the
whole courfe of management, the head of the horfe is
to be kept as warm as poffible, and in proportion
much more fo than the body, either in a double ker-
fey hood, or a Angle external, and a flannel one un¬
derneath ; as nothing can contribute more to a folu-
tion of the humours and promotion of their difeharge,
than a critical relaxation of the pores, particularly up¬
on the very feat of difeafe.
In cafe the difeharge fhould continue to increafe in
quantity and virulence, becoming ftill more difeolour-
ed, and its fmell very offenfive ; befides continuing the
fumigation, let half a gill of the following injeftion
(milk warm) be thrown up either noftril (or both if
the matter fhould be fo difeharged) with a ftrong for¬
cible fyringe, three or four times a-day.
Linsee®,
Sea. XVI. FARRIERY.
Glander*. Limseeb, an ounce ; camomile and elder flowers,
  each half an ounce } water, three pints. Boil for
a few minutes ; then {train off, and add to the
liquor four ounces of msl JEgyptiacum, mixing well
together at each time of ufing.
If the matter (hould notwithftanding grow fo malig¬
nant as to thi eaten a corrofion androttennel’sof the bones;
befides a diligent ufe of both fumigation and injedtion,
a courfe of mercurial undtion muft be immediately enter¬
ed upon. Mr Taplin directs to “ Let two, or at moft
three drams of the llrong mercurial ointment (pre¬
pared as directed under Strangles) be very well rubbed
into the glandular tumors, under the throat or ears,
every night for a fortnight; firft taking away with
the feiflars all fuperfluous or long hairs, that the mer¬
curial particles may be with more certainty abforbed
by the veflels, and taken into the circulation. If the
owner of a horfe labouring under this difficulty wiffies,
like a drowning man, to avail himfelf of another twig,
he may call in the aid of mercurial phyirc, or altera¬
tive medicines.”
Upon the whole of this fubjedt: As long as the at¬
tack continues in its early and fimple ftate, let unre¬
mitting attention be paid to the treatment recommend¬
ed under the different heads of thc^g fymptoms that
are then moft predominant: but fhould that treat¬
ment, after a fair trial, prove infufficient to refift. the
. , progrefs of the difeafe, the glands under the jaw-bone
Stable Di- '* continuing during the whole courfe inflexible, the
nixory, p. matter firft tinged with blood, then becoming deep in
306. colour and moft offenfive in fmell, the carcafe ema¬
ciated, and the whole frame finking under univerfal de-
preffion, the firft lofs (fays Mr Taplin) will be ulti¬
mately bell, in a refignation of his hide to the collar-
maker, and his remains to the hounds. As to the
operation of trepanning, fo plaufibly held forth with
all its fpecious advantages, I fhall openly and fairly
Xi’dtP-3oj.enter my proteft againft it. For what does the whole
amount to more than this?—If the horfe fhould abfo-
lutely recover, and (what is ftill more unlikely) become
adequate to the very purpofes he was deftined to before
the attack ; when the long illnefs, fupport, attend¬
ance, and farrier’s bill, are balanced againft his va¬
lue, he muft be a moft excellent horfe, and very much
above the line of mediocrity, to have the credit-account
in his favour. In fact, the moft probable conjedture
is, his inevitable diffolution : but fhould he miracu-
loufly efcape from both the diftemper and operator,
ranking under the denomination of a cured horfe, he
may, perhaps, be then qualified to linger out a wretch¬
ed exiftence in fome park or pafture, but never enabled
to encounter labour or fatigue.”
Sect. XVII. Of the Colic or Gripes, and Pains in
the Bowels, from fudden Accidents.
There feems to be no diftemper fo little underftood
by the common farrier as the colic or gripes in hor-
fes, one general remedy or method ferving them in all
cafes: but as this diforder may be produced by very
different caufes, the method of cure muft alfo vary ;
otherwife the intended remedy, injudicioufly applied,
will not only aggravate the complaint, but make it fa¬
tal. We fhall divide this diforder into three different
fpecies : the flatulent or windy, the bilious or inflam¬
matory, and the dry gripes; each of which we fliall di-
ftinguifh by their different fymptoms, and then point
out the proper remedies.
x. The flatulent or windy colic may in general be
readily diftinguifhed by the rumbling of the confined
air through the inteftines: The horfe is often lying
down, and as fuddenly rifing again with a fpring ; he
ftrikes his belly with his hinder feet, ftamps with his
fore-feet, and refufes his meat; when the gripes are
violent, he will have convulfive twitches, his eyes be
turned up and his limbs ftretched out as if dying, his
ears and feet being alternately very hot and cold; he
falls into profufe fweats, and then into cold damps;
ftrives often to ftale, and turns his head frequently to
his flanks ; he then falls down, rolls about, and often
turns.on his back ; this laft fymptom proceeds from a
ftoppage of urine, that almoft always attends this fort
of colic, which may be increafed by a load of dung
preffing on the neck of the bladder.
Thefe are the general fymptoms of colic and gripes
from wind, drinking cold water when hot, and when
the perfpirable matter is retained, or thrown on the
bowels by catching cold ; in all which cafes they are
violently diftended. Cribbing horfes are more parti¬
cularly fubjedt to this complaint, by rcafon they are
conftantly fucking in great quantities of air.
The firft intention is to empty the ftrait gut with a
fmall hand dipped in oil, which frequently makes way
for the confined wind to difeharge itfelf; and by eafing
the neck of the bladder, the fuppreffion of urine is ta¬
ken off, and the horfe ftales and gets cafe.
The following ball and glyfter feldom fail of giving
relief in thefe cafes.
Take Strafburgh or Venice turpentine, and juniper-
berries pounded, of each half an ounce ; falUpru-
nella or faltpetre, an ounce; oil of juniper, one
dram ; fait of tartar, two drams : Make into a ball
with any fyrup; it may be given whole, and walk¬
ed down with a decodlion of juniper-berries, or a
horn or two of ale.
If the horfe does not break wind, or ftale plenti¬
fully, he will find no relief: therefore in an hour or
two give him another ball, and add to it a dram of
fait of amber ; which may be repeated a third time, if
found neceffary. During the fit the horfe may be
walked and trotted gently; but fhould by no means
be haraffed beyond his ability, or dragged about till he
is jaded.
The following glyfter may be given, between the
balls, or alone, and repeated occafionally.
Take camomile flowers two handfuls; anife, co¬
riander, and fennel feeds, of each an ounce; long
pepper half an ounce ; boil in three quarts of wa¬
ter to two ; and add Daffy’s elixir, or gin, half
a pint; oil of amber half an ounce, and oil of ca¬
momile eight ounces.
The figns of a horfe’s recovery, are his lying quiet,
without ftartiug or tumbling, and his gathering up
his legs, and ceafing to lafh out; and if|he continues
an hour in this quiet pofture, you may conclude all
danger over.
2. The next fpecies of colic is the bilious or in¬
flammatory. .This, befides moft of the preceding
fymptoms, is attended with a fever, great heat, pant¬
ing, and drynefs of the mouth : the horfe alfo gene¬
rally
FARR
or rally throws out a little loofe dung, with a hot fcald-
’ ^cc'ing water ; v.'hich, when it appears blackiih, or of a
reddifh colour, and fetid fmell, denotes an approach¬
ing mortification.
In this cafe the horfe fiionld immediately be bled to
the quantity of three quarts; ’and it fhould be repeat¬
ed, if the fymptoms do not abate in a few hours. The
emollient glyfter, with two ounces of nitre diffolved in
it, fhould be thrown up twice a day, to cool the in¬
flamed bowels; plenty of gum-arabic water fhould be
taken ; and a pint of the following drink given every
two or three hours till feveral loofe ftools are procured,
and then it fhould be given only night and morning till
the diforder is removed.
Take fenna three ounces, fait of tartar half an
ounce; infufe in a quart of boiling water an
hour or two ; then flrain off, and add two oun¬
ces of lenitive electuary, and four of Glauber’s
falls.
If this diforder is not removed by thefe means, but
tbe inflammation and fever increafe, attended with a
difeharge of the flefh-coloured water above deferibed,
the event will moft probably be fatal; and the chief
thing to be depended on now, muft be a ftrong decoc¬
tion of Jefuit’s bark, given to the quantity of a pint
every three hours, with a gill of red port-wine.
A quart of the fame may be ufed for a glyiter, with
two ounces of Venice turpentine, diffolved with the
yolks of two eggs, an ounce of diafeordium, and a pint
of red wine, and given twice a-day: if the horfe reco¬
vers, give two or three mild rhubarb purges.
3. The dry gripes, or colic which arifes often from
coftivenefs, is difeovered by the horfe’s frequent and
fruitlefs motion to dung, the blacknefs and hardnefs
of the dung, the frequent and quick motion of his
tail, the high colour of his urine, and his great reft-
lefihefs and uneafinefs.
In this cafe the ilrait gut fhould be examined and
emptied with a fmall hand oiled properly for that pur-
pofe ; the emollient oily glyfter (p. 1x6. col. 2. par 3.)
fhould be thrown up twice a day; and the above pur¬
ging drink given, till the bowels are unloaded, and
the fymptoms removed.
The diet for a hoife in the gripes fhould be fealded
bran, warm water-gruel, or white water, made by dif-
folving four ounces of gum-arabic in a quart of water,
and mixing it with his other water.
4. From this hiftory and divifion of gripes and co¬
lics, with their different treatment, it appears how ab-
folutely neceffary it is they fhould be well underftood,
in order to be managed fkilfully : it is plain, too, that
violent hot medicines fliould in every fpecies of this
diforder be guarded againft, and given with great
caution and diferetion, even in the firft kind of flatu¬
lent colic, where indeed they can only be wanted; yet
too often, when prepared by the farriers with oil of
turpentine, geneva, pepper, and brine, &c. they even
increafe that diforder, by ftimulating the neck of the
bladder, too forcibly heating the blood, and inflaming
the bowels, till a mortification is brought on them.
Thefe are, in general, the conftant appearances of hor-
fes that die of this diforder; whofe bowels being exa¬
mined for that purpofe, have been found inflamed, full
of red and livid fpots, fometimes quite black, crifped
with extreme heat, and rotten.
i e r y. Sea. xvrir.
/Lax and
Sect. XVIII. Of tbe Lax arid Scouring, •with Sco“ring»
other Diforders of the Stomach and Bowels. , f
It is fometimes a nice matter to form a proper judg¬
ment when to controul or encourage a loofenefs; but
thefe general rules may be a diredlion : If a healthy
full horfe, on taking cold, or upon hard riding, over¬
feeding, eating unwholeibme food, or with a flight
fever, flxould have a moderate purging, by no means
think of flopping it; but rather encourage it with an
open diet, and plenty of warm gruel: but if it conti¬
nues long, with gripings, the mucus of the bowels co¬
ming away, and the horfe lofiil^his appetite and fleflx,
recourfe muft be had to proper medicines. If lie voids
great quantities of flime and greafy matter, give him
the following drench, and repeat it every other dav for
three times.
Take lenitive ele&uary and cream of tartar of each
four ounces, yellow rofin finely powdered one
ounce, and four ounces of fweet oil; mix with a
pint of water-gruel.
The following alterative ball alone has been found
fuccefsful for this purpofe when given twice a-week,
with fealded bran and warm gruel.
Take focotorine aloes half an ounce, diapente one
ounce; make into a ball with the juice of Spa-
nifh liquorice diflblved in water, and a fpoonful
of oil of amber. To this may be added two
drams of myrrh, and a dram of faffron, and
(where it can be afi'orded) half an ounce of rhu¬
barb.
When the purging is attended with a fever, rhu¬
barb fliould firft be given to the quantity of half an
ounce, with an ounce and half of lenitive eledhiary; at
night, after the working, give half an ounce or more
of diafeordium in a pint of red wine mulled with cin¬
namon ; and repeat it every day, and the rhubarb-ball
once in two or three.
But if the diftemper increafes, the horfe’s flanks
and belly look full and diftended, and he appears gri¬
ped and in pain, let this glyfter be given, and the
quantity of diafeordium increafed an ounce in his
night-drink.
Take camomile flowers one handful, red rofes half
a handful, pomegranate and balauftines of each
an ounce ; boil in two quarts of water to one ;
ftrain off, and diffolve it in two or three ounces
of diafeordium and one of mithridate; to which
may be added a pint of port wine. Repeat it once
a-day.
If the flux continues violent, give an ounce of rock-
alum, with an ounce and a half of bole, twice a-day j
or, diffolve double this quantity with two ounces of
diafeordium, and the cordial ball, in two quarts of
hartflxorn drink ; to which may be added a pint of
port; and give the horfe, three or four times a-day,
a pint of this drink. For this purpofe alfo a ftrong
decotlion of oak-bark may be given, with either of
the above remedies, and to the fame quantity ; even
by itfelf, it will be found on trial no inconiiderable re¬
medy.
W hen the difeharge is attended with an acrid mu¬
cus or (lime, the griping and. pains are very fevere, the
common lining of the bowels being waffled away; in
this
  —-s-:^ 
Sea. XIX. F A R R I E R Y. 135
I'a* and this cafe the following glyfter fhould frequently be in-
SC°&cnS’ je<aed warm-
■ ' , Take of tripe-liquor or thin llarch two quarts, oil
of olives half a pint, the yolk of fix eggs well
broke, and two or three ounces of coarfe fugar.
Some horfes, having naturally weak ftomachs and
bowels, throw out their aliment undigefted ; their
dung is habitually foft and of a pale colour; they
feed poorly, and get no flefli: to remedy this com¬
plaint, give the following purge two or three times ;
and then the infufion to the quantity of a pint every
morning.
Take focotorine aloes fix drams, rhubarb powdered
three drains, myrrh and faffron each a dram ;
make into a ball with fyrupof ginger.
Jnfujton.—Take zedoary, gentian, winter’s-bark,
and orange-„peel, of each two ounces ; pomegra¬
nate-bark and balauftines of each an ounce ; ca¬
momile-flowers and centaury, each a handful;
cinnamon and cloves, each an ounce : infufe in a
gallon of port or ftrong beer.
The bloody-flux is a diltemper horfes are not very
fubjedl to ; however, as it fometimes does occur, when¬
ever blood is difcharged, attended with gripings and
great pain in the bowels, if the flux is not fpeedily re-
flrained the horfe probably may be foon loft : we re¬
commend therefore the following glyfter and drink for
that purpofe.
Take oak-bark four ounces, tormentil-root two
ounces, burnt hartfhorn three ounces; boil in
three quarts of forge-water to two; ftrain off, and
add two ounces of diafeordium, four ounces of
ftarch, and half a dram of opium.
A. glyfter may alfo be prepared with the fame quan¬
tity of fat broth, ftarch, and opium, in order to plafter
over the coats of the bowels, and abate their violent
irritations. Alfo,
Take foft chalk two ounces, mithridate or diafeor¬
dium one ounce, powder of Indian-root half a
dram, liquid laudanum 50 or 60 drops ; diffolve
in a pint of hartfhorn drink, and add to it four
ounces of cinnamon-water and red wine; give' it
twice arday.
Gum-arabic diffolved in hartlhorn drink, or in com¬
mon water, ftiould be the horfe’s ufual drink.
When horfes are apt to be coftive, from whatever
caufe it arifes, gentle openers fhould be given ; fuch
as cream of tartar, Glauber’s falts, and lenitive elec¬
tuary : four ounces off any two of thefe diffolved in
warm ale, whey, or water, given every other morning
for two or three times, will anfwer this purpofe ; efpe-
xially if affifted by an oily emollient glyfter, prepared
with a handful of fait. Scalded bran or barley, with
an ounce of fenugreek and linfeed, occafionally given,
will prevent this complaint: but where it is conflitu-
tional, and proceeds from the power and force of di-
geftion in theftomach and guts, as fometimes happens,
and the horfe is in perfect health, no inconvenience
will arife from it; and it is obferved that fuch horfes
are able to endure great fatigue and labour.
Sect. XIX. Of Worms and Bolts.
Authors have deferibed three different forts of
worms that affeft horfes, viz. Bolls, which young hor¬
fes are often troubled with in the fpring; the Rotundi,
or thofe refembling earth-worms ; and the Afcandes, or Worms
thofe about the fize of the largeft fewing needle, with and B ,l:'9-
flat heads. . ° -’'.-y—..
The botts which breed in the ftomachs of horfes,
and are fometimes the caufe of convulfions, appear to
be very large maggots, compofed of circular rings,
with little ftiarp prickly feet along the fides of their
belires (hkq the feet of hog-lice), which by their
fharpnefs (like the points of the fineft needles) feem to
be of ufe to faften them to the part' where they breed
and draw their nouriftiment, and to prevent their be¬
ing loofened from fuch adhefion before they come to
maturity. The eggs from whence thofe botts are produ¬
ced, are difperfed into clufters all round the lower ori¬
fice of the ftomach, and are laid under the inner coat
or thin membrane of the ftomach ; fo that when the
animals come to form and life, they burft through this
inner coat with their breech and tail ftraight outwards,
and their trunks fo fixed into the mufcular or flelhy
coat of the ftomach, that it fometimes requires a good
pull to difengage them ; from the blood of this laft
coat they draw their nouriftiment, which they fuck
like fo many leeches, every ope ulcerating and pur¬
ling up the part where it fixes like a honey-comb; and
they often make fuch quick havock as to deftroy the
horfe.
The fymptoms of worms are various. The botts
that many horfes are troubled with in the beginning of
the fummer, are always feen flicking on the ftrait gut,
and are often thruft out with the dung, with a yel-
lowiftt coloured matter like melted fulphur : they are
no ways dangerous there ; but are apt to make a horfe
reftlefs and uneafy, and rub his breech againft the
polls. The feafon of their coming is ufually in the
mouths of May and June; after which they are fcl-
dom to be feen, and rarely continue in any one horfi
above a fortnight or three weeks. Thofe that take
their lodgment in the ftomach, are extremely danger¬
ous by caufing convulllons; and are feldom difeover-
ed by any previous figns before they come to lift,
when they throw a horfe into violent agonies. The
other kinds are more troublefome than dangerous; but
are known by the following figns: the horfe looks
lean and jaded, his,hair Hares as if he was forfeited, and
nothing he eats makes him thrive ; he often ftrikes his
hind-feet againft his belly ; is fometimes griped, but
without the violent fymptoms that attend a colic and
ftrangury; for he never rolls and tumbles,- but only
Ihows uneafinefs, and generally lays himfelf down quiet¬
ly on his belly for a little while, and then gets up and
falls a feeding; but the fureft iign is when he voids
them with his dung.
For the cure of botts in the ftomach, calomel fhould
firft be given in large quantities, and repeated at pro¬
per intervals ; iEthiop’s mineral, or fome of the under¬
mentioned forms, may be given afterwards.
But botts in the ftrait gut may be cured by giving
the horfe a fpoonful of favin, cut very fmall, once or
twice a-day in his oats or bran, moiftened; and three
or four cloves of garlic may be added to advantage.
Give alfo an aloe tic- purge between whiles; the fol¬
lowing Hands recommended.
Take fine focotorine aloes, ten drams; frelh jalap,
one dram ; ariftolochia, or birthwort, and myrrh
powdered, of each two drams ; oil of favin and
S amber,
136 FARR
Yellows, or amber, of each one dram ; fyrnp of buckthorn
Jaundice, enough to form into a ball.
'' But as the fource of worms in general proceeds from
a vitiated appetite and a weak digeftion, recourfe muft
firft be had to mercurials, and afterwards to fuch things
as are proper to ftrengthen the ftomach, promote di¬
geftion, and by deftroying the fuppofed ova, prevent
the regeneration of thefe animals. Thus, two drams
of calomel may be given with half an ounce of dia-
pente, and mixed up with conferve of wormwood, over¬
night ; and the next morning the above purge : thefe
may be repeated fix or eight days. Or the following
mercurial purge may be given, which will be lefs
troublefome, and no lefs efficacious.
Take crude quickfilver two drams, Venice turpen¬
tine half an ounce ; rub the quickfilver till no
gliftening appears; t,hen add an ounce of aloes, a
dram of grated ginger, 30 drops of oi of favin,
and a fufficient quantity of fyrup of buckthorn to
make a ball.
One of thefe balls may be given every fix days, with
the ufual precautions in regard to mercurial phyfic ;
and the following powder intermediately.
Take powdered tin and ^Ethiop’s mineral of each
half an ounce : give every night in a maffi, or a-
mong his corn.
The various preparations of antimony and mercury
muft be given feveral weeks together, in order to get
entire riddance of thefe vermin. The ^Ethiop’s mine¬
ral may be given to the quantity of half an ounce a-day;
the mercurius alkalifatus to two drams a-day, incor¬
porated with a bit of cordial ball. The cinnabar pow¬
ders, as direfted in the farcy, are no lefs effe&ual: and
when worms are bred from high feeding, or unwhole¬
some food; rue, garlic, tanfy, favin, box, and many
other fimples, may be given fuccefsfully; being for
that purpofe mixed with their food ; as alfo cut to¬
bacco, from half an ounce to an ounce a-day.
Sect. XX. Of the Yellows, or Jaundice.
Horses are frequently fubjeft to this diftemper;
which is known by a dulky yellownefsof the eyes; the
infidc of the mouth and lips, the tongue, and bars
of the roof of the mouth, looking alfo yellow. The
horfe is dull, and refufes all manner of food ; the fever
is flow, yet both that and the yellownefs increafe to¬
gether. The dung is often hard and dry, of a pale yel¬
low, or light pale green. His urine is commonly of a
dark dirty biown colour ; and when it has fettled fome
time on the pavement, it looks red like blood. He
ftales with fome pain and difficulty ; and if the dif¬
temper is not checked foon, grows delirious and fran¬
tic. The off-fide of the belly is fometimes hard and
diftended ; and in old horfes, when the liver has been
long difeafed, the cure is not pra&icable, and ends fa¬
tally with a wafting diarrhoea: but when the diftem¬
per is recent, and in young horfes, there is no fear of
a recovery, if the following directions are obferved.
Firft of all bleed plentifully ; and give the laxative
glyfter (p, 120. col. 2. laft par.) as horfes are apt to
be very coftive in this diftemper ; and the next day
give him this purge :
Take of Indian rhubarb powdered one ounce and a
half, faffron two drams, focotorine aloes fix drams,
fyrup of buckthorn a fufficient quantity.
N°124. x
I E R Y. Sea. xxr.
If the rhubarb ftiould be found too expenfive, omit Difordenoi
it, and add the fame quantity of cream of tartar, and tl,e Kid-
half an ounce of Caftile foap, with four drams more neys» &c-j
of aloes. This may be repeated two or three times, ^ " ■
giving internfiediately the following balls and drink.
Take of iEthiop’s mineral half an ounce, millepedes
the fame quantity, Caftile foap one ounce ; make
into a ball, and give one every day, and wafti it
down with a pint of the following deco&ion.
Take madder-root and turmerick of each four oun¬
ces, burdock-root fliced half a pound, Monk’s
rhubarb four ounces, liquorice fliced two ounces;
boil in a gallon of forge-water to three quarts;
ftrain off, and fweeten with honey.
Balls of Caftile foap and turmerick may be given al¬
fo for this purpofe to the quantity of three or four
ounces a-day, and will in mo ft recent cafes fucceed.
By thefe means the diftemper generally abates in
a week, which may be difeovered by an alteration in
the hsrfe’s eyes and mouth; but the medicines muft
be continued till the yellownefs is entirely removed.
Should the diftemper prove obftinate, and not fub-
mit to this treatment, you muft try more potent re¬
medies, viz. mercurial phyfic, repeated two or three
time* at proper intervals; and then the following balls.
Take fait of tartar two ounces, cinnabar of anti¬
mony four ounces, live millepedes and filings of
fteel of each three ounces, faffron half an ounce,
Caftile or Venice foap half a pound; make into
balls, the fize of a pullet’s egg, with honey ; and
give one night and morning, with a pint of the
above drink.
It will be proper, on his recovery, to give two or
three mild purges ; and, if a fat full horfe, to put in a
rowel.
Sect. XXL Of the Di[orders of the Kidneys and
Bladder.
The. ..^ns of the kidneys being hurt or affe&ed are,
a weaknefs of the back and loins, difficulty of ftaling,
faintnefs, lofs of appetite, and deadnefs in the eyes ;
the urine is thick, foul, and fometimes bloody, efpe-
cially after a violent ftrain. A horfe difeafed in his
kidneys can feldom hack, that is, move ftraight back¬
wards, without pain, which is vifible as often as he is
put to the trial: the fame thing is obfervable indeed
in horfes whofe backs have been wrung and wrenched ;
but with this difference, that in the latter there is
feldom any defeat or alteration in the urine, except
that it is higher coloured.
The confequences of a difordered ftate of the uri¬
nary organs are principally two ; ftrangury and dia¬
betes.
x. Strangury, or an obftru&ion of urine, may arife
from different caufes. When it is not owing to wind,
or hardened dung preffing upon the neck of the blad¬
der (as was obferved in the fe&ion on Colics), it may
proceed from inflammation in the bladder or kidneys,
ulcerations there, or fpafms upon any particular part.
When owing to inflammation or fpafm, the general
indications of cure are, to leffen the ftrifture upon the
parts; to reduce the inflammation; and to promote
the evacuation of urine : the firft of which intentions
may be anfwered by a moderate lofs of blood ; the fe-
1 cond,
Sea. XXI, PARR
CM.ndersof coT)d, by tlj? uf? of isterRal emollients; and the third,
the Kid- fay gentle ftimuUnts and mild diuretics.
nr/8, See, jn grangUry from inflammation or fpafm in the
' parts, the horfe makes frequent motions to ftale, ftands
wide and ft raddling, appears full in the flank, and
fomewhat dejefted. The firft meafure, -as already ob¬
served, is bleeding 5 and that more or lefs plentifully-
according to the urgency of the fymptons. In a
convenient time after this operation, Mr Taplin re¬
commends to throw up the following emollient gly-
fter:
S/itl/c Di- (f Take of thin gruel three pints, nitre two ounces,
reSory, gum arabic one ounce and an half, olive oil four
ounces ; let it be injedted moderately warm, and
retained in the body as long as poffible.
“ So foon after this glyfter as the horfe is inclined
by appetite to receive it, give a maflt of two parts
malt and one bran, they having been fealded together
and ftirred till of a moderate warmth; after this, if
the fubjedf has not ftaled in confequence of bleeding,
glyfter, and maftr, have the following balls expediti-
oufty prepared to forward the evacuation :
Take Caftile foap ten drams, fal prunella one
ounce, camphire two drams,'anifeed powder fix
drams, oil of juniper one dram and an half, fyrup
of marlhmallows fufiicient to make the malh;
which divide into two equal parts, giving one in
fix hours after the other, if the former is not fuc-
cefsful.
“ Thefe are very fafe, mild, and efficacious, in ge¬
neral producing the defired effedf without any uneafy
fenfations. Where a drink is preferred, as coming
into'a more applicable mode of adminiftration, the fol¬
lowing will prove equally ferviceable ;
“ Take juniper berries (bruxfed) two ounces ; boil
in a pint and a half of water for fome time, then
ftrain (to produce by fqueezing the berries three
quarters of a pint) ; to this add of nitre and gum
Arabic (in powder) each an ounce. *;
“ This drink, or the above ball, to be rfpfcated at
difthuft periods of four hours each (if a repetition of
the firft at the end of fix hours does not effedi the
defired purpofe), till relief is obtained by plentiful eva¬
cuations/’
A$ a fuppreffion of urine arifes fometimes from an
inflammation of the parts; fo at others from a para¬
lytic affeftion, particularly of the kidneys, difabling
them in their office of feparating the urine from the
blood ; in this latter cafe, a general fuppreffion taking
place, the bladder is ufually empty, fo that a horfe will
make no motion to ftale ; and if he furvives a few days
in this condition, his body will fwell to a great degree,
break out in blotches all over, and death will foon clofe
the feene.
Strangury fometimes alfo arifes from an ulceration
of the parts; which is a cafe almoft as defperate as the
preceding. The fymptoms are: A viiible difquie-
tude; the evacuation not totally fuppreffed, being
only at times obftrmfted ; the urine frequently alter¬
ing its appearance, being fometimes thick, depofiting
a turbid fediment as if impregnated with membra¬
nous matter; and at other times tinged with blood,
the evident effedt of a corroded folution of the dif-
eafed part. In this inftancc the following balls or
Vot. VII. Part I. -
I E R Y, 137
drink are recommended by Mr Taplin as the only pro- Molten-
bable means of relief. k'rea-‘-
tc Take of myrrh one ounce, Caftile foap and Loca-
telli’s balfam each three ounces, nitre and ani-
feed (in powder) each two ounces, balfam of
Peru fix drams. Mix together wjth fyrup of
marftimallows, and divide into fix balls, giving
on? every morning.
In cafe fpafm of the parts be alfo fufpeded, the
following hall may be given, and repeated at fuch
times as the circurfiftances of the cafe may render
proper.
“ Take of Caftile foap half an ounce ; nitre, rofin,/&V.
and compound powder of gum tragacanth, each
two drams; opium (in powder) ten grains; oil
of juniper 30 drops.—Mix.
“ The following drink may be fubftituted with e-
qual effedl if a liquid form is preferred :
“ Take thin gruel three quarters of a. pint, gum a-
rabic and nitre (in powder) each one ounce, li¬
quid laudanum three drams.—Mix.
“ This (as the ball above) may be occafionally re¬
peated.”
2. Horfes fubjeeft to a diabetes, or profufe ftaling, if
old, or of a weak conftitution, are feldom cured ; they
foon lofe their fleftr and appetite, grow feeble, their
coat flaring, and they die rotten. Of a young horfe
thefe are more hopes ; but he -rnuft not lie. indulged
with too milch water or moift food. Give him the
following:
Take jefuits bark four ounces, biftort and tormen-
til-root of each two ounces ; boil in two gallons
of lime-water to the confumption of half, and give
a pint three times a-day.
As-this diforder generally proceeds from too violent
exercife, over-ftraining, &c. repeated bleedings in fmall
quantities are abfolutely neceffary, till the mouths of
the veflels clofe up.
Sect. XXII. Of Molten-greafe.
By molten-greafe is meant a fat or oily difeharge
with the dung; and it arifes from a colliquation or melt¬
ing down of the fat of a horfe’s body by violent exer¬
cife in very hot weather. It is always attended with
a fever, heat, reftleffnefs, ftarting and tremblings, great
inward ficknefs, fhortnefs of breath, and fometimes with
the fymptoms of a pleurify. His dung will be ex¬
tremely greafy, and he will fall into a fcouring; his
blood will have a thick flrin or fat over it when cold,
of a white or yellow hue, but chiefly the latter ; the
congealed part or fediment is commonly a mixture of
fize and greafe, which makes it fo extremely flippery,
that it will not adhere to the fingers, and the fmall
portion of ferum feels alfo flippery and clammy. The
horfe foon lofes his flefh and fat, which probably is dif-
folved and abforbed into the blood ; and thofe that
furvive this {hock commonly grow hide-bound for a
time, their legs fwelling both before ,and behind, and
continue in this ftate till the blood and juices are rec¬
tified ; and if this is not done effeftually, the farcy or
fome obftinate furfeit generally follows, very difficult
to remove.
In the firft place bleed plentifully, and repeat it for
S two
.
138 FARR
Hide- two or three days fucceffively in fmaller quantities;
tw0 or t^ree rowels Ihould alfo be immediately put in,
‘ . and the cooling emollient glytiers (p. 121. col. 1. par.
1,2.) daily thrown up to abate the fever, and drain
off the greafy matter from the inteftines. By the
mouth give plenty of warm water or gruel, with cream
of tartar or nitre, to dilute and attenuate the blood,
which in this cafe is greatly difpofed to run into
grumes, and endanger a total ftagnation.
When the fever is quite gone off, and the horfe has
recovered his appetite, gentle aloetic purges fhould be
given once a-week, for a month or fist weeks, in order
to bring down the fwelled legs. To this end give the
following ; which, repeated for fome time, will entire¬
ly remove this diforder.
Take of focotorine aloes fix drams, of gum guaia-
cum powdered half an ounce, of diaphoretic an¬
timony and powder of myrrh each two drams;
make ir.to a ball with fyrup of buckthorn.
Thefe will feldom take a horfe from his bufinefs a-
bove two or three days in a week ; neither will he lofe
his flefh or appetite with them, but on the contrary
mend in both ; which cannot be obtained by any o-
ther method of purging, and gives this greatly the
preference in many cafes.
Sect. XXUL Of Hidebound, Surfeits, and
Mange.
1. The figns of Hidebound are, “ a want of flexibility
in the Ikin, which is pervaded by a general ftiffnefs
that feems to form au entire adhefion tothe flefli,. with¬
out the leaft partial feparation or diftindlion. There
Stable Di- is a kind of dully fcurf,. plainly perceived underneath
swtffyy, the hair, that raifes it up in different parts; and, gi-
IP* 1i4‘ v{0g jt aaothe,. hue, the coat in many places forms an
appearance of two or three colours; conveying, even
in this trifling circumftance, a very forcible idea of
poverty in both food and raiment. The horfe is ge¬
nerally languid, dull, heavy, and weak ; his excrement
is dark, foul, and offenfive ; he fweats much upon very
moderate exertions; then his coat Hares, the hair
turns diffetent ways (which in its effluvia is difagree-
able), and affords evident proof of weaknefs and de¬
bilitation.
Bad food and want of liable care are, in general,
the only probable reafons that can be affigned for this
complaint. Long lank grafs in low fwampy land in
autumn, and mully hay or bad oats at any feafon,
may in fome degree allay the hunger, but not gratify
the appetite ; for, being in itfelf deftitute of the effedl
and quality of fuperior food, no nutritive contribution
can be conveyed for the generating of blood or for¬
mation cf flefh.. The fources for the fupply of chyle
being thus obftrudled, the lymphatics are deprived of
their due proportion of nutritive fluid that Ihould pafs
through thefe fmaller veffels; and they become not on¬
ly in fome meafure contraded, but in a great degree
inadive, which, with the want of proper external care
and drefling, contribute to an almoft univerfal obftruc-
tion of the cutaneous pores. Thefe, from the preter¬
natural debilitation of the general fyllem, are thrown
®pen by the moll moderate exercife.
In refped to its cure very few. dirediona will be. ne-
I E R Y. Sea. XXIII.
ceffary, the cafe being no more than a temporary incon- Hide-
venience, rather than a difeafe. Therefore, by way ofj?<?und’Sur*
affording fome little change to the circulation, take a.eit’’ ^ t
way a fmall quantity of blood; and in three or four hours
after, increafe its impetus by a mafh of malt, oats, and
bran, equal parts. Continue this maffl every night for a
fortnight, Itirring in two ounces of flour of brimllone
every other night ; and for his other feeds (morning
and noon) give equal parts of oats and bran, with half
a pint of old beans in each, to prevent relaxing the
body too much by the maffles. At the fame time, re¬
gular and fubftantial drefling, air, exercife, found oats,
fweet hay, and good foft water, will greatly contri¬
bute to promote the cure. And when by thefe means
he has vifibly improved in hide, coat, and condition,
let him have twice in a week a bruffling gallop, to
produce a moderate fweat and promote the circula¬
tion ; taking great care not to let him Hand Hill till
he is perfectly cool; when his dreffings Ihould be
thoroughly gone throughwith attention, care, and per-
feverance, every night and morning. If this method
Ihould be unattended with fuccefis, there will be reafon
to fufpe£l fome unknown caufe lurking behind; in
which cafe go through a mild courfe of phyfic, feed¬
ing well between the dofes.
2. Of Surfeits, according to Mr Taplin, there are
two kinds, originating from different caufes : One be¬
ing no more than a very advanced ffage of the cafe lall
defcribed; which being long neglefted, all its fymp-
toms increafe, till the entire mafs of blood being at lafl
affedled, the virulence of the diforder difplays itfelf up¬
on the furface of the body.
The other kind of furfeit,. differing from the former
in caufe, but very little in effeft, is that where, from
ignorance or inattention, a horfe is fuffered to drink
immoderately of cold water, when in a violent perfpi-
ration, and the blood confequently in the higheft de¬
gree of circulation.
The circulating fluid being fo inftantaneoufly check¬
ed by the influence of the frigid element and the hid¬
den contraction of the folids, the craffamentum be¬
comes immediately thickened and inflamed ; while the
ferum or watery part, feparating from the other, ex-
travafates itfelf; and, by an effort of nature, is pro¬
pelled to the /kin for tranfpiration, where tire pores
(having been inftantly collapfed at the time of the wa¬
ter’s taking effea) are fo clofely obftruaed that its
paffage to the furface is rendered impraaicable. In
this fituation it becomes united with the perfpirable
matter already confined there ; and is, in the courfe of
time, compelled by the progrefs of internal inflamma¬
tion to make its way through the Ikin ; upon which it
at la/l appears in a variety of forms and different fymp-
toms, affuming di/lina degrees of malignancy, accord¬
ing to the Hate, habit, and conftitution of the fubjea.
at the time of attack.
Such, in fubilanee, is Mr TaphVs account of this
diforder. The indications of cure are, To refolve the
inflammatory crudities, remove cutaneous obftru&ion,
correCl the acrimony of the blood, and gently quicken
the circulation. The better to effeft thefe, he dire&a
to take away a moderate quantity of blood, that the
impetus may be encouraged ; to open the body with
a few warm mafties; and. according to the mildnefs or
ia-
Seel. XXIir. FARR
Hide- inveteracy of its appearance, to give either two or
bound^Sur- tjjree mercurial purges, compofed of the following in-
. s' c' gredients.
Barbadoes aloes one ounce, jalap (in powder) three
drams; calomel, cream of tartar, Caftilfe foap,
and ginger (in powder) of each two drams ; with
fyrup of buckthorn fufficient to make a ball.
The dofes muft be given at proper intervals; par¬
ticular care being all the. while taken to guard a-
gainft cold on account of the mercury contained in the
compofition. In three days after the laft dofe, a
courfe of alteratives muft be entered upon, the medi¬
cine compofed as follows.
Antimony levigated and fulphur each half a pound,
-ZEthiop’s mineral and cream of tartar each four
ounces. Thfefe are to be mixed’ well together,
and divided into twelve equal parts of two ounces
each, for twelve dofes ; one of which muft be
given every night with the feed of corn ; the
latter being firft fprinkled with water, the better
to retain the powders.
Thefe muft be continued with the utmoft punctua¬
lity for a month ; during all which time let there
be alfo given two ounces of nitre every morning in
a pail of foft water. Should any trifling efehars,
fcabs, or excoriations, prove obftinate upon any part
of the body, they may be walhed with equal parts of
lye (procured from the foap boilers) and lime-waters.
If in the courfe of a month no confiderable ad¬
vantage ftiould be produced by the above preferip-
tions, the dofes muft be gradually increafed from
two ounces to two and an half, and in another week to
three ounces for each dofe, of both the compofition
and the nitre.
3. Mange is a diftemper fo univerfally known as to
render a particular defeription unneceflary. It pro¬
ceeds chiefly from poor feeding : hence it is very little
feen amongft horfes of any eftimation ; but is almoft
entirely confined to the lower clafs of ftables and pro¬
prietors.
In a mangy horfie the Ikin is generally tawny, thick,
and ill of wrinkles, efpecially about the mane, the
1 . and tail; and the little hair that remains in
xe parts ftands almoft always ftraight out or briftly;
he ears are commonly naked and without hair, the eye
and eye-brows the fame ; and when it affects the limbs,
it gives them the fame afpeft : yet the Ikin is not raw,
nor peels off, as in the furfeit.
Where this diftemper is caught by infe&ion, if ta¬
ken in time it is very eafily cured : and a fulphur oint¬
ment is recommended as meft effeftual for that pur-
pofe, rubbed in every day. To purify and cleanfe the
blood, give antimony and fulphur for fome weeks af¬
ter. There are a great variety of external remedies for
this purpofe, fuch as train-oil and gunpowder, to¬
bacco fteeped in chamber lye, &c. moft of them evi¬
dently improper. Solefeyl recommends the following,
which has been approved.
Take burnt alum and borax in fine powder of each
two ounces, white vitriol and verdigris powdered
of each four ounces ; put them into a clean pot,
with two pounds of honey, ftirring till they are
incorporated; when cold, add two ounces of
ftrong aquafortis.
But when this diforder, as is generally the cafe, is
1 E R Y. t59
contracted by low feeding and poverty of blood, the Hide-
diet muft be mended, and the horfe properly indulged j,GUn<h Sur-
with hay and corn. With this view, there muft be a1 tS) c' ,
conftant fupply of warm maflies, prepared with half
malt and half bran, or equal parts of oats and bran,
with four ounces of honey diffolved in each : let thefe
be given night and morning, with a feed of dry corn
every day at noon. During this treatment (which
muft be continued a week, to flreathe the acrimony of
the fluids, and foften the rigidity of the fkin) give
one ounce of fulphur in each mafli, and one ounce of
nitre in water every night and morning. In a week or
ten days, when the frame becomes more invigorated,
difeontinue the malhes, and let the diet be changed to
good oats and fweet hay; giving, in the morning and
evening feeds, one of the following powders, intermix¬
ed with the corn firft fprinkled with water :
Sulphur and prepared antimony each a pound, rub¬
bed well together in a mortar, and then divided
into 24 equal parts for as many dofes.
Or, Antimony levigated and fulphur of each 12
ounces, liver of antimony and cream of tartar
each half a pound.—Thefe to be mixed well to¬
gether, and divided into the fame number of do¬
fes as the former.
As to the external treatment 5 previous to the
commencement of the maflies, procure a pail of warm
water and a quarter of a pound of foft foap (tied up
in a linen rag), and with this, forming a ftrong lather,
let every infefted part be thoroughly walked and clean-
fed, fo that no feurf or filth be left upon the furface ;
then rub tenderly dry with a coarfe cloth or feparated
haybands ; and on the following morning begin to rub
in upon every part affeefted a due portion of the follow¬
ing ointment.
Weak mercurial ointment half a pound, quickfilver
four ounces, white hellebore (in powder) three
ounces, black pepper (in powder) and oil of tar¬
tar each one ounce ; with olive oil fufficient to
make it of a proper foftnefs.
The unftion muft be repeated for feven days, ten
days, or a fortnight, according to the urgency of the
fymptoms; and let the powders before mentioned, with
the nitre alfo, be continued for three weeks or a month.
Laftly, as foon as the horfe appears in a condition to
bear it, take away a moderate quantity of blood, and
give him afterwards two very mild dofes of phyfic.
Sect. XXIV. Of the Farcin or Farcy.
The true farcy is properly a diforder of the blood-
veffels and their contained fluid ; by which, when in¬
veterate, the coats and integuments are fo thickened
that they become like fo many cords.
At firft, one or more fmall fwellings, or round buds
like grapes or berries, fpring, out over the veins, and
are often exquifitely painful to the touch ; ,in the be¬
ginning they are hard, but foon turn into foft blifters,
which when broke difeharge an oily or bloody ichor,
and turn into very foul and ill-difpofed ulcers. In
fome horfes it appears on the head only ; in fome on
the external jugular ; in others on the plate-vein, and
runs downwards on the infide of the fore-arm to¬
wards the knee, and very often upwards towards the
brilket: in fome the farcy ftiows itfelf on the hind-
parts, about the patterns, and along the large veins on
S 2 the
X40
FARR
the mfide of the thigh, rifmg upwards into the groin,
and towards the (heath; and fometimes it makes its
appearance on the flanks, and fpreads by degrees to¬
wards the lower belly, where it often becomes very
troublefome.
When the farcy appears on the head only, it is eafily
cured; efpecially when it is feated in the cheeks and
fore-head, the blood-veffels being here fmall i but it is
more difficult when it affe&s the lips, the noilrils, the
eyes, the kernels under the jaws, and other foft and
loofe parts, efpecially if the neck-vein becomes corded.
When it begins on the outfide of the fhoulder or hips,
the cure is feldom difficult; but when the farcy arifes
on the plate-vein, and that vein fwells much, and turns
corded, and the glands or kernel under the arm-pit are
affedted, it is hard to cure; but more fo when the cru¬
ral vem^ within fide of the thigh are corded, and befet
with buds, which affe&s the kernels of the groin and
the cavernous body of the yard. When the farcy begins
©n the pafterns or lower limbs, it often becomes very
uncertain, unkfs a timely (top is put to it; for the fwell-
ing in thofe dependent parts grow fo exceffively large
in fome conftitutions, and the limbs fo much disfigured
thereby with foul fores and callous ulcerations, that
fuch a horfe is feldom fit for any thing afterwards but
the meaneft drudgery; but it is always a promifing fign,
wherever the farcy happens to be fituated, if it fpreads
no further. It is ufual to affeft only one fide at a
time ; but when it pafles over to the other, it (hows
great malignancy : when it arifes on the fpines, it is
then for the moft part dangerous; and is always more
fo to horfes that are fat and full of blood, than to thofe
that are in a more moderate cafe. When the farcy is
epidemical, as fometimes happens, it rifes on feveral
parts of the body at once, forms nafty foul ulcers,
and makes a profufe running of greeniffi bloody mat¬
ter from both noftrils; and foon ends in a miferable
rot.
When the farcy makes its firft appearance on the
head, it rifes on the cheeks and temples, and looks like
a net-work, or fmall creeping twigs full of berries.
Sometimes it inflames the eye, and fometimes little
blifters or buds run along the fide of the nofe. It
arifes often on the outfide of the (boulder, running
along the fmall veins with heat and inflammation ; and
fometimes a few fmall buds appear near the withers,
and on the outfide of the hip. In all thefe appearan¬
ces, the difeafe being fuperficial, and affecting only the
fmaller veffels, is eafily conquered by the following me¬
thod, when taken in time ; for the fimpleft farcy, if
neglefted, may degenerate into the word fort.
This diftemper, then, being of an inflammatory na¬
ture, and in a particular manner affefting the blood-
veflels, muit neceffarily require large bleeding, particu¬
larly where the horfe happens to be fat and full of
blood. This always checks the beginning of a farcy,
but is of fmall fervice afterwards; and if a horfe is low
in fleffi, the lofs of too much blood fometimes proves
injurious. After bleeding, let the horfe have four
ounces of cream of tartar and lenitive eledtuary; which
may be given every other day for a week, to cool the
blood and the body ; and then give nitre three ounces
a-day for three weeks or a month, and anoint the buds
crfwellings with the following’ointment twice a-day.
Take ointment of elder four ounces, oil of turpentine
I E R Y. Se£tXXIV.
two ounces, fugar of lead half an ounce, white Farcin <>r
vitriol powdered two drams; mix together in a , J‘ ‘rcy- .
gally-pot. V
The buds fometimes by this method are difperfed,
leaving only little bald fpots which the hair foon covers
again. When they break: and run, if the matter be
thick and well digelled, they- will foon be well: but in
order to confirm the cure, and to difperfe fome little
lumps which often remain for fome time on the (kin
without hair, give the liver of antimony for a month
two ounces a-day for a fortnight, and then, one ounce;
a day for the oth^r fortnight: by following this me¬
thod, a farcy which affedts only the fmall veffels may
be (lopped in a week or ten days, and foon after totally
eradicated.
. When the farcin affedls the largeI'blood-veffels, the
cure is more difficult ; but let it always be attempted
early ; therefore, on the plate, thigh, or neck-veins
appearing corded, bleed immediately on the oppofite
fide, and apply the following to the corded vein.
Take oil of turpentine in a pint-bottle fix ounces,,
oil of vitriol three ounces ; drop the oil of vitriol;
into the oil of turpentine by little at a time, other-
wife the bottle will burft; when it has done fmoak-
ing, drop in more oil of vitriol, and fo on till all
is mixed.
This mixture is one of the bed univerfals in a be¬
ginning farcy; but where it is feated in loofe flefliy
parts, as flanks or belly, equal parts of the oil of vitriol
and turpentine are neeeffary.
Rub the parts firft with a woollen cloth, and then;
apply fome of the mixture over the buds, and where-
ever there is any fwelling, twice a-day. Give the
cooling phyfic every other day, and then three ounces-
of nitre every day for fome time.
When the farcy begins on the flanks, or towards the
lower belly, it often takes its rife from a (ingle pundture
of a (harp fpur. The pain and fmarting is one fure
fign to diftinguiffi the farcy from common accidents ;
the daring of the hair, which (lands up like a tuft all
round the buds or blifteis, and the matter that iffues
from the buds, which is always purulent and of a clam¬
my greafy confidence, are other certain figns. After
bathing with the mixture above mentioned till the ul¬
cers are fmooth and healing, ffiould the fwelling not
fubfide, to prevent the fpreading of the buds, and to
difperfe them, bathe with'either of thefe mixtures as
far as the centre of the-helly; and at the fame time
give a courfe of antimonials as will prefently be pre-
feribed.
Take fpirits of wine four ounces, oil of vitriol and.
turpentine of each two ounces,, white-wine vine¬
gar or verjuice fix ounces.
Or the following :
Take fpirits of wine re&ified four ounces, camphor
half an ounce, vinegar or verjuice fix ounces, white
vitriol diffolved in four ounces of fpring-water
one ounce, mix together.
In the lower limbs the farcy lies fometimes conceal¬
ed for a great while ; and makes fo flow a progrefs,.
that it is often miftaken for greafe, or for a blow or
kick, and goes by the general appellation of a humour
fettled there. In order to diftinguilh the one from the
other, we (hall obferve, that a kick or bruife is gene¬
rally attended with a fudden fwelling, or a contufed
wound.
Sea.XXIV. FARR
Farcin or wound, which for the moil part digefts eafily: the greafe
Farcy . is alfo a fmooth fwelling that breaks out above the
v bending of the patterns backwards ; but the farcy be¬
gins on the, pattern joint ufually with one bud, and
runs upwards like a knotty crab-tree.
Very Ample means have fometimes (topped it, before
it has begun to fpread ; a poultice with bran and ver¬
juice bound round the part and renewed once a-day will
often alone fucceed ; and if proud flefh (hould arife,
touch it with oil of vitriol, or aquafortis, an hour be¬
fore you apply the poultice ; for when the diftemper
is local, as we fuppofe it here, it is to be conquered by
outward applications.
The following balls are proper in every ftate of the
farcy ; and when the diftemper has been in its infancy,
before the Ikin was much defaced, has often cured it in
a week or two, by giving them only once or twice a-
day : but in an old farcy they (liould be given for two
or three months together.
Take of native cinnabar, or cinnabar of antimony,
eight ounces ; long bithwort and gum guaiacum
powdered, of each four ounces: make into a pafte
with honey, and form into balls of the fize of
a large walnut, and roll them into liquorice-
powder.
The tedioufnefs of this courfe has encouraged the
giving of mercurials ; and indeed, where they are di¬
rected with fit ill, they mutt be attended with fuccefs :
the ftronger preparations, as the red and white preci¬
pitates, and turbith, being contbined with (harp faline
parts, may be hazardous and injurious ; but the latter
given in fmall quantities have been found very fuccefs-
ful in fuch kind of inveterate diforders. Mr Gibfon
fays, he has given it to a dram at a dofe, where the
limbs have been greatly fwelled ; that in 48 hours the
fores were all dried up, and the limbs reduced; but
that it made the horfe fo violently fxck for feveral days,
and fcoured him to fuch a degree, that it could not be
repeated.
Mr Bartlet obferves, that the fuccefs attending this
medicine fo fuddenly ought to have encouraged Gib¬
fon to have made further trials in fmaller quantities ;
which had he done, it is more than probable he would
not have been difappointed ; for the grand fecret in
giving mercurials as alteratives, is the introducing them
into the blood, without operating on the ftomach and
bowels; and to do this effe&ually, they mutt be given
in fmall quantities, and fo bridled as to controiil their
force on the firft paffages; taken in this manner, they
will mix gradually with the blood and juices, and ope¬
rate both effe&ually and fafely.
Dr Braken recommends the knots and cords to be
rubbed with the mercurial ointment before they break,
in order to difperfe them; and after breaking, to drefs
the fores with equal parts of Venice turpentine and
quickfilver; if by thefe means the mouth (hould be¬
come fore, treat as above. This method feems to be
effectual, with proper care.
The following is alfo recommended by the fame gen¬
tleman :
Take butter of antimony and bezoar mineral, of
each one ounce-; beat up with half a pound of
cordial ball; and give the bignefs of a walnut, or
three quarters of an ounce, every day for two or
three weeks, fatting two or three hours after it.
I E R Y.
The following mode of treatment and forms of me- Farcin
dicine are preferibed by Mr Taplin f. Farcy
Upon the very earlieft appearance of the diforder, ^
blood is to be taken away in fufficient quantity. If' '1+1
the horfe is in high condition and full of fleflt, give
him matties through the day of bleeding and the next
day ; and on the following morning a purging ball
compofed of focotorine aloes ten drams, calomel and
jalap (in powder) each two drams and a half, rhubarb
and ginger of each a dranv and a half, with fyrup of
buckthorn or rofes fufficient th form the ball. Let
the purge be carefully attended to, and duly worked
of. If the phyftc works favourably, and fets well,
let his feed (if his appetite is keen) for four clear days
be plentiful, and on the fifth or fixth at fartheft repeat
his purging ball. If the attack has been violent, or
the diforder makes rapid progrefs, a third dofe mutt be
given in like manner. In two days, after the courfe is
completed, it is dire£ted to begin upon the following
antimonial alteratives, affifted by a regular adminiftra-
tion of nitre ; both to be continued a month without
the mod trifling intermiffion :
Pkepared antimony one pound, common fulphur
twelve ounces-, cream of tartar eight ounces, and
cinnabar of antimony fix ounces:
Which being incorporated well in a mortar, is to be
divided into twenty equal parts. • Of thefe, one is to
be given every night in the corn, firtt fprinkling with
water to enfure its adhefion, and two ounces of nitre
are to be mixed with the water every morning, at
which time he will generally drink it with the greater
avidity as being mod thirfty. The buds or fwelling
upon their"firtt appearance may be well waflied with
the following twice every day, with a lotion eompofed
of ext raft of Saturn two ounces, camphorated fpirit
of wine eight ounces, and diftilled vinegar a pint-;
mixed well together, and kept clofe ftopt for ufe.
In a more advanced or inveterate ftage of the dif¬
temper, moderate bleeding (hould be repeated at pro¬
per intervals between the phyfic ; and upon the fcaba
or efehars peeling from the buds, wadi them well oc-
cafionally with the following :
To two drams of corrofive mercury diffolved in half »
a pint of Brititti brandy, add a pint of white-wine
vinegar, half a pint of fpring water, and two-
ounces of tinfture of myrrh ; (baking well to¬
gether.
Or,. Sugar of lead and white vitriol each an ounce,
diftilled vinegar and fpring water each one pint,,
ftyptic tinfture three ounces, well mixed together.
If the ulcers (hould continue foul, and their edges
become callous, very fmall quantities of the ftrong mer¬
curial ointment mutt be gently rubbed into the centre
of the mod inveterate, once in three or four days,,
cleanfing them occafionally with one of the walhes be¬
fore mentioned. In this cafe one of the following
balls mutt be given regularly every morning for a month
or longer if necefiary. The proportion of nitre mutt;
be altered to three ounces, and given in the water
every evening, the ball being adrniniftered in the
morning.
Mercurial alterative Ball. Take iEthiop’s mineral-
four ounces, milk of brimftone, prepared anti¬
mony, cream of tartar, and cinnabar of antimony,
each five ounces; honey fufficient to make a mafs;.
which*
I4H PARK
Farcin or winch divide into a dozen equal balls, and roll
Farcy. Up jn i;qUOnCe or anifeed powder.
It may not be improper now to add the fymptoms
of an incurable farcy, that the owners of fuch horfes
may fave themfelves unneceflary expenfe and trouble in
their endeavours to obtain a cure. When a farcy, by
improper applications, or by negledt, has fpread and
increafed, or after long continuance refilled the medi¬
cines above recommended; if frelh buds are continually
Ipouting forth, while the old ones remain foul and ill-
conditioned; if they rife on the fpines of the back and
loins.; if the horfe grows hide-bound, and runs at the
nofe; if abfceffes are formed in the flelhy parts between
the interftices of the large mufcles ; if his eyes look
dead and lifelefs ; if he forfakes his food, and fcours
often, and his excrements appear thin and of a blackilh
colour ; if the plate or thigh vein continues large and
corded after firing and other proper applications;
thefe fymptoms denote the diftemper to have penetra¬
ted internally, and that it will degenerate into an in¬
curable confumption : it is moll probable alfo that the
wdiole mafs of fluids are tainted, and become irreme¬
diable by art.
Before clofing this feftion, it is proper to take no¬
tice of what is called the water farcy, which has no
refemblance to a true farcy either in its caufe, fymp¬
toms, or effeds, but has only obtained this name thro’
cuftom and ignorance.—This water-farcy, then, is of
two kinds: one the produdt of a feverifh difpofition,
terminating on the Ikin, as often happens in epidemi¬
cal colds; the other is dropfical, where the water is
not confined to the belly and limbs, but Ihows itfelf in
feveral parts of the body by foft fwellings yielding to
the preffure of the finger. This Jail kind ufually pro¬
ceeds from foul feeding, or from the latter grafs and
fog that often comes up in great plenty with continued
cold rains, and breeds a fluggilh vifcid blood. In the
former cafe, we have feen the limbs and whole body
enormoufly fwelled, and very hard, the belly and Iheath
greatly diftended ; which were as furprifingly reduced
in 24 hours, by flight fcarifications within-fide the leg
and thigh with a lharp penknife, and three or four
ftrokes on the Hun of the belly on each fide the Iheath:
from thefe fcarifications there was a conftant and fur-
prifing large dripping of water, which foon relieved
the horfe; when a few purges completed his recovery.
In the other fpecies of dropfy the curative intentions
are to difcharge the water, recover the crafis or ftrength
of the blood, and brace up the relaxed fibres through¬
out the whole body. To this end purge once a-week
or ten days; and give intermediately either of the fol¬
lowing.
Take black hellebore frefli gathered, two pounds;
walh, bruife, and boil in fix quarts of water to
four; and then ftrain out the liquor, and put two
quarts of white-wine on the remaining hellebore,
and let it infufe warm 48 hours : then ftrain off,
mix both together, and give the horfe a pint night
and morning.
Take nitre two ounces, fquills powdered three drams
or half an ounce, camphor one dram, honey enough
to form into a ball, to be given once a-day alone,
or wafhed down with a horn or two of the above
drink.
I E R Y. Sea. XXV.
Sect. XXV. Of Strains in Various Parts. strains.^
In all ftrains, the mufcular or tendinous fibres are
overftretched ; and fometimes ruptured or broke. To
form, therefore, a true idea of thefe diforders, let
us firft confider every mufcle and tendon as compofed
of fpringy elaftic fibres, winch have a proper power of
their own to contrail and extend themfelves ; or, to
make their ailion more familiar, let us compare them
to a piece of catgut, that we may the better judge
with what propriety oily medicines are directed for
their cure. Thus, then, if, by a violent extenfion of
this catgut, you had fo overftretched it as to deftroy its
fpringinefs or elafticity, and was inclined to recover its
loll tone, would you for that purpofe think of foaking
it in oil ? And is not the method of treating ftrains,
or overftretched mufcles and tendons, full as prepofte-
rous, when you bathe or foak them in oily medicines,
at a time that they want reftringents to brace them up?
Yet cuftom has fo eilabliftied this pra&ice, and falla*
cious experience feemingly fo confirmed it, that rt would
be a difficult tafk to convince the illiterate and preju¬
diced of the abfurdity, who, by attributing effedls to
wrong caufes, are led into this error, and the oils ufurp
the reputation that is due only to reft and quiet: they
feem, however, to be aware of the ill confequences, by
their adding the hot oils, as fpike, turpentine, and ori¬
ganum ; which, though they in fome meafure guard
againft the too fuppling quality of the other oils, yet
the treatment is ftill too relaxing to be of real fervice.
And indeed, in all violent ftrains of either ten¬
dons or mufcles, whatever opinion we may entertain of
bathing and anointing with favourite noftrums, which
often fucceed in flight cafes, where perhaps bandage
alone would have done ; yet it is the latter, with pro¬
per refting the relaxed fibres till they have thoroughly
recovered their tone, that are the chief things to be
depended on ; and frequently fome months neceflary
for effefting the cure.
All violent ftrains of the ligaments, which con-
ne£l the bones together, efpecially thofe of the thigh,
require time, and turning out to grafs, to a perfeft re¬
covery. External applications can avail but little here,
the parts affe&ed lying too deep, and fo furrounded
with mufcles that medicine cannot penetrate to them.
The fooner, in thefe cafes, a horfe is turned out to
grafs, the better ; as the gentle motion in the field w ill
prevent the ligaments and joint-oil from thickening,
and of courfe the joint itfelf from growing ftiff.
When a horfe’s ihoulder is overftrained, he does
not put out that leg as the other; but, to prevent pain,
fets the found foot hardily on the ground to fave the
other; even though he be turned fhort on the lame
fide, which motion tries him the moft of any. When
trotted in hand, inftead of putting his leg forward in
a right line, he forms a circle with the lame leg; and
when he Hands in the liable, that leg is advanced be¬
fore the other.
In order to cure this lamenefs, firft bleed him,
and let the whole Ihoulder be well bathed three times
a-day with hot verjuice or vinegar, in which may be
diffolved a piece of foap; but if the lamenefs continues
without fwelling or inflammation, after refting two or
three days, let the mufcles be well rubbed for a confi-
derable
Sea. XXV. FARR
Strains, derable time, to make them penetrate, with good opo-
y—ii ,i deldoc, or either of the following mixtures.
Take camphorated fpirit of wine two ounces, oil
of turpentine one ounce ; this proportion will
prevent the hair coming off.
Gr, Take the belt vinegar half a pint, fpirit of
vitriol and camphorated fpirit of wine of each
two ounces.
When the flioulder is very much fwelled, it rtiould
be fomented with woollen cloths (large enough to co¬
ver the whole) wrung out of hot verjuice and fpirit of
wine; or a fomentation prepared with a ftrong decoc¬
tion of wormwood, bay-leaves, and rofemary, to a quart
of which may be added half a pint of fpirit of wine.
A rowel in the point of the fhoulder in this cafe
often does great fervice ; efpecially if the ftrain has
Joeen very violent, and the fwelling very large : but as
to boring up the fiioulder with a hot iron, and after¬
wards inflating it, it is both a cruel and abfurd treat¬
ment : and the pegging up the found foot, or fetting
on a patten fhoe, to bring the lame (houlder on a ftretch,
is a moft prepofterous practice, and directly calculated
to render a horfe incurably lame; for it can only be
neceflary in cafes the very oppofite to this, where the
mufcles have been long contracted, and we want to
ftretch them out.
Where poultices can be applied, they are at firft
undoubtedly very effectual, after bathing with hot vi¬
negar or verjuice; and are to be preferred greatly to
cold' charges, which, by drying fo foon on the part,
keep it lliff and uneafy: let them be prepared with oat¬
meal, rye-flour, or bran boiled up in vinegar, ftrong-
beer or red-wine lees, with lard enough to prevent their
growing ftiff; and when by thefe means the inflam¬
mation and fwelling is brought down, bathe the part
twice a-day with either of the above mixtures, opodel¬
doc, or camphorated fpirit of wine; and roll the part
three or four inches, both above and below, with a
ftrong linen roller of about two fingers width; which
contributes not a little to the recovery, by bracing up
the relaxed tendon; and perhaps is more to be depend¬
ed on than the applications themfelves.
In ftrains of the coffin joint, that have not been
difcovered in time, there will grow fuch a ftiffnefs in
the joint, that the horfe will only touch the ground
with his toe ; and the joint cannot be played with the
hand: the only method here is repeated bliftering, and
then firing fuperficially.
Strains of the lack Jinews are very common; and
are eafily difcovered by the fwelling, which extends
fometimes from the back-fide of the knee down to the
heel, but for the moft part the horfe fets that foot be¬
fore the other. The tendon ftiould be well bathed three
or four times a-day with hot vinegar; and if much
fwelled, apply the poultices above recommended ; and
when the fwelling is down, bathe with the mixtures
above, or with camphorated fpirit of wine and oil of
amber, in which is diffolved as much camphor as the
fpirits will take up ; and roll up the tendon with a pro¬
per bandage or laced ftocking ; which laft, properly
fitted to the limb, might be wore to great advantage,
not only in thefe fort of injuries, but in moft others,
where there is a difpofition to the greafe, or other fwel-
lings of the limbs, from weak and relaxed fibres. Cur¬
riers lhavings wetted with vinegar have been found ufe-
3
I E R Y. 143
ful for this purpofe; as has alfo tar and fpirit of wine: Strains,
but where the tendons have fuffered by repeated inju-
ries of this kind, the cafe will demand bliftering, firing,
and proper reft.
Strains of the knees and pqflerns arife frequently
from kicks or blows : if they are much fwelled, apply
firft the poultices; and when the fwelling is abated,
bathe with the above, er the following.
Take vinegar one pint, camphorated fpirit of
wine four ounces, white vitriol diffolved in a
little water two drams.
Or, Take the white of three or four eggs, beat
them into a froth with a fpoon ; to which add an
ounce of rock alum finely powdered, fpirit of
turpentine and wine of each half an ounce ; mix
them well together.
As great weaknefs remains in the patterns after vio¬
lent ftrains, the bell method is to turn the horfe out
to grafs till he is perfedtly recovered ; when this can¬
not be complied with, the general way is to blifter and
fire.
When a horfe is lame in the Jlifle, he generally
treads on his toe, and cannot fet the heel to the ground.
Treat him at firft with the vinegar and cooling reftrin-
gents : but if a large fwelling, with puflinefs, enfues*
foment it well with the difcutient fomentation till it
difperfes ; and then bathe the part with any of the
above medicines.
A lamenefs in the whirl-lone and hip, is difco¬
vered by the horfe’s dragging his leg after him, and
dropping backward on his heel when he trots. If the
mufcles of the hip are only injured, this kind of lame¬
nefs is cured eafily; but when the ligaments of the
joint are affefted, the cure is often very difficult, tedi¬
ous, and uncertain. In either cafe, at firft bathe the
parts well with the cooling medicines, four or five
times a-day : in the mufcular ftrain, this method alone
may fucceed ; but in the ligamentous, it is reft and
time only can reftore the injured parts to their propec
tone.
Strains in the hock are to be treated by foaking
the parts with coolers and repellers; but when the li¬
gaments are hurt, and they are attended with great
weaknefs and pain, ufe the fomentation. If a hardnefs
ffiould remain on the outfide, it may be removed by re¬
peated bliftering; if within, it may be out of the power
of any external applications to remove : however, the
joint Ihould be fired gently with fmall razes or lines
pretty clofe together, and then covered with a mercu¬
rial plafter. To the difcutient fomentation above men¬
tioned may be added crude fal ammoniac, with a hand¬
ful of wood-afties boiled in it.
The bliftering 'ointment for the above purpofes
may be found in the Section of Bone-fpavin ; but the
fublimate ffiould be omitted.
The Jiring, fo generally ufed for the ftrengthen-
ing relaxed finews or tendons, is made to ad upon dif¬
ferent parts according to the different notions of the
operator. Moft ufually it is intended to ad only on
the Ikin, which, by contrading and hardening it all
round the finews, compreffes them more firmly like a
bandage. The bowmen of old, it is alleged, fubmitted
to this operation, in order to give ftrength to the muf¬
cles and tendons of their arms. Upon this principle,
a proper degree of Ikill is very requifite to perform it
effeduallj.
14+ FARR
Tumor* effe&uallyrm a hoffe 5 for a due medium thould be ob-
ferved, and the inftruinent neither fo flightly applied
po ii me-^. ag tQ fcpr;fy. t]ie only fupefficially, nor fo deep as
to wound or cauterife the finew or its dteath. The
lines flionidbe drawn pretty clofe together, on each fide
of the joint or finew, following the courfe of the hair ;
no crofs lines fhould be made, as they but disfigure the
horfe afterwards, without any real ufe. The firing in-
flrument, or knife, ought to be a little rounded on the
'edge, gradually thickening to the back, that it may re¬
tain the heat for fome time, but fliould not be applied
till the flaming rednefs is partly gone off. The caute¬
rized parts may be bathed with fpirit of wine at firfl ;
and anointed afterwards with bees-wax and oil, which
alone is fufficient to complete the cure. But, in every
viewy this operation deferves to be condemned, upon
the following judicious obfervations of Ofmer. “Be¬
tween the tendon and the fkin of the kg, as nothing
intervenes but a thin membrane, what hand can deter¬
mine betwixt the boundaries of thofe bodies, whofe ap¬
pearance, by the heat of the iron, is made undiftinguifli-
able to the eye? Now mark the event of firing. If
the’ fire reaches no further than,the fkin, little advan¬
tage can accrue to the tendon, but the fibres of the
fkin will become contra&ed and lefs pliant; if the fire
reaches the membrane or fheath of the tendon, fome of
its glands are deftroyed, and the tendon becomes more
or lefs rigid. If the tendon be burnt, the confequence
will be ftill worfe; and in either cafe the velocity of mo¬
tion will be impeded : on all thefe occafions the horfe
fhould be turned to grafs and indulged with proper reft,
that the difeafed parts may recover their former firm-
nefs, tone, and ftrength.”
Sect. XXVI. Of Tumors and Impo/lhumes.
Tumors, or fwellings, arife either From external
injuries or internal caufes.
1. Swellings caufed by external accidents, as blows
and bruifes, fhould at firft be treated with reftringents:
Thus, let the part be bathed frequently with hot vine¬
gar or verjuice ; and, where it will admit of bandage,
let a flannel wetted with, the fame be rolled on : if by
this method the fwelling does not fubfide, apply, efpe-
cially on the legs, a poultice with red-wine lees, ftrong-
beer grounds, and oatmeal, or with vinegar, oil, and
oatmeal: either of thefe may be continued twice a-
day, after bathing, till the fwelling abates ; when, in
order to difperfe it entirely, the vinegar fhould be
changed for camphorated fpirit of w ine, to four oun¬
ces of which may be added one of fpirit of fal ammo¬
niac ; or it may be bathed with a mixture of twro
ounces of crude fal ammoniac boiled, in a quart of cham¬
ber-lye twice a-day, and rags dipped in the fame may
be rolled on.
Fomentation made by boiling wormwood, bay-
leaves, and rdfemary, and adding a proper quantity of
fpirits, are often of great'fervice to thin the juices, and
fit them for tranfpiration; efpeqially if the injury has
affefted the joints.
But in bruifes, where the extravafated blood will not
by thefe means be difperfed, the fhorteft way is to open
the fkin, and let out the grumes.
Critical tumors or fwellings, which terminate fe¬
vers, fhould by no means be difperfed; except when
they fall on the pattern or coffin joint, fo a* to endan-
JM° 124.
t E R Y, Sefl. XXVI.
ger them : in this eafe the difcutieftt fomentation, Tumors
(p. 143, col. 1.) fhould be applied three or four times
a-day, and a cloth or flannel frequently wrung out*
of the fame fhould be bound on, in order to keep the
joint continually breathing.
But all tumors tending to certain maturation (from
whatever caufe they originated)., fhould be- expediti-
oufly affifted by fomentation as already direfted ; and,
after each time of ufing the fomentation, the ripening
encouraged by fuppurating poultices wherever they
can be applied : oatmeal boiled foft in milk, to which
a proper quantity of oil and lard is added, may anfwer
this purpofe; or the poultice recommended in the
Seftion of Strangles. Thefe applications muft be re¬
gularly continued till the matter is perceived to fluc¬
tuate under the fingers, when it ought to be let out;
for which purpofe, let the tumor be opened with a
knife or flrong lancet, the whole length of the fwell¬
ing, if it can be done fafely; for nothing contributes
fo much to a kind healing as the matter’s having a free
difeharge, and the opening’s being big enough to drefs
to the bottom.
Pledgets of tow or lint fpread with black or yel¬
low' bafilicon (or the wound ointment), and dipped
in the fame, melted down with a fifth part of oil
of turpentine, fhquld be applied to the bottom of
the fore, and Ailed up lightly with the fame, wfith-
out cramming: it may be thus dreffed once or twice
a-day, if the difeharge is great, till a proper digeftion
is procured; when it fhould be changed for pledgets
fpread with the red precipitate ointment, applied in the
fame manner.
Should the fore not digeft kindly, but run a thin
water and look pale, foment, as often as you drefs,
with the above fomentation ; and apply over your
dreffing the ftrong-beer poultice, and continue this me¬
thod till the matter grows thick, and the fore florid.
The following ointments will generally anfwer your
expectations in all common cafes ; and may be prepared
without, as well as with, the verdigreafe.
Take Venice turpentine and bees-w'ax of each a
pound, oil of olives one pound and a half, yellow
rofin 12 ounces; when melted together, two or
three ounces of verdigreafe, finely powdered, may
be ftivred in, and kept fo till cold, to prevent its
fubfiding.
Take of yellow bafilicon, or the above ointment,
without verdigreafe, four ounces ; red precipitate,
finely powdered, half an ounce : mix them toge¬
ther cold with a knife or fpatula'.
This laft, applied early, will prevent a fungus, or
proud flefh, from fhooting out: for if you drefs too
long with the above digeftive, the fungus will rife
fait, and give fome trouble to fupprefs it; when it
will be neceffary to wafh the fore, as often as your drefs,
with a folution of blue vitriol in water, or tq, fprinkle
it'with burnt alum and precipitate. If thefe fhould
not be powerful enough, touch with a cauftic, or wafh
with the fublimate water made by difiblving half an
ounce of corrofive fublimate in a pint ef lime-water.
But this trouble may in a great meafure be pre¬
vented, if the fore is on a part where bandages can be
applied with compreffes of linen-cloth 5 for even when
thefe excrefcences regerminate, as it were, under the
knife, and fprihg up in fpite of the cauftics above .
3 mentioned.
Sea. XXVI. FARR
Tumors mentioned, they are to be fubdued by moderate com*
and Im- prefiion made on the fprouting fibres by thefe means,
pofthumes.r As foon
as the wound is fleinned over, throwing
afide all greafy applications, let the furface be harden¬
ed firft with eqml parts of tincture of myrrh and vine¬
gar, afterwards with tinfture of myrrh alone: If any
efchar of confequence ftiould remain, and the hair not
follow kindly, rub the part gently every night with a
fmall quantity of camphorated fpermaceti ointment,
the beft article known to promote the return of the hair
upon the knees or any other part.
Authors on farriery have given in general very pro¬
per receipts to anfwer every intention of this kind by
medicines: but as they have not laid down fufficient
- rules for their application in thofe cafes where they are
moft wanted^ the following general direftions will not
be unacceptable ; as the difficulty in healing fome kinds
of fores ariles frequently from the unlkilful manner of
dreffing them.
It may be neceflary then to obferve here, once for
all, that the cures of moft fores are effefted by the
fimpleft methods; and that it is often of much more
confequence to know how to drefs a fore, than what to
drefs it with. And in this confifts indeed the chief ait
of this branch of furgery : for the moft eminent in that
profeffion have long fince difcovered, that variety of
ointments and falves are unneceffary in the cure of
moft wounds and fores; and they have accordingly dif-
carded the greateft part formerly in repute for that pur-
pofe ; repeated obfervations having taught them, that,
after the digeftion, nature is generally difpofed to heal
up the wound fall enough herfelf; and that the fur-
geon’s chief care is to prevent a luxuriancy, commonly
called proudJltfh'; which all ointments, wherein lard or
oil enters, are but too prone to encourage, as they
keep the fibres too lax and fupple ; and.which dry lint
alone, .early applied, as eaffiy prevents, by its ab-
forbing quality, and light conf^reffion on the fprout¬
ing fibres.
Thus, if a hollow wound or fore is crammed with
tents, or the drtllings are applied too hard, the tender
(hoots of flefti from the bottom are prevented puffiing
up; and the Tides of the fore from this diftenfion may
in time grow horny and turn fiftulous; nor has the
matter by this method a free difcharge.
■On the other hand, if fores of any depth are drefted
fuperficially, the external parts being more difpofed to
heal and come together than the internal, they will fall
into contadf, or heal too foon ; and the fore, not filling
up properly from the bottom, will break out afreffi.
Hence we may juftly conceive how little ftrefs is to
be laid on famous ointments, or family Talves, unfkil-
fuliy applied ; for uniefs this due medium is obferved,
or obtained in the dreffing, no hollow fore can heal
up properly.
As foon then as a good digeftion is procured (which !
is-known by the thicknefs and whitenefs of the matter
difcharged, and the florid red colour at the bottom of
the fore), let the dreffings be changed for the precipi¬
tate medicine ; or the fore may be filled up with dry
lijrt alone, or dipped in lime-water, with a little ho¬
ney and tinfture of myrrh, or brandy, about a fifth
part of the latter to one of the former: a pledget of
lint, dipped in this mixture, ffio.uld aifo be applied to
the bottom of the fore, which fhould be filled up with
Voii VII. Part I.
I E R Y. .45
others to the furface or edges, but not crammed in tooWorn-is in
hard, as before obferved, nor yet applied too loofely. General.
By this method, the fore would incarnate, or heal up ^ *
properly, and foft fpongy fleffi would be prevented or
fupprefTcd in time ; whereas when ointments or falves
are too long continued, a fungus, or proud fiefh, is
thereby fo encouraged in its growth, that it requires
fome time to deftroy and eat it down again : a proper
comprefs of cloth, and a linen roller, is abfolutely ne-
ceflary both for this purpafe and to fecure on the dteffo
ings, wherever they can conveniently be applied.
2. Scrofulous tumors are fuch as originate in fcor-
butic or hereditary taints, and increafe or diminifti ac¬
cording to the ftate ©r acrimony of the blood. For
thefe the principal application is the ftrongeft mercu¬
rial unguent, thus prepared.
Quicksilver two ounces, lard fix ounces, balfam
of fulphur half an ounce The quickfilver to be
rubbed with the balfam in a metal mortar till the
globules difappear; then the lard (firft made warm)
to be added by degrees.
The ufe of this unguent mull be affifted by a courfe
of mercurial and antimonial alteratives.
3. The other tumors that may be here noticed are
the cedematous, fteatomatous, and eneyfted. The
oedematous and eneyfted tumors are nearly fynony-'
mous, originating in a cyft or bag, containing a kind
of ichorous bloody fanies or gelatinous fluid ; which
being evacuated, the cyft does not always fubmit to
digeftives or efcharotics, but muft be extirpated with
the knife, and cured as a common wound.
The fteatomatous are thofe tumors that form on diB
ferent parts, and pafs in general under the denomina¬
tion ot <wens, containing, when opened or extradled, a
fubftance not unlike fuet when hardly cold.
Neither of the above are expefted to fubmit to any to¬
pical application, unlefs upon the very firft obfervatiom;
when an attempt may be made by the moft powerful re¬
pellents, and a fmall portion of the above mercurial oint¬
ment rubbed in every night, for a confiderable length of
time; but no radical cure can be in general obtained but
by inftrumental extirpation ; and as this muft be un¬
avoidably attended with lofs of time, and a proportional
(hare of danger, if feated upon or interfered by the
mufcular parts, perhaps it, may be rnoft prudent to omit
the experiment and fob nut it to chance.
Sect. XXVII. Of Wounds in General.
In all freffi wounds made by cutting in ft rumen ts,
there is nothing more required than bringing the lips
of the wound into contaft by future or bandage, pro¬
vided the part will allow of it; for on wounds of the
hips, or other prominent parts, and acrofs fome of the
large mufcles, the ditches are apt to burft on the horfe’s
lying down and rifing up in the ftall. In fuch cafes,
the lips ftiould not be brought clofe together : one
ditch is fufficient for a wound two inches long : but in
large wounds, they (hould be at an inch or more di-
ftance ; and if the wound is deep in the mufcles, care
(hould be taken to pafs the needles proportionably
deep, otherwife the wound will not unite properly
from the bottom.
Should the wound bleed much from an artery di¬
vided, the firft ftep (hould be to fecure it, by paffing
a crooked needle underneath, and tying it up with a
T waxed
546 FARR
Wounds in waxed thread: if the artery cannot be got at this way,
.Genera1' apply a button of lint or tow to the mouth of the
* bleeding veffels, dipped in a ftrong folution of blue vi-
triol, ftyptic water, oil of vitriol, or hot oil of tur¬
pentine, powdered vitriol, or colcothar, &c. and re¬
member always to apply it clofc to the mouth of the
bleeding vefiels, and take care that it is kept there by
proper comprefs and bandage till an efchar is formed ;
©therwife it will elude your expectations, and- fre¬
quently alarm you with frelh bleedings.
In a memoir prefented to the Royal Academy of
Sciences by M. La Foffe, he gives an account of the
fuccefs he had met with in flopping the bleedings of
very confiderable arteries in horfes, by the application
of the powder of puff-balls, the arteries cicatrizing by
this means only, without any fucceeding haemorrhage.
The lycoperdon, or puff-ball, was made ufe of for this
purpofe in human fubjecfs, about 170 years ago, by
Felix Wurtz, a famous old furgeon in Germany ; but
he does not feem to have thought of trufting to it in
fuch confiderable arteiies as M. La Foffe mentions,
viz. thofe of the leg and thigh, the bleedings from
which divided veffels he flopt in a few minutes by the
ufe of this powder only. The agaric of the oak may
alfo be ufed for this purpofe, where it can be retained
by a proper bandage.
Thefe applications, as indeed all flyptics, feem to
a6l by conflringing the extremity of the veffel, or
choaking it' up, till a grume of blood is formed in¬
ternally, which plugs up the orifice ; and has been
found to adhere to it fo as to conflitute one body with
the veffel.
We avoid fetting down any famous receipts for
frefh wounds, whether ointments, or Friar’s balfams,
being well affured, that, in a healthy found conllitu-
tion, nature furnifhes the beft balfam, and performs
herfelf the cure, which is fo often attributed to the
medicine ; when it is otherwife, and the blood is de¬
prived of its balfamic flate, as will appear from the
afped of the wound and its manner of healing, it mull
be reftified by proper internal medicines, before a good
foundation for healing can be laid by any external ap¬
plication whatever.
The lips of the wound then being brought together
by the needle or bandage, it needs only to be covered
with rags dipped in brandy, or a pledget of tow fpread
with the wound ointment, (fee page 144. col. 2.) the
directions in the preceding feCtions being obferved,
and the wounded part kept as much as poffibk from
motion.
PunCtured wounds from thorns, or any other acci¬
dents, fhould be treated in the fame manner; applying
the beer or bread and milk poultice over the dreffing,
till fome figns of digeftion appear; and fomenting the
part well every day. This method is alfo very furccefs-
fully ufed to thofe fwellings which often arife on the
neck from bleeding; the fores being fprinkled with
precipitate, and burnt alum powdered, to fetch out
the core or fungous, which choaks up the orifice. The
ufual method is to introduce a piece of vitriol, or fub-
limate, which often brings on a plentiful difcharge,
fetches out the core, and makes a cure; but it is often
with the lofs of the vein, and it fometimes leaves a large
fwelling and impofthumation.
In gun-lhot wounds, when the ball has not pene-
1 e it Y. Sea XXVII.
trated too deep, it fhould be extrafled, if it can be Wountb ih
fetched away without difturbance, together with any General,
extraneous bodies that might pafs in with it ; the y1 J
wound fhould be dreffed with the old digeftive of Ve¬
nice or common turpentine, divided with the yolks of
eggs, to which may be added fome honey and tinClure
of myrrh. The entrance of thefe wounds frequently
requires to be enlarged, and a depending orifice fliould
always be procured if poflible ; and if the wound
fhould not digeft kindly, apply the beer poultice, and
foment with the difcutient fomentation before men¬
tioned.
In fcalds, or burns from gunpowder, or any other
caufe, when the fkin remains entire, bathe the part
well, and keep it foaked with rags dipped in fpirit of
wine camphorated: fait bound thick on the part has
been found very- effectual for this purpofe ; and indeed
all faline and fpirit nous applications excel others, while
the fkin is yet unbroke; but when the fkitr is fepa-
rated, anoint the part, and keep it conflantly fupple
with linfeed or falad oil, and a plafter fpread with bees¬
wax and oil; if the fkin is fo fcorched, that (loughs
muft be digefted out, drefs with the wound-ointment
and oil of turpentine, and finifh the cure with any dry¬
ing ointment. Should the horfe be feverifh from the
pain, bleed him, give cooling glyfters, and treat him
as w e have direfted in fimple fevers.
There are certain wounds which occur much more
frequently than any other, and which from that cir-
cumftance, though in themfelves not at all dangerous,
deferve particular notice. Among thefe are bro¬
ken knees, over-reaches, and lacerations between hair
and hoof. In refped to the ftrft, it is a misfortune
whenever it happens that not only reduces the horfe
very much in his value, but is confidered as an indelible
ftigma of imperfedlion, that (with connoiffeurs) ren-
ders him at firft fight unworthy a fecond confidera-
tion. This misfortune may fometimes be occafioned
by unavoidable accident; but Mr Taplin is juftly of
opinion that more horfes are thrown down and irreme¬
diably injured by the careleffnefs and fhameful inatten¬
tion of bad riders on bad roads and over rolling ftones,
or when they are more cruelly exhanlltd with labour
and fatigue, than by any other means in the whole lift
of accidents.
In relieving this injury, the firft ftep is to wafh the
parts well with a fponge and warm water, thoroughly
cleanfing the lacerations from gravel or fand; for thefe
will evidently irritate and inflame the tender parts, and
be produ&ive of a difcharge which may often be en¬
tirely prevented by gently wiping them dry after the
ufe of the fponge, and plentifully embrocating them
with a mixture of camphorated fpirits and vinegar in
equal quantities, bandaging over a pledget of tow wet
with the fame, and repeating it once or twice if circum-
ftances fhould rendei1 it neceffary. This fhduld be conti¬
nued, that an efchar or cicatrix may be formed to ren¬
der un&aous or greafy applications unneceffary; but
fhould tire wound or laceration be fo violent as to pro¬
duce great inflammation, fuppuration muft enfue, and
ought to be encouraged by the means already direfted,
and the fore healed in the manner alfo above dire&ed.
As to over-reaches and other injuries in the feet,
they are treated of in. their order under Difeafcs of the
Fnt.
Sect,
Sea. XXVIII. FARR
Sect. XXVIII, Of Ulcers in liberal.
We (hall not here enter into a defcriptxon of each
■particular fpecies of ulcers, but only lay down fome
direftions for their general treatment; by which means
we (hall' avoid the ufual prolixity of authors on this
fubjeft, and yet give fo general an idea of the nature of
ulcers, as we hope will be fufficiently inilru&ive both
of the application and of the proper remedy to each.
It may be neceffary to obferve, that we may often
in vain purfue the beil methods of cure by external ap¬
plications, unlefs we have recourfe to proper internal
remedies ; for as all ulcers, difficult to heal, proceed
from a particular indifpofition of the blood and juices,
before the former can be brought into any order, the
latter muft be corredled by alteratives and fweetening
medicines.
The firft intention in the cure of ulcers is bringing
them to digeft, or difcharge a thick matter ; which
will, in general, be effefted by the green ointment, or
that with precipitate ; but fhould the fore not digeft
kindly by thefe means, but difcharge a gleety thin
matter, and look pale, you muft then have recourfe to
warmer dreffings, fuch as balfam, or oil of turpentine,
melted down with your common digeftive, and the
ftrong-beer poultice over them; it is proper alfo in
thefe kind of fores, where the circulation is languid,
and the natural heat abated, to warm the part, and
quicken the motion of the blood, by fomenting it well
at the time of dreffing; which method will thicken the
matter, and roufe the native heat of the part, and then
- the former dreffings may be re-applied.
If the lips of the ulcer grow hard or callous, it will
be neceffary to foment ftrongly with a deco&ion ol
camomile and mallows, as hot as can be conveniently
applied ; then fcarify fuperficially the whole part, both
longitudinally and tranfverfely, with a fleam or abf-
cefs lancet, fo as to entirely penetrate the callous fub-
ftance upon the furface : after which it muft be drefled
with digeftive ointment twice every day ; the fomen¬
tation and fcarifications to be repeated occafionally, if
neceffary, till the callofity is quite floughed off, and
comes away with the dreffings. A proper ointment
for the above purpofe may be prepared as follows.
Take of yellow bafilicon two ounces, and black ba*
filicon one ounce, and melt them together over
the fire. When taken off, ftir in one ounce of
turpentine ; and when cool, add half an ounce of
red precipitate finely powdered, the whole to be
minutely incorporated upon a ftone or marble flab.
As foon as the callofity is removed, and the dif¬
charge comes to its proper confiftence, drefs in gene¬
ral with a fmall portion of lint, thinly covered with
either of the bafilicens, placed under a pledget of tow
fpread with the following digeftive :
Yellow wax and black rofin each four ounces,
Burgundy pich two ounces : melt thefe in a pint
of oil olive over a flow fire ; and when taken off,
ftir in two ounces of turpentine. For large
wounds, where a plentiful difcharge is required,
ftir into this quantity three ounces of the fpirits
of turpentine, that it may incorporate in getting
cool.
Should the wound incarnate too faft, and fill with
fungous flefh, (lightly touch fuch parts with a piece
I E R Y.
of unflacked lime, regulating the mode and application
by the neceffity, and repeating it as occafion may re¬
quire. When the cicatrix is nearly formed, the cure
may be completed by hardening the furface with a little
tinfture of myrrh.
Ail finufes, or cavities, if no tendinous parts inter¬
vene, fliould be inftantly laid open (with a biftory) to
its utmoft extent, and properly filled with a pledget
of lint, well impregnated with warm digeftive, and
plentifully covered with tow fpread with the fame.
After a fecond or third dreffing, ftiould the infide of
fuch cavity prove callous, or hard in fubftance, it
muft be taken away by the knife, or deftroyed by the
means before defcribed. If it be fo fituated that the
parts forbid an entire reparation, found with the probe,
and at its extremity make a counter incifion through
the integuments to meet the probe, till, by paffing
through, it removes any lodgment that may have been
left for the matter to corrode, which it will very foon
do, fo as in many cafes to affeft the bone itfelf.
Where the cavity penetrates deep into the mufcles,
and a counter opening is imprafticable or hazardous;
where, by a continuance, the integuments of the
mufcles are conftantly dripping and melting down ; in
thefe cafes waftres may be injetied, and will frequent¬
ly be attended with fuccefs. The following is parti',
cularly recommended by Mr Taplin.
Take honey and vinegar each two ounces ; liquefy
over the fire ; and when cool add tin&ure of
myrrh and tinfture of cantharides each one ounce.
-—Mix.
When the ulcer is by thefe means divefted of its vi¬
rulence and bad fmell, the callofity floughed off or ex¬
tracted, and a favourable appearance of incarnation
comes on, the dreffings may he changed from the pre¬
cipitate digeftive before prefcribed, to pledgets fpread
with Locatellus’s balfam, or the following compound.
Take white diachylon two ounces, Locatellus’s bal¬
fam one ounce, and melt them over the fire in two
ounces of olive oil. Take off; and when nearly
cool, ftir in an ounce of balfam of capivi, a little
at a time, till it is all incorporated.
Thefe finufes, or cavities, frequently degenerate in¬
to JiJlula, that is, grow pipey, having the infide thick¬
ened, and lined, as it were, with a horny callous fub¬
ftance. In order to their cure, they muft be laid open,
and the hard fubftance all cut away ; where this is im¬
practicable, fcarify them well, and truft to the preci¬
pitate medicine made ftrong, rubbing now and then
with cauftic, butter of antimony, or equal parts of
quickfilver and aquafortis.
When a rotten or foul bone is an attendant on an ul¬
cer, the flefh is generally loofe and flabby ; the dif¬
charge oily, thin, and ftinking ; and the bone difoo-
vered to be carious, by its feeling rough to the probe
paffed through the flefh for that purpofe. In order to
a cure, the bone muft be laid bare, that the rotten
part of it be removed : for which purpofe, deftroy the
loofe flefh, and drefs with dry lint-; or the doffils may
be preffed out of tindure of myrrh or euphorbium.
The throwing off the fcale is generally a work of na¬
ture, which is effe&ed in more or lefs time, and in pro¬
portion to the depth the bone is affeCled; though
burning the foul bone is thought by fome to haften its
feparation.
T 3
147
Ulcers in
General.
Where
148 FARR
Bone- Where the cure does not properly fucceed, mercu-
Spavin. rjaj phyfPc fhould be given, and repeated at proper in-
v.. —tervajg . an(3 to correct and mend the blood and juices,
the antimonial and alterative powders, with a decoc¬
tion of guaiacum and lime-water, are proper for that
purpofe.
Sect. XXIX. Of a Bone-Spavin.
Without entering at all into the caufe of this dif-
order, which is a bony excrefcence, or hard fwelling,
growing on the infide of the hock of a horfe’s leg,
we (hall content ourfelves with defcribing the different
kinds thereof by their fymptoms, and then enter on
their cUrd.
A fpavin, that begins on the lower part of the
hock, is not fo dangerous as that which puts out high¬
er, between the two round proceffes of the leg-bone ;
and a fpavin near the edge is not fo bad as that which
is more inward toward the middle, as it does not fo
much affedf the bending of the hock.
A fpavin, that comes by a kick or blow, is at firft
no true fpavin, but a bruife on the bone, or membrane
which covers it ; therefore not of that confequence as
when it proceeds from a natural caufe : and thofe that
put out on colts and young horfes, are not fo bad as
thofe that happen to horfes in their full flrength and
maturity ; but in very old horfes they are generally in¬
curable.-
The ufual method of treating this diforder is by bli-
fters and firing; without any regard to the fituation,
or caufe whence it proceeds. Thus, if a fulnefs on
the fore-part of the hock comes upon hard riding, or
any other violence, which threatens a fpavin; in that
cafe, fuch coolers and repellers are proper, as are re¬
commended in drains and bruifes. Thofe happening to
colts and young horfes are generally fuperficial, and re¬
quire only the milder applications; for it is better to
wear them down by degrees, than to remove them at
once by fey ere means.
Various are the prefcriptions for the blillering oint¬
ment ; but the following, on proper experience, (lands
well recommended by Mr Gibfon.
Take nerve and marfir-mallow ointment, of each
two ounces; quickfilver, one ounce, thoroughly
broke with an ounce of Venice turpentine ; Spa-
nidi flies powdered, a dram and a halt; fublimate,
one dram ; oil of origanum, two drams.
The hair is to be cut as clofe as poflible, and then
the ointment applied pretty thick over the part; this
(hould be done in the morning, and the horfe kept tied
up all day without any litter till night; when he may
be untied, in order to lie down; and a pitch or any
flicking platter may be laid over it, and bound on with
a broad tape or bandage to keep all clofe.
After the blitter has done running, and the fcabs
begin to dry and peel off, it may be applied a fecond
time, in the fame manner as before ; this fecond appli¬
cation generally taking greater effedl than the firft, and
in colts and young horfes makes a perfedl cure.
When the fpavin has been of long (landing, it will
require to be renewed, perhaps five or fix times : but
after the fecond application, a greater dittance of time
mutt be allowed, otherwife it might leave a fear, or
caufe a baldnefs; to prevent which, once a-fortnight
or three weeks is often enough; and it may in this
I E R Y. Sea. XXX,
manner be continued fix or feven times, without the V’l,r,J an<*
leaft blemilh, and will generally be attended with fuc-Ring'l,oneJ
cefs. ,
But the fpavins that put out on older or-full-aged
horfes are apt to be more obftinate, as being feated
more inward; and when they run among the finuofi-
ties of the joint, they are for the mod part incurable,
as they then lie out of the reach of applications, and
are arrived to a degree of impenetrable hardnefs.
The ufual method in thefe cafes is to fire direftly,
or to ufe the ftrongeft kind of cauttic -blitters; and
fometimes to fire and lay the blitter immediately over
the part : but this way feldom fucceeds farther than
putting a (top to the growth of the fpavin, and is apt
to leave both a blemifli and ftiffnefs behind ; beficles
the great rifle run (by applications of thefe fiery and
cauttic medicines to the nervous and tendinous parts a-
bout the joints) of exciting violent pain and anguilh,
and deftroying the limb. ,
The belt and fafeft way, therefore, is to make trial
of the blittering ointment above, and to continue it ac¬
cording to the directions there laid down, for fome
months, if found needfary ; the horfes in the 'inter¬
vals working moderately : the hardnefs will thus be
diffolved by degrees, and wear away infenfibly.
Where the fpavin lies deep, and runs-fo far into the
hollow of the joint that no application can reach it,
neither firing nor medicines can avail, for the reafons
above mentioned ; though bold ignorant fellows have
fometimes fucceeded in cafes of this fort (by men of
judgment deemed incurable) by the application of
cauttic ointments with fublimate, which a<ft very for¬
cibly, enter deep, and make a large difeharge, and by
that means deftroy a great part of the fubftance, and
diflblve away the remainder : though, whoever is at
all acquainted with the nature of thefe medicines, mutt
know how dangerous in general their operation is on
thefe occafions; and that a proper prepared cautery
made like a fleam, under the diredion of a (kilful
hand, may be applied with lefs danger of injuring ei¬
ther tendons or ligaments. After the fubftance of the
fwelling has been properly penetrated by the inftru^
ment, it mutt be kept running by the precipitate me¬
dicine, or mild blittering ointment. Where the fpavin
lies not deep in the joint, and the Wittering method
will not fucceed, the fwelling may be fafely fired with
a thin iron forced pretty deep into the fubftuhce, and
then (hould be dreffed as is above direded.
Sect. XXX. Of a Curb and Ringbone.
i. As a fpavin rifes among the bones on the fore--
part of the hock, fo a curb takes its origin from the
junctures of the fame bones, and rifes on the hind-part,
forming a pretty large tumor over the back part of
the hind-leg, attended with ftiffuefs, and fometimes
with pain and lamenefs.
A curb proceeds from the fame caufes that produce
fpavins; viz. hard riding, drains, blows, or kicks.
The cure at firft is generally eafy enough effeded by
Wittering, repeated two or three times, or oftener. If
it does not fubmit to this, treatment, but grows excef-
fively hard, the quickeft and fureft way is to fire with
a thin iron, making a line down the middle from top
to bottom, and drawing feveral lines in a penniform
manner pretty deep ; and then to apply a mild Witter¬
ing
Sea. xxxr. f a r r
. Splents ing plafter or ointment over it.—This method will en-
1^ tuely remove it.
There is another fwelling taken notice of on the out-
fide of the hock, which is called a jarden. This com¬
monly proceeds from blows and kicks of other horfes ;
but frequently happens to maneged horfes, by fetting
them on their haunches : .it is feldom attended with
much lamenefs, unlefs it has been neglefted, or fome
little procefs of the bone be broke. Itihould firft be
treated with the coolers and repellers in fedt. xxxii.
art. 2.: but if any fwelling continues hard and infenlible,
the belt way is to bliller or fire ; but the mild blifters
alone generally fucceed.
2. The ring-lone is a hard fwelling on the lower part
of the pallern, which generally reaches half way round
the fore-part thereof, and from its refemblance to a
ring has its denomination. It often arifes from drains,
&c.; and, when behind, from putting young horfes too
early upon their haunches ; for in that attitude a horfe
throws his whole weight as much, if not more, upon
his pafterns, than on his hocks.
When it appears diitindtly round the pattern, and
does not run downwards toward the coronet, fo as to
affcdf the coffin-joint, it is eafily cured : but if it takes
its origin from fome drain or defect in the joint origi¬
nally, or if a callofity is found under the round liga¬
ment that covers that joint, the cure is generally du¬
bious, and fometimes impracticable ; as it is apt to
turn to a quittor, and in the end to form an ulcer upon
the hoof.
The ring-bones that appear on colts and young hor¬
fes, will often infenfibly wear off of themfelves, with¬
out the help of any application ; but when the fub-
ttance remains, there needs no other remedy befides
bliftering, unlefs when by long continuance it is grown
to an obftinate hardnefs, and then it may require both
bliftering and firing.
To fire a ring-bone fuccefsfully, let the operation
be performed with a thinner inftrument than the com¬
mon one, and let the lines or razes be made not above
. a quarter of an inch diftant, croffing them obliquely,
fomewhat like a chain : apply a mild blitter over all,
and, when quite dried up, the rupture-platter; and
then turn the horfe to gi afs for fome time.
Sect. XXXI. Of Splents.
These are hard excrefcences that grow on the
ffiank-bone, and are of various ffiapes and fizes. Some
horfes are more fubjeft to fplents than others ; but
young horfes are moft liable to thefe infirmities, which
often wear off and difappear of themfelves. Few horfes
put out fplents after they are feven or eight years old,
unlefs they meet with blows or accidents.
A fplent that arifes in the middle of the ffiank-bone
is nowife dangerous; but thofe that arife on the
back part of this bone, when they grow large and
prefs againft the back finew, always caufe lamenefs or
iliffnefs, by rubbing againft it: the others, except
they are iituated near the joints, feldom occafion
lamenefs.
As to the cure of fplents, the heft way is not to
meddle with them, unlefs they are fo large as to dif-
figure a horfe, or are fo fituated as to endanger his
going lame.
Spknts in their infancy, and on their firft appear-
4
I E R Y. r49
ance, ffiould be well bathed with vinegar, or old ver- Poll evil,
juice ; which, by ftrengthening the fibres, often put a &c;
flop to their growth: for the membrane covering the " v"_'
bone, and not the bone itfelf, is here thickened ; and
in fome conftitutions purging, and afterwards diuretic
drinks, will be a great means to remove the humidity
and moiflure about the limbs, which is what often gives
rife to fuch excrefcences.
Various are the remedies prefcribed for this diforder:
the ufual way is to rub the fplent with a round ftick
or the handle of a hammer fill it is almoft raw, and
then touch it with oil of origanum. Others lay on
a pitch-platter, with a little fublknate or arfenic, to
deftroy the fubftance ; fome ufe oil of vitriol; fome
tinfture of cantharides: all which methods have at
times fucceeded ; only they are apt to leave a fear,
with the loft of hair. Thofe applications that are of
a more cauftic nature often do more hurt than good,
efpecially when the fplent is grown very hard, as they
produce a rettennefs, which keeps running feveral
months before the ulcer can be healed, and then leaves
an ugly fear.
According to Mr Taplin, the only expedition of
cure “ without anxiety and difficulty, is to be careful
in obferving fuch appearance, in their earlieft ftate ;
and then feeing that frequent fridlion is ufedfor a con-
fiderable time, twice every day, with the utmott for*;?
of the operator’s hands, letting the part be well moi-
ftened, after each time of rubbing, with a proportion »
of the following liniment, leaving a pledget of tow
wet with the fame, bound on pretty firm with two
yards of wide tape as a roller:
“ Take camphorated fpirits of wine, and fpirits of
turpentine, of each four ounces (a quarter of a
pint). Mix together.
“Or, Oil of origanum and fpirits of turpentine, each
half an ounce ; camphorated fpirits of wine, two
ounces.—Mix.
“ When this plan has been perfevered in for ten days
or a fortnight, you will then be able to judge whether
any perceptible advantage has been obtained from the
force of thefe powerful-repellents : if not, procure'two
ounces of the ftrongeft mercurial oirjtment, and let the
fize of a hazel-nut be well rubbed in upon the part
affedled, every night and morning, till the whole is
confumed, ufing the roller each night, and taking it
off in the morning. If this does not fucceed, the heft
and moft fpeedy method will be the immediate ex¬
tirpation, by making a longitudinal inciiion (‘ with¬
out bruifing, hammering,’ &c.) through the integu¬
ments, diffefting and extracting the fubftance, com¬
pleting the cure by taking up a couple of flitches, and
treating it as a fuperficial wound ; for which directions
will be found under that head.”
Sect. XXXII. Of the Poll-evil; Fifiula, and .
Bntifes on the Withers; Warbles on the Back,
and Sit-fajls.
i. The poll-evil is an abfeefs near the poll of a horfe,
formed in the finufes between the poll-bone and the
uppermoft vertebrae of the neck.
If it proceeds from blows, bruifes, or any external
violence, at firft bathe the fwelling often with hot vine¬
gar ; and if the hair be fretted off with- an euzing
through.
i^o FARR
Poll evil, through the Mn, make ufe of two parts of vinegar
Fiftula, &c. anj one Df fpjr;t 0f w ;ne . but if there be an itching,
* 1n" with heat and inflammation, the fafeft way is to bleed,
and apply poultices with bread, milk, and elder flowers:
this method, with the aflifiance of phyfic, will frequent¬
ly difperfe the fwelling and prevent this evil.
But when the tumour is critical, and has all the figns
of matter, the belt method then is to forward it by
applying the ripening poultices already taken notice
of, till it comes to maturity, and burfts of itfelf; or
if opened with a knife, g^eat care flrould be taken to
avoid the tendinous ligament that runs along the neck
under the mane; when matter is on both fides, the
opening muft be made on each fide, and the ligament
remain undivided.
If the matter flows in great quantities, refembles
melted glue, and is of an oily confiltence, it w'ill require
a fecond incifion, efpecially if any cavities are difeo-
vered by the finger or probe ; thefe fliould be opened
by the knife, the orifices made depending, and the
wound dreffed with the common digeftive of turpen¬
tine, honey, and tincture of myrrh, and, after digeftion,
with the precipitate ointment ; or wafti with the fol¬
lowing made hot, and fill up the cavity with tow
foaked in it:
Vinegar or fpirit of wine half a pint, wiiite vitriol
difiblved in fpring-water half an ounce, tinfture
of myrrh four ounces.
This may be made fharper by adding more vitriol;
but if the flefii is very luxuriant, it fhouldfirftbe pared
down with a knife before the application. With this
wafli alone Mr Gibfon has cured this diforder without
any other formality of drefling, wafhing with it twice
a day, and laying over the part a quantity of tow foaked
in vinegar and the white of eggs heat together.
But the moft compendious method of cure, is that
by fcalding, as the farriers term it; and which ufed to
be profecuted when the fore was foul* of a bad dif-
pofition, and attended with a profufion of matter. But
the cruelty, abfurdity, and inutility of the pra&ice
have become fo apparent, as that it feems now to be
almoft univerfally exploded ; fo that it would be fu-
perfluous to give any defeription of the operation.
2. Bruifes on the withers frequently impofthumate,
and for w'ant 6f care turn fiftulous. They arife often
from pinches of the faddle, and fliould be treated with
vepellers: for this purpofe bathe the tumor well wdth
hot vinegar three or four times a-day ; if that does not
iucceed alone, an ounce of oil of vitriol may be put to
a quart of vinegar, or half an ounce of white vitriol dif-
folved in a little water, and added to the fame quan¬
tity. Thefe are generally held as very effe&ual re-
pellers for this purpofe in horfes, and will frequently
prevent impofthumation: when the fwdling is at¬
tended with heat, fmarting, and little hot watery
pimples, the following mixture will then be more pro¬
per to bathe with.
Take tw'o ounces of crude fal ammoniac, boiled in
a quart of lime-water; where that cannot be had,
a handful of pearl or wood afhes may be boiled in
common water: pour off the decoftion when fet¬
tled, and mix with it half a pint of fpirit of wine:
anoint the part afrerwards with listfeed oil, or
eld^r ointment, to foften and fmooth the Ikin.
But when the fwellings are critical, the confequence
I E R Y. Sea.XXXII.
of a fever fettled on this part, you mull avoid the re- Poll-evil,
pelling method, and aflilt in bringing the fwelling to F.ftula, &c.
matter, by means of fuppurating poultices: experienced "v '
farriers advife, never to open thefe tumors till they
break of themfelves: for if they are opened before they
are ripe, the whole fore will be fpongy, and difeharge
a bloody ichor, which foon degenerates into a fordid
ulcer. But take care to enlarge the openings, and
pare away the lips, that your drefiings may be applied
eafily; and avoid the ligament which runs along the
neck to the withers : if a gathering forms on the op-
pofite fide, open it in the fame manner ; but take care
they incline downwards, for the fake of depending
orifices, and letting the matter flow off eafily. For
the method of drefiing, we mull refer to the former
part of this Sedlion ; and if the bones fliould be found
foul, they mull be drefled with tindlure of myrrh till
they fcale off. If the fungus is very troublefome,
and the difeharge oily, yellow, and vifeid, pledget*
foaked in the following, made hot, have been found
very effe&ual, bathing the fwelling round with fpirit
of wine and vinegar :
Take half an ounce of blue vitriol diflblved in a pint
of water ; oil of turpentine, and rediified fpirit of
wine, of each four ounces; white-wine vinegar,
fix ounces; oil of vitriol and JEgyptiacum, of
each two ounces.
When the cavities are truly fiftulous, the callofities
muft be cut out, where it can be done, with a knife;
and the remainder deftroyed by corrolives.
3. Warbles are fmall hard tumors under the fad'dte-
part of the horfe’s back, occalioned by the heat of the
faddle in travelling, or its uneafy fituation. As foon
as the faddle is taken off after a fevere chafe or hard
journey, a good groom or hoftler will be very minute
in his examinations to difeover whether an injury has
been fuftained in this part or any other. He will in-
ftantly perceive, by the horfe’s wincing, whether
there is any defedl from which a warble may fpeedily
enfue ; if fo, upon the firft appearance, or earlieft dif-
covtry, bathe three or four times a-day with the fol¬
lowing repellent:
Extract of Saturn half an ounce, camphorated fpi¬
rit of wine two ounces, foft water a quarter of
a pint; the extradl and fpirit being well mixed
by fhaking, before adding the water.
4. Afit-fajl proceeds generally from a warble, and is
the horfe’s hide turned horny or callous. In fome little
time the hair comes off, and it bears the appearance of
a foreign folid fubftance, fixed in the centre of what
feems to be a fuperficial wound. For this fimple and
very trifling complaint there is but one certain and ex¬
peditious cure, namely, extirpation; which may be
performed with a common penknife. But the moll
ready a^d lead painful method of taking it off is by
juft raifing either edge till it can be taken hold of with
a pair of common pincers ; when, by leaning them to
any fide, you have an immediate fulcrum, or lever,
and feparate it inftantaneoufly without pain or incon¬
venience. After the extirpation, it may be treated as
a Ample fuperficial laceration, and may in general be
healed by a frequent application of Friar’s balfam,
tin&ure of myrrh, or even with a little common bran¬
dy. Due care, however, (hould always be taken to
guard the cicatrix in its infancy, and prevent the
buckle
Saa. XXXII. FARR
Poll-evil, buckle of the girth from coming into direft contact
Fiftula, &c. tjie Jnjured part, not only till the furface is fuffi-
w—y—— cient]y hardened to render a repetition unlikely, but
upon all future occafions.
Some parts of the'above treatment of tumors, how¬
ever, has been condemned, and a more Ample method by
means of fetons recommended, by that judicious prafti-
tioner MrClark of Edinburgh. “ The common method
f Trcatlfc (fays hef) of treating thofe large tumors which are
on the Pre- feated on the upper part of the neck, immediately behind
Dentil n of the jhe cars, generally known by the name of the poll-evil,
^Horhes ^ an^ t^°fe which are feated on the withers or upper
p.245.' parts of the fhoulders, is exceedingly improper. They
are either allowed to break of themfelves, or are open¬
ed the whole length of the tumor on the upper part.
In this fituation, efpecially in the poll-evil,, when the
head is always kept in an credit pofition, the matter
contained in the tumor cannot be difcharged from it,
but is retained in the bottom of the wound, and ex-
pofed to the external air, &c.: it foon acquires a molt
ichorous corroding quality, and produces one of the
larged and the molt fordid fiftulous ulcers that horfes
are infefted with: a great quantity of fungous or proud
flefh is foon produced ; this requires to be repeatedly
extirpated with the knife, the lofs of which cannot be
again fupplied; hence the horfe is greatly disfigured, the
cure becomes both tedious and uncertain, and is feldom
radical. In fome cafes, I have known the vertebra of
the neck affe&ed by the fliarpnefs of the confined
ihatter, forming lodgments there, and, after great
trouble and expence, the horfes were put to death.
“ All thefe kinds of tumors, Sec. are eafily and
fpeedily difeuffed by the ufe of fetons, without any
Ms of fubftance, or disfiguring of the parts, and cured
with the greateft certainty when the operation is pro¬
perly performed. Of a number of - cafes, in my prac¬
tice, where this operation has fucceeded with great
expedition in curing thefe tumors, I lhall only men¬
tion the following.
“ About fix years ago, an Arabian horfe, belong¬
ing to a gentleman in this place, had a large tumor
feated a little on one fide of the withers, or upper part
of the (houlder ; it was forwarded by applying emol¬
lient poultices; and as foon as the matter was percei¬
ved to fludfuate in the tumor, a large feton needle,
armed with a cord at the other end, was introduced at
the upper part of the fwelling, and brought out at the
under, or lowermoft part of it; the matter was dif¬
charged at the lower orifice in a very ftrort time, the
tumor was by that means foon difeuffed, and, in a few
weeks, it was entirely healed up, without any fear or
blemilh remaining, farther than a little baldnefs about
the lower orifice, occafioned by the Iharpnefs of the
matter, which likewife foon difappeared, and not the
leait trace of the diforder remained.
“ The other cafe happened about feven years ago :
a coach-horfe (belonging to a nobleman in the neigh¬
bourhood) had a large tumor a little behind the ears,
or, the neck, which I have formerly obferved is called
the poll-evil; the tumor extended to both fides of the
neck, and was divided in the middle by the mane ; the
tumor had been opened on one fide, in a very fuperfi-
cial manner, by a farrier in the country, before the-
Riattet in it was fufficiently digefted; after applying
I E R Y. i5I
a few emollient poultices, in order to ripen it, a flxong Wind galls,
feton needle, was introduced at the upper part of h, Blood and
almoft clofe to the mane, and after palling it through
the bottom of the tumor, which was very deep, the , j
needle was brought out through the found mufcular
parts below the tumor, in order to procure a floping
or depending orifice for the matter to run freely off.
The fame operation was likewife performed on the op-
pofite fide, beginning near the mane, and finilhed in the
fame manner. In a few weeks the cure was completed.
The horfe run for feveral years in the fame nobleman’s
carriage, without the fmallelt vtftige of his former
diforder.
“ From this method of treating thefe tumors, to¬
gether with the ufe of alterative medicines, &c. which
in cafes of this nature ought never to be omitted, they
were entirely difeuffed, and the perforations made by
the needle foon healed up, without the leaft deformity
of the parts. I have therefore given the hiftory of
thefe cafes, to (how with what facility and expedition-
fuch tumors maybe carried off by the ufe of fetons, in
preference to the common methods ufed, and even re¬
commended by different authors; fuch as, after open¬
ing thefe tumors by deep incifions, and pouring into
them the moll corrofive mixtures, made fcalding hot,
together with a long tedious courfe of hot irritating
applications, by which the poor animals are kept in the
utmoll torture for a confiderable time, and in the end
are fo disfigured by the lofs of fubftance, occafioned
by the cutting away fo much of the flefti from the
parts, that fuch horfes are generally rendered unfit for
any thing but the meaneft drudgery.
“ Deep-feated abfeeffes are cured in the fame man¬
ner by the ufe of fetons; after tracing the finufes or
cavities of the abfeefs with a long (lender blunt lead
probe (which yields eafily without forcing its. way
through the cellular membrane, or taking a diredlion
between the interftices of the mufcles), the needle,
armed with a cord, fhould follow the diredlion of the
fmeivs or pipes, as they are commonly called, to the
moil depending part; and in cafe there fhould be two
or more finufes, which fometimes happens, each of
them fhould be treated in the fame manner, in order to
obtain a depending orifice for a free difeharge of the
matter, and which being once procured, ftldom fails
of completing a cure.”
Sect. XXXIII. Of IVind-galis Blood and Bog-
Spavins.
1. A Wind-gall is a flatulent fw-elling, which
yields to the preffure of the finger, and recovers its
fhape on the removal thereof; the tumor is vifible to
the eye, and often feated on both fides of the back fi-
new, above the fetlocks, on the fore-legs, but moll fre¬
quently on the hind-legs ; though they are met with
in various parts of the body, wherever membranes can
be fo feparated, that a quantity of air and ferofities.
may be included within their duplicatures.
When they appear near the joints and tendons, they
are generally caufed by {trains or bruifes on the finews,
or the fheath that covers them; which, by being over-
ftretched, have fome of their fibres ruptured; whence
probably may ouze out that fluid which is commonly-
found with the included air; though, where thefe.fvvelt-
ings*
152 FARR
Wind-gall", Jugs ft’iow themfelves in theinterllices of large mufcles,
g”0Cgal’d which appear blown up like bladders, air alone is the
rniis!'4 chief fluid; and thefe may fafely be opened, and treat-
t——y——ed as a common wound
On the firft appearance of wind-galls, their cure
flrould be attempted by reftringents and bandage: for
which purpofe, let the fwelling be bathed twice a-day
with vinegar, or verjuice alone ; or let the part be fo¬
mented with a decodlion of oak-bark, pomegranate,
and alum boiled in verjuice, binding over it, with a
roller, a woollen cloth foaked in the fame. Some, for
this purpofe, ufe red-wine lees, others curriers fhavings,
wetted with the fame, or vinegar, bracing the part tip
with a firm bandage.
If this method, after a proper trial, fltould not be
found to fucceed, authors have advifed the fwelling to
be pierced with an awl, or opened with a knife : but
mild bliilering has in general the preference given to
thefe methods; the included fluids being thereby
drawn off, the impadted air difperfed, and the tumor
gradually diminiflied.
2. A Hood-fpavm is a fwelling and dilatation of the
vein that runs along the infide of the hock, forming a
little foft fwelling in the hollow part, and is often at¬
tended with a weaknefs and lamenefs of the hock.
The cure fliould be firft attempted with the reftrin¬
gents and bandage above recommended, which will
contribute greatly to ftrengthen all weaknefies of the
joints, and frequently will remoVe this diforder if early
applied; but if by thefe means the vein is not reduced
to its ufual dimenfions, the fldn ftiould be opened, and
the vein tied with a crooked needle and wax-thread
pafled underneath it, both above and below the fwell-
ing, and the turgid part fuffered to digeft away with
the ligatures: for this purpofe, the wound may be
daily drefled with turpentine, honey, and fpirit of wine,
incorporated together.
3. A bog-fpavin is an eneyfted tumor on the infide
of the hough ; or, according to Dr Bracken, a collec¬
tion of brownifli gelatinous matter, contained in a bag
or cyft, which he thinks to be the lubricating matter
of the joint altered, the common membrane that inclo-
fes it forming the cyft. This cafe he has taken the
pains to illuftrate in a young colt of his own, where he
lays, When the fpavin was prefled hard on the infide
the hough, there \yas a fmall tumor on the outfide,
which convinced him the fluid was within fide the
joint: he accordingly cut into it; difeharged a large
quantity of this gelatinous matter; drefled the fore with
doffils dipped in oil of turpentine; putting into it, once
in three or four days, a powder made of calcined vi¬
triol, alum, and bole : by this method of drefling, the
bag floughed olf, and came away, and the cure was
fuccefsfuily completed without any vifible fear.
This diforder, according to the above defeription,
will fcarcely fubmit to any other method, except fi¬
ring, when the cyft ought to be penetrated to make it
efiedtual; but in all obftinate cafes that have refilled
the above methods, both the cure of this and of the
fwellings called 'wind-galls ftiould be attempted in this
manner. If, through the pain attending the opera¬
tion or drefiings, the joint ftiould fw'ell and inflame, fo¬
ment it twice a-day, and* apply a poultice over the
dreffings till it is reduced.
N° 124.
I E R Y. Sett. XXXIV.
Sect. XXXIV. Of Mallenders and Sallenders. and SaHen!
Mallenders are cracks in the bend of the horfe’s
knee, that difeharge a lharp indigefted matter; they *
are often the occafion of lamenefs, ftiffhefs, and the
horfe’s tumbling.
Sallenders are the fame diftemper, fituated on the
bending of the hough, and occafion a lamenefs behind. I
They are both cured by wafning the parts with a
lather of foap warmed, or old chamber-lye ; and then
applying over the cracks a ftrong mercurial ointment
fpread on tow, with which they Ihould be drefled
night«and morning, till all the fcabs fall olf; if this
flrould not fucceed, anoint theth night and morning
with a little of the following, and apply the above
ointment over it.
Take hog’s lard two ounces, fublimate mercury
two drams.
Or, Take hog’s lard two ounces, oil of vitriol two
drams.
Take the next from Gibfon, which is to be depend¬
ed on:
iExmop’s mineral half an ounce, white vitriol
one dram, foft green foap fix ounces.
Anoint with this often; but firft clip away the hair,
and clear the fcabs. On their drying up, it may be
proper to give a gentle purge or two ; or the nitre-
balls may be taken advantageouily for a fortnight or
three weeks.
Sect. XXXV. Of Lampas, Barbs, and Wolves-
Teeth.
1. The lampas is an excrefcence in the roof of the
horfe’s mouth, which is fometimes fo luxuriant, that
it grows above the teeth, and hinders his feeding. The
cure is in lightly cauterifing the flelh with a hot iron,
taking care that it does not penetrate too deep fo as
to feale-off the thin bone that lies under the upper
bars; the part may be anointed with burnt alum and
honey, which is proper for moft fores in the mouth.
This operation is by fome thought to be entirely
unneceflary ; it being a general obfervation with them,
that all young horfes have their mouths more or lefs
full, of what are called lampas; and that fometimes
they rife higher than the fore-teeth ; but they further
obferve, in proportion as a horfe grows older, the roof
flattens of itfelf, and the teeth then appear to rife. We
are obliged to the ingenious M. La Fofle for- this re¬
mark, and hope it will be the means of aboldhing this
cruel and unneceffary operation.
2. Barbs arc fmall excrefcences under the tongue,
which may be difeovered by drawing it afide, and are
cured by cutting clofe off, and vvaftiing with brandy or
fait and water.
3. A horfe is faid to have wolves-teeth, when the
teeth grow in fuch a manner, that their points prick
or wound either the tongue or gums in eating. Old
horfes are moft liable to this infirmity, and whqfe up¬
per overfhoot the under teeth in a great degree.
To remedy this evil, you may either.chop off the fu-
perfluous parts of the teeth with a chiffel and mallet,
or file them down, which is the better .way, till you
have fufficiently wafted them. '
Sect,
Sea.xxxvr. fare
t.?leva.w Sect. XXXVI. Of the Greafe.
In order to treat this diforder with fome propriety,
we (hall confider it asarifing from two different caufes;
a fault or relaxation m the veffels, or a bad difpoiltion
in the blood and juices. We mu ft here obferve, that
the blood and juices (or humours, for there a>-e always
fome in the beft date of blood) are brought to the ex¬
treme parts by the arteries, and returned by the veins;
in which latter, the blood is to rife in perpendicular
columns, to return the circulating fluids from the ex¬
tremities : hence fwellings in the legs of horfes may
eafdy be accounted for, from a partial ftagnation of
the blood and juices in the finer veffels, where the cir¬
culation is moll languid ; and efpecially when there is
want of due exercife, and a proper mufcular compref-
fion on the veffels, to pufh forward the returning
blood, and propel the inert and half-ftagnating fluids
through their veffels ; in fhort, the blood in fuch cafes
cannot fo Readily afcend as defcend, or a greater quan¬
tity is brought by the arteries than can be returned by
the veins.
The greafe then, eonfidered in this light, muft be
treated as a local complaint, where the parts affeded
are alone concerned, the blood and juices being yet
untainted, and in good condition ; or as a diforder
where they are both complicated: but when it is an
attendant on fome other diftemper, as the farcy, yel¬
lows, dropfy, &c. fuch difeafes mud firfl be cured be¬
fore the greafe can be removed. In the former cafe,
moderate exercife, proper dreffing, cleanlinefs, and ex¬
ternal application, will anfwer the purpofe: in the lat¬
ter, internals mull be called in to our affitlance, with
proper evacuations.
When a horfe’s heels are firfl obferved to fwell in
the (table, and fubfide or go down on exercife; let care
be taken to wafh them very clean every time he comes
in, with foap-fuds, chamber-lye, or vinegar and wa¬
ter ; which, with proper rubbing, will frequently pre¬
vent or remove this complaint: or let them be well
bathed twice a-day with old verjuice, or the following
mixture, which will brace up the relaxed veflels ; and
if rags dipped in the fame are rolled on, with a proper
bandage, for a few days, it is mofl likely the fwtll-
ings will foon be removed by this method only, as the
bandage will fupport the veffels till they have reco¬
vered their tone. To anfwer this end alfo, a laced
flocking made of llrong canvas or coarfe cloth, neatly
fitted to the part, would be found extremely fervice-
able, and might eafily be contrived by an ingenious
mechanic.
Take reftified fpirit of wine four ounces ; diffolve
in it half an ounce of camphor: to which add
wine-vinegar or old verjuice fix ounces; white
vitriol diffolved in a gill of water one ounce;
mix together, and (hake the phial when ufed.
But if cracks or fcratches are obferved, which ooze
and run, let the hair be clipped away, as well to pre¬
vent a lodgment (which becomes (linking and offenfive
by its flay), as to give room for wafhing out dirt or
gravel, which, if fuffered to remain there, would great-
)y aggravate the diforder.
When this is the cafe, or the heels are full of hard
fcabs, it is neceffary to begin the cure with poultices,
made either of boiled turuips and lard, with a handful
Vox.. VII. Part I.
I E R Y,
oflinfeed powflered ; or oat-meal and rye-flour, with a
little common turpentine and hog’s-laid, boiled up with
ftrong-beer grounds or red-wine lees. The digeflive
ointment being applied to the fores for tw^o or three
days, with either of thefe poultices over it, will, by
foftening them, promote a difeharge, unload the veffels,
and take down the fwelling; when they may be dried
up with the following :
Take white vitriol and burnt alum, of each two
ounces ; iEgyptiacum one ounce ; lime water a
quart or three pints: wafh the fores with a fponge
dipped in this three times a-day; and apply the
common white ointment fpread on tow, to an
ounce of which may be added two drams of fugar
of lead.
This method is generally very fuccefsful, wheathe
diftemper is only local, and requires no internal medi¬
cines; but if the horfe be full and grofs, his legs great-
ly gorged, fo that the hair flares up, and is what fome
term pen-feathered, and has a large ftinking difehargs
from deep foul fores, you may expedt to meet \vith
great trouble, as thefe diforders are very obfrinate to
remove, being often occafioned by a poor dropfical
(late of blood, or a general bad difpofition in the blood
and juices.
The cure in this cafe, if the horfe is full and fleihy,
muft be begun by bleeding, rowels, and repeated pur¬
ging ; after which, diuretic medicines are frequently
given with fuccefs. Thus,
Take four ounces of yellow rofin, one of fal prunel-
ke; grind them together with an oiled peftle;
add a dram of oil of amber; and give a quart of
forge-water every morning, fafting two hours be¬
fore and after taking, and ride moderately.
As this drink is found very difagreeable to fome
horfes, we would recommend the nitre-balls in its ftead,
given to the quantity of two ounces a-day for a month
or fix weeks, mixed up with honey or in his feeds.
Take the following alfo for that purpofe, or the diure¬
tic balls directed under Diforders of the Eyes.
Yellow rofin four ounces ; fait of tartar, and fal
prunellse, of each two ounces; Venice foap, half
a pound ; oil of juniper, half an ounce; make in¬
to balls of two ounce weight, and give one every
morning.
The legs in this cafe fhould be bathed or fomented,
in order to breathe out the ftagnant juices, or to thin
them, fo that they may be able tp circulate freely in
the common current. For this purpofe, foment twice
a-day with the difeutient fomentation (p. 143. coJL 2.),
in which a handful or two of wood-afhes has been
boiled ; apply then the above poultices, or the follow¬
ing, till the fwelling has fubfided, when the fores may¬
be dreffed with the green ointment till they are pro¬
perly digefted, and then dried up with the water and
ointment above recommended.
Take honey one pound; turpentine fix ounces; in¬
corporate with a fpqon ; and add of the meal of
fenugreek and linfeed each four ounces; boil in
three quarts of red-wine lees to the confiflence of
a poultice ; to which add, when taken from the
fire, two ounces of camphor in powder; fpread it
on thick cloths, and apply warm to the legs, fe-
curing it on with a flrong roller.
If the fores are very foul, drefs them with two parts
U of
153
Greafe.
>54 FARR
Scratches, 0f the wound-ointment, and one of vEgyptiacum; and
f«b°W&c aPP*y t^le fohowing, fprcad on thick cloths, and roll-
^ ". ed on.
Take of black foap one pound ; honey half a
pound; burnt alum four ounces; verdigreafe
powdered two ounces; wheat-flour a fufficient
quantity.
If the diuretic balls fliould not fucceed, they mufl: be
changed for the antimonial and mercurial alteratives,
already mentioned ; but turning a horfe out in a field,
where he has a hovel or fhed to run to at pleafure,
would greatly contribute to quicken the cure, and in¬
deed would in general effcdt it alone ; but if this can¬
not be complied with, let him be turned out in the
day-time.
If the horfe is not turned out, a large and conve¬
nient flail is abfolutely neceflary, with good dreffing
and care.
The laft thing we {hall recommend, is a method to
oblige a horfe to'lie down in the liable. This undoubt¬
edly is of the utmoft confequence, as it will not a little
contribute to the removal and cure of this difiorder;
for by only changing the pofition of his legs, a freer
circulation would be obtained, and the fwelling taken
down ; whereas in general it is greatly aggravated by
the obftinacy of the horfe, who refufes to lie down at
all (probably from the pain it gives him to bend his
legs for that purpofe), by which means the ftiffnefs
and fwelling increafes, till the over-gorged and dif-
tended veffels are obliged to give way ; and by burft-
ing, difeharge the fluids, which fhould circulate thro’
them.
Sect. XXXVII. Of Scratches, Cro-wn fcabs. Rat-
tails, and Capcllets.
i. Scratches in the heels have fo much affinity
with the greafe, and are fo often concomitants of that
diftemper, that the method of treating them may be
feledled chiefly from the preceding feftion ; which at
firft fliould be by the linfeed and turnip poultice, with
a little common turpentine, to foften them and relax,
the vefiels ; the green ointment may then be applied
fora few days to promote a difeharge, when they may
be dried up with the ointments and wafhes recom¬
mended in the above fe&ion. It is beft afterwards to
keep the heels fupple, and foftened with eurrier’s dub¬
bing, which is made of oil and tallow.. This will keep
the hide from cracking, and be as good a prefervative
as it is to leather; and, by ufing it often before exer-
cife, will prevent the fcratches, if care is taken to walk
the heels with warm water when the horfe comes in :
When they prove, obftinate, and the fores are deep,
ufe the following; but if any cavities or hollow places
are formed, they fliould firft be laid open.; for no foun¬
dation can be laid for healing till you can drefs to the
bottom.
Take Venice turpentine four ounces; quickfilver
one ounce; incorporate well together by rubbing
feme time ; and then add honey and {beeps fuet
of each two ounces.
Anoint with this once or twice a-day ; and if the
hovfe is full or fleftiy, you muft bleed and purge; and
if the blood is in a bad ftate, the alteratives mpft be
given to re&ify it.
z»,The ero'ivnfcal is an humour that breaks out
I E R Y. Sea. xxxvir.
round the coronet, which is very {harp and itching. Scratches,,
and attended with a feurfinefs: fliarp waters prepared Crown- -
with vitriol are generally-ufed for the cure; but the fcabs’ &c'.
fafeft way is firft to mix marftvmallow and yellow bafi- ~ v
licon, or the wound-ointment, equal parts, and to
fpread them on tow, and lay all round the coronet. A
dofe or two of phyfic may be very proper, with the
diuretic medicine* preferibed in the preceding page, and
- the alteratives above recommended, in rebellious cafes.
Vide the Section on Alteratives.
3. Rat-tails are excrefcences which creep from the
paftern to the middle of the {hanks, and are fo called
from the refemblance they bear to the tail of a rat.
Some are moift, others dry; theformer may be treated
with the drying ointment and walhes, p. 153. col. 2.
par. 1. the latter with the mercurial ointment preferi¬
bed in the Se&ion of Strangles, p. 129. col. 2. If the
hardnefs does,not fubmitto the laft medicine, it ftiould
be pared off with a knife, and dreffed with turpentine,
tar, and honey, to which verdigreafe or white vitriol
may occafionally be added ;. but before the ufe of the
knife, you may apply this ointment.
Take black foap four ounces, quick lime two oun¬
ces, vinegar enough to make an ointment.
4. There are particular fwellings which horfes are
fubje& to, of a wenny nature, which grow on the heel
of the hock, and on the point of the elbow, and are
called by the French and Italians capellets .* they arife
often from bruifes and other accidents; and when this
is the cafe, ftiould be treated with vinegar and other
repellers.. But when ’they grow gradually on both
heels or elbows, we may then fufpecl the blood and
juices in fault, and that fome of the veffels are broke
and juices extravafated: in this cafe the fuppuration
ftlould be promoted, by rubbing the part with marfti-
mallow ointment; and when matter is formed, the {kin
ftiould be opened with a lancet, in fome dependent
part towards one fide, to avoid a fear; the dreffings
may be turpentine, honey, and tindlure of myrrh. The
relaxed {kin may be bathed with equal parts of fpirit
of wine and vinegar, to which an eighth part of oil of
vitriol may be added. The contents of thefe tumors
are various ; fometimes watery ; at others fuety, or
like thick pafte ; which, if care be not taken to digeft:
out properly with the cyft, will frequently collect a-
gain. Was it not for the disfigurement, the ftiortell
method would be to extirpate them with a knife, which
if artfully executed, and the flein properly preferved,
would leave very little deformity.
Sect. XXXVIII. Of Ruptures, Anticor, Difeafes
of the Mouth, and Colt-evil or Gonorrhoea.
1. In regard to ruptures, though they are generally
divided into particular claffes, we fhall only obferve,
that by violent efforts of the horfe, or other accidents,
the guts or caul may be forced between the mufcles of
the belly at the navel, and through the rings of the
mufcles into the ferotum or cod. The fwellings are
generally about the fize of a man’s fift, fometimes
much larger, defeending to the very hock: they are
frequently foft, and yield to the preffnre of the hand,
whep they will return into the cavity of the belly with
a rumbling noife : and, in moft, the vacuity may be
felt through which they paffed.
On their firft; appearance, endeavours ftiould be made ■
Sea.tXXXVlIf. F A R R
'Ruptures, to return them by the hand; but if the fwelling fhould
Anticor, be hard and painful, in order to relieve the Itri&ure,
.&c' and relax the parts through which the gut or caul
* has pafled, let a large quantity of blood be immediately
taken away, and the part fomented twice or thrice a-
day, applying over it a poultice made of oatmeal, oil,
and vinegar, which fliould be continued till the fwdling
grows foft and eafier, or the gut is returned. In the
mean time, it would be proper to throw up emollient
oily glyiters twice a-day, and to let the horfe’s chief
diet be boiled barley, fcalded malt, or bran.
Should the fwelling afterwards return, we apprehend
the reilringent applications, ufually recommendecf'on
thefe occafions, will avail little without a fufpenfory
bandage ; fo that an ingenious mechanic in that art is
chiefly to be relied on for any future affiitance; though
it has been obferved, that with moderate feeding, and
gentle exercife, fome horfes have continued to be very
ufeful under this complaint.
2. The anticor is a diforder not very common among
our horfes, or thofe in northern climates ; but is par¬
ticularly taken notice of by the French, Spanifh, and
Italia's writers ; who deferibe it a malignant iwelling
in the breaft, which extendsfometimes to the very (heath
under the belly ; it is attended with a fever, great
depreflions and weaknefs, and a total lofs of appetite.
The cure (hould be firft attempted by large and re¬
peated bleedings, to abate the inflammation; emollient
glyfters fliould be injefted twice or thrice a-day, with
an ounce of fal prunella in each, and the cooling drink
in the Se&ion on Fevers fliould be given inwardly ;
the fwelling fliould be bathed with the marflimallow
ointment; and a ripening poultice, with onions boiled
in it, fliould be applied over it. If by this method,
continued four or five days, the inflammation in the
throat and gullet is removed, our attention fhould more
particularly turn to encourage the fwelling at the breaft,
and bring it, if poffible, to matter : to which end, con¬
tinue the poultice, and give two ounces of Venice treacle
diflblved in a pint of beer every night ; when the fwel¬
ling is grown foft, it muft be opened with the knife,
■and dreffed with turpentine digeftive, the danger now
being ove^.
But fhould it be found impra&icable to bring the
fwelling to matter, and it increafes upwards, fo as to
endanger fuffocation; authors have advifed to pierce
the tumor with a hot pointed cautery in five or fix
places ; to drefs with the above digeftive; and, in order
to ftimulate and promote a greater difeharge, to add
to it a fmall quantity of Spanifti flies and euphorbium
in powder; fomenting at the fame time, and bathing
the circumjacent parts with ointment of marflimallows.
M. Gueriniere, as well as Soleyfel, have advifed open¬
ing the (kin, when the tumor cannot be brought to
matter, in order to introduce a piece of black helle¬
bore-root fteeped in vinegar, and to confine it there
for 24 hours: this alfo is intended as a ftimulant; and
is faid to anfwer the intention, by occafioning fome-
times a fwelling as big as a man’s head.
3. Befides the diforders of the mouth, which we
have already animadverted on, there are frequently ob¬
ferved on the infide the lips and palate, little fwellings
or bladders called giggs. Slitting them open with a
knife or lancet, and waftiing them afterwards with
fait and vinegar, is in general their cure ; but when
I E R Y. i5j
they degenerate into what are called cankerst which Ruptuies,
are known by little white fpecks, that fpread and oc- ^ntlcor>
calion irregular ulcers, the beft method then is to touch . c' ^
them daily with a fmall flat cautery, moderately heated
till the fpreading is (topped, and to rub the fores three
or four times a day with ^Egyptiacum, and tindture of
myrrh (harpened with oil or fpirit of vitriol; when by
this drefling the (loughs are feparated, they may be
waflied frequently with a fponge dipped in copperas,
or fublimate water,, if they continue to fpread ; or a
tindfure made by diflblving half an ounce of burnt alum,
and two ounces of honey, in a pint of tindiure of rofes.
Either of thefe will dry them up, and are very ufeful
in mod diforders of the mouth.
A relaxation and fwelling of the palate fometimes
happens to horfes on catching cold. To remedy this
diforder, blow pepper on the part, or anoint it with the
fame mixed up with honey. The tindiure above men¬
tioned may be ufed for this purpofe, to which may be
added halt an ounce of fpirit of fal ammoniac.
4. The colt-evil is fuppofed to arife from (toned colts
having full liberty with mares, before they are able to
cover them ; whence frequently enfues an excoriation
or fretting on the glands and a fwelling on the (heath.
This laft diforder frequently proceeds too from dirt or
filth lodging there, and is often removed by wafhing
the part clean with butter and beer : but when the
yard itfelfis fwelled, foment it twice a day with marfli¬
mallows boiled in milk, to which may be added a little
fpirit of wine; anoint the excoriation with the white
ointment, or walk it with a fponge dipped in lime, to
a pint of which may be added two drams of fugar of
lead: the yard (hould be fufpended up to the belly ;
and if the fwelling fhould increafe with the inflamma¬
tion, bleed, and give the cooling phyfic, anoint with
ointment of alder, and apply the bread-and milk poul¬
tice.
If a Ample gonorrhoea or feminal gleet is obferved
to drip from the yard (which is often the cafe in
high-fed young horfes, where a relaxation of the glands
and feminal veflels has been brought on by frequent
emifiions), let the horfe be plunged every day into a
river or pond ; give him tw>o or three rhubarb purges,
at proper diftances ; and intermediately the following
balls.
Take of balfam of copivi, or Venice turpentine, oli-
banum, and maftich powdered, of each two drams;
bole armeniac, half an ounce : mix up into a ball
with honey, and give it night and morning till
the difeharge leffens, and then every night till it
goes off.
Balls prepared with rhubarb and turpentine may
alfo be given for this purpofe ; two drams of the for¬
mer with half an ounce of the latter.
Sect. XXXIX Preliminary Remarks o«Diseases
of the Feet.
I. Of Greafing-, Oiling, and Stuffing Horfes Hoofs. The
cuftom of keeping our fineft horfes conftantly (landing
upon dry litter and hot dung in the liable, is exceed¬
ingly hurtful to the feet and legs, particularly the
former, which are always found to agree bed with
coolnefs and moifture. Hence we find, that horfes
hoofs, whilft running in the fields, are always in bet-
U 2 ter
i56 FARR
Remarks on ter condidon than tliofe that are kept hot and dry in
thf Feet°^ r^ie which, betide being liable to many difeafes,
1' e': ' . are hard, brittle, (haltered, and often broken.
v With refpeft to greafy or oily applications, fo often
prefcribed for the hoofs of horfes in order to preferve
* t^em ^uan^i tough, &c. Mr Clark * very juilly con-
t.SLoehJc‘‘f demtis them as rather pernicious than falutary.
Horfes, and ' When young horfes (he obferves) are firft taken from
en the Dif the fields, their hoofs are cool, found, and tough. Thefe
e.ifes^ of their Sr£ f‘oung from experience to be good qualities. But hor-
\vh;ch ^udi are no ^ooner introduced into the ftable, than their
cious per- hoofs ire greafed or oiled two or three times a-week: and
f irmance if they are kept much in the houfe (landing upon hot dry
•he f0lJr<V l‘tter> without being frequently led abroad, and with-
are ext4°^Sout ^av’nS an opportunity of getting their hoofs cooled
ed. ' " and moiftened in wet ground, their hoofs grow fo
brittle, dry, and hard, that pieces frequently break
off, like chips from a hard Hone ; and, when driving
the nails in (hoeing, pieces will fplit off, even although
the nails are made very fine and thin. Now, if thefe
fame horfes with brittle (battered hoofs are turned out
to graze in the fields, their hoofs in time will become,
as they were originally, found, tough, and good.
This change muff undoubtedly be aferibed to the
wet and moifture which the hoofs are expofed to in the
fields, of which water is the principal ingredient; and
it is a certain fa£l, of which we have daily proofs, that
when all other means fail, hbrfes are turned out to
grafs in order to recover their decayed brittle hoofs,
it is known, that the hoofs of horfes are porous; and
that infenfible perfpiratiou is carried on through thefe
pores, in the fame manner, and according to the fame
laws, as take place in other parts of the body. Now,
every body knows, that greafy or oily medicines ap¬
plied to the (kin of the human body, prevent perfpira-
tion, which ife frequently attended with the word con-
fequences. The fame reafoning will hold with refpeft
to the hoof’s of horfes ; for greafy or oily applications
clofe or (hut up the pores of the hoof, by being ab-
forbed or fucked into its inner fubftance. Hence the
natural moifture which ffiould nouriffi the hoof, is
thereby prevented from arriving at its furface ; which,
on that account, becomes as it were dead, and con-
fequently dry, brittle, and hard.
The original practice of greafing or oiling hotfes
hoofs, had probably taken its rife, from obferving,
that greafe or oil foftened dead fubftance, fuch as
leather, &c. But this will by no means apply to the
hoofs of horfes, as there is a very great difference be¬
tween the living and dead parts df animals ; the for¬
mer having juices, &c. neceffary for their own nourifh-
fnent and filpport, whilft the latter require fuch applica¬
tions as will preferve them from decaying and rotting.
The dealers in horfes about London, when they get
a bad-footed horfe in their hands, moiften his hoofs
frequently in water; for which purpofe, they keep a
puddle of water and dung at the watering place, that
when the horfe comes to water, his fore-feet may be funk
in the puddle, by which means they are cooled' •dnd
inoiftened twice or thrice every day; fo that, whilft
they are making Up his carcafe for the market, his
hoofs are likewife repaired, and fufficient to (land the
tell of a trial upon fale. But no fodher do horfes with
hoofs of this kind come into other hands, their hoofs
at the fame, time being kept dry and greafed, See. than
I E R Y. Sea. XXXIX.
they degenerate into their former ftate. Hence the Remarks at*
caufe of fo many complaints that horfes turn foon °ifeafcs of
lame after they come fiom dealers, when, in fail, itthe Feet'
proceeds from greafy applications, and negle&ing to ^ ™ '
cool or moiften the hoofs in water ; for the careful
groom, when airing his mailer’s horfes, rather than lead
them into a puddle, will go about in order to keep
their legs clean and dry.
Another pra&ice equally pernicious, is the (luffing
up horfes hoofs (as it is called) with hot reiinons,
and greafy mixtures,- under the notion of cooling a id
fortening them. Various are the preferiptions recom¬
mended for this purpofe, many of which are of a quite •
oppofite nature to the purpofe ipended. There is
likewife a great impropriety in ftuffing up the hoofs
with rotten dung and dale urine.: this, it is true, is
moifture ; b(it of the very word kind, on account of
the falts contained in the urine, which of itfelf greatly
contribute towards hardening and drying their hoofs,
in place of foitening them ; befides the other bad ef¬
fects which may arife to the frog, &c. from the rot-
tennefs of the dung. But, without commenting upon
the various compofitions or pompous preferiptions re¬
commended in books, or thofe handed about as receipts
for the foftening and ftuffing horfes hoofs, the author
would recommend one which is more natural, and
ought not to be defpifed for its fimplicity, as it is only
cooling and moiftening the hoofs with water morning
and evening : And, to thofe who are fond of ftuffing,
he would preferibe bran and water, or clay, Sec made
into the confifteney of a poultice ; and, in particular
cafes, where horfes (land much in the ftable, and the
hoofs are difpofed to be very hard, dry, and brittle, a
poultice of this kind, or any other emollient compofi-
tion in which water is a principal ingredient, may be
applied all round the hoof; or, in imitation of fome
dealers, to keep a puddle of water at the watering place,
which will anfwer equally well, if not better. From
this manner of treatment, the hoofs will be preferved
in their natural ftate, and a free and equal perfpiration
kept up, by which the nourilhment natural to the hoof
will have free accefs to its furface, as it is this only
which caufes that cohefion of the parts which conili-
tutes a firm, found, tough hoof.
II. Of the natural DefeSs of the Feet. It is very
well known, that different climates and different foils
greatly affed the feet of horfes. Thofe that are bred
in hot countries, (landing moftly upon dry ground,
have -deep crufted hollow hoofs with fmall frogs ; for,
being but little expofed to wet or moiiture, the fibres
of the hoof contrad more clofely. And, even in Great
Britain, there is a confiderable difference, according to
the drynefs or wetnefs df the foil upon which horfes are
bred. Thofe that are bred upon the mountainous parts
of England and Wales, and in the northern parts of
Scotland, have generally good found tough hoofs;
whilft thofe horfes that are bred upon low marlhy
grounds (which are moftly of the big draught kind),
have flat, large, foft hoofs ; for being kept too moift,
by always foakirtg in wet, the horny fibres oft he hoof
are too much relaxed.
Thofe hoofs which are either too largb or too fmall,
in proportion to the iize of the body, and thicknefs of
the bones of the legs, are generally, and not without
foundation, looked upon as bad. Largo broad hoofs,
for
Sea.XXXlX. FARR
Remarkson for the mo!l part, have thin flat foies; large, foft, fpon-
i>'fe ifes of gy frogs: a flrong cruft, fomething hollow upon the
I116 tet~ upper and fore part, and full of wrinkles or rings, not
v ~'”' unlike the rough outfide of an oyfter'fhell. Hoofs of
this fhape are liable to that difeafe tznneA foundered;
and to have high, round, or dwelled foies, and low
weak heels, &c.
Small hoofs are liable to the oppofite extreme, efpe-
cially thofe of that kind which generally go under the
denomination of afes hoofs, as they are deep crofted
and narrow, the foie very hollow, the frog fmall, the
heels high and ftrong, the cruft upon the outfide clear
and ftuntng : thefe are naturally difpofed to a contrac¬
tion of the whole hoof, which is called hoof-bound; and
likewife to corns, running thrufhes, or frufties; either
cf which render a herfe lame.
Some hoofs are pretty well proportioned, and look
well to the eye ; but, at the fame time, they are thin
and weak crufted, and not able to Hand much fatigue
rn travelling upon hard ftoney grounds. On the o-
ther hand, very ftrong crufted hoofs are by no means
the beft, but are liable to cracks, &c. In fuch hoofs,
the horney fibres appear very di'iinft, and run in a
ftraight line from the coronet or top of the hoof to its
bafis, refembling the grain of fome kinds of woody
particularly oak. Hence they are difpofed to cracks
or fiffures, which cleave the hoof quite through, fome-
times from the coronet down to the bottom of the
hoof. In others, thefe cracks at firft do not penetrate
through the horn, but appear like a feam on the fur-
face of the hoof, commonly named a fand- crack ; which,
from retaining the fand and gravel, at. laft works ks
way into the quick, and oecafions lamenefs, &c. An¬
other difadvantage attending very ftrong crufted hoofs
is, that, when they ftand long in a dry hot liable,
they contraeft, and by their thicknefs and hardnefs
bruife the internal parts of the foot. Hence the hoffe
will be lame, though, at the fame time, no vifible de¬
left will be feen about the hoof, excepting a great
heat, pain, and tendernefs in his feet; the true caufe
of which is feldom attended to or known ; and hence
the horfe is faid to be lame in fome other part, per¬
haps the fltoulders. Low thin keels are weak-crufted,
and liable to lamenefs from injudicious fhoeing. The
oppofite extreme, viz. very high heels, is equally bad;
as theie are fubjeft to corns, and contraftion of the
hoof; and the dfeepnefs of the cruft caufes a numbnefs
in the feet, and unfteadinefs in the horfe’s going, which
make him liable to trip and (tumble.
Much has been faid by authors, with refpeft to the
different colours of horfes hoofs, afcribing different
qualities and temperaments to peculiar colours, fuch as
hardnefs, drynefs, brittlenefs, &c. But it is very well
known to praftitioners in fhoeing horfes, that there
are good and bad hoofs of all colours ; fome being na¬
turally weak and difpofed to be brittle, whilft others are
tough and ftrong. But a great deaf depends upon the
management of them in the ftable, in keeping them
properly moiftened, in order to prefei ve a due medium
between thefe oppofite extremes. It is likewife gene¬
rally remarked by authors, as a fure -ign of bad thin
hoofs, that, when the fhoe-nails are drove high up in
the cruft, it is, fay they, an evidence that the cruft is
thin, and that there was not fufficierit hold, without
• driving the nails high up. But this can be no true
I E R Y.
criterion to judge by ; for, if the nails can be driven1
high up in the cruft with fafety in a thin weak foot, the
fame may as certainly be done in a ftrong foot, with
more eafe and expedition, which indeed is frequently
the cafe.
To form a right judgment of what may be called a
good hoof, it muft neither be too large nor too fmall in
proportion to the fize of the leg: at the fame time, its
fhape muft be regular, gradually enlarging from the
coronet towards its bafis ; the cruft fmooth, even, and
free from feams, cracks, or wrinkles; the foie ftrong,
and a little hollow; the heels firm and open ; the frog
tough, Yound, and dry.
Sect. XL. Wounds in the Feet.
Wounds in the feet happen frequently, but chiefly
from want of proper care, and treating them injudi-
ciOufly when they are firft inflifted.
t. Wounds upon the coronet, or top of the hoof,
when fuperficial, are eafily cured, if not neglefted or
improperly treated. But the mod finaply wound, by
bad management or negleft, may, efpeciaily if the
horfe fnnuld happen at the time to be in a bad habit
of body, be attended with dangerous confequences :
therefore, however trifling they may at firft appear,
they fhould be treated wuth attention.
When large deep wounds are inflifted upon the co¬
ronet, from which may be apprehended a great inflam¬
mation, audits confequenccs; to prevent thefe evils as
much as poflible, it will be neceffary to have recourfe
to bleeding, and, at the fame time,- to give fuch inter¬
nal remedies as are recommended in inflammatory ca¬
fes^; cooling falts, glyfters, &c. together with a low
foft diet, keeping the hoof moift and foft with emol¬
lient poultices applied around it, which may be made
of turnip, mallows, or even bran and water.
Deep wounds upon the coronet are .generally made
by long, ftiarp cankers upon the heels of the ftioes of
the oppofite foot, penetrating downwards between the
coffin-bone and the hoof. In this cafe, as there is no
depending orifice or pafiage for the matter contained
in the wound to be difeharged downwards, there is
great danger of a fiftula or finuous ulcer being formed ;
to prevent which, an artificial drain or opening muft be
made through the hoof, firft rafping or paring it very
thin upon the outfide where the perforation is to be
made ; then introduce a (harp-pointed inftrument, a
little-bent, into the orifice of the wound, and, pafs-
ing it to the bottom, force it outwards. This opera¬
tion will be performed with lefs pain to the animal, if
the inftrument be concealed within a canula or hollow
tube, till it reaches to the bottom of the wound ;
when the perforation is to be made by pufning it be¬
yond the extremity of the canula ; and, by applying a
bandage pretty tight round the coronet, the (ides or
lips of the wound may be brought into contaft and
healed up, or a feton may be introduced, and conti¬
nued till the inflammation, fwelling, &c. are removed.
If this operation be too long delayed, the matter con¬
fined in the wound forms a number of finufes or fiftu-
lae, which frequently run in different direftions under
the hoof, and require a large portion of it to be cut a-
way before they can be healed up, leaving an ugly ble-
mifti, and a weaknefs or tendernefs on that j>art of the
hoof, which never admits of a thorough cure. But,
by
158 FARR
Wound? rn ’Dy treating it in the manner now mentioned, the annu-
,thc iee ' lar ligament may be preferred entire, and a falfe quarter
avoided : andr although there may remain an horizon¬
tal crack or Mure in the hoof where the perforation
was made ; yet, as the hoof grows downward, it will
likewife go along with it, and wear out, without lea¬
ving a blemilh or any other bad confequence.
When the capfular ligament of the coffin-joint is
wounded or.perforated by any inftrument, fo as to ad¬
mit the external air into its cavity, the glands there
fituated inflame 5 and, in place of fecreting a lubrica¬
ting mild liquor, they difcharge a {harp ichorous fluid,
which deftroys and corrodes the very cartilages or
griflles upon the ends of the articulated bones, which
at laft grow together, and form what is termed an an-
chylofis, and of courfe lamenefs. There are many far¬
riers who boaft of their having cured wounds in the
joints after they were affefted with that fymptom
which they call a joint-water, that is, a difcharge of
the fynovia or mucilaginous fluid contained within the
cavity of the joint. But what they commonly call a
joint-water, is only a yellow ferum or lymph, which is
frequently to be met with iffuing in great abundance
from w'ounds in the legs ; and not the fynovia or fluid
.contained within the cavity of the joint. Notwith-
ftanding wounds of this kind happen frequently ; yet,
-fo little are the generality of practitioners acquainted
with the nature of them and their confequences, that
they make no diftinCtion betwixt them and thofe of
a more Ample nature. Hence, therefore, they find
themfelves frequently miftaken in prognofticating the
cure of a wound, to appearance of a very Ample nature.
It is a certain fadt, confirmed by experience, that,
when the capfular ligament of any joint is perforated
or cut through, there is but little chance of a com¬
plete cure being effefted, fo as the horfe may be ufe-
ful for the faddle or carriage ; although, in other re-
fpefts, to thofe who are willing to be at the expence,
he may, if a ftrong horfe, be ufeful in fome kinds of
drudgery.
As to the mode of dreffing wounds of this kind, all
that art can do, is to prevent, as much as pcffible, a
violent inflammation or flux of humours to the affeded
limb, by blooding, glyfters, cooling falts, together
with a low foft diet, applying digeftive poultices to the
wound, and injefting now and then into the cavity of
-the joint tinfture of myrrh.
2. Wounds upon the coronet towards the back part
of the foot or heel, which are commonly called an
over-reach, are occafioned by the toe of the hind-fhoe
on the fame fide cutting the fore-heel. Some horfes
are much addi&ed to this, owing entirely to their
manner of going, d/z. the hind-foot moving in the
fame line of direction with the fore-foot ; in riding
fall, the fore-foot not giving place in time, the
hind-foot ftrikes againft the fore-heel: henee fome
horfes, in trotting, make a clattering noife with the
hind-fhoes flriking againft the heel of the fore ones ;
hence, likewife, many horfes are thrown down by the
fame caufe.
Although an over-reach is a wound of the compli¬
cated kind, being at the fame time a contufion or bruife
together with a wound ; yet they are nqwife dange- '
sous, .and are eafily cured by treating them in the man-
I E R Y. Sea. XL.
ner hereafter mentioned; for, in two or three days, Wounds in
when the wound comes to fuppurate properly, the the Fte!:',
bruifed or dead parts fall off, and only' leave a larger "~v" ~
furface of a wound than was at firft apprehended.
With refpecl to the dreffing proper fpr recent wounds,
farriers are too much prejudiced in favour of certain
"balfams, ointments, and tin£lur&s; and too fanguine in
the belief of their fuppofed fpecific virtues, the healing
qualities of which they flatter themfelves are irrefift-
ible. But the truth is, all that art can do in the heal¬
ing of wounds, is to remove every impediment which
may obftrudl the uniting of the divided parts, and to
forward the formation of laudable.pus or matter; that
being once effedled, the reft is performed by nature,
which is felf-fufficient. All the balfams and remedies
which are laid to generate new fleffi, in fadl only affift
nature by excluding the external air, keeping the
wounded parts warm, and confining the fecreted hu¬
mours, which, by remaining there a due time, are con¬
verted into laudable matter, which is the balfam of na¬
ture’s preparing. Therefore, the moil approved and
rational method of treating recent wounds is, to en¬
deavour to bring them to a fuppuration or difcharge of
laudable matter ; for which purpofe, poultices are moft
eligible, as they may be eafily made more or lefs of a
digeftive quality, by melting and mixing any proper
digeftive ointment with the poultice whilft warm.
Digejlive ointment. Take common turpentine and
hog’s lard, of each equal parts, melted toge¬
ther.
This,ointment may be made ftronger or weaker, by
diminiftiing the one ingredient and increafing the o-
ther ; and is very proper to be mixed with poultices,
in order to keep them foft and pliable.
Digejlive Poultice. Take oat-meal or coarfe wheat-
flour ; digeftive ointment, two ounces; beer-
grounds, a fufficient quantity : boil the whole to
the confiftence of a poultice. The quantity of
the ointment may be increafed or diminifhed in
proportion to the fize of the poultice.
The experience the author has had of the good ef-
fe£ls of poultices of this kind in recent wounds, makes
him recommend them as preferable to any other mode
of dreffing, for promoting a quick fuppuration, and
leaving a fmooth even cicatrix.
3. Emollient Poultice. Take oat-meal, or coarfe
flour, and linfeed powdered, of each half a
pound. Boil them in milk or water to the con¬
fiftence of a poultice : to which add of fal ammo¬
niac, in powder, one ounce.
This emollient poultice may be applied when there
is a great heat, inflammation, or fwelling, attending
wounds; and by the addition of frefh butter, lard, or
oil, may be made of a more relaxing nature.
Many people are indeed prejudiced againft the ufe
of poultices, from a wrong notion, that they (as the
phrafe is) draw humours to the wounded part; but
the abfurdity of this way of reafoning will be evident
to thofe who are acquainted with the healing art.
“ Poultices (fays Mr Bartlett) are of fuch real and
extenfive' ufe in farriery, that we thought the compo-
fition of them could not be too general. How fimple
foever the ingredients may appear to fome (which are
generally at hand), yet they will be found to anfwer
Kioft
Sea. XL.
FARRIERY.
Wounds in moft intentions, where prefent eafe is to be obtained
.tlle •F''t' Dy warmth, foftening, and relaxing the injured part.
v-'*1*-' ^any are cafcs which demand fuch affiftance, as
recent fwellings, inflammations, treads, bruifes, crack¬
ed and fvvelled heels and feet, burns, fcalds, bruifed
and lacerated wounds from flumps, thorns, glafs, nails,
&c. which laft are ntaich better treated with fuch
fimple emollient applications, than by hot oils or fcald-
ing plafters dropt into the wounds ; which, under the
abfurd notion of drawing, but too often fear up the
mouths of the veffels, hinder digeilion, and confequent-
ly increafe both pain and inflammation. In fliort, it
is certain that very great fervices are daily done by the
ufe of poultices, not only in thofe diforders to which
the human body is incident, but alfo in thofe where¬
with the bmte part of the creation is afflifted. One
advantage which they have over moil outward applica¬
tions is peculiar to them, that they convey and retain
an additional heat, befides what is often in the ingre¬
dients ; and as moll of them have alfo fomething emol¬
lient in their compolition, they mull neeeffarily foft-
en and relax the llun and velfels, abate tenlion, atte¬
nuate and thin vifcid and obllrufted juices, fo that
their return into the common courfe of circulation, or
difcharge by the pores of the fkin, mull in general be
much better anfwered by poultices than by other me-
thods.”
Poultices may be continued till fuch time as the
wound appears to be well digeited (that is, a kindly
fuppuration of white well-concodted matter), look
fmooth and equal, free from cavities or excrefcences
of proud flelh ; in that cafe, the ufe of poultices may
be left off, and the fur face of the wound may be fprink-
led over with the following mild efcharotic powder.
Take burnt limeilone, that breaks down on be¬
ing expofed to the air without water, three oun¬
ces ; Armenian bole, one ounce ; rubbed toge¬
ther in a mortar, and put through a line lieve.
After the wound is fprinkled with this powder, a
pledget of dry lint may be fixed gently over it; and,
when the furface of the wound is nearly equal with the
fkin, the powder will be fufficient, without any cloth
or covering.
3. There is another fpecies of wounds to which the
feet are much expofed, ca\\t& puufiures, on account of
their fmall orifice, as the parts immediately after the
wound is inflicted readily clofe up, whereby it becomes
difficult to know the depth of the wound. They are
generally occafioned from treading upon fharp Hones,
broken glafs, fharp bones, and nails, and likewife from
nails in fhoeing ; either of thefe perforating the foie or
frog, and Wounding the internal parts of the foot ;
which, from their fituation and confinement within the
hoof, are attended with the moll violent pain and in¬
flammation, which are frequently increafed by the in¬
judicious method generally obierved in treating thefe
wounds whenfirfi. inflided, by the application of hot
corrofive oils poured into the recent wound, in order
to deaden it, which is produdive of the worll of con-
fequences. Thus, a fine young chaife-horfe, upon a
journey, was pricked with a nail in fhoeing ; which be¬
ing immediately obferved, the fa'rrier poured into the
wound oil of vitriol. The horfe continued very lame;
and, upon the third day, he gave up, not beipg able
to travel any longer. The leg, immediately above the
hoof, fwelled to a moll enormous fize, broke out in W-
different places, and
of bloody matter, by
and the horfe rendered entirely ufelefs.
Pundures or pricks from nails in flioeing, are com¬
monly faid to proceed from ignorance or blundering.
This may fometimes be the cafe; but, at the fame
time, it is an accident that may, and indeed does,
happen to the moll expert artill; and it is furprifing,
conlidering the narrow fpace there is in fome hoofs for
driving nails, that it does not happen more frequent¬
ly. When it is difcovered in time, it is eafily cured,
by opening a paffage for the matter downwards, and
drelfing it with any digeftive ointment or poultice, and
keeping the foot moilt, by applying an emollient poul¬
tice all round the hoof. But when it is overlooked,
or a fragment of the nail remains in the wound, the
inflammation increafing, it at lall fuppurates. The
matter accumulating, and not finding a paffage down¬
wards, from the natural formation of the hoof, it
moves upwards to the coronet or top of the hoof, and
forms a round tumour, which afterwards breaks out
and degenerates into a moll malignant ulcer, common¬
ly termed,
4. A Quittor-bone. This tumor is attended with
great pain and inflammation, and a conliuerable fwell-
ing round its bafis. The method of cure commonly
praclifed, and indeed recommended by authors, efpe-
cially Dr Braken, is to bore a number of holes into the
fubltance of the tumor with a hot iron, pointed pyra¬
midally ; and to introduce into thefe holes fmall pieces
of corrofive fublimate (fome even ufe arfenick), which
corrodes and dellroys the flelh for fome fpace around
them, and at lall feparates from the found parts, in a
hardened mafs of dead mortified flelh, called a core*
which falls off and leaves a large furface of a wound.
But, frequently, a fecond or fometimes a third opera¬
tion is found neceffary, before the fiilula or finus can
be opened to the bottom, and the proud flelh totally
overcome, which grows very luxuriantly, and renders
the cure tedious, uncertain, and very painful to the a-
nimal. Therefore, as this method of cure is attended
with fo many inconveniences, and is even dangerous
from the quantity of fublimate, &c. made ufe of,
which may as readily dellroy the ligament of the joint,
bones, &c. as the fubllance of the tumor, it ought
never to be ufed but with caution, and when other
means have failed, as it likewife endangers the life of
the horfe. The knife feems far preferable : firll tie a
ligature round the fetlock, in order to Hop the bleed¬
ing; and, with a crooked lharp knife, cut out the tu¬
mor to the bottom ; afterwards drefs it like a frelh
wound till it is healed up.
In ulcers of this kind, as there are a number of fi-
nufes or fillulae which run in different directions under¬
neath the hoof, it is hardly polfible to avoid dellroy-
ing the annular ligament which lies below the coronet,
and cutting away a large portion of the hoof; yet, in
many cafes (efpecially when there is an opening in the
tumor), the method propofed, at the beginning of-
this feCtion, for curing the deep wounds upon the co¬
ronet with feton,' may be firll tried ; and, if that does
not fucceed, either of the operations above mentioned ^
may be performed. 4.
PuaCtures differ little or nothing, in the manner of
1 treating
difcharged an incredible quantity
which the whole limb was walled.
F A R R
treating t’nem, from wounds ? only the foie or frog
fhonld be fcraped thin all round the orifice of the
wound, which, at the fame time, if ton frnall, fhould
be enlarged, and the digeflivc poultice applied, taking
care that no fragment or extraneous fubftance remain
in the wound, and keeping the whole hoof moift and
foft with emollient poultices around it ; and, in cafes
attended with violent pain, recourfe muff be had to
fuch internal remedies as are proper in inflammatory
cafes, fuch as the following mixture by way of a drink,
in order tt* prevent, as much as poffible, an inflamma¬
tion, or a flux of humours to the aflli&ed limb, bleed¬
ing being firll premifed, together with ufing a low foft
diet.
Take fait of nitre, two ounces; common treacle,
two ounces. Diffolve in a quart of water.
It will be neceffary to repeat this draught morning
and evening ; if the horfe fhould fhow any uneafxnefs,
or appeay griped, the quantity of water may be in-
creafed, or the fame quantity of nitre may be given
the horfe in a mafh of bran twice a-day, if it does not
caufe him loath his food. If the coffin-bone fhould
be wounded and turns carious, it will be tedious to
wait for an exfoliation, as, from the fpongy texture of
this bone, it exfoliates but flowly : therefore, if it can
conveniently be done, the carious parts may be fcraped
off with a knife, and afterwards drefled with pledgets
of tow dipped in the tincture of myrrh ; and let the
poultice be applied above it.
In pun&ures, as above deferibed, it is a common
practice to pour into the wound hot corrofive oils
(fome even run into the wound an iron nail made red
hot), in order,,as the phrafe is, to deaden the parts.
In fuperficial or flight wounds, when perhaps little
more than the hoof is wounded, the application of hot
oils can hardly be very hurtful: but the barbarous
method of pufhtng a hot nail into a recent wound, can¬
not fail of being attended with bad confequences, as
the cure is unqueftionably worfe than the difeafe. But,
at all events, when the pundlure is deep, either of thefe
cruel methods is extremely hurtful. The wound is faid
to be of the mofl inveterate or defperate kind ; when,
in fact, the bad practice of injudicious applications,
&c. tfcape the juft cenfure they deferve.
5. Contufions or bruifes happen frequently on the
coronet or top of the hoof, from the treading of other
horfes feet, which will occafion lamenefs ; although, at
the fame time, no external mark of violence will ap¬
pear on the coronet farther than a little fwelling, or
the horfe will fliow a fenfe of pain when the affected
part is touched or prefled upon. The following poul¬
tice in this cafe may be applied with fuccefs, if conti¬
nued for fome time.
Take thick lees of wine or vinegar, one pint;
crude fal ammoniac, two ounces; oat-meal or
bran, fufficient to make it of a due conliftence.
Diflblve the fal ammoniac in the lees firft.
Before concluding this fe&ion, it may not be im¬
proper to mention the following rules, which ought
carefully to be attended to by every praftitioner.
1. The flrfl: thing to be obferved in dreffing of wounds
is, to remove all foreign bodies (if it can be done with
fafety), all lacerated or torn parts, whether of the
flefli or of the hoof, &c. which, from their being left
in the wound, would greatly impede the cure. 2. All
N° J.24.
I E R Y. Sea. XLI.
wounds flrould be carefully vnfpe&ed at every drefling. Foundered.
obferving attentively whether any alteration has been  y——>
made on their furface, whether they be clean at the
bottom, and free from any extraneous fubftance that
may hinder or retard the cure. 3. Whatever appears
mortified, or any fungous or proud flefh, mull be re¬
moved, either by fuppuration, by the knife, or by
cauftic. 4. Cramming wounds with hard tents, or fy-
ringing them frequently with fpirituous tinctures, are
extremely hurtful. The former increafes the pain and
inflammation, &c. the latter produces a callus upon
the internal furface of the wounds, which prevents
their healing. 5. The dreflings of wounds Ihould lie
fmooth and eafy upon the parts.# 6. Over-tight liga¬
tures or bandages Ihould he carefully avoided. 7. As
wounds in the feet or legs, for obvious reafons, are
more difficult to heal thah on any other part of the
body ; therefore, reft and a wide Hall are abfolutely
neceflary, together with a low regimen or foft diet, in
order to keep the body cool and open.
Sect. XLI. Of that Difeafe. in the Feet, com¬
monly called Foundered.
The term foundered is frequently applied to lame
horfac in a very vague manner,.and without any de¬
termined or fixed meaning: for, when a horfe ihows
any defe£l or irppediment in moving his fore-feet, he
is then pronounced to be foundered, whether he really
has been fo or not; that is, according to what is com¬
monly underftood by that term, owing to the want or
negledl of not making proper diftin&ions of the diffe¬
rent difeafes in the feet. If we confult authors who
have treated upon this fubjedl, we fhall find their ac¬
counts of it very dark and imperfeft; they bewilder
the reader, and convey but a very indiftinft idea of
the nature of the difeafe : hence many errors are com¬
mitted in pra&ice, to the deftru&ion of a number of
valuable horfes, which othervvife, by proper manage¬
ment, might have been rendered found and ufeful.
When a horfe is firft attacked with this diforder, lie
fliows a great reftleffnefs, is hot and feverilh, heaves
much at the flanks, breathes quick, has a quick ftrong
pulfe, and groans much when moved about 5 at the
fame time, he (hows fymptoms of the moll violent pain,
fometimes in one, but more frequently in both fore¬
feet ; for which reafon,. he lies down much; but,
when forced to move forwards, he draws bimfelf toge¬
ther, as it were into a heap, by bringing forward his
hind-feet almoll under his flioulders, in order to keep
the weight of his body as much as poffible from rell-
ing upon his fore-feet. In llepping forward, he fets
his heel down firll with great caution, as afraid of
touching the ground. This lalt fymptom ffiould be
particularly attended to, as from it we may conclude
with certainty that the chief feat of the diforder is in
the feet. The hoofs at the fame time are exceedingly
hot ; and, if water is thrown upon them, they dry in-
llarnly : if an attempt is made to pull off any of the
Ihoes, the horfe fhows great uneafinefs upon the leaft
twill or preflure made upon any part of the foot, and
a great unwillingnefs to fupport the weight of his body
upon the other foot, efpecrally when they are both alike
aff.-fted.
It is univerfally allowed, that the caufe of this dif¬
eafe proceeds from too violent exercife, fuch as riding
5 vtiy
Seft.XLI. FARRIERY. ,61
Foundered, very hard upon ftony grounds or turnpike roads, and of the upper part of the hoof, the whole foot having a Foundered,
that young horfes are moft liable to it; and to thefe difeafed appearance. When the horfe had recovered —-v—
we may likewife add, unequal prelfure upon the in- fo far as to be able to walk, in going forward he threw
ternal parts of the foot, from the concave or hollow out his legs well before him, but drew them backwards
form of the common (hoes. All thefe caufes combined before he fet his foot to the ground ; fetting the heel
together, when a horfe is of a plethoric or full habit down fxrft with great caution, upon which he refted
of body, and not accuftomed to violent exercife, oc- moll, the toe being turned a little upwards. From
cafion this difeafe in a greater or lefs degree. To- this fymptom only, we may judge with certainty, even
form fome faint idea of this malady in horfes, we may though at a diftance, upon feeing a horfe walk, whe-
in a great meafure appeal to what we experience our- ther he has ever been foundered or not.
felves in running upon hard ground ; for we find, that This difeafe proves Hill more violent, and indeed
it occafions a great heat, attended with a fmart pain fometimes fatal, if the horfe has been allowed to Hand
in our feet, which would be greatly increafed from un- in cold water when his feet are overheated. Thus, a
eafy Ihoes, efpecially if compelled (like horfes) to
continue the running for any confiderable time. The
feet likewife become turgid and painful after a long
day’s journey, efpecially if the perfon is not accu¬
ftomed to travel; and this inflammation frequently ter¬
minates in bliilers upon the foies of the feet. Hence
it is evident, that, in proportion to the habit of body
the horfe is in at the time, and the violence of the la¬
bour or exercife he has undergone, the inflammation
in the internal parts of the foot will be more or lefs
violent, and attended with all the fymptoms already
mentioned.
This difeafe, then, appears from the fymptoms at¬
tending it, and the effedls it afterwards produces in
the feet, to be, in its firft ftage, an inflammation of
the internal parts of the feet, arifing from the violent
exercife, which occafions a more than ordinary deter¬
mination of the blood to the feet: hence that rapid cir¬
culation of the blood in the veflels within the hoof,
which frequently terminates in a rupture of thefe vef-
fels, and of courfe an extravafation of the blood, and,
in fome cafes, a total reparation of the horny fubftance
of the hoof from the aponeurotic fibres upon the fore
part of the coffin-bone ; whilft in others, where it has
been lefs violent, a concretion or growing together of
the parts within the hoof has taken place, fo as to
appear upon difledtion one folid mafs; and hence
lamenefs.
Thus, a young chaife-horfe, after a hard day’s
work, was attacked with all the fymptoms already
mentioned, and was treated in the common manner as
above related, that is, rowelled, See. In a few weeks
after the difeafe had taken its courfe in the ordinary
way, he was put under the author’s care. The foie, a
little before the point of the frog, in one of his fore¬
feet, became foft; and having a curiofity to fee the
caufe of it, the author cut away the foie, which was
but thin, and found a cavity containing a reddilh co¬
loured liquor : after removing the ragged parts of the
hoof, a large tranfverfe opening ffiowed itfelf, into
which a probe was introduced upwards between the
coffin-bone and the hoof; the connection between the
tendinous fibres upon the furface of the coffin-bone and
the hoof was dellroyed at the fore-part or toe ; the
bone, lofing part of its fupport, prefled down upon the
horny foie, and produced that fwelling or convexity
of its furface, which is called a high, round, or pumice
foie. The hoof loft its former lhape, growing narrow
towards the toe, with a preternatural thicknefs of the
horny fubftance of the cruft, whilft the quarters or
fides of the hoof were decayed, thin, and full of deep
wrinkles, together with a hollownefs upon the furface
Vet. VII. Part I.
faddle-horfe, after being rode very hard, was turned
loofe into a ftable-yard all over in a fweat; he went
immediately into the water-pond, where he was fuf-
fered to Hand for a confiderable time in very cold wea¬
ther : a few hours afterwards, he was feized with a moft
violent fever, and a great pain in his fore-feet: he lay
upon the litter for fome days in the greateft agony;
and at laft both his hoofs dropt off, occafioned by a
mortification brought upon the parts from the appli¬
cation of the cold water, which rendered him entirely
ufelefs.
From what has been faid with refpedt to this dif¬
eafe, it is evident, that as the circulation is greatly in¬
creafed, and the current of blood chiefly determined
towards the fore-feet, attended with fymptoms of the
moft violent pain, we may thence conclude, that there
is an inflammation in thefe parts: therefore, the cure
mull firft be attempted by diminilhing the circula¬
tion of the blood, giving cooling falls internally,
glyfters, an opening diet, and plenty of diluting li¬
quor four or five times a-day, together with emol¬
lient poultices applied warm all round the hoofs, in
order to foften them, and keep up a free and equal
perfpiration ; obferving, that his ftioes be eafy upon
his feet; but by no means to pare the foie or frog to
that excefs which is commonly done in cafes of this
kind, farther than cleaning away the hardened furface
of the foie and frog, in order that the poultice may
have the defired effect, by increafing the perfpiraticn
through the pores ; and to avoid all manner of greafy
or oily applications to the hoofs, for the reafons already
mentioned.
In all violent inflammations, there is nothing which
contributes more to give immediate relief, than plen¬
tiful bleeding timeoufly performed ; and which ought
by no means to be neglefted, or too long delayed :
for, in cafes of this nature, although the fever may be
fo far overcome by itrength of conftitution, or pre¬
vented by medicines from deftroying the life of the
animal; yet the effects of it will ever afterwards re¬
main, and, of courfe, the horfe will be lame for life.
But, in order to judge properly when this operation
may be neceffary, the pulfe muft be attended to, the
knowledge of which is of the utmoft importance in the
praflice of farriery, and ftiould be more generally ftu-
died, as it is the only criterion or rule by which we
may be directed when bleeding is neceffary, or when
it ought to be avoided. But when this operation is
negle&ed, and the cure is fiift attempted by rowels,
&c. it is a long time before they can come to a proper
fuppurat jon, on account of the violence of the fever.
Hence, in place of fuppurating, they fometimes tarn
X into
152 FARRIER Y9 Sea.XLTT.
Hoof, into a gangrene, fey which many horfes lbfe their lives., inftep, but Cpreads wider downwards to its feafis ; the Hoc£
bound. gut> at an events, before the rowels could have any hoof in other refpe&s looks well and found. This PJuna' f
'—V— €'ffea, even allowing they were to fuppurate in the is generally occafioned by keeping the horfe Handing
common time (which is about three days), the in- for a long time together in the liable upon hot dry
flammation within the hoof will by that time have litter,, without moiilening and cooling the hoofs, al-
taken place, and its confequences will follow, to lowing them at the fame time to grow to a preternatural
the ruin of the feet, and, of courfe, the lofs of the fize both in length and bieadth: hence, from the great
l.orfe> ftrength, the rigidnefs and drynefs of the under part of
* The manner in which a horfe walks or Hands upon the hoof, a preternatural llriaure or preffure is made
his fore parts, when afTt&ed with this diforder, has in- by the hardened cruft at the coronet, which comprelfes
duced many pradlitioners, &c. to conclude, that the the annular ligament and parts near it.
ftioulders are affiaed : hence they fay a horfe is foun- The third fpecies of this malady is, when either o~-
dered in the body; and that drains, fuch as rowels,
are the only proper remedies. But granting there was
a ftiffnefs, &c. all over the body, which is frequently
the cafe in the beginning of inflammatory fevers, bleed¬
ing ought to be premifed, as the firft neceflary ftep to¬
wards the cure.
Sect. XLII. Hoof-Bound.
This complaint affe&sthe hoofs differently, accord¬
ing to their natural fliape, and the treatment they are
expofed to, whether from injudicious flioeing, keeping
the hoofs too hot and dry, or paring the foie and bin¬
ders at every time they are {hoed. Some are affedted
with a circular contradiion of the cruft, comprefiing
the whole foot. In others, the cruft is contradted at
the coronet only, compreffing the annular ligament,
&'c. A third kind is, when either one or both heels are
contradted : hence, therefore, in proportion to the de¬
gree of contradlion, the internal parts of the foot are
compreffed, and the horfe becomes more or lefs lame.
It has been already obferved, Sedt. xxxix. that deep-
crufted narrow hoofs, or what are commonly called
ujfes hoofs, are naturally difpofed to this malady: when
or both heels are contradted. This frequently happens
even in all kinds of hoofs, but more especially in thofe
that are flat, from the ufe of concave or hollow fhoes,
together with cutting out the foie and binders at every
time the horfe is {hoed. But it more frequently hap¬
pens, that the infide heel only is contradted, from the
natural weaknefs of that part of the hoof: hence the
weight of the limb, &c. preffing upon the infide cruft
at the heel, it is infledled or bended inwardsby which,
together with the concave form of the {hoe, and lofs
of fubftance from paring, &e. the diforder is increafed, ,
the cruft of the heels becomes contradted, and com-
preffes that quarter of the foot, and of courfe occafion* ,
lamenefs.
With refpedt to any particular method of cure to be
obferved in removing this difeafe, all that can be faid,
is, That, as it is one of that kind which comes on
gradually and perceptibly, it may by proper care and
management, when properly attended to, be prevented.
But when once it becomes confirmed, it never will ad¬
mit of a thorough cure. Neverthelefs, it may be fofar
palliated as to render a horfe in fome degree loiinder,
by keeping the hoofs cool and moift; as, in this cafe,.
they become difeafed, they are eafily known from their they are naturally difpofed to be very hot, dry, and.
appearance, as they are fmaller in proportion than the hard, his {hoes ftiould be fiat, narrow, and open heeled,
legs, and frequently fmaller at their balls than at the the hoofs never greafed nor oiled, the foies never pared,
coronet; the cruft of the heels is high, thick, and But as the crufts of the heels in thefe hoofs are pre-
ftrong; the frog wafted and rotten; the hoofs are al- ternaturally high and ftrong, they Ihould always be
moft perpendicular ; the horfe moves in pain, fteps
{hort and quick, and trips and {tumbles frequently ; it
pared down till they are lower than the frog, that it
if poffible may reft upon the ground. This operation;
is not uncommon that one foot only is affected, which will tend to remove that ftrifture from the heels and
then appears eonfiderably fmaller than the other.
frog, which will greatly relieve them. But many peo-
This difeafe is haftened and brought on by paring pie, adhering too ftriilly to that general rule, which
and hollowing out the foie and binders at every time from inattention has creeped into praftice, 1*2. of
the {hoes*are renewed, from a miftaken notion of widen¬
ing the heels; hence they are thereby made fo very
thin, that the cruft at the extremity of the heels may
paring down the toes, and keeping the heels entire, ,
without refle&ing upon the Ihape or natural formation,
of the particular hoofs, continue the fame practice up-
be forced almoft clofe to one another even with one's on deep-crufted, high-heeled hoofs, which is only ne-
fingers: and what greatly forwards the complaint, is eeffary to be obferved in long-toed hoofs with low
the form of the ftioes commonly ufed, which are made heels, and thereby this diforder is greatly increafed ;
hollow; for this practice of hollowing the ftioes fo uni-
verfally prevails, that, without any regard to the fliape
of the foie, whether it be flat or otherwife, the ftioe is
made concave or hollow upon that fide which is placed
next the foot. Hence the outer edges of the concave
ihoes force the crufts at the heels nearer to one ano-
the weight of the body is likewife thrown forwards, by
which the horfe {lands too much , upon his toes ; and
hence the leg-bones, from the aukward habit of the
horfe’s Handing, become bent at the joints, and occar
lion what is called knuckelmg or nuckding.
The fecond fpecies of this complaint, is .when the
ther which being there retained,, the contradlion of cruft at the coronet becomes contrafted; and compref-
the hoof becomes general, and confirmed beyond the fing the annular ligament, &c. occafions lamenefs, the.
power of art or remedy. hoof acquiring that ftiape formerly compared to that
In the fecond fpecies of this complaint, the hoof of a bell. Diflerent methods have been tried and re¬
acquires a particular ftiape, which Mr Gibfon, in his commended for the cure. Mr Gibfon propofes to make
Farriery, compares to that of a bell; that is, the hoof feveral lines or rafes on the fore-part of the hoof with,
appears contraded and tight round the coronet and a drawing knife, almolt to the quick, from the coronet
z doaru
Sea. XLIT, F A R R
Hcwf- down to Its bafi®, and turrting the horfe out to grafs :
, others, after this operation is performed, fcrew the
"y heels wide, by means of a fcrewed (hoe : a third me¬
thod pra&ifed is, to draw the foie, and divide the flefhy
fubftance of the frog wlth a knife, and keeping it fepa-
rated by the fcrewed (hoe above mentioned : a fourth
method in ufe, is to make the inner-rim of the (hoe-
heel very thick on the under fide (its upper furface be¬
ing quite flat); and by making it reft upon the binders
and foie at the extremity of the heels, by preffure from
the weight of the body, the heels are forced to recede
to a greater difta nee from one another. Either of thefe
methods may indeed in a fmall degree widen or expand
the horny fubftance cf the cruft, and may, be of ufe in
recent .contractions. But when once it has become
confirmed, and is of fome (landing, no means what¬
ever can then reftore the internal parts to their primi¬
tive ftate; for as the contraction takes place, the ten¬
der parts within the hoof being compieffed, lofe their
tone, and diminifti in their fize. The blood-veflels be¬
come impervious; hence a decay or wafting of the
whole foot, and not unfrequently a concretion of the
parts, and of courfe the impoffibiltiy of the horfe ever
becoming found. But as it has been obferved, that
the caufe of this fpecies of the complaint now under
. confideration proceeds from allowing the hoofs to grow
to an extraordinary fize, and keeping them too hot
and dry, by which they acquire a rigidity and drynefs,
-pccafioning a preternatural compreffion upon the co¬
ronet ; to remove which (as the cafe will only admit
of palliation), the furface of the hoof at its bafis muft
be pared down till the blood appears, the thick ftrong
cruft upon the outfide towards the toe rafped in the
fame manner, and the horfe turned out to grafs in foft
^meadow-ground till the feet recover. But it muft be
obferved, that if both hoofs are alike aft'edted1, one of
them at one time only (hould be treated in the manner
directed, as a tendernefs will remain for fome days,
which might prevent the horfe from walking about in
fearch of food.
The third fpecies is a contraction of one, or fome-
times of both heels, in flat feet, from the ufe of con¬
cave (hoes, &c. Where it has not been of a very long
(landing, it may, by proper management, be greatly
relieved, by laying afide the ufe of concave (hoes, and
refraining from paring the foie, &c. But to remove
the ftriCture of the hoof more immediately, the whole
contracted quarter of the cruft near the heel muft be
rafped or pared to the quick, from the coronet to its
bafis, clofe to the frog, taking care to avoid drawing
blood, putting on a barred (hoe, caufing the (hoe-bar
to prefs upon the frog, keeping the hoof cool and
moift, or turning the horfe out to grafs. Hence the
prefl’ure from the contracted hoof being removed, and
the frog at the fame time refting upon the bar of the
(hoe, the contracted quarter is thereby dilated or ex¬
panded: the new hoof growing from the coronet down¬
wards, acquires a round, full (hape, and becomes of its
original form.
From what has been faid concerning this diforder
in the feet of horfes, it is evident, what little profpeCt
there is of effecting a thorough cure by art, as the
complaint is of fuch a nature as only to admit of fome
palliation, and even then in fome very favourable
cafes only. Nev.erthelefs, it is practicable to prevent
I E R Y. 163
contractions in the hoofs from taking place, even in Corns,
thofe hoofs which are feemingly difpofed that way from *" f
their (hape, &c. by obferving the rules already laid
down, viz. by keeping the hoofs moift and cool, which
is their natural ftate; ufing flat (hoes, from which thfe
hoofs can acquire no bad drape ; allowing the foie and
frog to continue in their full ftrength, the latter efpe-
cially to reft upon the ground ; and keeping the cruft
within due bounds, not fuffering it to grow too long
towards the toe, nor too high at the heels.
Sect. XLIII. Of Corns.
In the human body, corns in the feet are termed fo
with fome propriety, from their horny fubftance; but
what are called corns in the feet of horfes, are very im¬
properly named, as they are quite of an oppofite na¬
ture, rather refembling contufions or bruifes, and not
unlike thofe bruifes which happen in the palms of the
hands and fingers to working people, arifing from vio¬
lent pinching, bruiting, &c. where the (kin is thick,
which appears of a blackifh red colour, and exceeding¬
ly painful at firft, containing blood; but in the end,
the ferum or thinner parts being abforbed, the red par¬
ticles appear when the dead (kin is removed, like red
powder. In like manner corns, or rather bruifes, ap¬
pear red and foxy, as the phrafe is. They are fituated
in the corner or (harp angle of the foie at the extremity
of the heels, where the cruft reflects inward and for¬
ward, forming the binders. But they are more fre¬
quently to be met with in the infide heel, from the
manner of the horfe’s (landing, together with the
preffure or weight of the body, which is greater upon
the infide of the hoof than the outfide. Pruifes of
this kind are exceedingly painful, infomuch that the
horfe {brinks and (tumbles when any thing touches or
preffes upon that quarter of the hoof; hence lame-
nefs.
This complaint arifes from different caufes, accord¬
ing to the (hape or natural formation of the hoof, to¬
gether with the treatment they are expofed to. But
the following are the moft frequent.
ijl, In flat low heels, from too great a preffure of
the (hoe-heel upon the foie, whether from cankers, a
too great thicknefs of iron upon the heels of the fhoe*
or its being bended downwards upon the foie, or the
(hoe made too concave ; either of thefe caufes will pro¬
duce the fame effedt: for, from the too great preffure
upon the horny foie, the fleflry foie, which lies imme¬
diately underneath it, is compreffed and bruifed be-,
tween the (hoe-heel, the foie, and the extremities or
outward points of the coffin-bone; and hence a contu*
fion or bruife, attended with an extravafation of the
blood, which afterwards gives that part of the foie a
red appearance, and is the reafon why the foie, on that
place never grows up fo firm and folid as it was be¬
fore, but remains foft and fpongy, forming a lodge¬
ment for fand and gravel, which frequently infinuates
itfelf into the quick, caufing an inflammation, attend¬
ed with a fuppuration or difeharge of matter, which,
if not finding a paffage below, will break out at the
coronet.
zd. This complaint is produced in wide open heels,
when the hoofs are very thick and fttong, from too
great a luxuriancy of the binder, which, being inflec¬
ted or bended downwards between the (hoe and the
X 2 foie,
164 FARR
. Co^ns' ^e> comprcfles the flefiiy foie, as already mentioned ;
' and hence lamenefs.
This malady, in deep narrow hoofs, proceeds
from aeon trait ion of the cruft compreffing the heels,
&c. Hence, it not unfrequently happens in hoofs of
this ihape, that both heels are alike affeited, from the
ftriilure and preflure of the hardened cruft upon the
tendinous aponeurofis, &c. on the outfide of the cof¬
fin-bone, which in this cafe is bruifed between the
bone and the cruft; hence the rednefs may fometiines
be traced upwards almoft to the coronet/ In this cafe
no radical cure can take place, as the caufe which pro¬
duces thefe bruifes, &c. will exift while the horfe lives,
and at the fame time the horfe will be lame from the
contraftion of the hoof; but the remedy propofed in
the preceding feition, by way of palliation for hoof-
bound feet, may be of ufe to render the horfe in fome
meafure more ferviceable.
With refpeft to the two firft caufes, when the bruife
proceeds from too great a preffure from the fhoe-
heels, &c. upon the foie, the fhoe muft be made fo as
to bear off the tender part, and likewife to fome di-
ftance on both fides of it; for which purpofe, a round
or a barred fhoe will be neceffary. The red and bruifed
parts muft be cut out to the quick, and the hoof kept
foft with emollient poultices for fome time. But the
texture of the blood-veffels, and likewife that of the
hoof at the bruifed part, being deftroyed, a fponginefs
remains afterwards, and upon the leaft unequal pref-
fnre from the fhoe, &c. are liable to a relapfe, never
admitting of a thorough cure, and of confequence fub-
jeft to frequent lamenefs.
Corns or bruifes in the feet of horfes might, by ta¬
king proper care of them, be eafily avoided: for in thofe
countries where horfes go moftly barefooted, this ma¬
lady is not fo much, as known ; neither are thofe hor¬
fes that go conftantly at cart and plough fubjedt to
them : hence, therefore, this complaint is moft fre¬
quently to be met with in great towns, where horfes
go much upon hard caufeway, having their fhoes turn¬
ed up with high caukers on the heels, and frequently
renewed, at the fame time their hoofs being kept too
dry and hard, from {landing too much upon hot dry
litter: hence will appear the neceffity of complying
with what is moft natural to the hoofs of horfes,
namely, coolnefs and moiflure, together with ufing fuch
a form of fhoe as will prels equally upon the circum¬
ference of the cruft, and without giving it any bad
unnatural fhape. See fedl. xlvii.
Sect. XLIV. Of Running Thrufhes.
r. A Running Thrush (or Frush), is a difeharge
ef a fetid, and fometimes ichorous, matter, from the
cleft in the middle of the frog, affecting one, frequently
both, and in fome cafes all the four feet. But, ge¬
nerally the fore-feet are moft fubjeft to this difeafe.
In moll cafes, it feMom admits of a radical cure j but
is fubje£t to frequent relapfes, occalioning lamenefs,
from the rawnefs aud tendernefc of the parts atfe&ed,
©n being expofed to fand, gravel, &c. or in rough
ground, from the heels trading on lharp Hones, &c. and
when the horfe happens to be of a bad habit of body,
they even degenerate into what is commonly called a
tanker.
Running thrufties, according to Mr Gibfon, “ are
I E R Y. Sea. XLIV.
fometimes profitable to horfes of flelhy and foul con- Running
ftitutions; becaufe (fays he) they drain off a great Thrulhes.
many bad humours.” But however falutary or bene- v 1 *
ficial they may be in fome particular conftitutions, yet,
upon the whole, they prove extremely troublefome, on
account of the lamenefs and tendernefs of the feet af-
fedted with them; and, where there occurs one cafe
in which they may properly be faid to become bene¬
ficial to the conftitution, there are a far greater num¬
ber in which they are hurtful, as they are brought on
by the treatment the hoofs are expofed to, together
with the injudicious method generally obferved inlhoe-
ing them, particularly in thofe hoofs that are narrow-
heeled, or difpofed to be hoof-botmd, running thrulhes
being always an attendant upon that complaint. But,
to explain this more particularly, there is, in the middle
of the frog, a cleft or opening, by which the heels in
a natural Hate have a fmall degree of contra&ion and
expanfion, efpecially when the horfe treads or prefles
his heel upon the ground, the frog then expands; when,
therefore, a horfe is {hoed with concave or hollow {hoes,
the heels are deprived of that power of expanfion, be¬
ing cor.ftantly confined in a contracted ftate by the re¬
finance from the outer edges of the concave Ihoe, by
which the frog is prefled or fqueezed on both fides, by
the cruft of the heels being brought nearer to or almoft
into contadt with one another. Hence pain, inflam¬
mation, an obftruClion of the blood, &c. (in the flefliy
fubftance of the frog), and of courfe that wafting and
rottennefs of its external covering, which, falling off in
pieces, leaves the quick almoft bare: the new frogi
growing in detached pieces, never acquires the folidity
of the fonr er ; and hence that rawnefs and tendernefs
which ever afterwards remain, and that extreme fen-
fiblity of pain when any hard fubftance touches that
part of the foot, and of courfe fubjeCt the horfe to fre¬
quent lamenefs. There are, no doubt, other caufes which
may be faid to occafion this malady, even in thofe
hoofs that are wide and open at the heels, where there
is not the leaft appearance of a contraction at the heels:
but thefe are generally owing to the treatment the hoofs
are expofed to in the liable, by keeping them too hot
'and dry for a long traCt of time together, during which
the natural perfpiration is greatly obftrufted, by the
conftant application of greafe or oil to the hardened
hoofs, and Huffing them up with hot, refinous, and
greafy mixtures, as tar, turpentine, &c. the horfe be¬
ing all the while kept at full feeding, and not having
proper and neceffary exercife to promote the circula¬
tion of the fluids, and to fotward the ordinary fecre-
tions, &c. : the legs fwell and inflame; at laft a running
in the frog appears; and hence this difeharge is faid
to be beneficial to the conftitution, when in faCt it is
but too frequently brought on by a flothful negleCt,
and kept up by bad management. Freffi air and re¬
gular exercile ate effentially neceffary towards prefer-
ving horfes in an active healthy ftate; for running
thrufhes, like other difeafes to which pampered horfes
are fubjed, are not known in thofe countries where
horfes run at large in the fields; neither are they fo
frequently to be met with in the country amongft la¬
bouring, horfes, whofe exercife is regular, and whofe
hoofs are much expofed to coolnefs and moifture, the
natural ftate of the feet of horfes.
With refgeCt to the cure of running thruffies, it has
3 beea
Sea.XLIV. FARR
Running been hinted, that in moft cafes, efpecially where it has
Thruflies. jjeen 0f iong ftanding, affecting all the frogs more or
w' ,' r 1 lefs, it is imprafticable to eradicate it by any affiftance
from art. For inftance, when it proceeds from con¬
tracted narrow heels in thofe feet which are faid to be
hoof-bound, it is then an attendant only on that dif-
eafe ; and therefore cannot be cured without removing
the firft caufe, though then it will only admit of feme
• See fedt. fmall degree of palliation *. But in thofe hoofs which
are wide and open at the heels, where the complaint is
recent, one or both the fore-feet only being affedled,
and where there is reafon to fufpeCt that it proceeds
from the ufe of concave or hollow fhoes, or keeping the
hoofs too hot, dry, and hard, the cure then may be
completed with eafe and fafety, by laying afide the
ufe of concave fhoes, wafhing the frogs clean after ex-
ercife, and dreffing them with Mel Egyptiacum, made
as follows.
Mel Egyptiacum. Verdegris in fine powder, two
ounces; honey fix ounces ; vinegar four oun¬
ces ; boil them over a gentle fire till they have ac¬
quired a reddifh colour.
Or a folution of blue vitriol.
Solution of vitriol. Blue vitriol powdered, one ounce;
water, one quart:
keeping the hbofs cool and moift. But, at the fame
time, recourfe muff be had to internal remedies by wmy
of revulfion, as purging or diuretic medicines, bleed¬
ing being firft premifed : if the former is made choice
of, twice or thrice will be fufficient, repeated at pro¬
per intervals ; but if the latter, which feems prefer¬
able, they may be continued for fome time with great
fafety, without lofing one day’s work of the horfe.
! In fome cafes, there is frequently not only a dif-
charge of fetid matter from the clefts of the frogs;
but, at the fame time, a difeharge of greafy-like mat¬
ter from the round protuberances of the heels, and the
hollow of the pattern joints. It will be neceffary,
therefore, to make a diftinftion between the matter
difeharged in this cafe, which appears of a thick,
white, clammy, or foapy confiftence, and that run¬
ning in the legs commonly termed a greafe, which is
of a quite oppofite quality; the latter by good manage¬
ment will admit of a thorough cure, whilft the former
baffles all the power of medicine.
2. In horfes of a grofs habit of body, efpecially the
heavy draught-kind, running thrufhes fometimes de¬
generate into what is commonly called a canker. In
this cafe, the horny fubftance of the frog is foon
thrown off; the flelhy parts grow to an immoderate fize,
the luxuriant fubfiance or fpongy flefh having a great
number of papillae or tubercles, which Mr Gibfon com¬
pares not improperly to cauliflower, the colour only
excepted, which is of a pale red, and fometimes varie¬
gated and tinged with blood; attended with a copious
difeharge of a thin ichorous fetid humour, having a
moft offenfive fmell. If its progrefs be not fpeedily
flopt, the flelhy foie, from its vicinity, becomes like-
wife affefted $ the horny foie rots, decays, and falls off:
the whole foot turns into a kind of quag or bog (in
warm weather full of maggots, which it is almoft im-
poffible to prevent, even with the moft corrofive drefs-
ings); the tendons become likewife affe<fted, the bones
carious, the hoof falls off, and the horfe is rendered
wfelels. To prevent thefe and the like confequences,
I E R Y. r<^
as foon as a running thrulh begins to fhow the lead Falfe-quar-
malignant difpofition, proper means mu ft be ufed to ter aIK* 1
corretl the habit of body, and to divert this difeharge Santi~cracica
to fome other outlet, either by purging or diuretic re- y "'
medies, continued for fome time, bleeding being firff
premifed. As to external applications, the firft thing
neceffary to be done, is to jftre down the cruft till it is
lower than the fungus, or growth of the canker, and
to remove any hard pieces of the hoof or foie where-
ever it preffes upon the tender parts ; the circular part
of the cruft fhould be furrounded and kept foft with
an emollient poultice. For dreffings, the mildeft ef-
charotic powders may be firft tried, as the following :
Take burnt alum powdered two ounces; blue vi¬
triol powdered one ounce.
But when it degenerates into the laft fpecies men¬
tioned above, affe&ing'the flelhy foie, &c. the ftrongeft
corrofive applications will then be neceffary, and fome¬
times hardly fufficient to keep down the luxuriancy of
the fungus. The cauftic oils are found preferable, as
ol. vitriol, aquafortis, butter of antimony : either of
thefe may be applied pnee every day; otherwife, if ne-
gledled dreffing too long, or to every other day, which
is the common pradtice, the great humidity and moi-
flure iffuing from the fungus fo weakens the force of
the ftrongeft oils, that they have little or no effedl;
when thefe fliarp dreffmgs feem to gain upon the can¬
ker, it may be drefled with equal parts of red precipi¬
tate and burnt alum pounded and mixed together, till
fuch time as the new foie begins to grow; the purging
or diuretic medicines being given at proper intervals till
the cure is completed.
Sect. XLV. Of Falfe-quartery and Sand-cracks,
J. What is commonly called a falfe-quarter in the
foot of an horfe is a cleft or chink in the fide or quar¬
ter of the hoof, running in a flanting diredlion with
the horny fibres of the hoof, from the coronet to its
bafis, by which the horny fubftance of the cruft is di¬
vided ; one part of the hoof being in a manner de¬
tached from the other, and rendered unable to fuftain ,
its portion or ftiare of the weight of the limb,. &c. and
hence the name of falfe-quarter: for, when the horfe
fets his foot on the ground, the chink widens; but,
when it is lifted up, the hardened edges of the divided
hoof take in between them the tender and foft parts,
and fqueeze them fp as to occafion frequent bleeding at
the chink, and is frequently attended with inflamma¬
tion, a dilcharge of matter, and of courfe lamenefs.
This complaint, notwithftanding the different ac¬
counts commonly given as to the caufe of it, is in faft
the effeift of a deep wound or bruife upon the coronet,
by which the continuity of the parts has been entire¬
ly broke off; for we always find, that when the horny ,
fibres are divided at their roots, they never unite or
grow up as before, but leave a blemifli, more or lefs,
in proportion to the fize and deepnefsof fuch wounds,
&c. We have many inftances of this, even in the hu¬
man body ; for when a wound happens at the roots
of the nails, whether in the fingers or toes, it occa¬
sions a blemifli, which continues to grow in the fame
manner afterwards. Hence it will be evident, that
no radical cure can poffibly take place ; but we may
fo far palliate the complaint as to render the horfe
fomething ufeful, by ufing a Ihoe of fuch a conftruc-
. tic®
f66 FARR
I'alfe-quar- tion as will fupport the weight of the limb, &c. with-
iUuul cracks°Ut re^'nS or preffing too much upon the weakened
■ quarter ; for which purpofe, a round, or what is called
a barred fooe, will be moll proper. The furface of the
hoof on and near the difeafed part may be cut down
lower than the furface of the emit upon which the
flroe is to reft ; or, if the hoof will not admit of being
cut down, the (hoe may be raifed up from the weak
quarter. Either of thefe means will remove the weight
of the body from the difeafed part, and the horfe will
go founder.
But as fand and gravel is ealily admitted into the
chink or crack, where, being accumulated and pent
up, it irritates and inflames the parts, whereby matter
is formed underneath the hoof, which caufes lamenefs,
and which not unfrequently breaks out at the coronet,
producing the moft inveterate ulcers, which become
extremely difficult to heal, on account of the finus or
liftula branching out in different directions underneath
the hoof: therefore, horfes with this defedt fhould be
carefully obferved; and, when the thick hardened
edges of the chink or crack grow too high, by which
it is fo much the deeper, and, of courfe, lodges the
greater quantity of fand, &c. thefe edges fltould be
rafped, or pared with a crooked knife, till the feam
difappears. But wherever there remains a blacknefs,
or appearance of gravel, that part muft be tracked far¬
ther ; always obferving, if poffible, to avoid drawing
of blood. The chink or crack thus made fmooth and
equal, no fand or gravel can lodge in it; and as the
parts will be tender, it will be neceffary to apply an
•emollient poultice for fome days, till the tendernefs
wear off’; If the inflammation has been great, and
matter formed in the crack, or the parts wounded by
the knife in cutting its hardened edges, proud fleffi
may rife and jet out. In this cafe, the hard parts of
the hoof near it are to be removed, a digeftive poultice
applied.; and when the inflammation is abated, the
proud fleffi may be touched with the following corro-
iive powder:
Take blue vitriol burnt, two drams; corrofive fub-
lim- te, one dram; rubbed into powder.
2. A fand-crack is of much the fame nature with a
falfe-quarter ; only they run more frequently in an ho¬
rizontal direction than the latter, on the outfide or
furface of the cruft: they are generally the efleft of
flight or fuperficial wounds upon the coronet, and grow
gradually downwards towards the bafis of the hoof,
and at laft are cut or rafped off in the fhoeing; when
they occafion lamenefs from lodging fand or gravel,
they muft be treated in the fame manner as- already-
mentioned iox Falfe-quarters.
Sect. XLVI. Of Horfes cutting their Legs in
Travelling-
Horses frequently cut their legs both before and
behind, by ftriking or knocking the hoof when trot¬
ting, &c. againft the oppofite leg, whereby a wound
is made, which is attended with an inflammation, fwell-
ing, &c. and of courfe lamenefs. The parts commonly
wounded from cutting in the fore-legs, are the pro¬
minent and back part of the fetlock joint; and un¬
der the knee joint on the infide of the leg. The for¬
mer is moft common: the latter only happens to thofe
l E II Y. Sea. XLVt.
horfes who raife their feet high in trotting ; and, as Cutting,
fach horfes generally go faft, this laft fpecies of cut- —
ting is diftinguifhed by the name of the fwift or fpeedy
cut.
In the hind-legs, horfes cut themfelves upon the
prominent part of the fetlock-joint; and fometimes, e>-
fpecially thofe who move their legs too low, cut up¬
on the coronet. But whether they cut before or be¬
hind, it commonly proceeds from fome of the following
caufes.
ijl, Injudicious fhoeing ; under which may be in¬
cluded, the hoofs being fuffered to grow too large and
broad, the fhoe projecting over the infide edge of the
hoof, the clenches or rivets of -the nails riling above
the furface of the cruft.
There are a great variety of fhoes recommended for
preventing this complaint, of different conftrudlions ;
but the moft common are thofe that are made thick up¬
on the infide heel. Others have a border or margin turn¬
ed up upon the infide of the fhoe’s rim, commonly-
called a feather, which railes the infide of the hoof
conliderably higher from the ground than the outfide.
Either of thefe fhoes may be of ufe to a dealer, in or¬
der to make a wry-footed horfe appear to ftand ftraight
upon his limbs; but can have no effeA upon a horfe’s
manner of moving his legs, efpecially at the time when
the foot is raifed from the ground, and palling by the
other leg, fo as to prevent him from cutting. The rea-
fon why this method of fhoeing feems to fucceed, efpe^
dally in the hind-feet, is this : when the fhoe is miadc
thick upon the infide heel, which part commonly
ftrikes the oppofite leg, the fhoe-nails are removed to
a confiderable diftance forward from the thick part of
the fhoe, which, at the fame time, is kept much with¬
in the circle of the hoof; and, on that account, it be¬
comes impoffible that the fhoe fhould touch the oppo*
file leg. But, to fhow that this railing, of the iulide
quartet or heel, by a thicknefs of iron in the fhoe, is
not neceffary to prevent horfes from cutting, the au¬
thor has frequently caufed the heel of the fhoe to be
made thinner than common ; and, by keeping it with¬
in the hoof, it anfvvered equally well with the former;
he has likewife caufed the fhoe to be cut in the middle
of the quarter, whereby the hoof at the heel was left
quite bare; which anfwered the purpofe fo much the
better, as the foot was the lefs loaded with the addi¬
tional weight of fuperfluous iron.
zd. The great weight of the concave {hoes com¬
monly ufed, is likewife another caufe why horfes, that
in other refpedts move well upon their legs, do fre¬
quently cut and wound themfelves; and to this we may
add, the great length of the hoof at the toe, efpecially
in the fore-feet, which is allowed frequently to grow
to an unnatural fize. It has been already obferved,
that a great load of iron is by no means neceffary in a
horfe’s fhoe: on the contrary, it becomes a great dif.
advantage ; for a flat one that is properly conftrufted,
and well wrought, that is, well hammered, will wear
as long as a concave or hollow fhoe that is almoft
double the weight of the former. This, at firft view,
will perhaps appear a paradox ; but, neverthelefs, it
is a fadt; for as the round or outward furface of a
concave fhoe is the only part that touches the ground,
and is liable to be worn, it foon grows thin, and yields
to the preffure from the weight of the body; and there*
fore
Sea.XLVir., FARR
t Cutting. fore mufl; be renewed before the other parts of it are
y~~^ hardly touched, and but little reduced in its original
weight. But the furface of a flat flioe, retting equally
upon the ground, will remain firm upon the hoof, and
be fufficiently ftrong to fupport the weight of the bo¬
dy till it wears very thin.
When horfes cut or wound themfelves immediately
under the knee-joint, this is called the furift orfpeedy
cut ; and is occafioned by raifing the feet high in trot¬
ting, whereby the infide toe or quarter of the hoof
ftrikes againft the oppofite leg. This is eafily pre¬
vented by making the fhoe ttraight, and placing it
confiderably within the hoof at the part where the hoof
firikes the other leg, obferving that no nails are to be
put in that part of the flioe which is kept fo much
within the hoof, otherwife they mutt immediately
plunge into the qirck.
3*/, When cutting proceeds from a natural defeft,
that is, a wrong pofition of the foot upon the leg-
bones, whereby the toes are turned too much outward
or too much inward ; at the fame time, if the horfe
erofles his legs much in trotting ; in this cafe there is
ao preventing his cutting altogether, though it may be
palliated. Such horfes are by no means fit for jour¬
ney-riding, being generally addidted both to cutting
and Humbling.
In the lajt place, it may proceed from fatigue or
weaknefs. This happens frequently, even to thofe
horfes that deal their legs well (as the phrafe is), efpe-
cially in young horfes ; but they foon leave it off when
they acquire more ftrength, and are accuftomed to
their work : moft people mutt have experienced this
in themfelves when boys, as they at that age are very
ready to knock their ancles with the heel of the oppo¬
fite (hoe, which cuftom wears off as they grow ftrong.
Upon the whole, the beft general rule that can be laid
down for preventing horfes from cutting their legs, is
to keep their hoofs round and fliort at the toe, and from
growing too large and broad ; to obferve that the fhoe
does not projedl over the infide edge of the hoof; that
the clenches or rivets of the nails on the outer furface
of the cruft are fmooth ; and, above all, that the flioe
be made light, well worked, and properly propor¬
tioned to the fize of the foot. See the following
head.
Sect. XLVII. Shoeing g/Horses.
Horses are ftioed in order to defend and preferve
Iheir hoofs. As feet differ, fo fliould flioes according¬
ly. “ The only fyftem of farriers, (Lord Pembroke
obferves), is to ftioe in general with exceffive heavy and
clumfy ill-fliaped flioes, and very many nails, to the to¬
tal deftruftion of the foot. The cramps they annex,
tend to deftroy the bullet; and the flioes made in the
fliape of a walnut-lhell prevent the horfe’s walking
upon the firm bafis which God has given him for that
end, and thereby oblige him to ftumble and fall. They
totally pare away alfo and lay bare the infide of the
animal’s foot with their deteftable butteries, and after¬
wards put on very long flioes, whereby the foot is hin¬
dered from having any preffure at all upon the heels,
which preffure otherwife might ftill perchance, not-
withftanding their dreadful cutting, keep the heels pro¬
perly open, and the foot in good order. The frog
fhotfld never be cut- out; but as it will fometimes be-
l E R Y. i67
come ragged, it muft be cleaned every now and then, Shoeing.
and the ragged pieces pared off with a knife. In one   
kind of foot indeed a conliderable cutting away muft
be allowed of, but not of the frog : we mean, that very
high feet muft be cut down to a proper height; be-
caufe, if they were not, the frog, though not cut,
would ftill be fo far above the ground, as not to have
any bearing upon it, whereby the great tendon muft
inevitably be damaged, and confequently the horfe
would go lame.
“ The weight of ftioes muft greatly depend on the
quality and hardnefs of the iron. If the iron be very
good, it will not bend ; and in this cafe the flioes can¬
not poifibly be made too light: care, however, muft be
taken, that they be of a thicknefs fo as not to bend
for bending would force out the nails, and ruin the
hoof. That part of the flioe which is next the horfe’e-
heel, muft be narrower than any other, (as is feen in
the draught, Plate CLXXXIX.) that ftones may be
thereby prevented from getting under it, and {ticking
there : which otherwife would be the cafe ; becaufe
the iron, when it advances inwardly beyond the bear¬
ing of th^ foot, forms a cavity, wherein ftones being
lodged would remain and, by prefiing againft the foot,
lame the horfe. The part of the ftioe which the horfe
walks upon ftiould be quite flat, and the infide of it
likewife; only juft fpace enough being left next the
foot to put in a picker (which ought to be ufed every
time the horfe comes into the ftable), and alfo to pre¬
vent the flioe’s prefling upon the foie. Four nails ora
each fide hold better than a greater number, and keep
the hoof in a far better ftate. The toe of the horfe
mutt be cut fhort, and nearly fquare (the angles only-
juft rounded off) ; nor muft any nails be driven there :
this method prevents much {tumbling, efpeciallyin de-
feents ; and ferves, by throwing nourifliment to the
heels, to ttrengthen. them: on them the horfe fliould
in feme meafure walk, and the flioe be made of a pro¬
per length accordingly; by this means, narrow heels
are prevented, and many other good efft&s produced.
Many people drive a nail at the tot, but it is an abfurd
practice. Leaving room to drive one there caufes the
foot to be of an improper length ; and moreover, that
part of the hoof is naturally fe brittle, that even when
it is kept well greafed, the nail there feldom flays in,
but tears out and damages the hoof. That the di-
reftions for flioeing a proper length may be the
more clear and intelligible, we have annexed a
draught of a foot flioed a proper length {landing on
a plain furface, and with it a draught of the right
kind of flioe.
“ In wet, fpungy, and feft ground, where the foot
finks in, the preffure upon the heels is of courfe great¬
er than on hard ground ; and fo indeed k fliould be
upon all accounts. The hinder-feet muft be treated in
the fame manner as the fore-ones ; and the flioes the
fame ; except in hilly andflippery countries, they may
not improperly be turned up a little behind ; but turn¬
ing up the fore-ftioes is of no fervice, and is certain,
ruin to the fore-legs, efpecially to the bullets. In de-
feending hills, cramps are apt to throw horfes down,.
by flopping the fore-legs, out of their proper bafis and
natural bearing, when the hinder ones are rapidly pref-
fed ; which unavoidably muft be the cafe, and confei-
quently cannot but pufli the horfe upon his nofe. With
them.
i68 T A R R
Sh i-ing. tlian on a plain furface, a horfe’s foot is always thrown
w'Y—£orwar(js on the toe, out of its proper bearing, which
is very liable to make the horfe Humble. The notion
of their utility in going up hills is a falfe one.. In af-
cending, the toe is the firft part of the foot which bears
on, takes hold of the ground, and whether the horfe
draws or carries, confequently the bulinefs is done be¬
fore the part where the cramps are comes to the ground.
■ Ice-nails are preferable to any thing to prevent flip¬
ping, as alfo to help horfes up hill, the moft forward
ones taking hold of the ground early, confiderably be¬
fore the heels touch the ground : they muft be fo made,
as to be, when driven in, fcarce half an inch above.the
ftioe, and alfo have four fides ending at the top in a
point. They are of great fervice to prevent flipping
on all kinds of places ; and by means of them a horfe
is not thrown out of his proper bafis. They muft be
made of very good iron ; if they are not, the heads
of them will be perpetually breaking off. From the
race-horfe to the cart-horfe, the fame fyftem of (hoe¬
ing (hould be obferved. The fize, thicknefs, and weight
of them only (hould differ. The (hoe of a race-horfe
muft of courfe be,lighter than that of a faddle-horfe ;
that of a faddle-horfe lighter than that of a coach or
bat horfe ; and thefe laft more fo than a cart, waggon,
or artillery horfe. At prefent all (hoes in general are
too heavy ; if the iron is good, (hoes need not be fo
thick as they are now generally made.—The utmoft
feverity ought to be infli&ed upon all thofe who clap
{hoes on hot: this unpardonable lazinefs of farriers in
making feet thus fit (hoes, inftead of (hoes fitting feet,
dries up the hoof, and utterly deftroys them. Fre¬
quent removals of (hoes are detrimental, and tear the
foot; but fometimes they are very neceffary : this is an
inconvenience which half-(hoes are liable to ; for the
end of the (hoe, being very (hort, is apt to work foon
into the foot, and confequently muft then be moved.”
In a late treatife on this fubjeft by Mr Clark of E-
dinburgh, the common form of (hoes, and method of
(hoeing, are, with great appearance of reafon, totally
condemned, and a new form and method recommend¬
ed, which feem founded on rational principles, and to
have been confirmed by experience.
Common method. “ In preparing the foot for the
{hoe, our author obferves, the frog, the foie, and the
bars or binders, are pared fo much that the blood fre¬
quently appears. The (hoe by its form (being thick
• See Plate on the infide of the rim, and thin upon the outfide*),
clxxxix. muft of confequence be made concave or hollow on that
fide which is placed immediately next the foot, in or¬
der to prevent its refting upon the foie. The (hoes
are generally of an immoderate weight and length, and
every means is ufed to prevent the frog from refting
upon the ground, by making the (hoe-heels thick,
broad, and ftrong, or railing cramps or caukers on
them.
“ From this form of the ftioe, and from this me¬
thod of treating the hoof, the frog is raifed to a con-
fiderable height above the ground, the heels are de¬
prived of that fubftance which was provided by nature
to keep the cruft extended at a proper widenefs, and
the foot is fixed as it were in a mould.
“ By the preffure from the weight of the body, and
refiftance from the outer edges of the (hoe, the heels are
forced together, and retain that fliape impreffed upon
N° 125.
I E R Y. Sea. XLVII.
them, which it is impofiible ever afterwards to re- Shoeing,
move ; hence a contraction of the heels^ and of courfe - »
lamenefs. But farther.
“ The heels, as has been obferved, being forced to¬
gether, the cruft prefles upon the proceffes of the cof¬
fin and extremities of the nut-bone : The frog is con¬
fined, and raifed fo far from the ground, that it can¬
not have that fupport upon it which it ought to have :
the circulation of the^blood is impeded,, and a wafting
of the frog, and frequently of the whole foot, enfues.
Hence proceed all thofe difeafes of the feet, known by
the names of foundered, hoof-bound, narrow-heels, run-
ning thrufhes, corns, high foies, &c.
“ T have like wife frequently obferved, from this
comprelfion of the internal parts of the foot, a fwell-
ing of the legs immediately above the hoof, attend¬
ed with great pain and inflammation, with a dif-
charge of thin, ichorous, fetid matter: from which
fymptoms, it is often concluded, that the horfe is in a
bad habit of body (or what is termed z. greafe falling
down), and muft therefore undergo a courfe of medi¬
cine, &c.
“ The bad effe&s of this pra&ice are ftill more ob¬
vious upon the external parts of the hoof. The cruft
toward the toe, being the only part of the hoof free
from compreflion, enjoys a free circulation of that fluid
neceffary for its nourilhment, and grows broader and
longer; from which extraordinary length of toe, the
horfe ftumbles in his going, and cuts his legs. The
fmaller particles of fand iniinuate themfelves between
the (hoe and the heels, which grind therh away, and
thereby produce lamenefs. All this is entirely owing
to the great fpring the heels of the horfe muft una¬
voidably have upon the heels of a (hoe made in this
form.
“ This concave (hoe in time wears thin at the toe,
and, yielding to the preffure made upon it, is forced
wider, and of confequence breaks off all that part of
the cruft on the outfide of the nails. Inftances of this
kind daily occur, infomuch that there hardly remains
cruft fufficient to fix a flioe upon.
“ It is generally thought, that the broader a (hoe
is, and the more it covers the foie and frog, a horfe
will travel the better. But, as has been formerly re¬
marked, the broader a (hoe is of this form, it muft be
made the more concave; and, of confequence, the
contra&ing power upon the heels muft be the greater.
It is likewife to be obferved, that, by ufmg ftrong
broad-rimmed concave (hoes in the fummer feafon*,
when the weather is hot and the roads very dry and
hard, if a horfe is obliged to ride fall, the (hoes, by
repeated ftrokes (or fridtion) againft the ground, ac¬
quire a great degree of heat, which is communicated
to the internal parts of the foot; and, together with
the contradtion upon the heels occafioned by the form
of the (hoe, muft: certainly caufe exquifite pain. This
is frequently fucceeded by a violent inflammation in
the internal parts of the hoof, and is the caufe of that
difeafe in the feet fo fatal to the very beft of our
horfes, commonly termed a founder. This is alfo the
reafon why horfes, after a journey or a hard ride, are
oblerved to drift their feet fo frequently, and to lie
down much.
“ If we attend further to the convex furface of
this (hoe, and the convexity of the pavement upon
which
Plate CI/XXXIX.
r ^'i(/,£■//e/rnt. //<r/l/fv/y/Z,r ft’,;?.
T ARRIE R Y;
ry'&njf -f //ws. /. .
1
Sea.XLVII. FARR
Shoeing', which hones walk, it will then be evident that it is
*" v impoffible for them to keep their feet from flipping
in this form of (hoe, efpecially upon declivities of
ftreets.
“ It is alfo a common pra&ice, efpecially in this
place, to turn up the heels of the (hoes into what is
called cramps or cankers, by which means the weight
of the horfe is confined to a very narrow furface, viz.
the inner round edge of the fhoe-rim and the points or
cankers of each heel, which foon wear round and
blunt; befides, they for the moft part are made by far
too thick and long. The confequence is, that it
throws the horfe forward upon the toes, and is apt to
make him flip and ftumble. To this caufe we muft
likewife afcribe the frequent and fudden lamenefs hor-
fes are fubjeft to in the legs,.by twilling the ligaments
of the joints, tendons, &c.
“ I do not affirm that caukers are always hurtful,
and ought to be laid afide : On the contrary, I grant,
that they, or fome fuch like contrivance, are extreme¬
ly neceflary, and may be ufed with advantage upon flat
ihoes where the ground is flippery; but they fliouldbe
made thinner and (harper than thofe commonly ufed,
fo as to fink into the ground, otherwife they will ra¬
ther be hurtful than of any advantage.
<s The Chinefe are faid to account a fmall foot an
ornament in their women, and for that purpofe, when
young, their feet are confined in fmall fhoes. This no
doubt produces the defired effect; but muft neoeflarily
be very prejudicial to them in walking, and apt to red¬
der them entirely lame*
“ This practice, however, very much refembles our
manner of fhoeing horfes: for, if we looked upon it
as an advantage to them to have long feet, with har¬
row low heels, and fuppofing we obferved no incon*
venience to attend it, or bad confequence to follow
it, we could not poffibly ufe a more effe&ual means to
bring it about, than by following the method already
defcribed.
“ In fhoeing a horfe, therefore, we fhould in this,
as in every other cafe, ftudy to follow nature: and cer¬
tainly that flioe which is made of fuch a form as to re-
femble as near as poflible the natural tread and fliape
of the foot, muft be preferable to any other.
“ But it is extremely difficult today down fixed
rules with refpefl to the proper method to be obfer¬
ved in treating the hoofs of different horfes : it is e-
qually difficult to lay down any certain rule for deter¬
mining the precife form to be given their fhoes. This
will be obvious to every judicious pra&itioner, from
the various conftruftions of their feet, from difeafe,
and from other caufes that may occur; fo that a great
deal muft depend upon the difcreticn and judgment of
the operator, in proportioning the fhoe to the foot, by
imitating the natural tread, to prevent the hoof from
cantrafting a bad fhape.
u In order, therefore, to give fome general idea of
•what may be thought moft neceffary in this matter, I
fliali endeavour to defcribe that form of fh( e and me¬
thod of treating the hoofs of horfes, which from expe¬
rience I have found moft beneficial.
Vot. VII. Parti.
I E R Y.
“ Froper Method. It is to be remembered, that a Sh<
horfe’s fhoe might by no means to reft upon the foie,
otherwife it will occafion lamenefs ; therefore it muft
reft entirely on the craft : and, in order that we may
imitate the natural tread of the foot, the fhoe muft be
made flat (if the height of the foie does not forbid
it) ; it muft be of an equal thicknefs all around the
outfide of the rim (a) ; and on that part of it which
is to be placed immediately next the foot, a narrow'
rim or margin is to be formed, not exceeding the
breadth of the cruft upon which it is to reft, with the
nail-holes placed exadlly in the middle ; and from this
narrow rim the fhoe is to be made gradually thinner
towards its inner edge. See fig. 5.
“ The breadth of the fhoe. is to be regulated by the
fize of the foot, and the work to which the horfe in
accuftomed : but, in general, it fhould be made rather
broad at the toe, and narrow towards the extremity of
each heel, in order to let the frog reft with freedom
upon the ground. The neceffity of this has been al¬
ready fhown.
“ The fhoe being thus formed at\d fhaped like the
foot, the furface of the cruft is to be made fmooth,
and the fhoe fixed on with eight or at moft ten nails,
the heads of which fhould be funk into the holes, fo
as to be equal with the furface of the fhoe. The
foie, frog, and bars, as I have already obferved, fhould
never be pared, farther than taking off what is ragged
from the frog, and any excrefcences or inequalities
from the foie. And it is very properly remarked by-
Mr Ofmer, ‘ That the fhoe mould be made fo as to
Hand a little wider at the extremity of each hedl
than the foot itfelf: otherwife, as the foot grows in
length, the heel of the fhoe in a fhort time gets with*-
in the heel of the horfe; which preffure often breaks
the cruft, and produces a temporary lamenefs, perhaps
a corn.’ «
“ This method of fhoeing horfes I have followed
long before Mr Qfmers treatife on that fubjeft was
publifhed ; and for thefe feveral years paft I have en¬
deavoured to introduce it into pradlice.
“ But fo much are farriers, grooms, Szc. prejudiced
in favour of the common method of fhoeing and paring
out the feet, that it is with difficulty they can even be
prevailed upon to make a proper trial of it.
“ They cannot be fatisfied unlefs the frog be finely
fhaped, the foie pared, and the bars cut out, in or¬
der to make the heels appear wide (s). This prac¬
tice gives them a fhow of widenefs for the time; yet
that, together with the concave form of the fhoe, for¬
wards the contraftion of the heels, which, when con¬
firmed, renders the animal lame for life.
“ In this flat form of {hoe, its thickeft part is upofi
the outfide of the rim, where it is moft expofed to be
worn; and being made gradually thinner towards its
inner edge, it is therefore much lighter than the com¬
mon concave, fhoe : yet it will laft equally as long, and
with more advantage to the hoof; and as the frog of
heel is allowed to reft upon the ground, the foot en¬
joys the fame points of fupport as in ks natural ftate.
It muft therefore be much eafief for the horfe in his
Y way
For a draught-horfe about half an inch thick, and larger in proportion for a faddle-horfe.
(b) Wide open heels are looked upon as a mark of a found good hoof.
170 FARR
Shoeing way of going, and be a means of making him furer-
Uik-y—o,' f0(,ted. It is likewife evident, that, from this (hoe,
the hoof cannot acquire any bad form ; when, at the
fame time, it receives every advantage that poffiMy
could be expefted from fhoeing. In this refpe£t it
may very properly be faid, that we make the iKoe to
the foot, and not the foot to the Ihoe, as is but too
much the cafe in the concave fhoes, where the foot
very much refembles that of a cat’s fixed into a wal-
nut-lhell.
- It is to be obferved, that the hoofs of young
horfes, before they are Ihoed, for the moft part are
wide and open at the heels, and that the cruft is fufii-
ciently thick and ftrong to admit of the nails being fix¬
ed very near the extremities of each. But, as I have
formerly remarked, from the conftant ufe of concave
fhoes, the cruft of this part of the foot grows thinner
and weaker ; and when the nails are fixed too far
back, efpecially upon the in fide, the horfe becomes
lame : to avoid this, they are placed more towards
the fore part of the hoof. This caufes the heels of the
.horfe to have the greater fpring upon the heels of the
fhoe, which is fo very detrimental as to occafion lame-
nefs; whereas, by ufing this flat form of Ihoe, all thefe
inconveniences are avoided; and if the hoofs of young
horfes, from the firft time that they were flroed, were
continued to be conftantly treated according to the me¬
thod here recommended, the heels would always re¬
tain their natur al ftrength and fhape.
“ By following this flat method of fhoeing, and
manner of treating the hoofs, feveral horfes now under
my care, that were formerly tender-footed, and fre¬
quently, lame, while fhaed with broad concave fhoes,
are now quite found, and their hoofs in as good condi¬
tion as when the fit ft fhoes were put upon them : In
particular, the horfe that wore the broad concave
fhaes,- from which the drawings of fig. 2. and 3. were
taken, now goes perfectly found in the open narrow
kind of fhoes, as reprefented fig. 4. 5.
“ If farriers confidered attentively the defign of
fhoeing horfes, and would take pains to make them-
felves acquainted with the anatomical ftru&ure of the
foot, they would then be convinced, that this method
«f treating the hoofs, and this form of fhoe is pre¬
ferable to that which is fo generally praftifed.
“ It has been alleged, that in this form of fhoe
horfes do not go fo well as in that commonly ufed.
This obje&ion will eafily be laid afide, by attending
to the following particulars. There are but few prac¬
titioners that can or will endeavour to make this fort
of fhoe as it ought to be. The iron, in forming it,
does not fo eafily turn into the circular fhape necef-
fary as in the common fhoe ; and perhaps this is the
principal reafon why farriers objeft to it, efpecially
where they' work much by the piece. And as many
horfes that are commonly fhoed with concave fhoes
have their foies confideratiy higher than the cruft, if
the fhoe is not properly formed, or if it is made too
flat, it muft unavoidably reft upon the foie, and occa¬
fion lamenefs.
“ The pra&icc of paring the foie and frog is alfo fo
prevalent, and thought fo abfolutely neceffary, that it
is indifcriminately praftifed, even to excefs, on all
kinds of feet : And while this method continues to
be followed, it cannot be expected that horfes can go
I E R Y. Se&.XLVir
upon hard ground (on this open fhoe) with that free¬
dom they would do if their foies and frogs were allow¬
ed to remain in their full natural ftrength.
u Experience teaches us, that, in very thin-foled
fhoes, we feel an acute pain from every fharp-pointed
ftone we happen to tread upon. Horfes are fenfible
of the fame thing in their feet, when their foies, &y.
are pared too thin. Hence they who are prejudiced
againft this method, without ever reflefting upon the
thin ftate of the foie, &c. are apt to condemn it, and
draw their conclufions more from outward appearances
than from any reafoning or knowledge qf the ftrudlure
of the parts. From a due attention likewife to the
ftru&ure of a horfe’s foot in a natural ftate, it will
be obvious, that paring away the foie, frog, &c.
muft be hurtful, and in reality is deftroying that fub-
ftance provided by nature for the defence of the in¬
ternal parts of the foot: From fuch pradice it muft
be more liable to accidents from hard bodies,, fuch as
fharp ftones, nails, glafs, &c. From this confideratiors
we wdll likewife find, that a narrow piece of iron ad¬
apted to the fiiape and fize T the foot, is the only
thing neceflary to proted the cruft from breaking or
wearing away •, the foie, &c. requiring no defence if
never pared.
“ There is one obfervati m I would farther make,
which is, that the fn jc ftiould be made of good iron,
well worked or what fmiths call hammer-hardened,
that is, beat all over lightly with a hammer when al-
moft cold. The Spaniards and Portuguefe farriers' ufe
this pradice greatly, infomuch that many people, who
have feen them at work, have reported that they form
their horfes Ihoes without heating them in the fire as
we do. It is. well known, that heating of iron till it
is red foftens it greatly ; and when {hoes thus ioftened
are put upon horfes feet, they wear away like lead.
But when the (hoes are well hammered, the iron be¬
comes more compad, firm, and hard; fo that a well-
hammered flioe, though made confiderably lighter, yet
will laft as long as one that is made heavier; the ad¬
vantage of which is obvious, as the horfe will move his
feet with more adivity, and be in lefs danger of cut¬
ting his legs
“ The common concave (hoes are very faulty in
this refped; for, in. fitting or fhaping them to the
foot, they require to be frequently heated, in order
to make them bend to the unequal furface which the
hoof acquires from the conftant ufe of thefe {hoes:
they thereby become foft ; and to attempt to harden:
them by beating or hammering when they are {haped
to the .foot would undo the whole. But flat fhoes,
by making them, when heated, a little narrower than
the foot, will, by means of hammering, become wi¬
der, and acquire a degree of elafticity and firmnefs
which it is needfary they fhould have, but impofllble
to be given them by any other means whatever ; fo
that any farrier, from ,pradice, will foon be able to
judge, from the quality of the iron, how much a {hoe,
in fitting it to the circumference of the hoof, will
ftretch by hammering when it is almoft cold: this o-
peration, in fitting flat {hoes, will be the lefs difficult,
efpecially when it is confidered, that as there are no ine¬
qualities on the furface of the hoof (or at leaft ought
not to be) which require to be bended thereto, ihoea
of this kind only require to be made fmooth and flat;
hence
Sea. XLVII. F A R R
Shoeing’, hence-they will prefs equally upon the .circumference
or cruft of the hoof, which is the natural tread of a
horfe.”
When the roads, See. are covered with ice, it be¬
comes neceffary to have the heels of the fhoes turned
up, and frequently iharpened, in order to prevent hor-
fes from flipping and falling. As this cannot be done
without the frequent moving of the fhoes, which breaks
and deftroys the cruft of the hoofs where the nails are
drove, to prevent this, it is recommended to thofe who
are willing to be at the expence, to have fteel points
ferewed into' the heels or quarters of each fhoe, which
might be taken out and put in occafionally.
The method of doing this properly, as direfted by
Mr Clark, is firft to have the flioes fitted to the fhape
of the hoof, then to make a fmall round hole in the
extremity of each heel, or in the quarters, about three-
eighths of an inch in diameter, or more, in proportion
to the breadth and fize of the fhoe; in each of thefe
holes a ferew is to be made ; the fteel points are like-
wife to have a ferew on-them, exaftly fitted to that in
the fhoes. Care muft be taken that the ferew on the
points is no longer, when they are ferewed into the
flioe, than the thicknefs of the latter. The fteel points
are to be made fharp ; they may either be made fquare,
triangular, or chiffel pointed, as may be moft agree¬
able ; the height of the point above the fhoe fhould
not exceed half an inch for a faddle horfe ; they may
i E r Y. ,7,
be made higher for a draught horfe. The key or handle Shoeing,
that is neceffary to ferew them in and out occafionally,
is made in the fhape of the capital letter T, and of a
fufficient fize and ftrength ; at the bottom of the
handle, a focket or cavity muft be made, properly ad¬
apted to the fhape of the ftcel point, and fo deep as
to receive the whole head of the point that is above the
fhoe. In order to prevent the ferew from breaking at
the neck, it will be neceflary to make it of a gradual
taper; the fame is likewife to be obferved of the fe¬
male ferew that receives it, that is, the hole muft be
wider on the upper part of the fhoe than the under
part; the fharp points may be tempered or hardened,
in order to prevent them from growing too foon blunt;
but when they become blunt, they may be fharpened
as at firft. Thefe points fhould be unferewed when the
horfe is put into the liable, as the ftones will do them
more injury in a few minutes than a days riding on ice.
A draught horfe fhould have one point on. each fhoe,
as that gives them firmer footing in drawing on ice ;
but for a faddle horfe, when they are put there, they
are apt to make him trip and Humble.
When the fhoes are provided with thefe points, a
horfe will travel on ice with the greateft fecurity and
fteadinefs, much more fo than on caufeway or turnpike
roads, as the weight of the horfe preffes them down
in the ice at every ftep he makes.
FAS
Farthing, FARTHING, a fmall Englifh copper coin, a-
Fafce?, mounting to one-fourth of a penny. It was anciently
Y~- called four thing, as being the fourth of the integer or
penny.
Farthing of Gold, a coin ufed in ancient times,
containing in value the fourth part of a noble, or zod.
filver. It is mentioned in the flat, g Hen. V. cap. 7.
where it is enadled, that there fhall be good and
juft weight of the noble, half-noble, and farthing of
gold.
Farthing of Land feems to differ from farding-
d-eal. For in a fuivey-book of the manor of Wefl-
Hapton in Devonfhire, there is an entry thus : A. B.
holds fix farthings of land at 126I. per ann. So that
the farthing of land muft have been a confiderable
quantity, far more than a rood.
FASCES, in Roman antiquity, axes tied up toge¬
ther with rods, or Haves, and borne before the Roman
magiftrates as a badge of their office and authority.
According to Florus, the ufe of the fafees was in¬
troduced by the elder Tarquin the fifth king of Rome;
and were then the mark of the fovereign dignity. In
after-times they were borne before the confuls, but by,
turns only, each his day; they had each of them 12,
borne by as many li&ors. Thefe fafees confifted of
branches of elm ; having in the middle a fecuris or axe,
the head of which flood out beyond the reft. Publi-
cola took the axe out of the fafees, as Plutarch affures
us, to remove from the people all occafion of terror.
After the confuls, the pretors affumed the fafees. In
the government of the decemvirs, it was the practice at
Srit for only one of them to have the fafees. After-
F A S
wards each of them had twelve, after the manner of Fafcets,
the kings. Fafcise.
When the magiftrates who by right had the axes
carried before them, had a mind to ihow fome defe¬
rence to the people, or fome perfon of fingular me¬
rit, they either fent away the lidlors, or commanded
them to lower the fafees before them, which was called
fubmittere fafees. Many inftances of this occur in Ro¬
man hiftory.
FASCETS, in the art of making glafs, are the
irons thruft into the mouths of bottles, in order to con¬
vey them to the annealing tower.
FASCIA, in antiquity, a thin fafh which the Ro¬
man women wrapped round their bodies, next to the
ikin, in order to make them flender. Something of
this fort feems alfo to have been in ufe amongft the
Grecian ladies, if we can depend upon tl\e reprefenta-
tion given by Terence, Eun. A61. 2. Sc. 4.
Haud fim'ilis eji •oirginum nojirarum, ju is matres Jludsnt
DemiJJis humeris ejfe—-oindo cor pore, ut gracilesjiint.
Fascia, in architedlure, fignifies any flat member
having a confiderable breadth and but a fmall projec-
ture, as the band of an architrave, larmier, &c. In
brick-buildings, the juttings out of the bricks beyond
the windows in the feveral ftories except the higheft
are called fafeias, or fafeia.
Fascia Lata, in anatomy, a mufcle of the leg, call¬
ed alfo femi membranofus. See Anatomy, Table of the
Mufcles.
Fascia, in aftronomy, the belts feen on the diik
of the fuperior planets Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. See
Astronomy pajjlm.
Y 2 FASCI-
FAS
F&fciaiLs FASC1ALIS, in anatomy, one of the mufcles of
the thigh, calledTar/oriaj. See Anatomy, Talk of
taJ‘cl"n' the Mufchs.
FASCINATION (from the Greek to
fafcinate or bewitch), a fort of witchcraft fuppofed to
operate either by the eye or the tongue.
• Ancient writers diftinguifh two forts of fafeination,
one performed by looking, or the efncacy of the eyd.
Such is that fpoken of by Virgil in his third eclogue :
Ne/cio quit teneros icutus mihi fafeinat agnos.
The fecond by words, and efpecially malignant praifes.
Such is that mentioned by the fame poet in his feventh
eclogue :
Aut, ft ultra placilum laudarit, laccarc frontem
Cingiti, ne vati nectatpiaL, lingua fuluro
Horace touches on both kinds in his firft book of
epillles:
±\ on iflic obliquo oculo mea commoia quifquam
FASCINES, in fortification, faggots of fmall wood,
of about a foot diameter, and fix feet long, bound in
the middle, and at both ends. They are ufed in raifing
batteries, making chandelierl, in filling up the moat
to facilitate the pafiage to the wall, in binding the ram¬
parts where the earth is bad, and in making parapets
of trenches to fereen the men. Some of them are dip¬
ped in melted pitch or tar; and, being fet on fire, ferve
to burn the enemy’s lodgments or other works.
In the corrupt Latin they ufe fafeenina, fafeennia,
and fafeinata, &c. to fignify the pales, fafeines, &c.
ufed to inclofe the ancient caftles, &c.
FASQIOLA, in zoology, the Fluke or Gourd
Worm: A genus of infefts of the order of vermes intef-
PlateCXC.tina; of which the charafters are thefe : The body is
flattilh, and has a vent hole at the extremity and on the
belly. There are feveralfpecies. i.The hepatica,or liver-
fluke, grows to two thirds of an inch in length, though
it is more ufually met with not half that fize ; and its
breadth is nearly equal to two thirds of its length : it
is flattilh, but fomewhat rounded on the back, and has
about eight deep longitudinal furrows in two feries;
its Ikin is foft and whitilh, with a tinge of brown. The
hinder part is rounded, the fore part is furnilhed with
a large mouth ; it bears fome refemblance to the feed
of fhe common gourd, whence it has acquired the name
of the gourd worm. It is found in frelh waters, in
ditches, at the roots of ftones, fometimes in the in-
tellines, and often in the fubftance of the other vifeera
in quadrupeds It often infefts the liver of Iheep, and
on that account is called hepatiea. Bags with fait in
them Ihould be placed in the fold that the Iheep might
lick them, which is the only remedy. 2. The Intefti-
nalis, or Intellinal Fluke, is of a long {lender form, if
extended; when contra&ed, of a fubeval form. In¬
habits the inteftines of frelh-water filh ; often found in
breams. 3. The barbata, is white, with tranfverfe
papillat in the mouth. It is of an oblong lhape, and
about the fize of a cucumber-feed. It is found in the
inteftines of the fepia lotigo.
FASHION-pieces, in the fea-language, the aftmoft
or hindmoft timbers of a (hip, which terminate the
breadth, and form the Ihape of the ftern. They are
united to the ftern-poft, and to the extremity of the
FAS
wing-tranfom,by arabbit, and a number of ftrong nails Pall¬
or fpikes driven from without. ——y—*
FAST, in general, denotes the abftinence from
food, (fee Fasting) ; but is more particularly ufed for
fuch abftinence on a religious account.
Religious falling has been praftifed by moft nations
from the remoteft antiquity. Sotne divines even pre¬
tend its origin in the earthly paradife, where our firft
parents were forbidden to eat of the tree of know¬
ledge. But though this feems carrying the matter too
far, it is certain, that the Jewilh church has obfeived
fafts ever fince its firft inllitution. Nor were the neigh¬
bouring heathens, viz. the Egyptians, Phoenicians,
and Affyrians, without their falls. The Egyptians,
according to Herodotus, facrificed a cow to llis, after
having prepared themfelves by falling and prayer: a
cuftom w’hich he likewife aferibes to the women of Gy¬
rene. Porphyry affirms, that the Egyptians, before
their Hated facrifices, always failed a great many days,
fometimes for fix weeks ; and that the leaft behoved to
be for feven days: during aH which time the priefts
and devotees not only abstained from flelh, filh, wine,
and oil; but even from bread, and fome kinds of pulfe.
Thefe aufterities were communicated by them to the
Greeks, who obferved their fafts much in the fame
manner. The Athenians had the Eleulinian and TheN
mophorian falls, the obfervation of which was very ri¬
gorous, efpecially among the women, who fpent one
whole day fitting on the ground in a mournful drefs,
without taking any nourilhment. In the ifland of
Crete, the priefts of Jupiter were obliged to abltain all
their lives from filh, flelh, and baked meats. Apu-
leius informs us, that whoever had a mind to be ini¬
tiated in the myfteries of Cybele were obliged to pre¬
pare themfelves by falling ten days; and, in Ihort, all
the pagan deities, whether male or female, required
this duty of thofe that defired to be initiated into their
myfteries, of their priefts and prieitefles that gave the
oracles, and of thofe that came to confult them.
Among the heathens falling was alfo pra&ifed be¬
fore fome of their military enterprifes. Ariftotle in¬
forms us, that the Lacedemonians having refolved to
fuccour a city of the allies, ordained a fall throughout
the whole extent of their dominions, without excepting
even the domeftic animals : and this they did for. two
ends ; one to fpare provifions in favour of the befieged;
the other to draw down the bleffing of heaven upon
their enterprife. The inhabitants of Tarentum, when
befieged by the Romans, demanded fuccours from their
neighbours of Rhegium, who immediately commanded
a fall thioughout their whole territories. Their enter¬
prife having had good fuccefs by their throwing a fup *
ply of provifions into the town, the Romans were ob¬
liged to raife the fiege; and the Tarentines, in memory
of this deliverance, inftituted a perpetual fall.
Falling has always been reckoned a particular duty
among philofopherS and religious-people, fome of whom
have carried their abftinence to an incredible length.
At Rome it was pra&ifed by kings and emperors them-
felves. Numa Pompilius, Julius Coefar, Auguftus, Vef-
pafian, and others, we are told, had their Hated fall-
days : and Julian the apoftate was fo exadt in this ob-
fervance as to outdo the priells themfelves, and even the
moft rigid philofophers. The. Pythagoreans kept a
coa*
[ 172 ]'
FAS [ 173 I S
continual lent; but with this difference, that they be¬
lieved the ufe of fifh to be equally unlawful with that
of flefh. Befidee their conflant temperance, they alfo
frequently faded rigidly for a very long time. In this
refpedt, however, they were all outdone by their ma¬
iler Pythagoras, who continued his falls for no lefs
•than. 40 days together. Even Apollonius Tyaneus,
one of his moil famous difciples, could never come up
•to him in the length of his fads, though they greatly
exceeded thofe of the ordinary Pythagoreans. The gym-
•nofophids, or brachmans of the ead, are alfo very re¬
markable for their fevere fadings; and the Chinefe,
according to father le Comte, have alfo their dated fads,
with forms of prayer for preferving them from barren*-
nefs, inundations, earthquakes, &c. The Mahometans
too, who podefs fo large a part of Ada, are very re¬
markable for the drift obfervance of their fads; and the
exaftnefs of their dervifes in this refpeft is extraordi¬
nary.
Fading was often ufed by the heathens for fuperdi-
tious purpofes; fometimes to procure the interpreta¬
tions of dreams; at others, to be an antidote againd
their pernicious confequences. A piece of fuperdi-
tion prevails to this day among the Jews; who, though
exprefsly forbidden to fadon Sabbath-days, think them-
felves at liberty to difpenfe with this duty when they
happen to have frightful aiiiFunlucky dreams the night
preceding, that threatened them with great misfor¬
tunes. On thefe occafions they obferve a formal fad
the whole day ; and at night the patient, having'in¬
vited three of his friends, addreffes himfelf to them fe-
ven times in a very folemn manner, faying, “ May
the dream I have had prove a lucky one !” And his
friends anfwer as many times, “ Amen, may it be
lucky, and God make it fo!” After which, in order
to encourage him, they conclude the ceremony with
thefe words of Ecclefiades, “ Go eat thy bread with
joy;” and then let them felves down to table. They
have alfo added feveral falls not commanded in the law
of Mofes, particularly three, in memory of fore di-
ftreffes their nation has fuffered at different times.
The abftinence of the ancient Jews commonly Jail¬
ed 27 or 28 hours at a time; beginning before fun-
fet, and not ending till fome hours after funfet next
day. On thele days they were obliged to wear
white robes in token of grief and repentance ; to co¬
ver themfelves with fackcloth, or their worft clothes:
to lie on afhes; to fprinkle them on their head, &c.
Some fpent the whole night and day following in the
temple or fynagogue, in prayers and other devotions,
barefooted, with a fcourge in their hands, of which
they fometimes made a good ufe in order to raife their
zeal. Laftly, in order to complete their abftinenee,
at night they were to eat nothing but a little bread
dipped in water, with fome fait for feafoning ; except
they chofe to add to their repall fome bitter herbs and
pulfe.
The ancients, both Jews and Pagans, had alfo their
falls for purifying the body, particularly the prielts
and fuch as were any way employed at the altars; for
when nofturnal diforders happened to thefev it was un¬
lawful for them to approach all the next day, which
they were bound to employ in purifying themfelves.
Gn this account, at great feftivals, where their miniflry
could not be difp.enfed with, it was ufual for then von
the eve thereof, not only to fall, but alfo to abflain Faft&v
from deep, for the gieater certainty. For this purpofe
the high-pried, had under-officers to wake him, if over-
taken w'ith deep; againft which other prefervatives
were alfo made ufe of.
FAS FERMANS, or Fasting-men, q. d. homines
hahintes, was ufed in our ancient culloms for men in
repute and fubllance ; or rather for pledges, fureties,
or bondfmen, who, according to the Saxon polity,
were fall bound to anfwer for one another’s peaceable
behaviour.
FASTI, in Roman antiquity, the kalendar wherein
were expreffed the feveral days of the year, with their
fealts. games, and other ceremonies.
There were two forts of falli, the greater and lefs;
the fomer being dillinguidied by the appellation fafti
magi/lrales, and the latter by that of fajli kakndares.
1. The Fqfti Kalcndares, which were what was proper¬
ly and primarily called fajli, are defined by Feftus Pom-
peius to be books containing a defeription of the
whole year : e. Ephemerides, or diaries, diftinguifh-
ing the feveBal kinds of days, fejiu profejli; fajli,
nefajli, 8cc. The author hereof was Numa, who com¬
mitted the care and direftion of the fafti to the pon-
tifex maximus, whom the people ufed to go and confult
on every occafion. This cuftom held till the year of
Rome 450, when C. Flavius, fecretary to the ponti-
fices, expofed in the forum a lift of all the days where¬
on it was lawful to work; which was fo acceptable to
the people, that they made him curule eedile.
Thefe lefter fafti, or fafti calendares, were of two
kinds, urlanl and rujlici.
The fajTi urbani, or fafti of the city, were thofe
which obtained or were obferved. in the city. Some
will have them thus called becaufe they wer,e expofed
publicly in divers parts oft the city; though, by the
various inferiptions or gravings thereof on antique
ftones, one would imagine that private perfons had
them likewife in their houfes. Ovid undertook to
illuftrate thefe fafti urbani, and comment on them,
in his Libri Faftorum, whereof we have the fix firft
books ftill remaining ; the fix laft,jf ever they were writ¬
ten, being loft.
In the fajli rujlici, or country fafti, -were'exprefled
the feveral days, feafts, &c. to be obferved by the
country people : for as thefe were taken up in tilling
the ground, fewer feafts, facrifices, ceremonies, and
holidays, were enjoined them than the inhabitants of
cities; and they had alfo fome peculiar ones not ob¬
ferved at Rome. Thefe ruftic fafti contained Jittie
more than the ceremonies of the calends, nones, and
ides; the fairs, figns of the zodiac, increafe and de-
creafe of the days, the tutelary gods of each month,
and certain direftions for rural works to be performed
each month.
2. In the greater fafti, or Fajli Magijlrales, were
expreffed the feveral feafts, with every thing rela¬
ting to the gods, religion, and the magiftrates; the
emperors, their birth-days, offices, days confecrated to-
them, and feafts and ceremonies eftabliftied in their
honour, or for their profperity, &c. With a number
of fuch circumftances did flattery at length fwell the-
fafti; when they became denominated Magni to diftin-
guifh them from the bare kalendar, or fail! kalendares..
Fast* was alfo a chronicle orregifter of time, where¬
in:
F A 3 [
^afU, {„ t_'ac federal years were denoted by the refpeCtive
i T a “n^‘ fids, with the principal events that happened during
their consulates e thefe were called,alfo fajli confularcs,
or confular fajli
Fasti, or Dies Fajli, alfo denoted court-days. The
word fajli faftorum, is formed of the verb fari, “ to
fpeak^' becaufe during thofe days the courts were
opened, caufes might be heard, and the praetor was
allowed fart, to pronounce the three words, do, dico,
addico: The other days wherein this was prohibited
were called nefafli: thus Ovid,
Jlle vefnjhis erit, per quern tfia -. erha filentur ;
Fafus crit, per quern lege licebit agi.
Thefe dies fajli were noted in the kalender by the letter
F: but obferve, that there were feme days ex partefajli,
partly fajli, partly nefajli; i. e. juftice might be diftri-
buted at certain times of the day, and not at others.
Thefe days were called inter eft, and were marked in
the kalendar thus; F. P. fajlos primo, where juftice
might be demanded during the firft part of that day.
FASTING, the abftaining from food. See Fast.
Many wonderful ftories have been told of extraor Ji¬
nary falling ; great numbers of which undoubtedly
muft be falfe. Others, however, we have on very good
authority, of which fome are mentioned under the ar¬
ticle Abstinence. Another we have in the
Fasting Woman. A full account of this very un¬
common cafe is given in the Phil. Trahf. Vol. LXVII.
Part I. the fubftance of which follows : The woman,
whofe name was Janet M'Leod, an inhabitant in the
parilh of Kincardine in Rofslhire, continued healthy
till Ihe was 15 years of age, when Ihe had a pretty fevere
epileptic fit; after this (he had an interval of health for
four years, and then another epileptic fit which conti¬
nued a whole day and a night. A few days after¬
wards Ihe was feized with a fever, which continued
with violence feveral weeks, and from which Ihe did
not perfeftly recover for fome months. At this
time Ihe loft the ufe of her eye-lids; fo that (he was
under a neceffity of keeping them open with the fin¬
gers of one hand, whenever Ihe wanted to look about
her. In other refpedts Ihe continued in pretty good
health ; only fhe never had any appearance of menfes,
but periodically fpit up blood in pretty large quanti¬
ties, and at the fame time it flowed from the nofe.
This difeharge continued fevcral years ; but at laft
it ceafed : and foon after Ihe had a third epileptic'lit,
and after that a fever from which Ihe recovered very
(lowly. Six weeks after the crifis, Ihe Hole out of the
houfe unknown to her parents, who were bufied in
their harveft work, and bound the Iheaves of a ridge
before Ihe was obferved. In the evening Ihe took to
her bed, complaining much of her heart (moll proba¬
bly her Jlomach, according to the phrafeology of that
country) and her head. From that time Ihe never rofe
for five years, but was occafionally lifted out of bed.
She feldom fpoke a word, and took fo little food that
it feemed fcarce fufficient to fupport a fucking infant.
Even this.fmall quantity was taken by compulfion; and
at laft, about Whitfunday 1763, Ihe' totally refufed
every kind of food or drink. Her jaw now became fo
fall locked, that it was with the greateft difficulty her
father was able to open her teeth a little, in order to
admit a fmall quantity of gruel or whey ; but of this
fo much generally run out at the corners of her mouth,
174 ] FAS
that they could not be fenfible any had been fwallow-
ed. About this time they got fome water from a no- ^
ted medicinal fpring in Brae-Mar, fome of which they
attempted to make her fwallow, but without effedt.
They continued their trials, however, for three morn¬
ings ; rubbing her throat with the water, which run
out at the corners of her mouth. On the third morn¬
ing during the operation, (he cried out, “ Give me
more water and fwallowed with eafe all that re¬
mained in the bottle. She fpoke no more intelligibly
for a year; though (he continued to mutter fome words,
which her parents only underftood, for 14 days. She
continued to rejeft all kinds of food and drink till
July 1765. At this time her fifttfr thought, by fome
ligns Ihe made, that Ihe wanted her jaws opened; and
this being done, not without violence, (he called in¬
telligibly for a drink, and drank with eafe about an
Englilh pint of water. Her father then alked her why
(lie would not make fome figns when (he wanted a
drink? to which fhe aftfwered, why ftiould fhe when
fhe had no defire. It was now fuppofed that fhe had
regained the faculty of fpeech; and her jaws were kept
open for about three weeks by means of a wedge. But
in four or five days fhe became totally filent, and the
wedge was removed becaufe it made her lips fore. She
ftill, however, continued fenfible ; and when her eye-'
lids were opened, knew every body, as could be gueffed
from the figns fhe made.
By continuing their attempts to force open her jaws,
two of the under foreteeth were driven out; and of
this opening her parents endeavoured to avail them-
felves by putting fome thin nourifhing drink into her
mouth; but without efftbl, as it always returned by the
corners. Sometimes they thought of thrufting a little
dough of oatmeal through this gap of the teeth, which
fhe would retain a few feconds, and then return with
fomething like a ftraining to vomit, without one par¬
ticle going down. Nor were the family fenfible of
any thing like fwallowing for four years, excepting the
fmall draught of Brae-Mar water and the Englifh pint
of common water. For the laft three years fhe had not
any evacuation by (tool or urine, except that once or
twice a-week fhe palled a few drops of urine, about as
much, to ufe the expreffion of her parents, as would
wet the furface of a halfpenny. In this fitujition fhe
was vifited by Dr Mackenzie, who communicated the
account of her cafe to the Royal Society. He found
her not at all emaciated ; her knees were bent and the
hamftrings tight, fo that her heels almoft touched her
buttocks. She llept much, and was very quiet: but
when awake, kept a conftant whimpering like a new¬
born weakly infant. She never could remain a mo¬
ment on her back, but always fell to one fide or ano¬
ther ; and her chin was clapped clofe to her breaft, nor
could it by any force be moved backwards.
The dodlor paid his firft vifit in the month of Oc¬
tober; and five years afterwards, viz. in October 1772,
was induced to pay her a fecond vifit, by hearing that
fhe was recovering, and had begun to eat and drink.
The account given him was moil extraordinary. Her
parents one day returning from their country labours
(having left their daughter fixed to her bed as ufual),
were greatly fuiprifed to find her fitting upon her hams,
on the fide of the houfe oppofite to her bed-place, fpin-
ning with her mother’s diftaff. All the food fhe: took
Fading.
J A S [ <75 ] .. . ,F A T ,
Fading, at that time was only to crumble a little oat or barley had been loll, by winding (or fcenting) it through a Failing-
cake in the paim of her hand, as if to feed a chicken, fmall aperture which the breath of the ilieep had made LI
She put little crumbs of this into the gap of her teeth; in the fnow ; the fervant thereupon dug away the t
rolled them about for fome, time in her mouth ; vand fnow, and releafed the captive from its prifon ; it im-
then fucked out of the palm of her hand a little water, mediately ran to a neighbouring fpring, at which it
whey, or milk; and this only once or twicea-day, and drank for a confiderable time, and afterwards rejoined
even that by compulfion. She never attempted to its old companions as though no fuch accident had be-
fpeak ; her jaws were fail locked, and her eyes ihut. fallen it. On infpedling the place where it was found.
On opening her eye lids, the balls were found to be it appeared to have ftbod between two large ftones
turned up under the edge of the os frontis; her conn- which lay parallel with each other at about two feet
tenance was ghaftly, her complexion pale, and her whole and an half diitance, and probably were the means of
perfon emaciated. She feemed fcnfible, and tradtable prote&ing it from the great weight of the fnow, which
in every thing except in taking food. This Ihe did in that place lay feveral yards thick; from the num-
with the utmcft reluftance, and even cried before ber of ftones around it, it did not appear that the fheep
Are yielded. The great change of her looks Dr Mac- had been able to pick up any food during its confine-
kenzie attributed to her fpinning flax on the di- ment. Soon afterwards its owner removed it to fome
ftaff, which exhaufted too much of the faliva; and low lands; but as it had nearly loft its appetite, it was
therefore he recommended to her parents to confine fed with bread and milk for fome time : in about a fort-
her totally to the fpinning of wool. In 1775, Are night after its enlargement it loft its fight and wool;
was vifited again, and found to be greatly improved in but in a few weeks afterwards they both returned a-
her looks as well as ftrength ; her food was alfo con- gain, and in the courfe of the following fummer it was
fiderably increafed in quantity ; though even then ftie quite recovered. The remaining ftieep was found
did not take more than would be fufficient to fuftain dead about a week after the difcovery of the other.”
an infant of two years of age. In the fame publication -f- is recorded the death off Suppl. for
The following remarkable inftances of animals being one Caleb Elliot, a vifionary enthufiaft, who meant to */^9>
able to live long without food, are related by Sir Wil- have filled 40 days, and actually furvived r6 without
liam Hamilton in his account of the late earthquakes food, having obftinately refufed fuftenance of every
in Italy, (Phil. Tranf. vol. 73.^ “ At Soriano (fays kind.
he), two rattened hogs that had remained buried un- FA STOLE (Sir John), a valiant and renowned
•der a heap of ruins, were taken out alive the 4.26 day ; Englilh officer, a knight banneret and of the garter,
they were lean and weak, but foon recovered.” A- who ferved in France under Henry IV. V. and VI.
gain, “ At Meffina two mules belonging to the Duke was dtfcended from an ancient family in Norfolk, and
de Belvifo remained under a heap of ruins,one of them was born about the year 1377. He was as much di-
•22 days, and the other 2.3 days : they would not eat ftinguilhed for his virtue at home as for his valour
- for fome days, but drank water plentifully, and are abroad; and became no lefs amiable in his private,
now recovered. There are numberlefs inftances of than he had been admirable in his public charadler.
dogs remaining many days in the fame lituatipn ; and He died in 1459, upwards of 80 years of age, as we
a hen belonging to the Britilh vice-conful at Meffina, learn from his noted cotemporary William Caxton the
that had been clofely ffiut up under the ruins of his firft Englilh printer. By an unaccountable miftake it
houfe, was taken out the 22d day, and is now recover- has been aflerted, that Shakefpear’s Falftaff was drawn
td ; it did not, eat for fome days, but drank freely ; to ridicule this great man ; and this has made judici-
it was emaciated, and fliowed little figns of life at firft. ous biographers more ftudious to preferve his reputa-
From thefe inftances, and thofe related before of the tion.
hogs at SorianO, and feveral others of the fame kind FAT, an oily concrete fubilance depofited in differ-
that have been related to me, but which being lefs re- ent parts of animal bodies. See Anatomy, nD 83.
markable I omit, one may conclude, that long falling Strong exercife, preternatural heat, an acrimonious
■ is always attended with great thirft and total lofs of ftate of the juices, and other like caufes, by_whieh the
appetite.” oily parts of the blood are attenuated, refolved, or eva-
An inftance of a fimilar kind, not lefs remarkable cuated, prevent the generation of fat; labours of the
than either of the two preceding, we find in the Gentle- mind alfo have this efi'edl, as well as labour or intempe-
man’s Magazine for Jan. 1785, communicated by a rature of the body. Hence reft and plentiful food are
correfpondent, as follows: “ During the heavy fnow fufficient to fatten brutes; but with men it is often,
which fell in the night of the 7th of January 1776, a otherwife. It is furprifing how foon fome birds grow
parcel of ffieep belonging to Mr John Wolley', of Mat- fat; ortalons in 24 hours, and larks Hill fooner.
lock, in Derbylhire, which were pallured on that part Fats may be divided, from their contiftence, into,
of the Eaft Moor that lies within the manor of Mat- three kinds: (1.) The foft and thin, which'grow per-
loek, were covered with the drifted fnow: in the feflly liquid in a very fmall heat; (2) The thick and
courfe of a day or two all the Iheep that were covered confiftent, which liquify lefs readily ; and, (3.) The
with the fnow were found again, except two, which hard and firm, which require a ftill ftrcnger heat to
were confequently. given up as loft ; but on the 14th melt them. The firft is called PjwueJo; the fecond,
of February following (fome time after the break of sluxungia; and the third, A dtps, as taken from the
the fnow in the valleys, and 38 days after the fall), as animal; and Sebum, or Sevum, when freed from the*
a fervant was walking over a large parcel of drifted flcins, &c. This ufe of the names, however, is not con?-
fnow which remained on the declivity of a hill, a dog ftant, fome employing them differently,
he had with him difcovered one of the two fheep that A great number of fats have been kept in the /hops,
6 fur
1? A T [17
for making ointments, platters, and oilier medicinal
compofitions; as hogVlard, tlie fat of the boar, the
fox, the hair, dog, wildcat, Alpine moufe, beaver; that
of hens, ducks, geefe, ftorks; of the whale, pike, fer-
pents, viper, &c. as alfo human fat.— In regard to all
thefe kind of fubttances, however, much depends upon
the manner of purifying or trying, and of keeping
them.
To obtain fat pure, it mutt be cut into pieces, and
cleaned from the interpofed membranes and veffels. It
mutt then be cleanfed from its gelatinous matter by
wattling with water, till the water comes from it co-
lourlefs and infipid ; it is afterwards to be melted with
a moderate heat in a proper veflcl with a little water;
and it is to be kept thus melted till the water be entire¬
ly evaporated, which is known by the difcontinuance
vif the boiling, which is caufed by the water only, and
which lafts till not a drop of it remains: it is after¬
wards to be put into an earthen pot, where it fixes; then
it is exceedingly white, fufficiently pure for the pur-
pofes of pharmacy or chemical examination.
Fat thus purified has very little tafte, and a weak,
but peculiar, fmell.
For the analyfis, chemical properties, &c. of fat, fee
Chemistry, n° 1015. and 1428.
One of the chief ufes of fat probably is, to. receive
into its compofition, to blunt and correft, a great part
of the acidsof the aliments, and which are more than
are requifite to the compofition of the nutritive juice,
or which nature could'not otherwife expel. This is
certain, that the greater the quantity of aliments is
taken by healthy animals above what is neceflary for
their nouriftiment and reprodu&ion, the fatter they be¬
come. Hence animals which are caftrated, which are
not much exercifed, or which are come to an age when
the lofs and produftion of the feminal fluid is lefs, and,
•which at the fame time confume much fucculent ali¬
ment, generally become fatter, and fometimes exceed¬
ingly fo.
Although fat be very different from truly animalifed
fubftances, and appears not eafily convertible into nu¬
tritive juices, it being generally difficult of digettion,
and apt do become rancid, as butter does in the fto-
machs of many perfons ; yet in certain cafes it ferves
to the hourifhment and reparation of the body. Ani¬
mals certainly become lean, and live upon their fat,
when they have too little food, and when they have
difeafes which prevent digeftion and the produ&ion of
the nutritive juice; and in thefe cafes the fatter animals
hold out longer than the leaner. The fat appears to
be then abforbed by the veffels defigned for this ufe, and
to be transformed into nutritive juice.
Fat, in the fea-language, fignifies the fame with
broad. Thus a (hip is faid to have a fat quarter, if the
truffing-in or tuck of her quarter be deep.
Fat likewife denotes an uncertain meafure of capa¬
city. Thin a fat of ifinglafs contains from 3^ hundred
weight to 4 hundred weight; a fat of unbound books,
half a maund or four hales; of wire, from 20 to 25
hundred weight; and of yarn, from 220 to 221
bundles.
h at, or "Vat, is ufed alfo for feveral utenfils: as, 1. A
great wooden veffel, employed for the meafuring of malt,
and containing a quarter or eight bufhels. 2. A large
"brewing veffel, ufed by brewers to run their wort in.
No 125 4
6-1 FAT
3. A leaden pan or vefiel for the making of fait at Fate,
Droitwich. , ——y—
FATA morgana, a very remarkable aerial phe¬
nomenon, which is fometimes obferved from the harbour
of Meffina and adjacent places, at a certain height in
the atmofphere. The name, which fignifies the Fairy
Morgana, is derived from an opinion of the fuperfti-
tious Sicilians, that the whole fpe&acle is produced by
fairies, or fuch like vifionary invifible beings. The po¬
pulace are delighted whenever it appears; and run
about the ftreets fliouting for joy, calling every body
out to partake of th*e glorious fight.
This lingular meteor has been deferibed by various
authors; but the firtt who mentioned it with any degree
of precifion was Father Angelucci, whofe account is
thus quoted by Mr Swinburne in his Four through.Sicilys
“ On the 15th of Augufl 1643, as I flood at my win¬
dow, I was furprifed with a moft wonderful delectable
vilioa. The fea that wattles the Siciiian Ihore fwelled
up, and became, for ten miles in length, like a chain
ot dark mountains; while the waters near our Calabrian
coaft grew quite fmooth, and in an inftant appeared as,
one clear polilhed mirror, reclining againft the aforefaid
ridge. On this glafs was depicted, in chiaro feuro, a
tiring of feveral thoufands of pilaflres, all equal in al¬
titude, diftance, and degree of light and fhade. In a
moment they loft half their height, and bent into ar¬
cades, like Roman aquedudts. A long cornice was
next formed on the top, and above it rofefoaftles innu¬
merable, all perfectly alike. Thefe foon fplit into
towers, which were Ihortly after loft in colonnades,
then windows, and at laft ended in pines, cyprefles, and
other trees, even and fimilar. This is the Fata Mor¬
gana, which for 26 years I had thought a mere
fable.”
To produce this pleafing deception, many circum-
ftances muft concur, which are not known to exift in
any other fituation. The fpe&ator muft ftand with his
back to the eaft, in fome elevated place behind the city,
that he may command a view of the whole bay; be¬
yond which the mountains of Meffina rife like a wall,
and darken the back ground of the pidiure. The
winds muft be hiilhed, the furface quite fmoothed, the
tide at its height, and the waters pretted up by currents
to a great elevation in the middle of the channel. All
thefe events coinciding, as foon as the fun furmounts
the eaftern hills behind Reggio, and rifes high enough to
form an angle of 45 degrees on the water before the city,
every objeft exifting or moving at Reggio will be repeat¬
ed x000 fold upon this marine looking-glafs ; which,
by its tremulous motion, is as it were cut into facets.
Each in age will pafs rapidly off in fucceffion as the
day advances, and the tlream carries down the wave on
w'hich it appeared. Thus the parts of this moving
pidlure will vanifh in the twinkling of an eye. Some¬
times the ak is at that moment fo impregnated with
vapours, and undifturbed by winds, as to refleft tbjecls
in a kind of aerial fereen, riling about 30 feet above the
level of the lea. In cloudy heavy weather, they are
drawn on the fur face of the water, bordered with fine
prifmatical colours.
To the above account we fhall add the following,
given by M. Houel, whofe judgment and veracity ren¬
der his authority highly refpeCtable. “ In fine fummer
days, when the weather is calm, there rifes above the
great
FAT [ 177 3 FAT
Fate great current a vapour, which acquires a certain denfi-
Pathemites t^’ as to ^orm t^ie atmofp^ei'e horizontal prifms,
. whofe Cdes are difpofed in fuch a manner, that when
they come to their proper degree of perfection, they
refleft and reprefent fucceffively, for feme time (like a
moveable mirror), the obje£ls on the coaft or in the ad¬
jacent country. They exhibit by turns the city and
fuburbs ofMeflina, trees, animals, men, and mountains.
They are certainly beautiful aerial moving pidtures.
There are fometimes- two or three prifms, equally per-
fedt; and they continue in this ftate eight or ten mi¬
nutes. After this, fome fhining inequalities are obfer-
ved upon the furface of the prifm, which render con¬
fided to the eye the objedts which had been before fo
accurately delineated, and the pidture vanifhes. The
vapour forms other combinations, and is difperfed in
air. Different accounts have been given of this Angu¬
lar appearance ; which for my part I attribute to a bi¬
tumen that iffues from certain rocks at the bottom of
the fea, and which is often feen to cover a part of its
furface in the canal of Meflina. The fubtle parts of
this bitumen being attenuated, combined, and exhaled
with the aqueous globules that are raifed by the air,
and formed into bodies of vapour, give to this conden-
fed vapour more confidence ; and contribute, by their
fmooth and polifhed particles, to the formation of a
kind of aerial cryftal, which receives the light, refledts
it to the eye, and tranfmits to it all the luminous points
which colour the objedts exhibited in this phenomenon,
and render them vifible.”
FATE, [fatum), denotes an inevitable neceffity de¬
pending upon a fuperior caufe. The word is formed
a fando, “ from fpeaking and primarily implies the
fame wuth ejfatutn, viz. a word or decree pronounced
by God ; or a fixed fentence whereby the Deity has
preferibed the order of things, and allotted to every
perfon what fhall befal him.
The Greeks called it ttpappm, as it were a chain or
necefi’ary feries- of things indiffolubly linked together.
It is alfo ufed to exprefs a certain unavoidable defig-
nation of things, by which all agents, both neceffary
and voluntary, are fwayed and diredted to their ends.
See Necessity.
In this laflfenfe, fate is diftinguifhed into, I. Atlro-
logical fate, arifing from the influence and pofition of the
heavenly bodfes; which (it is fuppofed) gave law's both
to the elements and mixed bodies, and to the w’ills of
men. 2. Stoical fate, defined by Cicero an order or
feries of caufes, wherein, caufe being linked to caufe,
each produces another, and thus all things flow from
one prime caufe. To this fate the Stoics’fubjedt even
the gods.
Fate is divided by later authors into phyfical and
divine, i.’Phyfical fate is an order and feries of na¬
tural caufes appropriated to their effedts. By this-fate
it is that fire warms, bodies communicate motion to
each other, &c. and the effects of it are all the events
and phenomena of nature. 2. Divine fate is what is
more ufually called Providence. See Providence. -
FATES, in mythology. See Parc;e.
FATHEMITES, Fatemites, or Fathimites,
the defeendants of Mahomet by Fathema, or Fatima,
his daughter. They never enjoyed the khalifat of Mecca
or Bagdad, but reigned in Barbary and Egypt. Sec
the hiitory of thefe countries.
Von. VII. Part I.
FATHER, a term of relation denoting a perfon Father
who hath begot a child. See Parent and Child. ^
By the laws of Romulus, a father had an unlimited av‘ X'
power over his children. Amongft the Lacedemo¬
nians, as we learn from Ariftotle’s politics, the father of
three children was exCufed from the duty of mounting
guard for the fecurity of the city; and a father of
four children, was exempted • from every public bur¬
den. The Poppaean law, amongft the Romans, granted
many valuable privileges to the fathers of three children;
amongft which one was, that he Ihould be excufed
from civil offices, and that the mother fhould have
liberty, in her father’s life-time, to make a will, and
manage her eftate without the authority of tutors.
Natural Father, is he who has illegitimate children.
See Bastard ; and I.aw, N°clxi. 33. clxxxii. 3, 4.
Adoptive Father, is he who takes the children of
fome other, and acknowledges them as his own. See
Adoption.
Putative Father, is he who is only the reputed orfup-
pofed father. Jofeph was putative father of our Saviour.
FATHER-indaw, is a perfon married to a woman who
lias children by a former hulband, &c. to which chil¬
dren he is faid to be a father-in-law.
Father is alfo ufed in theology for the firft Perfon
in the Trinity.
Father is alfo ufed in a figurative fenfe on divers
moral and fpiritual occafions. Thus, it is applied to
the patriarchs ; as we fay Adam was the father of all
mankind, Abraham the father of the faithful, &c.
Father, in church-hiftory, is applied to ancient
authors who have preferved in their writings the tra¬
ditions of the church. Thus St Chryfoftom, St Ba-
fil, &c. are called Greek fathers, and St Auguftine
and St Ambrofe Latin fathers. No author who
wrote later than the 12th century is dignified with the
title of Father.
Father, is alfo a title of honour given to prelates
and dignitaries of the church, to the fuperiors of con¬
vents, to congregations of eccleliaftics, and to perfons
venerable for their age or quality. Thus we fay, the
right reverend father in God, the father-general of
the Benedidlines, the fathers of the council of Nice,
father of his country, &c. t
FATHERLASHER, in ichthyology. Se'* Cot-
tOs.
FATHOM, a long meafure containing fix feet,
ufed chiefly at fea for meafuring the length of cables
and cordage.
FATNESS. See Corpulency.—It is obferved,
that for one fat perfon in France or Spain, there are
an hundred in England and Holland. This .is fup¬
pofed to be from the ufe of new malt liquors, more
than from the difference of climates or degrees of per-
fpiration; Indolence may caufe fatnefs in fome few
conftitutions; but, in general, thofe who are difpofed
to this habit will be fat in fpite of every endeavour to
the contrary, but that of deftroying health.
FATUARIl, in antiquity, were perfons who,
appearing infpired, foretold things to come. The word
is formed of Fatua, wife of the god Faunus, who was
fuppofed to infpire women with the knowledge of fu¬
turity, as Faunus himfelfdid the men.—Fatua had her
name fromfari, q. d. vaticinari, “ to prophefy.”
FAVISSiE, in antiquity, were, according to Fef-
Z tus,
F A V [ i/3 ] F E A
tus and Gellius, cifterns to keep water ut: but the
favifiae in the Capitol at Rome were dry ciftcrns or
fubterraneous cellars, where they laid up the old fla-
tues, broken veflels, and other things uted in the
temple. Theft were much the fame with what, in
fome of the modern churches, are called the archives
find treafury.
FAUNA, a deity among the Romans. She was
daughter of Picus, and was originally called Marica.
Her marriage with Faunas procured her the name of
Fauna, and her knowledge of futurity that of Fatua and
Fatidka. It is faid that (he never faw a man after her
marriage with Faunus, and that her uncommon chaili-
ty occafioned her being ranked among the gods after
death. She is the fame, according to fome, as Bona
Mater.
FAUNALIA, in antiquity, Roman feafts celebra¬
ted in honour of the god Faunus, who was the fame
among the Romans with the Pan of the Greeks.
The Faunalia were held on the day of the nones-of
December ; t. e. on the fifth day of that month. The
principal facrifice was a roe-buck ; or rather, according
to Horace, a kid, attended with libations of wine and
burning of incenfe. It was properly a country ftfti-
val, being performed in the fields and villages with pe¬
culiar joy and devotion. Horace gives us a very gay
defeription thereof in the 18th ode of his third book :
 Tenerphno c0JH bmdu, anno ;
l.arf,a nec defunt Veneris fodali
ritia crater*: vetus ara niuko
Fumat odore.
Struvius in his Roman kalendar marks the feaft of
Faunus on the day of the ides of February, which is
the 30th day of that month ; and the Faunalia he
places on the fifth of the ides of December, or the 9th
of that month : and in chap. ix. he fhows, that there
really were two Faunalia; the one in February, men¬
tioned by Ovid, Fall. lib. vi. ver. 246. the other on the
9th of December, mentioned by Horace in the place
jud cited.
FAUNS, (Fauni). among the ancients, were a
fpecies of demi-gods inhabiting the forefts ; called alfo
SyIvans (Sylvani), and little differing from the Satyrs.
They delighted more particularly in vineyards; and
they generally appear as attendants of Bacchus, in the
repreientations of Bacchanal feafts and procefiions.
They were reprefented as half men, half goats, having
the horns, ears, feet, and tail of a goat, a very flat noft,
and the reft human. Though the Fauns were held for
demi-gods, yet they were fuppoftd to die after a long
life. Arnobius fhow’S that their father or chief, Fau-
mts himftif, only lived 120 years.
FAUNUS, (fab. hift.) a fon of Picus, who reign¬
ed in Italy about 1300 years before the Auguftan age.
His bravery, as well as wifdom, have given rife to the
tradition that he was fon’ of Mars. His great popula¬
rity, and his fondnefs for agriculture, made his fubjedls
revere him as one of their country deities after death.
He was reprefented with all the equipage of the fatyrs,
and was cop foiled to give oracles.
FAVCXNIUS, among the Romans, the wind which
blew diteffly from the weft.
f'AVORINUS, an ancient orator and philofopher
of Gaul, who fiouuihed under the emperor Adrian,
and taught with higlgreputation both at Athens and
Rome. Many works are attributed to him ; among
the reft, a Greek mifctllaneous hiftory often quoted
by Diogenes Laertius.
FAUSTUS. See Fust.
FAWKES (Francis), an ingenious poet, had his
fchool-education at Leeds; from whence he was tranf-
planted to Jefus-college, Cambridge, where he took
the degrees in arts. Entering early into holy orders,
he fettled firft at Bramham in Yorkfhire, near the ele¬
gant feat of that name (Mr Lane’s), which he cele¬
brated in verfe in 1745, >n a 4to pamphlet anonymous.
His firft poetical publications were, Gawen Douglas’s
Defeription of May and Winter modernifed. Remo¬
ving afterwards to the curacy of Croydon in Surrv,
he recommended himfelf to the notice of Archbifhop
Herring, then refident there on account of his health,
to whom befides other pieces he addiefled an Ode on
his recovery in 1754, printed in Mr Dodlley’s Collec¬
tion. In confequence, his Grace collated him in 1755
to the vicarage of Orpington with St Mary Gray in
Kent ; and Mr Fawkes lamented his patron’s death in
1757 in a pathetic Elegy ftyled Aurelius, firft printed
with his Grace’s Seven Sermons, in 1763. He mar¬
ried about the fame time Mifs Purrier of Leeds. In
April 1774, by the late DrPlumtree’s favour, he ex¬
changed his vicarage for the re&ory of Hayes. He
was alfo one of the chaplains to the Princefs Dowager
of Wales. He publifhed a volume of Poems by fub-
feription in 8vo, 1761; the Poetical Kalendar 1763;
and Poetical Magazine 1764, in conjun&idn with Mr
Woty; Partridge-fliooting, an Eclogue, to the Ho¬
nourable Cha. York, 1767, 410; and a Family Bible,
with notes, in4to, a compilation. But his great tlrength
lay in tranflation, in which, fince Pope, few have e-
qualled him. Witnefs his fragments of Menander (in
his Poems) ; his Works of Anacreon, Sappho, Bion,
Mofchus, and Mufceus, i2mo, 1760 ; his Idylliums of
Theocritus, by fubfeription, 8vo, 1767 ; and his Ar-
gonautics of Apollonius Rhodius, by fubfeription alfo
(a pofthumous publication, completed by the Reve¬
rend Mr Meen of Emanuel College, Cambridge), 8vo,
1780. He died Auguft 26. 1777.
FAWN, among fportfmen, a buck or doe of the
firft year; or the young one of the buck’s breed in its
firft year.
FE, fo, or Fohi, the name of the chief god of the
Chinefe, whom they adore as the fovereign of heaven.
They reprefent him Ihining^ all in light, with his
hands hid under his robes, to fhow that his power
does all things invifibly. He has at his right-hand
the famous Confucius, and at his left Lanza or Lanca,
chief of the ftcond feft of their religion.
FEAL, a provincial term for fod or turf.
Feal-Dikes, a cheap fort of fence common in Scot*
land ; built with ftal or fod dug up by the fpade from
the furface of grafs-ground, confifting of the upper
mould rendered tough and coherent by the matted
roots of thegrafs thickly interwoven with it. If only
a very thin bit of the upper furface is pared off with
a paring fpade, the pieces are called divots. Theft,
being of a firmer confidence, are more durable when
built into dikes than feal, but much more expenfive
alfo.
FEALTY, in law, an oath taken on the admit¬
tance of any tenant, to be true to the lord of whom he
Fa.'.lfc*
II
Fealty.
bolds
F E A [
F*!!-, holds his land: by this oath the tenant holds in the
teaft. frteft manner, on account that all who have fee hold
Jer Jidem etfiduciam, that is, by fealty at the lead.
This fealty, at the firft creation of it, bound the
tenant to fidelity, the breach of which was the lofs of
his fee. It has been divided into general and fpeeial:
general, that which is to be performed by every fub-
jedt to his prince ; and fpecial, required only of fuch
as, in icfpedt of their fee, are tied by oath to their
lovds. To all manner of tenures, except tenancy at
will, and frank-almoign, fealty is incident, though it
chiefly belongs to copyhold ettates held in fee and for
life. The form of this oath, by flat. 17 Edw. II. is to
run as follows. “ I A.B. will be to you my lord Dl
true and faithful, and bear to you faith for the lands
and tenements which I hold of you ; and I will truly
do and perform the cuftoms and fervices that I ought
to do to you. So help me God.”
FEAR, one of the paffions of the human mind :
(fee Passion). It is defined, an apprehenfion of im¬
pending evil, attended with a defire of avoiding it.
Fear in the extreme is called fright or terror. See
Fright.
Fear, in feripture, is ufed in various fenfes.
The fear of God is either filial or fervile. The filial
fear is a holy affe&ion or gracious habit in the foul,
whereby it is inclined to obey all God’s command¬
ments, and to hate and avoid evil. Slavilh or fervile
fear is the confequence of guilt; it is a judicial im-
preffion from the fad thoughts of the provoked ma-
jefty of heaven ; it is an alarm within that difturbs the
reft of a finner. Though this fear be in wicked men,
yet it often proves preparative to faith and repentance.
Fear is likewife ufed for the ohjeB of fear. Thus it
is faid, “ the fear of Ifaac,” to deferibe the God whom
Ifaac feared, (Gen. xxxi. 42.), and in Prov. i. 26. “ I
will mock you when your fear cometh that is, the
calamity you feared. God fays, that he will fend his
fear before his people ; that is, a dread wrought by
him, in order to terrify and deftroy the inhabitants of
Canaan.
Fear (Metus, Favor, or Timor), was deified by the
Pagans. Tullus Hoftilius brought the worftiip of this
deity to Rome. The Ephori of Sparta ere&ed a tem¬
ple to Fear, near their tribunal, to ftrike an awe into
thofe who approached it. Fear was likewife worfirip-
ped at Corinth. The poets did not forget this ima¬
ginary deity. Virgil places her in the entrance of hell,
in company with difeafes, old age, &c. JEn. vi. 273.
Ovid places her in the retinue of Tifiphone one of the
furies, Met. iv. 483.
FEAST, or FfcSTivAj,, in a religious fenfe, is a ce¬
remony of feafting and thankfgiving. The word is
formed of the Latin feflum, which fome derive a feriari
“ to keep holiday ;” others from the Greek “ 1
feaft or entertain,” of fr** “ hearth, fire.”
Feafts, and the ceremonies thereof, have made great
part of the religion of almoft all nations and fe&s ;
witntfs thofe of the Greeks, Romans, Hebrews, Chri¬
stians, and Mahometans.
The fii ft feafts among the Greeks were celebrated in
folemn affemblies of the whole nation, on occafion of
their games, as the Olympic, the Pythian, the Ifth-
jmian, and Neimean: in procefs of time they had many
179 ] _ F E A
others, the principal of which arc enumerated in the
courfe of this work. •—y*’**
The Romans alfo had abundance of ftated feafts in
honour of their deities and heroes; fuch were the Sa¬
turnalia, Cerealia, Lupercalia, Liberalia, Neptunalia,
Confualia, Porfumnalia, Vulcanalia, Palilia, Divalia,
&c. See Saturnalia, &c.
They had alfo feafts inftituted occafionally ; as Car-
mentalia, Quirinalia, Terminalia, Floralia, Compitalia,
Lemuria, Vernalia, befide other moveable and occa-
fional ones : as to give thanks to the gods for bene¬
fits received ; to implore their affiftance, or to appeafe
their wrath, &c. as the Paganalia, Feralia, Bacchana*
lia, Ambarvalia, Amburbalia, Suovetaurilia, and diver*
others, particularly denominated fence; as Sementinat,
Latins, &c. See each of thefe feafts, and fence in it$
proper place. The feafts were divided into days of
facrifice, and days of banqueting and feafting; days of
games, and days of reft or fence.
There being but little hiftory written, or at lead
publiflied, in thofe days, one end of feafts was to keep
up the remembrance of paft occurrences.
The principal feafts of the Jews were the feafts of
trumpets, that of the expiation, of tabernacles, of the
dedication, of the paffover, of pentecoft, and that of
purification. See Expiation, &c.
The modern Jews have other feafts marked in their
kalendar of modern inftitution. The Mahometans, be-
fides their weekly feaft or fabbath, which is kept on
Friday, have two folemn’feafts, the firft of which is
called the Feafl of VUlims, and celebrated on the tenth
day of the laft month of their year ; and the fecond
called Bairam: The Chinefe have two folemn feafts
in the year, in memory of Confucius, befides others of
lefs note on other days of the year.
Feafts among us are either immoveable or moveable.
Immoveable Feajls are thofe conftantly celebrated o*
the fame day of the year; the principal of thefe are
Chriftmas-day or the Nativity, the Circumcilion, Epi¬
phany, Candlemas, or the Purification; Lady-day, or
the Annunciation, called alfo the Incarnation and Con-
ception; All Saints, and All Souls; befides the days of
the feveral apoftles, St Thomas, St Paul, &c. which
with us are feafts, though not fence. See each feaft
under its proper article.
Moveable Feajls are thofe which are not confined to
the fame day of the year. Of thefe the principal is
Eafter, which gives law to all the reft, all of them fol¬
lowing, and keeping their proper diftances from it 5
fuch are Palm-Sunday, Good-Friday, Afh-W’ednefday,
Sexagefima, Afcenfion-day, Pentecoft, and Trinity-
Sunday. See Easter, SexagesiM4, Pentecost,
Trinity, &c.
The four feafts which the Englifti laws take fpecial no¬
tice of are, the Annunciation of the blefied Virgin Mary
or Lady-day, the 25th of March ; the nativity of St
John the Baptift, held omthe 74th of June; the Feaft
of St Michael the Archangel, on the 29th of Sep¬
tember ; and that of St Thomas the Apoftle, on the
21 ft of December: on which quarterly days rent on
leafes is ufually referved to be paid (5 and <5 Edw. VI.
cap. 3. 3 Jac. I. cap. 1. 12 Car. II. cap. 39.)
Befide thefe feafts which are general, and enjoined
by the church, there are ethers local and occafonal,
-Z 3 enjoined
F E A [ 1S0 ] F E A
enjoined by tbe magjftrate, or voluntarily fet on foot intCrcourfes wliich took place between them and their Feaft-
by the people ; fuch are the days of thankfgiving for friends are pioufly called to mind. The ftrangers, who —-"v—
delivery from wars, plagues, &c. Such alfo are the have come fometimes many hundred miles to be pre¬
vigils or wakes in commemoration of the dedications fent on the occafion, join in the tender condolence;
of particular churches. See Vigil, &c. and the women, by frightful flirieks, demonltrate that
The prodigious increafe of feaft days in the Chri- they are pierced with the fharpeft forrow. Then the
flian church commenced towards the clofe of the . dead bodies are carried from the cabins for the general
fourth century, and was occafioned by the difcovery reinterment. A great pit is dug. in the ground, and
#hat was then made of. the remains of martyrs and other thither, at a certain time, each perfon, attended by
holy men, for the commemoration of whom they were his family and friends, marches in folemn filence, bear-
eft;'d'died. Thefe, inftead of being fet apart for pious ing the dead body of a fon, a father, or a brother,
exercifes, were abufed in indolence, voluptuoufnefs. When they are all convened, the dead bodies, or the
and criminal pra&ices. Many of them were inftituted duft ofthofe which were quite cortupted, are depolited
on a pagan model, and perverted to fimilar purpofes. in the pit : then thq torrent of grief breaks out anew.
Fi:.JST of Death, or Feajl of Souls, a folemn religious Whatever they poflefs raoft valuable is intened with
ceremony in ufe among the favages of America ; fome the dead. The ftrangers are not wanting in their ge-
ofwdiom thus teftify their refpedt for the deceafed nerolity, and confer thofe prefents which they have
every eight years ; and others, as the Hurons and brought along with them for the purpofe. Then all
Iroquois, every ten years. prefent go down into the pit, and every one takes a
The day of this ceremony is appointed by public little of the earth, which they afterwards preferve with
order; and nothing is omitted, that it may be cele- the moft religious care. The bodies, ranged in or¬
brated with the utmoft pomp and magnificence. The der, are covered with entire new furSj and over thefe
neighbouring tribes are invited to be prefent, and to wuth bark, on wdrich they throw ftones, wood, and;
join in the folemnity. At this time all who have died earth. Then taking their laft farewel, they return each
fince the laft folemn occafion are taken out of their to his own cabin.
graves: thofe who have been interred at the greateft ‘‘ We have mentioned, that in this ceremony the fa-
diftance from the villages are diligently fought for, vages offer, as prefents to the dead, whatever theyr va-
and brought to this great rendezvous of carcafes. lue moft highly. This cuftom, which is univerfal a-
It is not difficult to conceive the horror of this ge- mong them, arife^ from a rude notion of the immorta-
neral difinterment ; but it cannot be defcribed in a bty of the foul. They believe this doftrine moft
more lively manner than it is done by Lafitau, to fitmly,,and it is the principal tenet of their religion,
whom we are indebted for the moft authentic account When thefoul is feparated fromthebodyoftheir friends,
of thofe nations. they conceive that it ftill continues to hover around it,
“ Without queftion (fays he), the opening of thefe and to require and take delight in the fame things
tombs difplays one of the moft ftriking fcenes that can with wdiich it formerly was pleafed. After a certain
be conceived ; this humbling portrait of human mi- time, however, it forfakes this dreary manfion, and
fery, in fo many images of ^eath, wherein ffie feems departs far weftward into the land of fpirits. They
to take a pleafure to paint herfelf in a thoufand va- have even gone fo far as to make a diftin&ion between
rious ftiapes of horror, in the feveral carcafes, accord- the inhabitants of the other world ; fome, they ima-
ing to the degree in which corruption has prevailed gine, particularly thofe who in their lifetime have been
over them, or the manner in which it has attacked fortunate in war, poflefs a high degree of happinefs,.
them. Some appear dry and withered; others have a have a place for hunting and filhing, which never fails,
fort of parchment upon their bones; fome look as if and enjoy all fenfual delights, without labouring hard
they were baked and fmoked, without any appearance in order to procure them. The fouls of thofe, on the
of rottennefs; fome are juft turning towards the point contrary, who happen to be conquered or flain in war,
of putrefaction ; whilft others are all fwarming with -are extremely miferable after death.”
W'orms, and drowned in corruption. I know not which Feast is alfo ufed for a banquet, or a fumptuous
ought to ftrike us moft, the horror of fo fhocking a meal, without any immediate view to religion,
fight, or the tender piety and affeftion of thefe poor The ufe of the word, in this fenfe, arifes hence ;
people toward their departed friends ; for nothing de- that a part of the ceremony of many of the ancient fe-
ferves our admiration more than that eager diligence ftivals, both thofe of the heathens and agapae of the
and attention with which they difcharge this melan- Chriftians, was good eating; though Mr Huet choo-
choly duty of their tendernefs; gathering up careful- fes to derive the word {rom fejlinare, which,' in an an-
ly even the fmalleft bones, handling the carcafes, cient Latin verfion of Origen’s Comment on Matthew,
difguftful as they are, with every thing loathfome, fignifies “ to feaft:” Ut veniens illucjefusftjhnet cum dijcl-
cleanfing them from the worms, and carrying them pulis Juts.
upon their Ihoulders through tirefome journeys of fe- Social or civil feafts were alfo exprefled by the
veral days, without being difcouraged from the often- words convivmm and compotatio, or conaenatio. Cicero
fivenefs of the fmell, and without fuffering any other fays, that in the Roman tongue, the word convkiiwn,
emotions to arife than thofe of regret, for having loft which means “ people affembled at table,” is more
perfons who were fo dear to them in their lives, and fo fignificant than the Greek word compotatio or concana-
lamented in their death. tio : the Roman, fays he, expreffes the conjumftion of •
“ They bring them into their cottages, where they body and mind which ought to take place at an en-
prepare a feaft in honour of the dead ; during which tertainment; the Greek denotes what relates to the
their great adtions are celebrated, and all the tender body alone.
5 As
■peaft.
F E A [ i
As food is neceffary to our exigence, it makes a
' bond of affociation among mankind. People at a feail,
fays one of the ancients, feem to form but one body,
one foul. All nation's, whether favage or civilized, have
regarded the pleafures of the table as the occafion of
the mpft agreeable fociety. This fpecies of enjoyment
(abfhacting from its fufceptibility of abufe) makes
but one family of all that it brings together. It levels
the diftinftions introduced by policy or prejudice, and
difpofes men to regard one another as brethren. It .is
here that people feel the equality eftablifhen by nature;,
here they forget the evils of life; they extinguiih their
hatred, and make their enmities ceafe. For this reafon
Ariftotle conliders as a breach of the facial principle
that cuftom of the Egyptians of eating apart,.and prai-
fes the convivial repalts eftablilhed by Minos and Ey-
ctirgus.
The Perfians generally deliberated on bufinefs at
table, but never determined or put their determina¬
tions in execution except in the morning before ha¬
ving eaten.
When the Germans, fays Tacitus, wanted to re¬
concile enemies, to make alliances, to name chiefs, or
to treat of war and peace ; it was during the repaft
that they took counfel; a time in which the mind is
moft; open to the impreffions of fimple truths, or mod
eafily animated to great attempts. Thefe artlefs people
during the conviviality of the feaft fpoke without dif-
guife. Next day they weighed the counfels of the for¬
mer evening: they deliberated at a time when they
were not difpofed to feign, and took their refolution
when they were lead liable to be deceived.
People of rank among the Rhodians, by a funda¬
mental law of the date, were obliged to dine daily with
thofe who had the management of affairs, in order to
deliberate with them concerning fuch things as were
neceffary or ufeful for the country; and on this ac¬
count the principal miniders of the kingdom were ob¬
liged to keep open table for all who could be of ufe to
the date.
Among the Romans, the place where they fupped
was generally the vedibule, that a more retired part
of the houfe might not encourage licentioufnefs and
diforder. There were fevyal laws that redricled their
meals to thefe vedibules.
When luxury reigned in Rome, they had fuperb
halls for their entertainments. Lucullus had many,
each of which bore the name of fome deity ; and this
name was a mark which indicated to the fervants the
expence of the entertainment. The expence of a dip¬
per in Lucullus’s hall of Apollo amounted to 50,000
drachmas.
The hall in which Nero feaded, by the circular mo¬
tion of its walls and ceiling, imitated the revolutions of
the heavens, and reprefented the different feafons of
the year, changing at every courfe, and fhowering down
flowers and perfumes on the guefls.
The Romans did not, as we do, ufe but one table
at their feafts; they had generally two ; the fird was
for the fervices of animal food, which was afterwards
removed, and another introduced with fruits; at this
lad they fung and poured out -their libations. The
Greks and eadern nations had the fame cudom, and
«ven the Jews in their folemn feads and at facrifices.
The Romans, in the time of Nero, had tables made
81 ] F E A
of citron wood brought from Mauritania ; they were Feaft.
varnifhed with purple and gold, and were raifed on ''“"v—
feet of carved ivory. It is faid that they were more pre¬
cious than gold. Dion Caffius affirms, that Seneca had
500 of thefe, which he made ufe of one after another ;
and Tertullian tells us that Cicero had but one. The
Romans chofe the king of the fead by a throw of the
dice.
' We learn from Herodotus, that the ancients hajjl
neither cups nor bowls, but that they drank out of
little horns tipt with diver or gold.
Under the reign of Charles V. of France, the cu¬
dom of placing the lights upon the table was not yet
introduced. A number of domedics held the candles
in their hands during the whole time of the repad.
The Greeks and Romans kept a domedic for the
purpofe of reading during their meals and feads.
Sometimes the chief of the family himfelf performed
the office of reader; and hidory informs us, that the
Emperor Severus often read while his family ate. The
time of reading was generally at dipper; and gueds
were invited to a reading as they are now a-days to
play cards.
The Greeks, in their flouriffiing times, did not
profane, according to their own expreffion, the holi-
nefs of the table ; but rather adorned it with inge¬
nious and elegant converfation: they propofed mo¬
ral topics, of which Plutarch has preferved a collec¬
tion.
Ancient philofophers remark, that heroes rarely af-
fembled convivially without bringing affairs of confe*
quence into difcourfe, or deliberating upon thofe that
regarded either prefent events or future contingencies.
The Scythians, while at meat, ufed to make the
drings of their bows refound, led their warlike vir¬
tues might be enfeeblfid or lod in this feafon of plea-
dire.
When Rome was corrupted with luxury, fingers,dan¬
cers, muficians, dage-players, and people that told plea-
fant tales, were brought into the hall to amufe the gueds.
Plutarch infunns.us, that Ctefar, after his triumphs,
treated the Roman people at 22,000 tables ; and by
calculation it would feem that there were at thefe
tables upwards of 200,000 perfons.
At the end of the fead the Romans drunk out of a
large cup as often as there were letters in the name of
their midrefies,
Feading feems to have been the chief delight of the
Germans, Gauls, Britons, and all the other Celtic na¬
tions ; in which they indulged themfelves to the ut-
mod, as often as they had an opportunity. “ Among Pdloutier
thefe nations (fays an author who had carefully ftu- Hijl. Celt.'
died their manners) there is no public affembly, either 2 f "Ia''
for civil or religious purpofes, duly held; no birth-4 ‘5’
day, marriage, or funeral properly celebrated ; no
treaty of peace or alliance rightly cemented, without
a great feaft.” It was by frequent entertainments of
this kind that the great men or chieftains gained the
affedtions and rewarded the fervices of their followers;
and thofe who made the greateft feafts were fure to be
moft popular, and to have the greateft retinue. Thefe
feafts (in which plenty was more regarded than ele¬
gance) laded commonly feveral days, and the guefts
feldom retired until they had confumed all the provi-
fions and exhaufted all the liquors. Athenseus de-
Xcribes
f E A [ i!
'Feaft. fcrites an entertainment that was given by Arcamnes,
a very wealthy prince in Gaul, which continued a
whole year without interruption, and at which all the
people of Gaul, and even all ftrangers who pafled
through that country, were made welcome. At
thefe feafts they fometimes coni’ulted about the mod
important affairs of ftate, and formed refolutions re¬
lating to peace and war; imagining that men fpoke
their real fentiments with the greateft freedom, and
were apt to form the boldeft defigns, when their fpi-
rits were exhilarated with the pleafures of the table.
The converfation at thefe entertainments very fre¬
quently turned on the great exploits which the guefts
themfetves or their anceflors had performed in war ;
which fometimes occafioned quarrels and even blood-
fhed. It was at a feaft that the two illuflrious Britifh
princes, Carbar and Ofcar, quarrelled about their own
bravery and that of their anceltors, and fell by mutual
wounds, (OJfian, vol. it. p. 8, &c.)
As to the drink ufed at flrofe feafts, particularly in
Britain, it feems probable, that before the introduc¬
tion of agriculture into the ifland, mead or honeydiluted
with water was the only ftrongliquor known to its in¬
habitants, as it was to many other ancient nations in
the fame circumftances. This continued to b? a fa¬
vourite beverage among the ancient Britons and their
pofterity long after they had become acquainted with
other liquors. The mead-maker was the eleventh per-
fon in dignity in the courts of the ancient princes of
Wales, and took place of the phylician. The follow¬
ing ancient law of that principality (hows how much
this liquor was efteemed by the Britifh princes.—>
“ There are three things in the court which muft be
communicated to the king before they are made known
to any other perfon : I. Every fentence of the judge;
2. Every new fong ; and, 3. eivery calk of mead."
This was perhaps the liquor which is called by Gfiiau
the joy and ftrength of fhells, with which his heroes
were fo much delighted.—After the introdudtion of
agriculture, ale or beer became the moft general drink
of all the Britifti nations who pradlifed that art, as it
had long been of all the Celtic people on the conti¬
nent. (See Ale.) If the Phoenicians or Greeks im¬
ported any-wine into Britain, it was only in very fmall
quantities ; that moft generous liquor being very little
known in this ifland before it was conquered by the
Romans. The drinking veffels of the Gauls, Britons,
and other Celtic nations were, for the moft part, made
of the horns of oxen-and other animals ; but thofe of
the Caledonians conlifted of large fliells, which are fliil
ufed by fome of their pollerity in the Highlands of
Scotland.
The diflies in which the meat was ferved up were
either of wood or eatthen-ware, or a kind of baikets
made of ofiers. Thefe laft were moft ufed by the
Britons, as they very much excelled in the art of ma¬
king them both for their own ufe and for exporta-
t;on. The guefts fat in a circle ujion the ground, with
a little hay, grafs, or the fldn ot fome animal under
them. A low table or itool was fet before each per-
-fon, with the portion of meat allotted to him upon it.
Li this diftribution, they never neglected to fet the
lavgett and belt; pieces before thofe who were molt di-
inguifhed for their rank, their exploits, or their riches,
'Every gueft took the.riieat fet before him in his.hands,
;2 1 F E A
and tearing it with his teeth, fed upon it in the beil Fasft.
manner he could. If any one found difficulty in fe- —-v——'
parating any part of his meat with his hands and
teeth, he made ufe of a large knife, that lay in a par¬
ticular place for the benefit of the whole company.
Servants, or young boys and girls, the children of the
family, flood behind the guefts ready to help them to
drink or any thing they wanted.
As the ancient Britons greatly excelled and very
much delighted in mufic, all their feafts were accom¬
panied with the joys of fong, and the mufic of harps.
In the words of Offian f, “ whenever the feaft of fhells f Vol. If.
is prepared, the fongs of bards arffe. The voice ofP-9
fprightly mirth is heard. The trembling harps of joy VVji‘ r*
are ftrung. They fing the battles of heroes, or the**'3*'
heaving hreafts of love." Some of the poems of that
illuftrious Britifh bard appear to have been compofed
in order to he fung by the hundred bards of Fingal * * //5/V.
at the feaft of Selma. Many of the fongs of the bards'^-,'
which were fung and played ai the feaft of the ancient P'87,i09"
Britons, were of a grave and folemn ftrain, celebrating
the brave a£lions of the guefts, or of the hereos of o-
tber times; but thefe were fometimes intermixed with
more fprightly and cheerful airs, to which the youth
of both ftxes danced, for the entertainment of the
company.
It has been often obferved by authors, that there is
no nation in the wot Id comes near the Englifh in the
magnificence of their feafts. Thofe made at our co¬
ronations, inftalments, confecrations, &c. tranfeend the
belief of all foreigners ; and yet it is doubted whether
thofe now in ufe are comparable to thofe of our fore¬
fathers.
William the Conqueror, after he was peaceably
fettled on the throne of England, fent agents into dif¬
ferent countries, to colledl the moft admired and rare
difhes for bistable; by which means, fays John of
Sahfbury, this ifland, which is naturally productive of
plenty and variety of provilions, was overflowed with
every thing that could inflame a luxurious appetite.
The fame writer tells us, that he was prefent at an en¬
tertainment which lafted from three o’clock in the af¬
ternoon to midnight ; at which delicacies were ferved
up, which had been brought from Conftantinople, Ba¬
bylon, Alexandria, Paleftine, Tripoli, Syria, and Phe-
nicia. Thefe delicacies, we may prefume, were very
expenfive. Thomas Becket, if we may believe his hif-
torian Fitz Stephen, gave L. 5, equivalent to L. 75
at prefent, for one difla of eels. The fumptuous enter¬
tainments which the kings of England, and of other
countries, gave to their nobles and prelates, at the fef-
tivals of Chriilmas, Eafter, and Whitfuntide, in which
they fpent a great part of their revenues, contributed
very much to dilfufe a talle for profufe and expenflve
•banqueting. It was natural for a proud and wealthy
baron to imitate in his own caftle the entertainments
he had feen in the palace of his prince. Many of the
clergy too, both feculars and regulars, being very rich,
kept excellent tables.. The monks o£St Swithins, at
Winchefter, made a formal complaint to Henry II.
againft their abbot, for taking away three of the 13
diihes they ufed .to have every day at dinner. The
monks of Canterbury were Hill more luxurious : for
they had at leaft 17. diflies every day,btfides a defert;
and thefe diftres were di-effed with fpieerics and fauces,
1 which
F E A [ i
Feaft. which excited the appetite as well as pleafed the
'“■'V""— tafte.
Great men had fome hinds of provisions at their
tables that are not now to be found in Britain. When
Henry II. entertained his own court, the great officers
of his army, with all the kings and great men of Ire¬
land, in Dublin, at the feaft of Chriftmas, A. D. 117',
the Irifn princes and chieftains were quite aftonifhed
at the profufion and variety of provifions which they
beheld, and were with difficulty prevailed upon by
Henry to eat the flefh of cranes, a kind of food to
which they had not been accuftomed. In the remain¬
ing monuments of this period, we meet with the
names of feveral difties, as dellegrout, maupigyrnun,
karumpie, &c. the compofkion of which is now un¬
known.
The coronation-feaft of Edward III. coft L. 2835,
18 s. 2 d. equivalent to about L. 40,000 of our money.
At the inftallation of Ralph abbot of St Auguftine,
Canterbury, A. D. 1309, 6O00 guells were entertain¬
ed with a dinner, confiding of 3000 difires, which coft:
L. 287 : 5 : o, equal in efficacy to L. 4300 in our
times. “ It would require a long treatife (fays Mat¬
thew Paris) to defcribe the aftonifning fplendor, mag¬
nificence, and feftivity with which the nuptials of
Richard Earl of Cornwal, and Cincia daughter of Rei-
mund Earl of Provence, were celebrated at London,
A. D. 1243. To give the reader fome idea of it, in
a few words, above 30,000 diffies were ferved up at
the marriage dinner.” The nuptials of Alexander III.
of Scotland, and the Princefs Margaret of England,
were folemnized at York, A. D. 1251, with ftill great¬
er pomp and profufion. “ If I attempted (fays the
fame hiftorian) to difplay all the grandeur of this fo-
lemnity,—the numbers of the noble and iliuftrious
guefts,—the richnefs and variety of the dreffes,—the
fumptuoufnefs of the feafts,—the multitudes of the
minltrils, mimicks, and ethers whofe bufinefs it was to
amufe and divert the company, thofe of my readers
who were not prefent would imagine that I was im*
poling upon their credulity. The following particular
will enable them to form a judgment of the whole.
The archbilhop of York made the king of England a
prefent of 60 fat oxen, which made only one article of
provifion for the marriage-feaft, and were all confum-
cd at that entertainment.
The marriage-feaft of Henry IV. and his queen
Jane of Navarre, confided of fix courfes ; three of
flelh and fowls, and three of filh. All thefe courfes
were accompanied and adorned with futtleties, as they
were called. Thefe futtleties were figures in paltry, of
men, women, beafts, birds, dec. placed on the’table,
to be admired, but not touched. Each figure had a
babel affixed to it ; containing fome wife or witty fay¬
ing, fuited to the occafion of the fealt, which was the
reafon they were called futtidies. The inftallation feaft
of George Neville, arehbilhop of York and chancel¬
lor of England, exceeded all others in fplendor and
expence, and in the number and quality of the gueits.
The reader may form fome idea of this enormous feaft
from the following lift of provifions prepared for it.
In wheat, quarters, 300 ; in ale, Unis, 300 ; in wine,
tuns, 100$ in ipocraffe, pipes, 1 ; in oxen, 104; in
wild bulls; 6 ; in muttons, rcoo ; in veals, 304 ; in
porkes, 304 ; in fvvanns, 400 ; in geefe, 2000 ; in
83 1
F E A
cappons, icoo; in pigs, 2000; in plovers, 400; In
quailes, 1200; in fowls called rees, 240Q; in pea- 3
cocks, i®4 ; in mallards and teales, 40005 in cranes,
204 ; in kiddy, 2C4; in chickens, 2000; in pigeons,
2000 ; in connies, 4000; in bittors, 204; in heron-
ffiaws, 400; in pheafants, 200 5 in partridges, 500 ;
in woodcocks, 400 ; in cuvliews, 100 ; in egrits, 1000;
in ftaggs, bucks, and roes, 500 and more; in pafties
of venifon, cold, 4000 ; in parted difhes of jellies,
1000 ; in plain difhes of jellies, 3000 ; in cold tarts,
baked, 4000 ; in cold cuftards, baked, 300a ; in hot
pafiies of venifon, 1500 ; in hot cuftards, 2000; in
pikes and breams, 308 ; in porpoifes and feals, 12 ;
fpices, fugared delicates, and wafers, plenty. No tur-
kits are mentioned in this enormous bill of fare,
becaufe they were not then known in England.
Cranes, heronfha’ws, porpoifes, and feals, are feidom
ften at modern entertainments.
One of the moft txpeiifive Angularities attending
the royal feafts in thofe days confided in-what they
called intermeat). Thefe were reprefentations of bat¬
tles, fieges, &c. introduced between the courfes, for
the amufeiweftt of the guefts. The French excelled in-
exhibition^ of this kind. At a dinner given by
Charles V. of France to the emperor Charles IV.
A.D. 1378, the following intermeat was exhibited :
A ftiip with mails, fails, and rigging, was feen firft :
fhe had for colours the arms of the city of Jerufalem :
Godfrey de Bouillon appeared upon deck, accompa¬
nied by feveral knights armed cap-a-pee : the fhip ad¬
vanced into the middle of the hall, without the ma¬
chine which moved it being perceptible. Then the
city of Jerufalem appeared, with all its towers lined
with Saracens. The fhip approached the city ; the
Chriftians landed, and began the affault; the befiegtd
made a good defence : feveral fcaling-Iadders were
thrown down ; but at length the city was taken. In¬
terments at ordinary banquets confided of certain deli*
cate difhes introduced between the courfes, and de-
figned rather for gratifying the tafte than for fatisfy*
ing hunger.
At thofe feafts, befides the ordinary drinks, ale and
evder, there were great quantities of wines of various
kinds. Of thefe laft, the following lines of a poet
who wrote in the fourth century, contain an ample
enumeration.
Ye (hall have ru-r.rrey and malefpine;.
Both ypoeraffe and verr.age wyno;
Mmm‘; efe and wyne of Giek«,
Both algrade and defj ice eke,
Antioche and baftavde,
i’ymcnt a.f , and garnardt,
Wyne of Greke and Mufcac’el1,
Both clfsre, pymen', and RochelV
Some of thefe liquors, as ypocrafs, pymeut, and claret,
were compounded of wine, honey, and fpices of diffe¬
rent kinds, and in different proportions.
FEATHER, in phyfiology, a general name for the
covering of birds ; it being common to all the animals
of this clafs to have their whole body, or at leaft the
greateft part of it, covered with feathers or plumage-
See Ornithology, Seit. 1. art.iv..
Feathers make a confiderable article in commerce,
particularly thofe of the ollrich, heron, fwan, peacock,
goofe. Sec. for plumes, ornaments of the head, filling
©fbeds, writing-pens, &c.
Geefe
lekrifuge
• See the
article
Jinztin,
F E C [ 184 ] FEE
Geefeare plucked in feme parts of Great Britain five
times in the year; and in cold feafons many of them die
„ by this barbarous cuftom, (fee Anas.) —Thftfe feathers
that are brought from Somerfetfhire are efteemed the
beft, and thofe from Ireland the worft.
Eider down f is imported from Denmark; the ducks
that fupply it being inhabitants of Hudfon’s Bay,
Greenland, Iceland, and Norway. Our own iflands
weft of Scotland breed numbers of thefe birds, which
turn out a profitable branch of trade to the poor
inhabitants. Hudfon’s Bay alfo furnishes very fine
feathers, fuppofed to be of the goofe kipd. The down
of the fwan is brought from Dantzic. The fame place
alfo fends us greatquantities of the feathers of the cock
and hen. The London poulterers fell a great quantity
of the feathers of thofe birds, and of ducks and turkies:
thofe of ducks being a weaker feather, are inferior
to thofe of the goofe; and turkies feathers are the worft
of any. The beft method of curing feathers is to lay
them in a room, in an expofure to the fun ; and when
dried, to put them in bags, and beat them well with
poles to get the dirt off.
FEBRIFUGE, an appellation given to fuch medi¬
cines as mitigate or remove a fever.
FEBRUARY, in chronology, the fecond month of
Numa’s year, and under the prote£h‘on of the god
Neptune. This month is not found in the kalendar of
Romulus, but was added to the year by Numa. It had
its name from Fcbrua, Februaca, or Februalis, all names
of Juno, whoprefided over the purifications of women;
and in this month the Lupercalia were held in honour
of Juno, and women were purified by the priefts of
Pan Lyceus at that feftival. See Lupercalia.
February, in a common year, confifts only of 28
days ; but in the biffextile year it has 29, on account
of the intercalary day added that year.
FECIALES, or Foeciales, an order of priefts or
officers, confiding of 20 perfons, among the ancient
Romans, appointed to proclaim war, negociate peace,
&c.
Feftus derives the word from ferio, “ I ftrike;” as
ferlre feedus fignifies “ to conclude a treaty and ac¬
cordingly, inftead of fedales, he would have it written
feriales. Others derive it from fadus, which was an¬
ciently written fedus; or from fides, “ faith.” Others
from facto, feci, “ I make,” &c. becaufe they made
war and peace. Voffius choofes to derive it from fatu,
of the verb fart, “ to fpeak ;” in which fenfe the fe¬
dales fhould be the fame with oratores; which fentiment
is alfo confirmed by the authority of Varro, who fays
they were called indifferently fedales and oratores.
The feciales wrere a fort of heralds, who, when the
Romans had any difpute with their neighbours, were
fent firft to demand the thing pretended to be ufurped,
or require fatisfa&ion for the injury alleged to be done.
If an anfwer was not returned by them that was fatis-
factory to the people and the fenate, they were dif-
patched again to declare war, and the like in treating
of peace ; the feciales being the only perfons appointed
to negociate between the fenate, &c. and the enemy.
Plutarch, in the life of Numa, and Halicarnafl'eus
{lib. ii.), obferve, that they were firft inftituted by that
prince. The latter adds, that they were chofen out of
the beft families in Rome ; that their office, which was
reputed a fort of facerdotium, or pridlhood, only ended
N° 125.
with their life ; that their perfons were facred and in- Pecandhy
violable,' as thofe of other priefts ; that they were even Fce-
charged to fee the republic did not declare war unjuftly;
that they were to receive tfte complaints and remon-
ftrances of nations who pretended to have been any way
injured by the Romans; that if thofe complaints were
found juft, they were to feize the criminals, and deli¬
ver them up to thofe they had offended ; that they
were inverted with the rights and privileges of ambaffa-
ders; that they concluded treaties of peace and alli¬
ance, and took care they were executed ; and, laftly,
abolifhed them, if. they were found not to be equitable.
Livy, lib. i. cap. 24. aferibes their inftitution to Ancus
Martius, in the year of Rome #14.—Varro affures
us, that in his time moft of thefe fun&ions of the fe¬
ciales were fet afide; though Plutarch obferves, that
they had ttill fome authority in his time.
The feciales were crowned with ’verbena, t< vervain,”
when they went to declare war. Their head was cover¬
ed with a veil, over which the crown was applied. In
this equipage they proceeded to the frontiers of the new
enemy’s country, and threw a bloody dart or javelin
into the ground within the fame. In Livy and other
ancient authors we have the formula ufed in fuch decla¬
rations.
FECUNDITY, the fame with Fertility.
FEE, in law, fignifies a complete feudal property.
Hence, where the bare liferent of any feudal fubjetft
is meant to be conveyed to A^ and the abfolute pro¬
perty to B, that meaning is expreffed thus ; “ to A in
liferent, and to B in fee.” See Law, Nj Ixix. clxiv.
Fees are commonly divided into atfclute, otherwife
called fees-fimple; and limited, one fpecies of which we
ufually call fee-tail.
I. Tenant in fee-fimple (or, as he is frequently ftyled, ^cla
tenant in fee), is he that hath lands, tenements, or he- Comment,
reditaments, to hold to him and his heirs for ever;
generally, abfolutely, and fimply ; without mention¬
ing what heirs, but referring that to his own pleafure,
or to the difpofition of the law. The true meaning of
the word fee (feodum) is the fame with that of feud or
fef\, and in its original fenfe it is taken in contradi-f see feodat
ftinction to allodium; which latter the writers on thisSyltem.
fubjeft define to be every man’s own land', which he
pofttffeth merely in his own right, without owing any
rent or fervice to any fuperior. This is property in its
higheft degree; and the owner thereof hath abfolutum
et direBum dominium, and therefore is faid to be feifed
thereof abfolutely in dominico fuo, in his own demefne.
But feodum, or fee, is that which is held of fome fupe¬
rior, on condition of rendering him fervice ; in which
fuperior the ultimate property of the land refides. And
therefore Sir Henry Spelman defines a feud or fee to
be. The right which the vaffal or tenant hath in lands
to ufe the fame, and take the profits thereof to'him
and his heirs, rendering to the lord his due fervices;
the mere allodial property of the foil always remain¬
ing in the lord- This allodial property no fubjedt in
Britain has ; it being a received and now undeniable
principle in the law, that ail the lands are holden me¬
diately or immediately of the king. lie king there¬
fore only hath abfolutum et direSum dominium; but all
fubjefts lands are in the nature of feodum br fee, whe¬
ther derived to them by dgjcgjit from theiYanceffors, or
pm-chafed for a valuable confideration : for they can¬
not
FEE [ 185 1 FEE
not come to any man by either of thofe ways, unlefs
accompanied with thofe feodal clogs which were laid
upon fhe firft feudatory when it was originally granted.
A fubjeft therefore hath only the ufufruft, and not the
abfolute property, of the foil; or, as Sir Edward Coke
expreffes it, he hath dominium utile, but not dominium
direSlum.' And hence it is, that, in the moft folemn a£ts
of law, we exprefs the (Irongeft and higheft eftate that
any fubjedl can have, by thefe words, “ he is feifed
thereof in his demefne, as of fee.” It is a man’s de-
mefne, dominium, or property, fince it belongs to him
and his heirs for ever : yet this dominium, property, or
demefne, is ftriftly not abfolute or allodial, but quali¬
fied or feodal: it is in his demefne, as of. fee; that is, it
fs not purely and Amply his own, fince it is held of a
fuperior lord, in whom the ultimate property refides.
This is the primary fenfe and acceptation of the
word fee. But (as Sir Martin Wright very juftly ob-
ferves) the doftrine, “ that all lands are holden,” ha¬
ving Jjcen for fo many ages a fixed and undeniable axi¬
om, the Englifh lawyers do very rarely (of late years
efpecially) ufe the word fee in this its primary original
fenfe, in contradiitimflion to allodium or abfolute pro¬
perty, with which they have no concern ; but gene¬
rally ufe it to exprefs the continuance or quantity of
eftate. A fee therefore, in general, fignifies an eftate
of inheritance; being the higheft and moft extenfive
intereft that a man can have in a feud : and when the
term is ufed fimply, without any other adjunft, or has
the adjunct offimple annexed to it (as, a fee, or a fee-
fimple), it is ufed in cOntradiftinftion to a fee-condi¬
tional at the common law, or a fee-tail by the ftatute ;
importing an abfolute inheritance, clear of any condi¬
tion, limitation, or reftridtions to particular heirs, but
defcendible to the heirs-general, whether male or fe¬
male, lineal or collateral. And in no other fenfe than
this is the king laid to be feifed in fee, he being the
feudatory of no'man.
Taking therefore fee in this its fecondary fenfe, as a
Hate of inheritance, it is applicable to, and may be
-had in, any kind of hereditaments either corporeal or
incorporeal. But there is this diftindtion between the
two fpecies of hereditaments ; that of a corporeal inhe-
” ritance a man {hall, be faid to be feifed in his demefne,
as of fee; of an incorporeal one he (hall only be faid to
be feifed as of fee, and not in his demefne. For as in¬
corporeal hereditaments are in their nature collateral
to, and iflue out of, lands and houfes, their owner hath
no property, dominium, or demefne, in the thing itfelf,
but hath only fomething derived out of it; refembling
the fervitutes, or fervices, of the civil law. The domi-
mum, or property, is frequently in one man, while the
appendage or fervice is in another. Thus Gaius may
be feifed as of fee, of a way going over the land,'of
which Titius is feifed in his demefne as of fee.
The fee fimple or inheritance of lands and tenements
is generally veiled and refides in fome perfon or other;
though divers inferior eftates, may be carved out of it.
As if one grants aleafe for 21 years, or for one or two
lives, the fee-fimple remains veiled in him and his heirs;
and after the determination of thofe years or lives, the
land reveres to the granter or his heirs, who flrall hold
it again in fee-fApig. . Yet fometimes the fee may be
in abeyance^ that is .(as the word fignifies) in expedla-
tion, remembrance, and contemplation in law 5 there
Vol. VII. Part I.
being no perfon in effe, in whom it can veil and abide,
though the law confiders it as always potentially exift-
ing, and ready to veil whenever a proper owner appears.
Thus, in a grant to John for life, and afterwards to
the heirs of Richard, the inheritance is plainly neither
granted to John nor Richard, nor can it veil in the heirs
of Richard till his death, nam nemo ejl hares viventis :
it remains therefore in waiting, or abeyance, during the
life of Richard. This is likewife always the cafe of a
parfon of a church, who hath only an eftate therein
for the term of his life ; and the inheritance remains in
abeyance. And not only the fee, but the freehold
alfo, may be in abeyance ; as, when a parfon dies, the
freehold of his glebe is in abeyance until a fuccefibr be
named, and then it veils in the fucceffor.
The word heirs is neceffary in the grant or donation
in order to make a fee or inheritance. For if land be
given to a man for ever, or to him and his affigns for
ever, this veils in him but an eftate for life. This very
great nicety about the infertion of the word heirs in all
feoffments and grants, in order to veil a fee, is plainly
a relic of the feodal ftrictnefs : by which it was requi¬
red, that the form of the donation fttould be pundlually
purfued; or that, as Craig expreffes it, in the words
of Baldus, donationes fint fricti juris, ne quis plus donaffe
prafumatur quam in donatione exprefferit. And therefore,
as the perfonal abilities of the donee were originally
fuppofed to be the only inducements to the gift, the
donee’s eftate in the land extended only to his own per¬
fon, and 'fubfifted no longer than his life ; unlefs the
donor, by an exprefs provifion in the grant, gave it a
longer continuance, and extended it alfo to his heirs.
But this rule is now foftened by many exceptions. ‘
For, 1. It does not tend to devifes by will; in
which, as they were introduced at the time when the
feodal rigour was apace wearing out, a more liberal
conftruftion is allowed: and therefore by a devife to a
man for ever, or to one and his affigns for ever, or to
one in fee-fimple, the devifee hath an eftate of inheri¬
tance ; for the intention of the devifor is fufficiently
plain from the words of perpetuity annexed, though he
hath omitted the legal words of inheritance. But if
the devife be to a man and his affigns, without an¬
nexing words of perpetuity, there the devifee fhall
take only an eflate for life ; for it does not appear that
the devifor intended any more. 2. Neither does this
rule extend to fines or recoveries, confidered as a fpe¬
cies of conveyance 5 for thereby an eftate in fee pafies
by aft and operation of law without the word heirs :
as it does alfo, for particular reafons, by certain other
methods of conveyance, which have relation to a for¬
mer grant or eftate, wherein the word heirs was ex-
preffed. 3. In cfeations of nobility by writ, the peer
fo created hath an inheritance in his title, without ex-
preffing the wOrd heirs ; for they are implied in the
creation, unlefs it be otherwife fpecially provided : but
in creations by patent, which are Jlricti juris, the word
heirs muft be inferted, otherwife there is no inheri¬
tance. 4. In grants of lands to foie corporations and
■their fucceffors, the word fucceffors fupplies the place
of heirs ; for as heirs take from the ancellor, fo doth
the fuccefibr from the predeceflbr. Nay, in a grant
to a bifliop, or ''other foie fpiritual corporation, in
frankalmoign, the word frankalmoign, fupplies the place
oifuccejfors (as the word fuccejfors fuppfies the place of
A a heirs)
FEE [ i86 ] EEL
Fee. heirs) ex vi termini ; and in all thefe cafes a fee-fimple
■"v-—veils in fuch foie corporation. But, in a grant of
lands to a corporation aggregate, the word fuccejfors
is not necelfary, though ufually inferted: for, albeit
fuch Ample grant be ftriftly only an eftate for life, yet
as that corporation never dies, fuch eftate for life is
perpetual, or equivalent to a fee-fimple, and therefore
the law allows it to be one. Laftly, in the cafe of
the king, a fee-fimple will veil in him, without the
word heirs or fnccejfors in the grant ; partly from pre¬
rogative royal, and partly from a reafon fimilar to the
laft, becaufe the king, in judgment of law, never dies.
But the general rule is, that the word heirs is necelfary
to create an eftate of inheritance.
II. We are next to confider limited fees, or fuch
eftates of inheritance as are clogged and confined with
conditions or qualifications of any fort. And thefe we
may divide into two forts: i. Qualified, or lafe fees;
and, 2. Fees conditional, fo called at the common law;
and afterwards fees-to'/, in confequence of the ftatute
de denis.
1. A base or qualified fee, is fuch a one as has a
qualification fubjoined thereto, and which muft be de¬
termined whenever the qualification annexed to it is at
an end. As, in the cafe of a grant to A and his heirs,
tenants in the manor of Dale ; in this inftance, when¬
ever the heirs of A ceafe to be tenants of that manor,
the grant is entirely defeated. So, when Henry VI.
granted to John Talbot, lord of the manor of King-
fton-Lifle in Berks, that he and his heirs, lords of the
faid manor, ftiould be peers of the realm, by the title
of barons of Lijle ; here John Talbot had a bafe or qua¬
lified fee in that dignity; and the inftant he or his
heirs quitted the feigniory of this manor, the dignity
was at an end. This eftate is a fee, becaufe by poffi-
bility it may endure for ever in a man and his heirs ;
yet as that duration depends upon the concurrence of
collateral circumftances, which qualify and debafe the
purity of the donation, it is therefore a qualified or
bafe fee.
2. As to htz-conditional, or fees-to7, fee the article
Tail.
Fee alfo fignifies a certain allowance to phyficians,
barrifters, attornies, and other officers, as a reward for
their pains and labour
If a perfon refufe to pay an officer his due fees, the
court will grant an attachment againft him, to be com¬
mitted till the fees are paid ; and an attorney may
bring an aftion of the cafe for his fees againft the
client that retained him in his caufe.
Fee alfo denotes a fettled perquifite of public officers,
payable by thofe who employ them.
The fees due to the officers of the cuftom-houfe, are
exprefsly mentioned in a fchedide, or table, which
is hung up in public view in the faid office, and in all
other places where the faid fees are to be paid or re¬
ceived. And if any officer {hall offend, by adling
contrary to the regulations therein contained, he (hall
forfeit his office and place, and be for ever after inca¬
pable of any office in the euftom houfe.
The other public offices have likewife their fettled
fees, for the feveral branches of bufinefs tranfa&ed in
them.
Use-Farm, a kind of tenure without homage, feal-
tf, or other fervice, except thatmentionedin die feoff¬
ment ; which is ufually the full rent, or at leaft a fourth Feelers
part of it. II.
The nature of this tenure is, that if the rent be be- 'Fel13, .
hind, and unpaid for two years, then the feoffor and
his heirs may have an ad ion for the recovery of the
lands.
FEELERS, in natural hiftory, a name ufed by
fome for the horns of insects.
FEELING, one of the five external fenfes, by
which we obtain the ideas of folid, hard, foft, rough,
hot, cold, wet, dry, and other tangible qualities. See
Anatomy, n° 138.
FEET. Sec Foot.
FEET-Bearer, the name of at* officer in the courts
of the ancient Anglo-Saxon and Welch kings. He
was a young gentleman whofe duty it was to fit on the
floor, with his back towards the fire, and hold the
king’s feet in his bofom all the time he fat at table, to
keep them warm and comfortable f : Apiece of ftate f LeguWal-
and luxury unknown in modern times. toe, p. ,58.
FEINT, in fencing, a fliow of making a thruft at
one part, in order to deceive the enemy, that you may
really ftrike him in another.
A Ample feint is a mere motion of the wrift, with¬
out ftirring the foot.
FELAPTON, in logic, one of the fix firft modes
of the third figure of fyllogifms ; whereof the firft
propofition is an univerfal negative, the fecond an u-
niverfal affirmative, and the third a particular nega¬
tive.
FELIBIEN (Andre), was born at Chartres in
1619, and went fecretary under the marquis de Fonte-
nay Mareuil ambaffador to the court of Rome in 1647.
On his return, M. Colbert procured him the places of
hiftoriagrapher to the king, fuperintendant of his
buildings, and of the arts and manufaftures in France,
He became afterwards deputy comptroller-general of
the bridges and dykes in that kingdom ; and died in
1695. wrote feveral pieces relating to the fine artsf
the principal of which is his “ Dialogues on the lives
and works of the moft eminent painters.”
FELICITAS, (Felicity, or Happinefs), was dei¬
fied by the ancient Pagans. Lucullus built a temple
to her. She had another eredled by Lepidus. The
Greeks paid divine worfhip to Macaria, daughter of
Hercules, the fame with Felicitas. This deity is often
pi&ured upon medals, and generally with a Cornuco¬
pia in one hand and a Caduceus in the other. The in-
feriptions are, Felicitas Temporum, Felicitas Augujli, Fe*
licitas Pullica, See.
FELIS, in /.oology, a genus of quadrupeds belong- See Plates
ing to the order of feras, the characters of which are ^pV.an^
thefe : The fore-teeth are equal; the molares or grin- “
ders have three points; the tongue is furnilhed with
rough {harp prickles, and pointing backwards; and
the claws are Iheathed and recraftile. This genus com¬
prehends twenty-one fpecies, viz.
I. The Leo, or Lion. The largeft lions are from Lion,
eight to nine feet in length, and from four to fix feet
high : thofe of a fmaller fize are generally about 5-J feet
long, and about 3-J high. His head is very thick, and
his face is befet on all fides with long bulhy yellowiffi
hair ; this {baggy hair extends from the top of the
head to below the {boulders, and hangs down to his
knees; the belly and breaft are likewife covered with
long.
F E L l 187 ] F E L
Fells, long hair. The reft of the body 1$ covered with very
fhort hair, excepting a bufti at the point of the tail.
The ears are roundiih, Ihort, and almoft entirely con¬
cealed under the hair of his front. The ftiagginefs of
the fore-part of his body makes the hinder-part have a
naked appearance. The tail is long and very ftrong ;
the legs are thick and flefliy ; and the feet are ftiort;
the length of the claws is about an inch and a quar¬
ter, are of a whitifti colour, very crooked, and can be
extended or retraced into the membranous fheath at
pleafure : their points are feldom blunted, as they are
never extended but when he feizes his prey.
The female, or lionnefs, has no mane, or long hair
about her head or (houlders ; in her we fee diltinCtly
the whole face,, head, ears, neck, ftioulders, breaft,
&c. all thefe parts being in fome meafure concealed
under the long hair of the male, give the female a
very different appearance : belides, fhe is confiderably
lefs than the male. The hair of both male and'female
is of a yellovvilh colour, and whitifti on the Tides and
belly.
In warm countries, quadrupeds in general are larger
and ftronger than in the cold or temperate climates.
They are likewife more fierce and hardy ; all their na¬
tural qualities feem to correfpond with the ardour of
the climate. The lions nouriflied under the fcorching
fun of Africa or the Indies, are the moft ftrong, fierce,
and terrible. Thofe of mount Atlas, whofe top is
fometimes covered with fnow, are neither fo ftrong nor
fo ferocious as thofe of Biledulgerid or Zaara, whofe
plains are covered with burning fand. It is in thefe
hot and barren defarts, that the lion is the dread of
travellers, and the fcourge of the neighbouring pro¬
vinces. But it is a happy circumftance that the fpe-
cies is not very numerous: they even appear to di-
minifli daily. The Romans, fays Mr Shaw, brought
many more lions out of Libya for their public ftiows,
than are now to be found in that country. Itislikewife
remarked, that the lions in Turky, Perfia, and the In¬
dies, are lefs numerous than formerly. As this formi¬
dable and courageous animal makes a prey of moft o-
ther animals, and is himfelf a prey to none, this dimi¬
nution in the number of the fpecies can be owing to
nothing but an increafe in the number of mankind :
for it muft be acknowledged, that the ftremgth of this
king of animals is not a match for the dexterity and
addrefs of a negro or Hottentot, who will often dare
to attack him face to face, and with very flight wea¬
pons, *
The ingenuity of mankind augments with their
number; that of other animals continues always the
fame. All the noxious animals, as the lion, are redu¬
ced to a fmall number, not only becaufe mankind are
become more numerous, but likewife becaufe they
have become more ingenious, and have invented wea¬
pons which nothing can refill. This fuperiority in the
numbers and induftry of mankind, at the fame time
that it has broke the vigour of the lion, feems likewife
to have enervated his courage. This quality, though
natural, is exalted or lowered according to the good
or bad fuccefs with which any animal has been accu-
ftomed to employ his force. In the vaft defarts of Za¬
ara ; in thofe which feem to feparate two very diffe¬
rent races of men, the Negroes and Moors, between
Senegal and the boundaries of Mauritania; in thofe
uninhabited regions above the country of the Hotten- Fells.
tots; and, in general, all the meridional parts of A-  
frica and Afia, where mankind have difdained to
dwell, lions are Hill as numerous and as ferocious as
ever. Accuftomed to meafure their ftrength by that
of all other animals which they encounter, the habit
of conquering renders them haughty and intrepid. Ha¬
ving never experienced the ftrength of man, or the
power of his arms, inftead of difeovering any figns of
fear, they difdain and fet him at defiance. Wounds
irritate, but do not terrify them: they are not even
difconcerted at the fight of numbers. A fingle lion
of the defart has been known to attack a whole cara¬
van ; and if, after a violent and obftinate engagement,
he found himfelf weakened, he retreats fighting, al¬
ways keeping his face to the enemy. On the other
hand, the lions which live near the villages or huts of
the Indians or Africans, being acquainted with man
and the force of his arms, are fo daftardly as to fly
and leave their prey at the fight of women or children.
This foftening in the temper and difpofition of the
lion, Ihows that he is capable of culture, and fufeep-
tible, at leaft to a certain degree, of ihe impreflions
that he receives: accordingly, hiftory informs us of
lions yoked in triumphal chariots, trained to war, or
the chace ; and that, faithful to their mafters, they ne¬
ver employed their ftrength or courage but againft
their enemies. It is certain, that a lion taken
young, and brought up among domeftic animals,
will eaiily be accuftomed to live and fport with them ;
that he is mild and carefling to his mafter, efpecially
when he is young ; and that, if his natural ferocity
fometimes breaks out, it is rarely turned againft thofe
who have been kind to him. But, as his paflions are
impetuous and vehement, it is not to be expe&ed that
the imprefiions of education will at all times be fuffi-
cient to balance them : for this reafon it is dangerous
to let him fuffer hunger long, or to vex him by ill-
timed teazings : bad treatment not only irritates him,
but he remembers it long, and meditates revenge. On
the other hand, he is exceedingly grateful, and feldom
forgets benefits received. He has been often obferved
to difdain weak or infignificant enemies, to defpife
their infults, and to pardon their offenfive liberties.
When led into captivity, he will difeover fymptoms of
uneafinefs, without anger or peeviftmefs : on the con¬
trary, his natural temper foftens, he obeys his mafter,
careffes the hand that gives him food, sftid fometimes
gives life to fuch animals as are thrown to him alive
for prey: by this a6l of generofity he feems to confi-
der himfelf as for ever bound to protedl them; he lives
peaceably with them ; allows them a part, and fome¬
times the whole, of his food; and will rather fubmit
to the pangs of hunger, than fill his ftomach with the
fruit of his beneficence. We may likewife obferve,
that the lion is not a cruel animal: he kills rather
from neceflity than choice, never deftroying more than
he eats; and whenever his appetite is fatisfied, he is
mild and peaceable. For his ordinary fubfiftence, he
requires about 15 pounds of raw flefti each day.
The afpeCt of the lion correfponds with the noble
and generous qualities of his mind. His figure is re-
fpe&able ; his looks are determined ; his gait is ftate-
ly, and his voice tremendous. In a word, the body
of the lion appears to be the bell model of ftrength
A a 2 joined
F E L r
joined to agility. The force of his mufcles is exprefied
by his prodigious leaps and bounds, often 20 feet at
once ; by the brifk motion of his tail, a Angle fwtep
of which is fufficient to throw a man to the ground ;
by the eafe with which he moves the flcin of his face,
and particularly of his forehead ; and, laftly, by the
faculty of erefting and agitating the hair of his mane
when irritated.
Lions are very ardent in their amours : when the
female is in feafon, (he is often followed by eight or
ten males, who roar incefiantly, and enter into, furious
engagements, till one of them completely overcomes
the reft, takes peaceable poffeffion of the female, and
carries her off to fome fecret recefs. The lionnefs
brings forth her young in the fpring, and produces but
once every year.
All the paffions of the lion, the foft paffion of love
not excepted, are excefiive ; the love of offspring is
extreme: the lionnefs is naturally weaker, lefs bold,
and more gentle than the lion ; but fhe becomes per¬
fectly rapacious and terrible when fhe has young Then
fhe exhibits more courage than the male; ftie regards
no danger ; fhe attacks indifferently men and all other
animals, kills them, and carries them to her young
ones, whom fhe thus early inftrufts to fuck their blood
and tear their flefh. She generally brings forth in the
moft fecret and inacceffible places; and, when afraid
of a difcovery, fhe endeavours to conceal the traces of
her feet, by returning frequently on her fteps, or ra¬
ther by effacing them with her tail ; and, when the
danger is great, fhe carries off her young, and con¬
ceals them fomewhere elfe. But, when an aClual at¬
tempt is made to deprive her of her young, fhe be¬
comes perfeClly furious, and defends them till fhe be
torn to pieces.
The lion feldom goes abroad in the middle of the
day ; but fallies forth in the evening and night in queft
of prey. He is afraid of fire, and feldom or never
approaches the artificial fires made by the fhepherds for
the protection of their flocks ; he does not trace other
animals by the fcent, but is obliged to truft to his eyes.
Many hiftorians have even mifreprefented him as inca¬
pable of finding out his prey ; but that he is obliged
to the jackal, an animal of exquifite fcent, in order
to provide for him, and that this animal either accom¬
panies or goes before him for this purpofe. The jac¬
kal is a native of Arabia, Libya, &c. and, like the
lion, lives upon prey : perhaps fometimes he follows
the lion, but it is with a view to pick up what he
leaves behind, not to provide for him; for, being a
fmall and feeble animal, he ought rather to fly from
than to ferve the lion.
The lion, when hungry, will attack any animal that
prefents itfelf: but he is fo very formidable, that all
endeavour to avoid his rencounter; this circumftance
often obliges him to conceal himfelf, and lie in wait
till fome animal chances to pafs. He lies fquat on his
belly in a thicket; from which he fprings with fuch
force and velocity, that he often feizes them at the
firft bound. He endures hunger longer than thirft.;
he feldom paffes water without drinking, which he does
by lapping like a dog. In burning defarts, where ri¬
vers and fountains are denied, they live in a perpetual
iever, a fort of madnefs fatal to every animal they
>83 ] F E L
meet with. The author of the Oeconomy of Nature
gives a wonderful proof of the inftinCt of thefe animals
in thofe unwatered traCts. There the pelican makes
her neft; and in order to cool her young ones, and ac-
cuftom. them to an: element they muft afterwards be
converfant. in, brings from afar, in their great gular
pouch, fufficient water to fill the neit: the lion, and
other wild beafts, approach and quenchtheir thirft; yet
never injure the unfledged birds, as if confcious that
their deftruction would immediately put a flop to thofa
grateful fupplies.
The roaring of the lion, which is ftrong and loud,,
is his ordinary voice ; but when he is irritated, his cry
is ihorter, repeated more fuddtnly, and is ftill more
terrible than the roaring: befides, he beats his fides
with his tail, ftamps with his feet, erefts and agi¬
tates the hair of his head and mane, moves the flrin
of his face, ftiows his angry teeth, and lolls out his
tongue.
The roaring of the lion, according to Mr Spar-
man, “ confifts in a hoarfe inarticulate found, which
at the fame time feems to have a hollownefs in it,
fomething like that proceeding from a fpeaking trum¬
pet. The found is between that of a German u and
an 0, being drawn to a great length, and appearing as
if it came from out of the earth* at the fame time
that, after liftening with the greateft attention, I could
not exactly hear from what quarter it came. The
found of the lion’s voice does not bear the leaft refem-
blance to thunder, as M. de Buffon, tom. ix. p. 22.
from the Voyage ofBoullaye le Gouz, affirms it does..
In faft, it appeared to me to be neither peculiarly
piercing nor tremendous ; yet, from its flow prolong¬
ed note, joined with nodiurnal darknefs, and the ter¬
rible idea one is apt to form to one’s felf of this ani¬
mal, it made one (hudder, even in fuch places as I had
an opportunity of hearing it in with more fatisfaftion,
and without having the leaft occafion for fear. We
could plainly perceive by our cattle when the lions,
whether they roared or not, were reconnoitring us at
a fmall diftance. For in that cafe the hounds did not
dare to bark in the leaft, but crept quite clofe to the
Hottentots ; and our oxen and horfes fighed deeply,
frequently hanging back, and pulling flowly with all
their might at the ftrong ftraps with which they were
tied up to the waggon. They likewife laid themfelves
down upon the ground and flood up alternately, ap¬
pearing as if they did not know what to do with them¬
felves : or rather juft as if they were in the agonies of
death. It is, indeed, a wonderful circumftance (con¬
tinues our author), that the brute creation (hould have
been taught merely by nature to be in dread of the
lion ; for oUr horfes and oxen were all from places
where I am certain they could have no knowledge of
this dreadful adverfary of theirs ; fo that in this we
muft admire the bounty of Providence, which, while
it has fent fuch a tyrant as the lion amongft the ani¬
mal creation, has likewife taught them to difcern and
diftinguifh it with trembling and horror.”
The gait of the lionris ftately, grave, anddlow, tho<’
always in an oblique diredtion. His movements are
not equal or meafured, but confift of leaps and bounds;
whic 1 prevents him from flopping fuddenly, and makes
him often overleap his mark. When, he leaps upon
his
F E L [ 189 ] EEL
his prey, he makes a bound of 12 or 15 feet, falls a-
bove it, feizes it with his fore-feet, tears the flelh with
his claws, and then devours it with his teeth. If he
chances to mifs his leap, he will not, as the Hotten¬
tots unanimoufly affured Mr Sparman, follow his prey
any farther ; but, as though he were alhamed, turning
round towards the place where he lay in ambufh, flowly,
and ftep by ftep, as it were, meafures the exaft length
between the two points, in order to find how much too
Ihort of, or beyond, the mark he had taken his leap.
One would fuppofe that the roaring of the lion
would prove ferviceable to the other animals, as being
a warning for them to betake themfelves to flight; but
as when he roars, according to all report, he puts his
mouth to the ground, fo that the found is diffufed e-
qually all over the place, without, as we have already
mentioned, its being poflible to hear from what quar¬
ter it comes, the animals are intimidated and feared to
fuch a degree, as to fly about backwards and forwards
in the dark to every fide; in confequence of which,
they often chance to run on to the very fpot from
whence the found a&ually proceeds, and which they
meant moft to avoid.
Dr Sparman, in his account of the lion, detra&s
confiderably from the chara&er of courage and gene-
rolity generally aferibed to that animal. “ It is not
in magnanimity (fays he), as many will have it to be,
but in an infidious and cowardly difpofition, blended
with a certain degree of pride, that the general cha-
ra&er of the lion confiffis; though hunger muft natu¬
rally have the effeft of now and then infpiring fo ftrong
and nimble an animal with uncommon intrepidity and
courage. Moreover, being accuftomed always itfelfto
kill its own food, and that with the greateil eafe, as
meeting with no refiftance, and even frequently to
devour it reeking and weltering in its blood, it can¬
not but be eafily provoked, and acquire a greater turn
for cruelty than for generofity : but, on the other
hand, not being accuftomed to meet with any refift¬
ance, it is no wonder that, when it does, it ftiould
fometimes be faint-hearted and creft-fallen. A yeo¬
man, a man of veracity (Jacob Kok, of Zeekoe-
river), related to me an adventure he had in thefe
words :—One day walking over his lands with his
loaded gun, he unexpe&edly met with a lion. Being
an excellent {hot, he thought himfelf pretty certain, in
the pofition he was in, of killing it, and therefore fired
his piece. Unfortunately he did not recoiled!, that
the charge had been in it for fome time, and confe-
quently was damp ; fo that his piece hung fire, and
the ball falling ftiort, entered the ground clofe to the
lion. In confequence of this he was feized with a pa¬
nic, and took diredtly to his feet; but being foon out
of breath, and clofely purfued by the lion, he jumped
up on a little heap of ftones, and there made a ftand,
prefenting the butt end of his gun to his adverfary,
fully refolved to defend his life as well as he could to
the utmoft. My friend did not take upon him to de¬
termine, whether this pofition and manner-of his inti¬
midated the lion or not: it had, however, fuch an ef¬
fect upon the creature, that it likewife made a Hand ;
and what was ftillmore fingular, laid itfelf down at the
diftance of a few paces from the heap of ftones feem-
ingly quite unconcerned. The fportfman, in the mean
while, did not dare to ftir a ftep from the fpot: be-
fides, in his flight, he had the misfortune to lofe his yells,
powder-horn. At length, after waiting a good half ""
hour, the lion rofe up, and at firft went very flowly,
and ftep by ftep, as if it had a mind to fteal off; but
as foon as it got to a greater diftance, it began to
bound away at a great rate.”
Our author alfo relates the following occurrence, as
ferving to fuow the cowardice and infidious difpofition
of the lion. “ An elderly Hottentot in the fervice of
aChriitian, near the upper part of Sunday river on the
Cambdebo fide, perceived a lion following him at a
great diftance for two hours together. Thence he
naturally concluded, that the lion only waited for the
approach of darknefs, in order to make him his prey :
and in the mean time, could not expedl any other than
to ferve for this fierce animal’s fupper, inafmuch as he
had no other weapon of defence than a-ftick, and knew
that he could not get home before it was dark. But
as he was well acquainted with the nature of the lion,
and the manner of its feizing upon its prey, and at the
fame time had leifure between whiles to ruminate on
the ways and means in which it was moft likely that
his exiftence would be put an end to, he at length hit
on a method of faving his life. For this purpofe, in-
ftead of making the beft of his way home, he looked
out for a kilpkrans (fo they generally call a rocky place
level and plain at top, and having a perpendicular pre*
cipice on one fide of it), and fitting, himfelf down on
the edge of one of thefe precipices, he found, to his
great joy, that the lion likewife made a halt, and kept
the fame diftance as before. As foon as it grew dark,
the Hottentot Aiding a little forwards, let himfelf
down below the upper edge of the precipice upon fome
projecting part or cleft of the rock, where he could
juft keep himfelf from falling. But in order to cheat
the lion ftill more, he fet his hat and cloak on the
ftick, making with it at the fame time a gentle motion
juft over his head, and a little way from the edge of
the mountain. This crafty expedient had the defired
fuccefs. Fie did not ftay long in that iituation, before
the lion came creeping foftly towards him like a cat,
and miftaking the Ikin-cloak for the Hottentot him¬
felf, took his leap with fuch exa&nefs and precifion, as
to fall headlong down, the precipice, diredtly clofe to
the fnareWhich had been fet up for himj-when the
Hottentot is faid, in his great joy, exultingly to have
called out t’katji!. an interjection of very extenfive im¬
port and fignification.”
This is not the only inftance of lions in Africa be¬
ing enfnared in the midft of their leap. In the outr
houfes and wafte grounds about farms, where a lion
has been upon the watch for fome animal and miffed
it, or where they have other reafons to expeift him,
they fet up the figure of a man clofe by the fide of
feveral loaded guns; fo that thefe difeharge them¬
felves into the body of the beaft at the very inftant
that he fprings or throws himfelf upon the dieffed.
figure. As this is done with fo much, eafe and fuc¬
cefs, and as they hardly ever think it worth while in
Africa to take lions alive, .they feldom give themfelves
the trouble of catching them by means of pit-falls.
“ It is fingular (Dr Sparman remarks), that the
lion, which, according to many, always kills his prey
immediately if it belongs to the brute creation, is re¬
ported frequently, although provoked, to. content him>
fdF
F E L [ 190 ] FEE
ifelF witli merely wounding the human fpecies ; or at
leaft to wait fome time before he gives the fatal blow
to the unhappy viftim he has got under him. Tn fe-
veral places through which I palfed, they mentioned to
me by name a father and his two fons, who were
faid to be ftill living, and who being on foot near a
river on their eftate in fearch of a lion, this latter had
rulhed out upon them, and thrown one of them under
feet: the two others, however, had time enough to
fhoot the lion dead upon the fpot, which had lain al-
mofl acrofs the youth fo nearly and dearly related to
them, without having done him any particular hurt.
I myfelf faw, near the 'upper part of Duyven-hoek-
river, an elderly Hottentot, who at that time (his
wounds being ftill open) bore under one eye and un¬
derneath his cheek-bone the ghaftly marks of the bite of
a lion, which did not think it worth his while to give
him any other chaftifement for having, together with
his mafter (whom I alfo knew) and feveral other Chri-
ftians, hunted him with great intrepidity, though with¬
out fuccefs. The converfation ran every where in this
part of the country upon one Bota, a farmer and captain
in the militia, who had lain for fome time under a lion,
and had received feveral bruifes from the beaft, having
been at the fame time a good deal bitten by him in
one arm, as a token to remember him by ; but, upon
the whole, had in a manner had his life given him by
this noble animal. The man was faid then to be living
in the diftridt of Artaquas-kloof. I do not rightly
know how to account for this merciful difpofition to¬
wards mankind. Does it proceed from the lion’s
greater refpeft and veneration for man, as being equal
to, or even a mightier tyrant than, himfelf among the
animal creation? or is it merely from the fame caprice
which has fometimes induced him not only to fpare
the lives of men or brute creatures who have been given
up to him for prey, but even to carefs them, and treat
them with the greateft kindnefs ? Whims and freaks
of this kind have perhaps in a great meafure acquired
the lion the reputation it has for generoftty; but I
cannot allow this fpecious name, facred only to virtue,
to be laviftied upon a wild beaft. Slaves, indeed, and
wretches of fervile minds, are wont with this attribute
to flatter their greateft tyrants ; but with what (how
of reafon can this attribute be beftowed upon the moft
powerful tyrant among quadrupeds, becaufe it does
not exercife an equal degree of cruelty upon all occa-
fions? That the lion does not, like the wolf, tiger, and
fome other beafts of prey, kill a great deal of game or
cattle at one time, perhaps proceeds from this, that
while he is employed in attacking one or two of them,
the remainder fly farther than it accords with the na¬
tural indolence of this beaft to follow them. If this
be called generoftty, a cat may be ftyled generous with
refpett to the rats; as I have feen this creature in the
fields amon^ a great number of the latter, where ftre
could have made a great havock at once, feize on a
tingle one only, and run off with it. The lion and the
cat, likewife, very much refemble each other, in partly
deeping out, and partly palling away in a quiet in¬
active ftate, a great part of their time, in which
hunger does not urge them to go in quell of their
prey.”
The lion’s ftrength, as already obferved, is very
great. Mr Sparman informs us, that “ this animal
was once feen at the Cape to take an heifer in his
mouth, and though the legs of this latter dragged on
the ground, yet feemed to carry her off with the fame
eafe as a cat does a rat. It likewife leaped over a
broad dike with her, without the leaft difficulty. A
buffalo perhaps would be too cumberfome for this
beaft of prey, notwithftanding his ftrength, to feize
and carry off with him in the manner above mention¬
ed. Two yeomen, upon whcfe veracity I can place
fome confidence, gave me the following account rela¬
tive to this matter. Being a hunting near Bolhies-
man-river with feveral Hottentots, they perceived a
lion dragging a buffalo from the plain to a neighbour¬
ing wmody hill. They, however foon forced it to
quit its prey, in order to make a prize of it themfelves.;
and found that this wild beaft had had the fagacity to
take out the buffalo’s large and unwieldy entrails in or¬
der to be able the eafier to make off with the flelhy
and more eatable part of the carcafe. The lion’s
ftrength, however, is faid not to be fufficient alone to
get the better of fo large and ftrong an animal as the
buffalo ; but, in order to make it his prey, this fierce
creature is obliged to have recourfe both to agility and
ftratagem; infomuch, that Healing on the buffalo, it
faftens with both its paws upon the noftrils and mouth
of the beaft, and keeps fqueezing them clofe together,
till at length the creature is ftrangled, wearied out, and
dies. A certain colonift, according to report, had had
an opportunity of feeing an attack of this kind ; and
others had reafon to conclude, that fomething of this
nature had paffed, from feeing buffaloes, which had
efcaped from the clutches of lions, and bore the marks
of the claws of thefe animals about their mouth and
nofe. They afferted, however, that the lion itfelf
rilked its life in fuch attempts, efpeeially if any other
buffalo was at hand to refcue that which was attacked.
It was faid, that a traveller once had an opportunity
of feeing a female buffalo with her calf, defended by a
river at her back, keep for a long time at bay five
lions which had partly furrounded her; but did not, at
leaft as long as the traveller looked on, dare to attack
her. I have been informed, from very good authority,
that on a plain to the call of Kromme-river, a lion
had been gored and trampled to death by a herd of
cattle; having, urged probably by hunger, ventured
to attack them in broad day-light.” This the reader
will, perhaps, not fo much wonder at, when he is told,
that in the day-time, and upon an open plain, 12 or
16 dogs will eafily get the better of a large lion. Nor
is there any neceffity, Dr Sparman fays, for the dogs
with which the lion is to be hunted to be very large
and trained up to the fport, as M. Buffon thinks they
ftiould be, the bufinefs being peifedlly well accom-
pliftred with the common farm-houfe dogs. When
thefe have got pretty near the lion, the latter, from a
greatnefs of foul, does not offer to fly any farther, but
fits himfelf down. The hounds then furround him,
and rulhing on him all at once, are thus, with their
united ftrength, able to tear in pieces, almoft in an in-
ftant, the ftrongeft of all wild beafts. It is faid, that
he has feldom time to give more than two or three
flight ftrokes with his paws (each of which ftrokes is
inilant death) to an equal number of his affailants.
M. de Buffon afferts alfo, that the lion may be hunted
on horfeback, but that the horfes as well as the dogs
3 mull
F E L [ j9i ] F E L
Pells, muft be trained to it. Dr Sparman, however, alTures vering his feat, mull ride obliquely athwart his corona- Fells
us, that the eolomfts hunt the lion with common hunt¬
ing horfes.
It is faid, that horfes in battle, or in other dange¬
rous enterprizes, fuffer themfelves more willingly to be
caparifoned by their riders than at other times. This
circumftance Dr Sparman likewife remarked in thefe
animals on the above expeditions. “ Our horfes (fays
he), the very fame as had feveral times, in the manner
above mentioned, fhown their difquietude when the
lion happened to be in the vicinity of them, and which
were not in the leaft trained to the chace, once exhi¬
bited a fpirit in the purfuit of two large lions, equal to
that which they had fhown at other times in chafing
the timid gazels; though, in fait, hunting horfes
feem to partake much more of their mafter’s pleafure
in the chace. I remember, in particular, at Agter
Bruntjes Hoogte, I rode a horfe, which, by a tremu¬
lous found ifluing from its cheft, cocking up its ears,
and prancing and capering, difcovered, in an unequi¬
vocal manner, its ardour for the chace, whenever it
came in fight of the larger kind of game. There have
elver been inftances of hunting horfes, who, when the
hunter has jumped off their backs in order to difcharge
his piece, but has miffed his mark, have in their eager-
nefs for the chace, not allowed him time fufficient to
mount again, but followed the game alone for hours
together, clofe at its very heels, in all its turnings and
windings.”
The chace of the lion on horfeback is carried on at
the Cape in the following manner, as defcribed by
Dr Sparman.
“ It is only on the plains that the hunters venture
to go out on horfeback in this chace. If the lion
keeps in fome coppice br wood, on a rifing ground,
they endeavour to teize it with dogs till it comes out;
they likewife prefer going together two or more
in number, in order to be able to affift and refcue
each other, in cafe the firft fhot fhould not take place.
When the lion fees the hunters at a great diftance, it
is univerfally allowed that he takes to his heels as faff
as ever he can, in order to get out of their fight; but
jf they chance to difcover him at a fmall diftance from
them, he is then faid to walk off in a furly manner, but
without putting himfelf in the leaft hurry, as though
he was above fhowing any fear, when he finds himfelf
difcovered or hunted. He is therefore reported like-
wife, when he finds himfelf purfued with vigour, to be
foon provoked to refiftance, or at leaft he difdains any
longer to fly. Confequently he flackens his pace, and
at length only Aides flowly off, ftep by itep, all the
while eying his purfuers alkaunt ; and finally makes a
full flop, and turning round upon them, and at the
fame time giving himfelf a ihake, roars with a fhort
and ftiarp tone, in order to Alow his indignation, be¬
ing ready to feize on them, and tear them in pieces.
This is now precifely the time for the hunters to be
upon the fpot, or elfe to get as foon as poffible within
a certain dillance of him, yet fo as at the fame time to
keep a proper diftance from each other; and he that is
neareft, or is moft advantageoufly pofted, and has the
beft mark of that part of the lion’s body which con¬
tains his heart and lungs, muft be the firft to jump off
his horfe, and, fecuring the bridle by putting it round
his arm, difcharge his piece ; then in an inftant reco-
mons; and, m fine, giving his horfe the reins, muft
truft entirely to the fpeed and fear of this latter, to
convey him out of the reach of the fury of the wild
bead, imcafe he has only wounded him, or has abfo-
lutely miffed him. In either of thefe cafes, a fair op¬
portunity prefents itfelf for fome of the other hunters
to jump off their horfes directly, as they may then take
their aim and difcharge their pieces with greater cool-
nefs and certainty. Should this fhot likewife mifs
(which, however, feldom happens), the third fportfman
rides after the lion, which at that inftant is in purfuit
of the firft or the fecond, and, fpringing off his horfe,
fires his piece, as foon as he has got within a proper
diftance, and finds a fufficiently convenient part of the
animal prefent itfelf, efpecially obliquely from be¬
hind. If now the lion turns upon him too, the o-
ther hunters turn again, in order to come to his ref-
cue with the charge which they loaded with on horfe¬
back, while they were flying from the wild beait.
No inflance has ever been known of any misfortune
happening to the hunters in chafing the lion on horfe¬
back. The African colonifts, who are born in, or
have had the courage to remove into the more re¬
mote parts of Africa, which are expofed to the ravages
of wild beads, are moftly good markfmen, and are far
from wanting courage. The lion that has the bold-
nefs to feize on their cattle, which are the moft valuable
part of their property, fometimes at their very doors,
is as odious to them as he is dangerous and noxious.
They confequently feek out thefe animals, and hunt
them with the greateft ardour and glee, with a view to
exterminate them.”
II. The Tigris, or Tiger. The fize of this animal, Tigeiv •
according to fome authors, is larger, and, according
to others, fomewhat lefs, than the lion. M. de la
Landemagon affures us, that he has feen a tiger in the
Eaft Indies 15 feet long, including undoubtedly the
length of the tail, which, fuppofing it to be four feet,
makes the body of the tiger about n feet in length.
The Ikeleton preferved in the cabinet of the French
king, indicates that the animal [was about feven feet
long from the point of the muzzle to the origin of the
tail; but then it muft be confidered, that he was
caught young, and lived all his days in confinement.
The head of the tiger is large and roundifli; and the
ears are fliort, and at a great diftance from each other-
The form of the body has a great refemblance to that
of the panther. The fldn is of a darkifti yellow co¬
lour,, ftriped with long black ftreaka; the hair is ftiort,
excepting on the fides of the head, where it is about
four inches long. The point of the tail is black, and.
the reft of it is interfperfed with black rings. His.
legs and claws tefemble thofe of the lion, only the
legs are much ftiorter in proportion to the fize of the
animal.
The tiger is more ferocious, cruel, and favage than,
the lion. Although gorged with carnage, his thirft
for blood is not appeafed ; he feizes and tears in pieces;
a new prey with equal fury and rapacity, the very mo¬
ment after devouring a former one ; he lays waile the
country he inhabits; he neither dreads the afpedt nor
the weapons of men ; puts to death whole troops of
domeftic animals; and attacks young elephants, rhi¬
noceros’s, and fometimes even braves, the lion himfelf..
The
F E L [ 192 1 F E L ..
The tiger feems to have no other inflinft, but a con- tains. It inhabits mount Ararat and Hyrcania, of old
J ftant thirft after blood, a blind fury which knows no famous for its wild beafts; but the greateit numbers, '
bounds or diftin&ion, and which often ftimulates him the largeft, and the mod cruel, are met with in India
to devour his own young, and to tear the mother in and its iflands. In Sumatra the natives are fo infa-
pieces for endeavouring to defend them. He lies in tuated that they feldotn kill them, having a notion
wait on the banks of rivers, &c. where the heat of that they are animated by the fouls of their anceftors.
the climate obliges other animals to repair for drink. Tire tiger has always been a more rare animal than
Tiere he feizes his prey, or rather multiplies his maf- the lion ; and yet brings forth an equal number of
facres ; for he no fooner kills one animal, than he flies young, namely, four or five at a litter. The female is
with equal fury upon the next, with no other view but furious at all times; but, when her young are attempted
to plunge in his head into their bodies and drink their to be taken from her, her rage is redoubled: Ihe braves
blood. However, when he kills a large animal, as a every danger; flie purfues the ravithers, who are obliged,
horfe or a buffalo, he fometimes does not tear out the when hard preifed, to drop one of the young in order to
entrails on the fpot; but, to prevent any interruption, retard her motion ; fire flops, taikes it up, and carries it
he drags them off to the wood, which he performs wuth into fome fecret part of the foreft; but fhe inflantly
incredible fwiftnefs. This is a fufficient fpecimen of the returns and purfues the hunters into their villages or
ftrength of this rapacious animal. boats.
Neither force, reftraint, or violence, can tame the ti- The tiger moves the fkin of his face, grinds his teeth,
ger. He is equally irritated with good as with bad and roars, like the lion ; but the found of his voice is
treatment: he tears the hand which nourifhes him with different.
equal fury, as that which admiuifters blows: he roars
and is enraged at the fight of every living creature.
Almofl every natural hiftorian agrees in this horrible
character.
There is a fort of cruelty in their devaflations, un-
III. The Pardus, or Panther.—It is about the fize Pantheri
of a large dog, and has a great refemblance to a do-
meflic cat. The tongue is rough, and remarkably red;
the teeth are ftrong and fharp; the fkin is exceedingly
beautiful, being of a yellow colour, variegated with
known to the generous lion ; as well as a poltroonry roundifh black fpots, and the hair is fhort. It has a
in their fudden retreat on any difappointment. “ I
■was informed (fays'Mr Pennant) by very good autho¬
rity, that in the beginning of this century, ifome gentle¬
men and ladies, being on a party of pleafure, under
a fhade of trees, on the banks of a river in Bengal, ob-
cruel and ferocious afpe& ; his motions are brifk and
lively ; his cry refembles the growl of an enraged dog,
but is more ftrong and rough.
The panther inhabits Africa, from Barbary to the
remoteft parts of Guinea. This fpecies is next in fize
ferved a tiger preparing for its fatal fpring; one of the to the tiger ; next to it in cruelty, and in its general
ladies, with amazing prefence of mind, laid hold of an
umbrella, and furled it full in the animal’s face, which
enmity to the animal creation : it is to Africa what the
former is to Afia, with this alleviation, that it prefers
inftantly retired, and gave the company opportunity of the flefh of brutes to that of mankind ; but when pref-
removing from fo terrible a neighbour.- Another par- fed with hunger, attacks every living creature without
ty had not the fame good fortune : a tiger darted a- ditlinftion. Its manner of taking its prey is thq fame
with that of the tiger, always by furprife, either lurk¬
ing in thickets or creeping on its belly till it comes
within reach : it will alfo climb up trees in purfuit of
monkies and lefler animals; fo that nothing is fecure
from its attacks. He is not fo perfedlly ungovernable
as the tiger: but, not with Handing all attempts to ren¬
der him obedient and tradable, he may rather be faicf
to be fubdued than tamed ; for he never entirely lofes
his natural ferocity. Accordingly, when kept with a
to the hunting of bucks, goats, or other animals.
mong them while they were at dinner, feized on one
gentleman, and carried him off, and he never was more
heard of.” The tiger attacks all forts of animals, even
the lion ; and it has been known that both have perifti-
ed in their combats. There is in fome parts of India
a popular notion, that the rhinoceros and the tiger are
in friendlhip, becaufe they are often found near each
other. But according to Mr Pennant, the fad is, that the
rhinoceros, like the hog, loves to wallow in the mire ;
and on that account frequents the banks of rivers : the
tiger, to quench its raging thirft, is met with in places great care is neceffary in training him, and Hill greater
     i *  \ti\ 1 j*  .i- r 11
contiguous to them.
Pliny has been frequently taken to talk by the mo¬
derns, for calling the tiger animal tremenda velocitatis
conduding him. When leading out to the field,
they put him in a cage and carry him on a cart. When
the game is fprung, they open the door of the cage ; he
they allow it great agility in its bounds, but deny it inftantly fprings towards the animal, often feizes him in
fwiftnefs in purfuit. Two travellers of authority, how- a few bounds, throws him to the ground, and ftrangles
ever, both eye-witneffes, confirm what Pliny fays: him. But, if he happens to mifs his aim, he becomes
the one indeed only mentions in general its vaft fleet- mad with rage, and fometimes falls upon his mailer,
nefs; the other faw a trial between one and a fwift who, in order to prevent accidents of this kind, gene-
horfe, whofe rider efcaped merely by getting in time rally carries along with him pieces of flelh, or perhaps
amidft a circle of armed men. The chafe of this ani- a lamb or a kid, which he throws to him in order to ap-
mal was a favourite diverfion with the great Cam-hi, peafe his fury.
the Chinefe monarch, in whofe company our country-
Travils, man Mr Bell *, that faithful traveller, and the Pere Ge,r-
>1 ii. bilion, faw thefe proofs of the tiger’s fpeed.
91* The tiger, according to Mr Pennant, is peculiar to
The ancients were well acquainted with thefe ani¬
mals. Thefe, and the leopards, were the Varia and
Pardi of the old writers : one Ihould think that the
Romans would have exhaufted the defarts of Africa
Afia ; and is found as far north as China and Chinefe by the numbers they drew from thence for their public
Tartary, and about lake Aral and the Altaic moun- fhows.
12J.
Scaurus exhibited at one time 150 panthers;
Pompey
loftaroC
&sr*i6fe;\
riat(> cxci.
S/yer.
F £ L [
Felif. Pompey tl<e Great, 410; Auguftus, 420, Probably
they thinned the coafts of Mauritania of thefe animals,
but they ftill fwarm in the fouthern parts of Guinea.—
Oppian defcribes two fpecies of panthers, a large fpe-
cies and a fmall one; the firil of which has a fhorter
tail than the Idler, and may poffibly be this kind.—
An animal of this fpecies is found in Buckharia, called
there Bair: it is feven feet long, very deftru&ive to hor-
fes, and even camels; the Ikin is fine, and valued in Rulfia
at 11. Sterling.—In China there is a molt remarkable
kind, called there Louchu, whofe Ikins fell at 6 1. Ster¬
ling a-piece. It mult here alfo be obferved, that there
are in the furriers (hops in London, Ikins in molt re-
fpedts refembling thofe of the panther ; which, they
allure us, come from the Spanilh fettlements in the
Welt Indies: Thefe Ikins equal thofe of the old con¬
tinent in beauty and fize.
Though M. Bulfon denies the panther to be an in¬
habitant of America, yet Mr Pennant is of opinion
that the fame, or a variety at lealt, inhabits that coun¬
try. i. The figure of the fpecies defcribed by Fabert
(Htjl. An. Nov. Hlfp. p. 498.) under the name of Tigris
Mexkana, agrees exadly with that of the panther, as
does alfo the defcription in general. 2. Every other ani¬
mal of this genus, which has yet been difcovered in
America, is far inferior in fize and llrength to this;
whofe common height, Faber fays, is four or five feet,
and whofe prey is wild cattle, horfes, &c. M. Con-
damine, and Le Pere Cqjetan Cattaneo, fpeak of the
tigers {i. e. the panthers) of America, as equal and
even fuperior in fize to thofe of Africa, and the colour
as bright as gold; and Ulloa delcribes them as big as
little horfes. 3. Notwithftanding the venders of furs
are not entirely to be relied on as to the countries their
goods come from, yet the general opinion of the whole
trade, that thefe Ikins were the produft of Spanilh A-
merica, is a further proof of their being common to
both continents.
Once. IV. The Uncia, or Once, is lefs than the panther ;
the tail is longer ; the hair is likewife longer, and of
a whitilh'grey colour. The once is eafily tamed ; and
is employed in hunting in feveral parts of Alia, where
dogs are very fcarce. He has not the delicate fcent
of a dog ; does not trace other animals by the fmell;
neither can he run them down in a fair chace ; but lies
in wait for their approach, and then darts upon them
unawares. He leaps fo nimbly, that he eafily clears a
ditch or a wall feveial feet high; belides, he often
climbs trees, waits till fome animal palfes, and iullant-
ly leaps upon them. This method of catching their
prey, is praclifed by the panther and leopard, as well as
by the once.—The once inhabits Barbary, Perfia, Hyr-
cania, and China ; from which lall place the Heins are
brought into Ruflia, and fold for 20s. a-piece. It is
an animal of a more gentle and mild nature than moll
of the. preceding. It is, like the next fpecies, ufed for
the chace of antelopes, and even hares ; but, inilead of
being conveyed in a waggon, is carried on the crupper
on horfeback. It is under as much command as a fet-
ting-dog ; returns at the lead call, and jumps up behind
its mailer. This animal is fuppofed to be the Jefler
panther of Oppian, and'the panthera of Pliny.
Leopard. y. Beopardus or Leopard, differs from the
panther and the once, in the beauty of his colour,
which is a lively yellow, with fmaller fpots than thofe
Vox.. VII. Part I.
93 1 F E L
of the two latter, and difpofed in groups. He is lar- Felb.
ger than the once, and lefs than the panther. He in- v—•
habits Senegal and Guinea; and fpares neither man
nor bead. When beads of chace fail, the leopards
defcend from the internal parts of Africa in crowds,
and make great havock among the numerous herds
that cover the rich meadows of the lower Guinea. It
tears its prey to pieces with both claws and teeth ;
but is always thin, though perpetually devouring.
The panther is its enemy, and dedroys numbers-of
them. The negrefies make collars of their teeth, and
attribute to them certain virtues. The negroes take
thefe animals in pit-falls, covered at the top with flight
hurdles, on which is placed fome flelh as a bait. They
make a banquet of their flelh, which is laid to be as
white as veal, and very well taded. Leopards flcins
are often brought to Europe, and reckoned very va¬
luable. In Afia thefe animals are found in the moun¬
tains of Caucafus, from Perfia to India ; and alfo in
China, where they are called Poupi. By the Bucharian
traders, who often bring their Heins to Ruflia, they are
dyled Zfarx. The leopard inhabits alfo Arabia, where
it is called Nemr. We are informed by Mr For/kal,
that in that country, as well as in Egypt, it will do
no harm to man unlefs provoked; but will enter
houfes by night, and dedroy the cats.
VI. The Gnca, or American Tiger, (the Jaguar Jaguar,
of Buffbn), is of a bright tawny colour; the top of the °
back marked with long dripes of black; the Tides
with rows of irregular oblong fpots ; open in the mid¬
dle, which is of the ground-colour of the hair : the
thighs and legs are marked with full fpots of black,
the bread and belly whitilh : the tail not fo long as
the body. This fpecies, which grows to the fize of a
wolf, and even larger, inhabits the hotted parts of
South America, from the idhmus of Darien to Bue¬
nos Ayres. It is fierce, and deftru&ive to man and
bead. Like the tiger, it plunges its head into the
body of its prey, and fucks out the blood before it
devours it. It makes a great noife in the night, like
the howling of a hungry dog; and is a very cowardly
animal. It is eafily put to flight, either by the fliep-
herds dogs, or by a lighted torch, being very fearful
of fire. It lies in ambufli near the Tides of rivers ; and
there is fometimes feen a Angular combat between this
animal and the crocodile. When the jaguar comes to
drink, the crocodile, ready to furprife any animal that
approaches, raifes its head out of the water; upon
which the former indantly drikes its claws into the
eyes of this dreadful reptile, the only penetrable part,
who immediately dives under the water, pulling his
enemy along with it, where they commonly both pe-
rifli.
VII. The Pardalis, Mexican panther, or the Oce- Ocelot
lot of Buffon, has its head, back, upper part of the
rump, and tail, of a bright tawny; a black dripe ex¬
tending along the top of the back, from head to tail;
and from the nodrils to the corners of the eyes, there
alfo runs a dripe of black ; the fides are whitidi, mark¬
ed lengthways with long dripes of black, hollow and
tav/ny in the middle, in which are fprinkled fome fmall
black fpots; the legs are whitifli, varied with fmall
black fpots ; and the tail is alfo varied with fmall fpots
near its bafe, and larger near the end, which is black.
It is above four times the fize of a large cat, and
B b ;. flrongly
F E L
[ 194 ]
F E L
Felis. ftrongly made. It inhabits Mexico, the neighbour- leaves : if any other touches the relics, it never comeg Fells.
  hood of Carthagena, and Brafil. It lives in the moun- near them again. It fometimes purs like a cat, and at \r—'
tains; and is very voracious, but fearful of mankind ; other times makes a great howling. The fur is foft,
preying on young calves, and different forts of game, and of fome value among the Indians, who cover them-
It lurks amidft the leaves of trees ; and fometimes will felves with it during winter; and who alfo eat the
extend itfelf along the boughs as if dead, till the flefh, which is faid to be as good and as white as veal,
monkies, tempted by their natural curiofity, approach- XI. The 'Tigrina, or Margay of Buffon, is about Margay.
ing to examine it, become its prey. the fize of a common cat. The upper part of the
Hunting VIII. The Jubata, or Hunting Leopard, (Gue- head, the fteck, back, fides, fhoulders, and thighs, are
Leopard. J3uff.) Js 0f the fize of a large grehound, of a long of a bright tawny-colour: the face is Itriped down-
make, with a narrow cheft and long legs. The colour wards with black : the fhoullers and body are marked
Of the body is a light tawny brown marked with num- with ftripes and oblong large black fpots ; the k-gs
bers of fmall round black fpots ; the neck is fhaggy, with fmall fpots : the thighs are whitith, fpotted with
and the tail is longer than the body. It inhabits In- black : The tail is very long, marked with black,
dia; where it is tamed, and trained for the chace of tawny and grey. It inhabits South America, where
antelop’es. For this purpofe it is carried in a fmall it lives on the feathered game and on poultry. It is
kind of waggon, chained and hoodwinked, till it ap- untameable. It makes a noife like the common cat;
proaches the herd : when firft unchained, it does not lives much in trees ; is very a&ive, and goes by bounds
immediately make its attempt, but winds along the or leaps. It brings forth in all feafons of the year,
ground, flopping and concealing itfelf till it gets a pro- in hollow trees, and has two at a time.
per advantage, and then darts on the animals with fur- XII. The Capenfis, Cape Tiger, or Tiger-cat of IVger-cae.
prifing fwiftnefs. It overtakes them by the rapidity theJCape, is the Nfujfioi Labat, who was the iTrfl who
of its bounds : but if it does not fucceed in its firft ef- noticed this fpecies, which he deferibes as “ of the
forts, confifting of five or fix amazing leaps, it miffes fizc of a dog, with a coat as much ftriped and varied
its prey : lofmg its breath, and finding itfelf unequal as that of a tiger. Its appearance befpeaks cruelty,
in fpeed, it ftands ftill, gives up the point for that time, and its eyes fiercenefs ; but it is cowardly, and gets
and readily rethrns to, its mafter. This fpecies is cal- its prey only by cunning and infidious arts.”' AH
led in India, Chittah. It is ufed for the taking of thefe charadters are perfe&Iy applicable to the Cape
jackals, as well as other animals. cat; and it feems the animal is found in all parts of
Black Ti- IX. The Zli/ec/or, or Black Tiger, (CWgr/ariVwV, Africa, from Congo to the Cape of Good Hope, in
ger- Buff.), is covered with fhort very gloffy hairs of a an extent of country of about eleven degrees of lati-
dufky colour; the throat, belly, and infide of the legs, tude. Kolben alfo fpeaks of a tiger bufh-cat, which
white. It grows to the fize of a heifer of a year old, he deferibes as the largeft of all the wild cats of the
and has vaft ftrength in its limbs. It inhabits Brafil Cape countries, and as fpotted fomething like a tiger,
and Guiana; and is a cruel and fierce bead, but hap- A Ikin of this animal was feen by Mr Pennant in a
pily is a fcarce fpecies. furrier’s (hop in London, who thought it came from-
Puma. x. The Concolor, or Puma (Couguar, Buff.) has a the Cape of Good Hope ; from this Hein Mr Pennant
very fmall head, ears a little pointed, and eyes large, gave the firft defeription which could be of any utility
The back, neck, rump, fides, are of pale brownifh red, to a natural hiftorian. All the other authors mention
mixed with dulky hairs ; the breaft, belly, and infide this animal in a vague manner. When Dr Forfter
of the legs, cinereous. The tail is dufky and ferrugi- touched the fecond time at the Cape of Good Hope
nous, the tip black ; and the teeth are of a vaft fize. in the year 1775, an animal of this fpecies was offered
It is long bodied, and high on its legs; the length him to purchafe ; but he refufed buying it becaufe it
from nofe to tail five feet three inches, of the tail two had a broken leg, which made him apprehenfive of
feet eight. This animal inhabits the continent of A- lofing it by death during the paffage from the Cape
merica, from Canada to Brafil: in South America is to London. It was very gentle and tame. It was
called Puma, and by Europeans miftaken for the lion, brought in a bafleet to his apartment, where he kept
It is the fcourge of the colonies of the hotter parts of it above 24 hours ; which gave him the opportunity of
America, being fierce and ravenous to the higheft de- deferibing it more accurately than had hitherto been
gree. It fwims over the broad rivers; attacks the cattle done, and of obferving its manners and economy,
in the very inclofures ; and when preffed with hunger, Thefe he found to be perfectly analogous to thofe of
fpares not even mankind. In North America their our domeftic cats. It ate frefli raw meat, and was ve-
fury feems to be fubdued by the rigor of the climate ; ry much attached to its feeders and benefa&ors : tho’
and the fmalleft cur, in company with its mafter, it had broke the fore leg by accident, it neverthelefs
makes them feek for fecurity, by running up trees : was very eafy. After it had been feveral times fed
but then they are equally deftruAive to domeftic ani- by our author, it foon followed him like a tame fa-
mals, and are the greateft nuifance the planter has ; vourite cat. It liked to be ftroked and careffed ; it
when they lay in wait for the moofe, or other deer, rubbed its head and back always againft the perfon’s
they lie clofe on the branch of fome tree till the ani- cloaths who fed it, and defired to be made much of.
mal paffes beneath, when they drop upon and foon de- It purred as our domeftic cats do when tjiey are plea-
ftroy them. They alfo make wolves their prey : In fed. It had been taken when quite young in the
the Mufeum of the Royal Society, there is the ikin of woods, and was not above eight or nine months old ;
one which was killed juft as it had pulled down a but had already very nearly, if not quite, attained its
wolf. When it has fatisfied itfelf with eating, it care- full growth. The Do&or was told, that the tiger-
fully conceals the reft of the carcafe, covering it with cats live in mountainous and woody traAs; and that
4 in
F E L [ 195 ] F E L
in their wild ftate they are very great deftroyers of
hares, rabbits, yerbuas, young antelopes, lanabkins,
and qf all the feathered tribe. A very particular tech¬
nical defcription of this fpecies is given in the Phil.
Tranf. voh 71. p. 4. with a figure, which the reader
will fee' copied among other fpecies in our plates.
XIII. The Catus, or Cat.
1. The fcrus, or wild cat, is three or four times as
large as the houfe cat; the head larger, and the face
flatter. The teeth and claws are tremendous: itsmufcles
very ftrong, as being formed for rapine : the tail is of
a moderate length, but very thick, marked with alter¬
nate bars of black and white, the end always black:
the hips and hind part of the lower joints of the leg are
black: the fur is very foft and fine. The general
colour of thefe animals is of a yellowifh white, mixed
with a deep grey: thefe colours, though they appear at
firft fight confufedly blended together, yet on a clofe
infpe6tion will be found to be difpofed like the ftreaks
on the (kin of the tiger, pointing from the back down¬
wards, rifing from a black lift that runs from the head
along the middle of the back to the tail.
This animal, with us, may be called the Briti/h tiger.
It is the fierceft and moft deftrudive beaft we have; ma¬
king dreadful havock among our poultry, lambs, and
kids. It inhabits the moft mountainous and woody
parts of thefe iflands, living moftly in trees, and feed¬
ing only by night. It multiplies as faft as our com¬
mon cats; and*often the females of the latter will quit
their domeftic mates, and return home pregnant by the
former.
They are taken either in traps or by (hooting:
in the latter cafe, it is very dangerous only to wound
them ; for they will attack the perfon who injured
them, and have ftrength enough to be no defpicable
enemy. Wild cats were formerly reckoned among the
beaft s of chace; as appears by the charter of Ri¬
chard II. to the abbot of Peterborough, giving him
leave to hunt the hare, fox, and wild cat. The ufe of
the fur was in lining of robes: but it was efteemed not
of the moft luxurious kind; for it was ordained, “ that
no abbefs or nun (hould ufe more coftly apparel than
fuch as is made of lambs or cats (kins.” In much ear¬
lier times it was alfo the objed of the fportfman’s di-
verfion.
This-animal is the ftock or origin of the domeftic
eat in all its varieties.—It inhabits the woods of moft
parts of Europe, but none are foubd in the vaft woods
of Ruffia or Siberia. It dwells with the.common lynx
in all the wooded parts of the mountains of Caucafus
and their neighbourhood ; and is moft deftrudive to
lambs, kids, fawns, and to all forts of feathered game.
2. The domejlicus, or tame cat, is fo wellknown, that
it requires no defcription. It is an ufeful, but deceitful
domettic. Although when young they are playful and
gay. they poffefs at the fame time an innate malice and
perverfe difpofition, which increafes as they grow up,
and which education learns them to conceal, but never
to' fuhdue. Conftantly bent upon theft and rapine,
though in a domeftic ftate, they are full of cunning
and diffimulation ; they conceal all their defigns ;
feize every opportunity of doing mifchief, and then fly
from puniftiment. They eafily take on the habits of
fociety, but never its manners ; for they have only the
appearance of friendftiip and attachment. This difin-
genuity of charader is betrayed by the obliquity of Fe:
their movements and the ambiguity of their looks. ^
In a word, the cat is totally deftitute of friendlhip ; he
thinks and ads for himfelf alone. He loves eafe,
fearches for the fofteft and warmeft places to repofe
himfelf. The cat is likewife extremely amorous; and,
which is very Angular, the female is more ardent than
the male: (he not only invites, but fearches after and
calls upon him to fatisfy the fury of her defires ; and,
if the male difdains or fiies from her, (lie purfues, bites,
and in a manner compels him. This heat of paflion ia
the females lafts but nine or ten days, and happens twice
in the year, namely, in the fpring and autumn ; how¬
ever, in fame it happens thrice or four times in the year.
The female goes with youfig 55 or 58 days, and ge¬
nerally produces four or five at a litter. As the male
has an inclination to deftroy the young, the female
takes care to conceal them from him; and, when (he
is apprehenfive of a difcovery, (he takes them up in her
mouth one by one, and hides them in holes or inaccef-
fible places. When (he has nurfed a few weeks, (he
brings them mice, fmall birds, &c. in order to learn
them to eat fle(h. But it is worth notice, that thefe
careful and tender mothers fometimes become unnatu¬
rally cruel, and devour their own offspring.
Xhe cat is incapable of reftraint, and confequently
of being educated to any extent. However, we are
told, that the Greeks in the ifland of Cyprus trained
this animal to catch and devour ferpents, with which
that ifland was greatly infefted. This, however, was
not the effe& of obedience, but of a general tafte for
(laughter; for he delights in watching, attacking, and
deftroying all kinds of weak animals indifferently. He
has no delicacy of fcent, like the dog; he hunts only
by the eye : neither does he properly purfue ; he only
lies in wait, and attacks animals by furprife ; and after
he has caught them, he fports with and torments them
along time, and at laft kills.them (when his belly is
full), purely to gratify his fanguinary appetite.
The eye of the cat differs greatly from that of moft
other animals. The pupil is capable of a great degree
of contra&ion and dilatation. It is narrow and contrac¬
ted like a line during the day, round and wide in the
dark. It is from this conformation of the eye that the
cat fees heft in the night, which gives him a great ad¬
vantage in difcoyering and feizing his prey.
Although cats live in our houfes, they can hardly be
called domejiic animals; they may rather be faid to en¬
joy full liberty ; for they never aft but according to
their own inclination. Befides, the greateft part of
them are half wild : they do not know their mafters ;
and frequent only the barns, out-houfes, &c. unlefs when
preffed with hunger.
Cats have a natural antipathy at water and cold.
They likewife hate bad fmells; but they have an affeftioa
for certain aromatic fmells, and are tranfported with the
root of the valerian.
Cats take about 18 months before they come to their
full growth; but they are capable of propagation in
12 months, and retain this faculty all their life, which
generally extends to nine or ten years. They eat (lowly,
and are peculiarly fond of fifli. They drink frequently;
their deep is light; and they often affume the appear¬
ance of deeping, when in reality they are meditating
mifchief. They walk foftly, and without making any
B b z noife.
F E L [ i
noife. As their hair is always dry, it eafily gives out
.'■'“"V""""'' an ele&rical fire, which becomes vifible when rubbed
acrofs in the dark. Their eyes likewife fparkle in the
dark like diamonds.—The cat, when pleafed, purrs,
and moves its tail: when angry, it fpits, hiffes, and
ftrikes with its foot. It wafhes its face with its fore¬
foot (Linnaeus fays, at the approach of a ftorm): it al¬
ways lights on its feet: it is even proverbially tenaci¬
ous of life.
Our anceftors feem to have had a high fenfe of the
utility of this animal. That excellent prince Hod dda,
or Howel the Good, did not think it beneath him
* LWS (among his laws relating to the prices, &c. of animals* ),
IValhcs, t0 jncjuje tiiat 0f the cat. an{j to deferibe the qualities
P-347>34o* OUgjlt l0 jjavei q',jie pr;ce 0f a kitten before it could
fee was to be a penny ; till it caught a moufe, two¬
pence ; when it commenced moufer, four pence. It
was required befides, that it fhould be perfeft in its
fenfes of hearing and feeing, be a good moufer, have
the claws whole, and be a good nurfe : but if it failed
in any of thefe qualities, the feller was to forfeit to the
buyer the third part of its value. If any one Hole or
killed the cat that guarded the prince’s granary, he was
to forfeit a milch-ewe, its fleece and lamb ; or as much
wheat as, when poured on a cat fufpended by its tail
(the head touching the floor), would form a heap high
enough to cover the tip of the former. This laft quo¬
tation is not only curious, as being an evidence of the
fimplicity of ancient manners, but it almoft proves to
a demonftration, that cats are not-aborigines of thefe
iflands, or known to the earlieft inhabitants. The large
prices fet on them (if we confider the high value of
^ sinno 94$. fpecie at that timef), and the great care taken of the
improvement and breed of an animal that multiplies fo
faft, are almoft certain proofs of their being little known
at that period.
b, The Angorenfis, or cat of Angora, with hair of a
filvery whitenefs and filky texture, and very long, efpe-
cially about the neck, where it forms a fine ruff. It is a
large variety; found about Angora, thefame country which
produces the fine-haired goat. It degenerates after the
firft generation in our climate. A variety of this kind
is found in China with pendent ears, of which the Chi-
nefe are very fond, and ornament their necks with filver
collars. They are cruel enemies to rats, and fuppofed
to be the domeftic animals which the Chinefe call
fumxi.
c, The Hifpanicus, or tortoife-fhell cat, has the hair
varied with black, white, and orange.
d, The Caeruleus, or blue cat, a variety of a dun
colour, or greyiflt black. It is much cultivated in Si¬
beria on account of its fine fur; but was brought there,
as well as the other domeftic kinds, by the Ruffians.
e, The Ruber, or wild red cat of Kolben, has a
flreak of bright red running along the ridge of the back
to the tail, and lofing itfelf in the grey and white on
the fides. The Anns are faid to give eafe in the gout,
and are much valued on that account at the Cape.
Manul. XIV. The Manul, with the tail longer than that
of the domeftic cat, befet thickly with hair, and of an
equal;thicknefs in all parts; encircled with ten black
rings, the three next to the tip almoft touching one
another, the reft more remote. It is about the fize of
a fox. The limbs are very robuft ; in which, and in
colour, this animal greatly refembles a lynx, afterwards
96 ] F E L
deferibed. It inhabits all. the middle part of northern Fells.
Afia, from the Yaik, or Ural as it is now called, to the v""-"
very Amur. It loves open, vvoodlefs, and rocky coun¬
tries, and preys on the lefler quadrupeds.
XV. The Lynx is about 2^ feet long and 15 inches Lyax.
high. He has a great refemblance to the common cat;
but his ears are longer, and his tail is much (horter:
his hair is ftreaked with yellow, white, and black co¬
lours. The lynx inhabits the vaft forefts of the north
of Europe, Afia, and America. His eyes are brilliant,
his afpeft is foft, and his air is gay and fprightly. Like
the cat, he covers his urine with earth ; he howls fome-
thing like the wolf, and is heard at a confideraHe df-
ftance ; he does not run like the dog or wolf, but walks
and leaps like a cat; he purfues his prey even to the
tops of trees; neither wild cats nor fquirrels can efcape
him ; he lies in wait for flags, goats, hairs, &c; and
darts fuddenly upon them; he feizes them by the throat
and fucks their blood, then opens the head and eats
the brain; after this, he frequently leaves them, and
goes in queft of frefti prey. The colour of his Ikin
changes according to the feafon or the climate; the
winter furs are more beautiful than thofe of Tummer.
Thefe furs are valuable for their foftnefs and warmth :
numbers are annually imported from North America,
and the north of Europe and Afia ; the farther north
and eaft they are taken, the whiter they are, and the
more diftindl the fpots. Of thefe the moft elegant
kind is called irbys, whofe Ikin fells on the fpot for one
pound Sterling. The ancients * celebrated the great * Vila.
quicknefs of the lynx’s fight; and feigned that its urine viii. 8.
was converted into a precious ftone. xxviii. 8.
XVI. The Serval, has the upper part of the body Serval.
of a dufley colour, interfperfed with round black fpots;
the belly, and the orbits of the eye, are white. This ani¬
mal, which is very fierce and untameable, inhabits the
woods in the mountainous parts of India ; where it lives
in trees, and breeds in them. It fcarcely ever defeends
on the ground; but leaps with great agility from tree
to tree. It is called by the natives of Malabar the
marapute, by the Portuguefe the ferval.
XVII. The Chaus, or Cafpian Lynx, hais a round Chaus,
head, a little more oblong than that of the common
cat; fhining reftlefs eye, with a moft brilliant golden
pupil; ears eredt, oval, and lined with white hairs,
their outfide reddilh, their fummits tufted with black.
The hairs are coarfer than thofe of the cat or common
lynx, but lefs fo tlian thofe of the wolf. They are
fhorteft on the head, but on the top of the back are
above two inches long. The colour of the head and
body is ayellowifti brown: the breaft and belly of a bright
brown nearly orange. The tail reaches only to the
flexure of the leg ; is thick and cylindric; of the fame
colour with the back, tipped with black, and thrice
obfeurely annulated with black near the end. In ge¬
neral appearance it has the form of the domeftic cat.
Its length is 24- feet from the nofe to the bafe of
the tail: its tail little more than 11 inches: its
height before is 19 inches; behind, 20. It is fome-
times found larger, there being inftances of its reach¬
ing the length of 3 feet from the nofe to the
tail. This animal, which has been but lately dif-
covered, inhabits the reeds and woods in the marfhy
parts that border on the weftern fides of the Cafpian
Sea, particularly about the caftle Kiflar on the river
6 Terek,
Plate CXCII
tit/sra
&ce/cy&
< //J,//.'A;„.
j-'iq
F E L [ '97 I F E L
Fells. Terek, and in the Perfiafl provinces of Ghilan and Ma-
fenderan, and frequent about the mouth of the Kur,
the ancient Cyrus.^—In manners, voice, and food, it
agrees with the wild cat. It conceals itfelf in the day,
and wanders over the flooded tracks in fearch of prey ;
feeding on rats, mice, and birds, but feldom climbing
trees. It is exceffively fierce, and never frequents the
haunts of mankind. It is fo impatient of captivity,
that one which was taken in a trap, and had a leg
broken, refufed for many days the food placed by it;
but in its fury devoured the fradtured limb, with pieces
of the flake it was faftened to, and broke all its teeth
in the phrenfy of its rage.
Sivah XVIII. The Caracal, Sivah Ghush, or Perfian
Ghuth. Lynx, with a lengthened face and fmall head; very long,
fender ears, terminated with a long tuft of black hairs;
' s fmall: the upper part of the body is of a very
reddifh brown ; and the belly and bread are whi-
tifli: the limbs are ftrong and pretty long ; and the
tail is about half the length of the body. Thefe ani¬
mals inhabit Perfia, India, and Barbary ; where they
are often brought up tame, and ufed in the chace of
leffer quadrupeds, and the larger fort of birds, fuch as
cranes, pelicans, peacocks, &c. which they furprife
with great addrefs. When they feize their prey, they
hold it fail with their mouth, and lie for a time mo-
tionlefs on it. They are faid to attend the lion, and
to feed on the remains of the prey which that animal
leaves. They are fierce when provoked : Dr Charleton
fays, he faw one fall on a hound, which it killed and
tore to pieces in a moment, notvvithftanding the dog
defended itfelf to the utmoft.—The Arabian writers call
it anak el ard; and fay, that it hunts like the panther,
jumps up at cranes as they fly, and covers its fteps when
hunting.
Libyan The Libyan Lynx is a variety,with fliort black tufts
Lynx, to the ears, which are white within, and of a lively red
without; the tail white at the tip, annulated with four
black rings, with black marks behind the four legs.
It is greatly inferioria fize to the former; not larger
than a common cat. It inhabits both Libya and Bar¬
bary.
Bay Lynx. XIX. The Rufa, or Bay Lynx, with a fliort tail,
yellow irides, and upright fliarp-pointed ears, tufted
with long black hairs : the colour of th^ head, back,
fides, and exterior parts of the legs, bright bay, ob-
fcurely marked with dulky fpots: from beneath each
eye certain long black ftripes, of an incurvated form,
mark the cheeks; which, with the upper and under
lip, whole under fide of the body, and in fides of the
legs, are white : the upper part of the tail is barred
with dufky ftrokes; and next the end, one of a deep
black ; its tip and under fide are white. This animal,
which is about twice the bignefs of a large cat, inhabits
the inner parts of the province of New York.
Canadian XX. The Canadian Lynx, with pale yellow eyes.
Lynx, snd ereft ears tufted with black long hair. The body
is covered with foft and long fur, cinereous tinged with
tawny, and marked with dulky fpots, more or lefs vi-
fible in different fubje&s, dependent on the age or fea-
fon in which the animal is killed : the legs are ftrong
and thick ; the claws large. It is about three times the
fize of a common cat: the tail is only four inches long,
tipt with black. This fpecies inhabits the vaft foreits
of North America. It is caUed in Canada le chat-eervier,
or le loup-cervter, on account of its being fo deftru&ive Felts
to deer; which it drops on from the trees, like the
puma, and, fixing on the jugular vein, never quits its Fela ,
hold till the exhaufted animal falls through lofs of blood. ' ’
The Englifh call it a wild cat. It is very deftru&ive .
to their young pigs, poultry, and all kind of game.
The fkins are in high efteem for the foftnefs and warm-
nefs of the fur; and great numbers are annually im¬
ported into Europe.
XXL The Mountain Lynx, or Cat-a-mountain, Cat-a-
upright pointed ears, marked w ith two brown bars; with Mountain,
the head and upper part of the 'body of a reddifh brown,
with long narrow ftripes of black; the fides and legs
with fmall round fpots: the chin and throat are of a
clear white ; the belly of a dull white. The length of
the animal, from nofe to tail, is two feet and a half; of
the tail, eight inches. It inhabits North America; and
is faid to be a gentle animal, and to grow very fat.
FELL (Dr John), a very learned Englifh divine
and bifhop, entered a ftudent at Chrift-church, Oxford,
1636. 101648, he was ejeded by the parliamentary
vifitors, being then in holy orders: and from that time
to the reftoration lived at Oxford a retired and ftudious
life. He was inftalled canon of Chrift church, July
1660; and the year following, dean of that church ;
in which places he did great fervices to the college, and
reformed feveral abufes. He was confecrated bifhop
of Oxford in 1675; and had leave to hold his deanry in
commendam, that he might continue his fervices to the
college and univerfity. He publifhed feveral works, and
died in 1686.
FELLING of Timber.—Many circumftances are
well known and conftantly obferved in the felling of
timber for building, which, though to a hafty obfer-
vef they might appear trifling, yet prove, on experi¬
ence, to be of the utmoft confequence. One thing ob¬
ferved by M. de Buffbn, which very greatly increafes
the folidity and llrength of timber, is, that the trees
intended to be felled for fervice fhould firft be ftripped
of their bark, and fuffered to Hand and die upon the
fpot before the cutting. The fappy part or blea of
the oak, becomes by this means as hard and firm as
the heart; and the real ftrength and denfity of the
wood has been proved, by many experiments, to be
greatly increafed by it: nor is this a pradtice of any
detriment to the proprietor, fince the remaining flumps
of thefe trees fend up their young fhoots as vigorouf-
ly as if they had been cut down in their natural con¬
dition.
When any tree is to be cut down for timber, the firft
thing to be taken care of is a fkilful difbranching of
fuch limbs as may endanger in its fall: many trees are
utterly fpoiled for want of a previous care of this kind.
In arms of timber that are very great, it is always ne-
ceflary to chope or fink in them clofe to the bole, and
then meeting it with down-right ftrokes, it will be
fevered from the tree without fplitting. In felling the
tree, take care always to cut it as clofe to the ground
as poffible, unlefs it is intended to be grubbed up: and
the doing that is of advantage both to the timber and
to the wood ; for timber is never fo much valued, if it
be known to grow out of old flocks.
FELLOWSHIP, Company, or Di/lributme-Pro¬
portion, in arithmetic. See Arithmetic, n° 15,
FELO de se, in law, a perfon that lays deliberate¬
ly
F E L [ i
-Telon, ]y vioknt 'hands on himfelf, and is the occafion of his
, Fcl;1l!y- f untimely death, whether by hanging, drowning, {lab-
_ v bing, (hooting, or any other way.
FELON, in law, a perfon guilty of felony. See
. Felony.
FELONY, in the general acceptation of the law,
comprifes every fpecies of crime, which occafions at
JBlaelJl. common law the forfeiture of lands or goods. This
Comment. m0ft frequently happens in thofe crimes for - which a
capital punifhment either is or Was to be inflidted : for
thofe felonies that are called clergyable, or to which the
benefit of clergy extends, were anciently punifhed w’ith
death in all lay, or unlearned, offenders ; though now,
by the flatute-law, that punifnment is for the firft offence
univerfally remitted. Treafon itfelf, fays Sir Edward
Coke, was anciently comprifed under the name offe-
. Icny: and in confirmation of this we may obferve, that
the flatute of treafons, 25 Edw. III. c. 2. fpeaking
of feme dubious crimes, direfts a reference to parlia¬
ment ; that it may be there adjudged, “ whether they
be treafon or other felony.*’ All treafons, therefore,
ftridtly fpeaking, are felonies; though all felonies are not
treafon. And to this alfo we may add, that all offen¬
ces, now capital, are in fome degree or other felony :
but this is likewife the cafe with fome other offences,
which are not punifhed with death ; as fuicide, where
the party is already dead ; homicide by chance-med¬
ley, or in felf-defence ; and petit-larceny, or pilfering ;
all which are (ftriftly fpeaking), felonies, as they fub-
jedt the committers of them to forfeitures. So that,
upon the w’hole, the only adequate definition of felony
feems to be that which is before laid down ; viz. an
offence which occafions a total forfeiture of either lands
or goods, or both, at the common law ; and to which
capital or other punifhment may be fuperadded, accord¬
ing to the degree of guilt.
To explain this matter a little farther : The word fe¬
lony, or felonia, is of undoubted feodal original, being
frequently to be met with in the books of feuds, &c.
but the derivation of it has much puzzled the juridical
lexicographers, Pratasus, Calvinus, and the reft : fome
deriving it from the Greek, “ an impoftoror de¬
ceiver others from the Latin,yh//o fefelli, to counte¬
nance which they would have it called fellonia. Sir Ed¬
ward Coke, as his manner is, has given us a ftill ftranger
etymology; that it is crimen ammo felleo perpeiratum,
“ with a bitter or gallifh inclination.” But all of them
agree in the defeription, that it is fuch a crime as works
a forfeiture of all the offender’s lands or goods. And
this gives great probability to Sir Henry Spelman’s
Teutonic or German derivation of it: in which lan¬
guage indeed, as the word is clearly of feodal original,
we ought rather to look for its fignification, than a-
mong the Greeks and Romans. Fe-lon then, accord¬
ing to him, is derived from two northern words t
fee, which fignifies (we well know) the fief, feud,
or beneficiary eftate ; and lon, which fignifies price or
value. Felony is therefore the fame as pretlum fudi,
the confideration for which a man gives up his fief; as
we fay in common fpeech, fuch an aft is as much as
your life, or eftate is worth. In this fenfe it will
clearly fignify the feodal forfeiture, or aft by which an
eftate is forfeited, or efeheats, to the lord.
To confirm this, we may obferve, that it is in this
fenfe, of forfeiture to the lord, that the feadal writers
y8 ] F £ L
conftantly ufe it. For all thofe afts, whether of a cri- Felony*
minal nature or not, which at this day are generally ' 
forfeitures of copyhold eftates, are ftyled felonia in the
feodal law : “ fcilicct, per quas feudum amhtitur.” Af
“ ft domino defervire noluerit;—fi per annum et diem
cejfaverit in petenda invejlitura ;—Ji demitmm ejuravit,
i. e. negavit fe a domino feudum habere ;—Ji a domino in
jus eum vocante, ter, citatus non comparverit—all thefe,
with many others, are ftill caufes of forfeiture in our
copyhold eftates, and were denominated felonies by the
feodal conftitutions. So likewife injuries of a more
fubftantial or criminal nature were denominatedfelonies,
that is, forfeitures; as affaulting or beating the lord ;
vitiating his wife or daughter, fi dominum cucurli-
taverit, i. e. cum vxore ejus concubueritall thefe are
efteemed felonies, and the latter is exprefsly fo deno¬
minated, “ Ji fecerit feloniam, dominum forte cucurbi-
tando. And as thefe contempts, or fmaller offences,
w’ere felonies or afts of forfeiture, of courfe greater
crimes, as murder and robbery, fell under the fame de¬
nomination. On the other hand, the lord might he
guilty of felony, or forfeit his feignory to the vaffal, by
the fame aft as the vaffal would have forfeited his feud
to the lord. “ Si dominus commifit feloniam, per quam
•vafallus amitteret feudum Ji earn commiferit in domi¬
num, feudi preprietatem etiam dominus perdere debet.,,
One inftance given of this fort of felony in the lord is
beating the fervant of his vaffal, fo as that he lofes his
fervice ; which feems merely in the nature of a civil in¬
jury, fo far as it refpefts the vaffal. And all thefe .felo¬
nies were to be determined, “ per laudamentum Jive ju¬
dicium parium fuorum,” in the lord’s court; as with us
forfeitures of copyhold lands are prefentable by the
homage in the court-baron.
Felony, and the aft of forfeiture to the lord, being
thus fynonymous terms in the feodal law, rve may eafi-
ly trace the reafon why, upon the introduftion of that
law into England, thofe crimes which induced fuch-
forfeiture or efeheat of lands (and, by a fmall deflexion
from the original fenfe, fuch as induced the forfeiture
of goods alfo) were denominated felonies. Thus it was
that fuicide, robbery, and rape, were felonies ; that is,
the confequence of fuch crimes was forfeiture ; till by
long ufe we began to fignify by the term of felony
the aftual crime committed, and not the penal confe¬
quence. And upon this fyftem only can we account
for the caufe, why treafon in ancient times was held
to be a fpecies of felony ; viz. becaufe it induced a for¬
feiture.
Hence it follows, that capital punifhment does by no
means enter into the true idea and definition of felony.
Felony may be without inflifting capital puuifhment,
as in the cafes inftanced of felf-murder, excufable ho¬
micide, and petit larceny: and it is poflible that capi¬
tal punifhments may be inflifted, and yet the offence
be no felony; as in cafe of herefy b^ the common
law, which, though capital, never worked any forfei-
tme of lands or goods, an infenarable incident to felo¬
ny. And of the fame nature was the puifnment of
Handing mute, without pleading to an indiftment ;
which at the common law was capital, but without any
forfeiture, therefore fuch Handing mute was no felony.
In fhort, the true criterion of felony is forfeiture : for,
as Sir Edward Coke juftly obferves, in all felonies
which are punifhable with death, the offender lofes all
F E L r 199 ] FEE
Felt, his lands in fee-fimple, and alfo his goods and chattels;
rek-fpar. jn as are noj- punifhable, his goods and chattels
^ v only.
The Idea of felony is indeed fo generally connected
tmh that of capital punifhment, that vve find it hard
to feparate them ; and to this ufage the interpretations
of the law do now conform. And therefore, ifa flatute
makes any new offence felony, the law implies that it
(hall be punifhed with death, viz. by hanging, as well
as with forfeiture : unlefs the offender prays the be¬
nefit of clergy; which all felons are intitled once
to have, unlefs the fame is exprefsly taken away by
ftatute.
Felonies by ftatute are very numerous ; and as this
work will not admit of a proper enumeration, we muft
refer to the Table of the quarto edition of the Statutes,
where they are fet forth in alphabetical order.
FELT, in commerce, a fort of fluff deriving all
its confiftence merely from being fulled, or wrought
■with lees and iize, without either fpinning or wea-
*ing-
Felt is made either of wool alone, or of wool and
hair. Thofe of French make, 31 yards long, and i^-
broad, for cloaks, pay each 2 1. 14s. iTs%d. on im¬
portation ; and draw-back tl. 12s. 3d. on exporting
them again.
Ff.LT-Spar, or Rhombic $>uart%, the petuntfe of the
Chinefe, a genus of filiceous earths, aceotding to
Cronftedt, refembling the jafper in moll refpects. Its
German name is feld-fpat, from the word feld, which
fignihes a field, and likewife a compartment or regular
furface. Hence, according to Mr Forfter, the word
feld-fpat fignifies a fpar compofed of little compart¬
ments of rhombic or other figures. It ftnkes fire
with fteel, and melts in a violent heat. M. Bayen,
who analyfed it by acids, obtained a conliderable quan¬
tity of argillaceous and filiceous earths, a fmaller quan¬
tity of magnefia, and a ftill fmaller of calcareous earth
and iron. It is found either fparry or cryftallized.
The former fpecies has feveral varieties. 1. White.
2. Reddifh brown, occurring in the Swedifh and o-
ther granites. 3. Pale yellow. 4. Gteenifh, refem¬
bling the fchorl or cockle fpar, but lefs fufible, and
more irregular in the figure. The cryflallized kind is
found in an iron mine in Weftmanland in Sweden, fel-
dom in the form of veins, and ftill more rarely confli-
tuting the fubftance of whole mountains, but general¬
ly mixed either with quartz or mica; in which cafe it
is called granite. When mixed with jafper, along with
fome particles of quartz, cockle, and horn-blende, it is
named porphyry.
Another kind of this ftone, named by M. Bayen
'white felt-fpar, is found in the duchy of Lorrain. It
is of an opaque white colour, fpotted on the outfide
with ochre. It confifts of fhining particles, which
give it a fparry appearance ; it is very hard, and
ftrikes fire with fteel, is affe&ed by acids; and when
analyfed by them, appears to contain one half its
weight of filiceous earth, the other being compofed of
magnefia and iron.
Analogous to the felt-fpar is that beautiful ftorte
named Lalrador-flone, lately brought to Europe. It
was difeovered fome years ago by the Moravians, who
have a colony among the Efquimaux, in the countiy.
of Labrador in North America. It is found of alight Felt-fpar
or deep-grey colour, but for the moil part of a blackith „ , H
grey. When held in the light in various pofitions, it ;^ucca-
difeovets a variety of colours, fuch as the blue of lapis '
'lazuli, grafs-greeu, apple^green, pea-green, and fome-
times, but more feldom, a citrqu-yellow. Sometimes
it has a colour between that of red copper and tom-
buck-grey ; at other times the colours are between grey
and violet. For the moft part thefe colours are in
fpots, but fometimes in ftripes on the fame piece. The
ftones are found in pretty large angular pieces, appear
foliated when broken, and the fragments of a rhom-
boidal figure. Their fpecific gravity, is about 2.755,
and in other refpefts they agree with the felt-fpar.
Werner informs us, that he has feeu a piece of felt-
fpar at Gayer, which ftiowed a great variety of co¬
lours, but very pale.
Mr Kirwan obferves on the felt-fpar, in general,
that it is found of many different colours, as white,
yellow, red, brown, green, violet, &c. fometimes
cryftallized in rhombs, cubes, or parallelepipeds; at
other times without any regular figure. It breaks like
fpar, but the texture is clofe though lamellar. The
fpecific gravity, according to our author, is from 2.400
to 2.600, but Mr Gerchard fays he found it as high
as 3.500 ; in which cafe Mr Kirwan is of opinion
that it was mixed with fome metallic particles. It is
harder than the fluor fpars, but lefs fo than quartz. It
alfo melts without addition more perfe&ly and eafily
than the floors, forming a whitiih glafs, which does
not corrode the crucibles as that from fluor does. It is
entirely diffolved without effervefcence by the micro-
cofmic fait and by borax ; but unites with difficulty
to fixed alkalies. In its cryftallized ftate it decrepi¬
tates in the fire, but not otherwife. It is found in
loofe maffes, about two inches long at moft, without
forming either veins or ftrata. It is alfo found mixed
with fand or clay ; or it is fometimes found imbedded
in other ftones, as granite, &c. One hundred parts
of the white fpar contain 67 of filiceous, 14 of argil¬
laceous, 11 of ponderous earth, and 8 of magne¬
fia. According to Mr Kirwan, it is undoubtedly the
ftone ufed by the Saxons, as petuntfa, in their porce¬
lain manufa&ures.
Cronftedt, who fuppofes this ftone to be of the fame
nature wuh jafper, remarks, that “ if the rhombic
quartz and jafper were of the fame fpecies, that fort of
porphyry which is made up of thefe two bodies ought
only to be ranked with ihejafpers, inftead of being
placed with the faxa. It is obfervable, however, in
old monuments, which have been long expofed to the
air, that though porphyry had decayed in fuch a man¬
ner as to lofe its polifti, yet granite, though equally
old, and compofed for the moft part of rhombic
quartz, has preferved its luftre. This, however, does
not contradidV the poffibility of rhombic quartz being
the fame fubftanee with the jafper : the calcareous fpar,
for inftance, being found to bear the weather, and even
fire, better than limeftone.”
FELTRIA, (anc. geog.), a town on the borders-
of Rhaetia towards Italy. Now Felitri, in the terri¬
tory of Venice, on the Piava. E. Long. 12. 16. N,
Lat. 46‘>.
FELUCCA, m fea-affairs, a.little veffcl armed with
fix
FEN r 200 1 FEN
fix oars, frequent in the Mediterranean; which has this
peculiarity , that its helm may be applied either in the
head or ftern, as occafion requires.
FEMALE, (f^emina), a term peculiar to ani¬
mals, fignifying that fex which conceives and gene¬
rates its young within itfelf. See Sex and Genera¬
tion.
Female is alfo applied, figuratively, to things
without life, from the refemblance they bear to the
females of animals. Thus we fay a
FEMJLE-Screw. See Screw.
Female-Flower. ■ See Femineus Flos.
Female-Plant. See Feminea Planta.
FEMME covert, in law, a married woman. See
Coverture.
Femme Sole, an unmarried woman, whofe debts,
contra&ed before marriage, become thofe of her huf-
band after -it.
A femme-fole merchant, is where a woman, in Lon¬
don, ufes a trade alone, without her hulband; on which
account (he (hall be charged without him.
FEMININE, in grammar, one of the genders of
nouns. See Gender.
The feminine gender is that which denotes the noun
or name to belong to a female. In the Latin, the fe¬
minine gender is formed of the mafeuline, by altering
its termination; particularly by changing ar into a.
Thus, of the mafeuline bonus equus, “ a good horfe,”
is formed the feminine Iona equay “ a good mare
fo, of parvus homo, “ a little man,” is formed parva
ftemina, “ a little woman,” &c.
In French, the feminine gender is expreffed, not by
a different termination, but by a different article: thus,
le is joined to a male, and la to a female.
In Englifh, we are generally more ftri&, and ex-
prefs the difference of fex, not by different termina¬
tions, nor by different particles, but different words;
as boar and fow, boy and girl, brother and fifter, &c.
—though fometimes the feminine is formed by vary¬
ing the termination of the male into ejs •, as in abbot,
abbefs, &c.
FEMUR, os femoris, in anatomy. See there,
n° 58.
FEN, a place overflowed with water, or abounding
with bogs. See Bog and Draining.
Fens are either made up of a congeries of bogs ; or
confift. of a multitude of pools or lakes, with dry fpots
of land intermixed, like fo many little iflands.
Several ffatutes have been made for ,the draining of
fens, chiefly in Kent, Cambridgeffu're, Bedfordlhire,
and Lincolnfhire ; and by a late aft, 11 Geo. 11. com-
miffioners (hall be appointed for the effectually drain¬
ing and preferving of the fens in the ifle -of Ely, who
are authorifed to make -drains, dams, and proper
works thereon ; and they may charge the landholders
therein with a yearly acre-tax, and, in default of .pay¬
ment, fell the defender’s lands.
The wet grounds called fens, in Lincolnfhire and
elfewhere in England, bring many advantages to the
inhabitants of thofe counties. Fowl and fi(h are very
plentiful in them. The pike and eels are large and
eafily caught, but they are ufually coarfe. The duck,
mallard, and teal, are in fuch plenty as is fcarce to be
conceived.- They are taken by decoys in prodigious
flocks at a time. They fend thefe fowl from Lincoln-
N° 125.
(hire to London, twice a-week, on horfeback, from Fen.
Michaelmas to Lady-day ; and one decoy will furnifh ' ;
20 dozen, or more,*twice a-week, for the whole feafon
in this manner. The decoy-men cbntraft with the
people, who bring them to London at a certain rate,
and they are obliged to take off their hands the whole
number that is catched. Two teal are ufually reckon¬
ed equal to one duck ; and fix ducks and 12 teal are
accounted a dozen of wild-fowl; and the ufual mar¬
ket price is about 9s. for fuch a dozen. About mid-
fummer, during the moulting feafon, a great number
alfo are deftroyed by the people in the neighbour¬
hoods. The poor birds at this (ieafon are neither able
to fwim nor fly well; and the people going in with v
boats among the reeds where they lie, knock them
down with long poles. A little before Michaelmas,
vaft. flights of thefe birds arrive at the decoys from
other places; they foon grow fat in them, and conti¬
nue there a ptey to the mailers or owners, as long as
the decoys are unfrozen ; but, when they are iced
over, they fly away again, and go to the neighbouring
feas for food.
The fens alfo abound in a fort of herbage that is
very nourifhing to cattle. Sheep and horfes always
grow' fat upon it. Thefe fens are common, and the
owners of cattle mark them that they may be known.
It is remarkable, that, though all is open, the cattle
ufed to one particular fpo.t of ground feldom leave it,
but the owner may always find them in or near the
fame place. The fens have many large and deep
drains. In thefe the pike and eel grow to a vaft fize :
and they are full of geefe which feed on the grafs j
but thefe eat rank and muddy, and may even be fmelt
as foon as a perfon comes into the room where they are
roafting. But the people have another very great ad¬
vantage from thefe birds befides the eating of them,
namely, their feathers and quills ; and the produce of
thefe is fo great, that the cuftom-houfe books in the
town of Boilon {how, that there are frequently fent a-
way in one year 300 bags of feathers, each containing
ahundred and a half weight. Each pound of feathers
brings in the owner twopence ; and it may be thought
flrange by people unacquainted with thefe things, but
it is a certain truth, that the owners pull them five or
fix times a year for the feathers, and three times for
the quills. Each pulling comes to about a pound,
and many people have 1000 geefe at a time, or
more. They are kept at no charge, except in deep
fnowy weather, when they are obliged to feed them
with corn.
Oats alfo grow very well in many of the fen coun¬
tries, and in good feafons bring great increafe and
advantage to the owners. There is alfo another ve¬
getable of great profit to them. This is the rapum
JUveJlre; the feed of which they call cok feed; and they
make an oil from it of great ufe in trade. They grind
the feed between two large ftones, the one (landing
perpendicularly on the other. The Hones are made
of a fort of black marble, and are brought from Ger¬
many. They fometimes turn them by fails, and fome¬
times by the drains which carry off the water from the
fen lands.
The fens lying low, and being of a vaff extent, are
very fubjett to be overflowed by waters from the neigh¬
bouring high countries ; and though great care and
expcnce
Fence.
Miller's
Jjitlonary.
FEN [2
expence is ufed to keep them dry, they are often like
a fea; and the ftieep are obliged to be carried off in
boats, and the people to live in their upper rooms, and
to be fupplied with provifions alfo with boats.
FENCE, in gardening and hulbandry, a hedge, wall,
ditch, bank, or other inclofure, made round gardens,
fields, woods, &c.
In hot climates, where they have not occafion for
walls to ripen their fruit, their gardens lie open, where
they can have a water-fence, and profpefts ; or elfe
they bound their gardens with groves, in which are
fountains, walks, &c. which are much more pleafing
to the fight than a dead wall: but, in colder countries,
we are obliged to have walls to ftielter and ripen our
fruit, although they take away much from the plea-
fant profpeft of the garden. Brick-walls are account¬
ed the beft and warmeft for fruit: and thefe walls, be¬
ing built pannelwife, with pillars at equal diftances, will
fave a great deal of charge, in that the walls may be
built thinner than if they were made plain without
thefe pannels, for then it would be neceffary to build
them thicker every where ; and, befides, thefe pannels
make the walls look the handfomer. Stone-walls,
however, on account of their durability, are to be pre¬
ferred to thofe of brick, efpecially thofe of fquare
hewn ftones. Thofe that are made of tough ftones,
though they are very dry and warm, yet, by reafon of
their unevennefs, are inconvenient to nail up trees to,
except pieces of timber be laid in them here aed there
for that purpofe.
But, in large gardens, it is better to have the pro-
fpeft open to the pleafure-garden ; which fhould be
furrounded with a foffe, that from the garden the ad¬
jacent country may be viewed. But this muft depend
on the fituation of the place : for, if the profpeft from
the garden is not good, it had better be (hut out from
the fight than be open. As alfo, when a garden lies
near a populous town, and the adjoining grounds are
open to the inhabitants ; if the garden is open, there
will be no walking there in good weather, without be¬
ing expofed to the view of all paiTengers, which is very
difagrceable.
Where the fofles are made round a garden which is
fituated in a park, they are extremely proper; becaufe
hereby the prafpeA of the park will be obtained in the
garden, which renders thofe gardens much more agree¬
able than thofe that are confined.—In the making
thefe foffes there have been many inventions; but, up¬
on the whole, none feem preferable to thofe which
have an upright wall next the garden, which (where
the foil will admit of a deep trench) fhould be five or
fix feet high; and, from the foot of this w’all, the
ground on the outfide flaould rife with a gradual eafy
flope, to the diftance of 18 or 20 feet; and where it
can be allowed, if it flopes much farther it will be ea-
fier, andlefs perceptible as a ditch, to the eye, when
viewed at a diftance: but, if the ground is naturally
wet, fo as not to admit a deep fofle,'then, in order to
make a fence againft cattle, if the wall be four feet
high, and flight pofts of three feet high are placed juft
behind the wall, with a fmall chain carried on from
Vol.VII. Parti.
01 ] FEN
poll to poft, no cattle or deer will ever attempt to
jump againft it; therefore it will be a fecure fence a-
gainft them ; and if thefe are painted green, they will
not be difeerned at a diftance, and at the fame time
the chain will fecure perfons walking in the garden
from tumbling over.
In places where there are no good profpefts to be
obtained from a garden, it is common to make the in¬
clofure of park-paling ; which, if well performed,
will laft many years, and has a much better appear¬
ance than a wall: and this pale may be hid from the
fight within, by plantations of ftrrubs and evergreens ;
or there may be a quick-hedge planted within the pale,
which may be trained up, fo as to be an excellent fence
by the time the pales begin to decay.
Fences round parks are generally of paling; which
if well made of winter-fallen oak, will laft many years.
But a principal thing to be obferved, in making thefe
pales, is not to make them too heavy ; for, when they
are fo, their own weight will caufe them to decay :
therefore the pales ftiould be cleft thin; and the rails
ftiould be cut triangular, to prevent the wet lodging
upon them ; and the pofts fhould be good, and not
placed too far afunder. If. thefe things are obferved,
one of thefe pales will laft, with a little care, up¬
wards of 40 years very well. The common way of
making thefe fences is, to have every other pale nine
or ten inches above the intermediate ones; fo that the
fence may be fix feet and a half high, which is enough
for fallow deer ; but, where there are red deer, the
fence ftiould be one foot higher, otherwife they will
leap over.
Some inclofe their parks with brick walls; and in
countries where ftone is cheap, the walls are built
with this material; fome with, and others without,
mortar.
A kitchen-garden, if rightly contrived, will contain
walling enough to afford a fupply of fuch fruits as re¬
quire the afliftance of walls, for any family; and this
garden, being fituated on ©ne fide, and quite out of
fight of the Loufe, may be furrounded with walls
wbich will fereen the kitchen-garden from the fight of
perfons in the pleafure-garden; and, being locked up,
the fruit will be much better preferved than it can be
in the public garden; and the having too great a quan¬
tity of walling is often the occafion that fo many ill-
managed trees are frequently to be feen in large gar¬
dens.
The height of garden walls ftiould be 12 feet,
which is a moderate proportion; and, if the foil be
good, it may in time be well furnifhed with bearing-
wood in every part, efpecially that part planted with
pears, notwithftanding of the branches being trained
horizontally from the bottom of the walls.
With regard to the more common kinds of fences,
Mr Anderfon gives the following directions, in his Ef-
fays on Agriculture, &c. “ The fences that are moft
univerfally employed, are either ftone dikes or hed¬
ges (a). Dikes, if well built, as effectually preferve a
field from the intrufion of domeftic animals, as any o-
ther kind of fence whatever; but they afford little
C c warmth
(a) Dike is a term employed to denote any kind of wall teared for the purpofe of inclofing a field and no¬
thing elfe.
FEN [ 202 ] FEN
Fence, warmth or (belter to the field: whereas hedges, if
  good, anfwer both thel'e puipofcs equally well. But
the moft mateiwl diftinftion between dikes and hedges
is, that dikes aie in their higheft degree of perfection
as foon as they are reared, and from that moment be¬
gin to tend towards decay; fo that the perfon who
builds this kind of fence immediately receives the full
benefit thereof: whereas hedges, being at firft weak
and tender, (land in need of attention and care, and do
rot become a fence for feveral years after they are
planted ; and, as they continue to increafe in ftrength,
snd gradually acquire a higher and higher degree of
perfetficn, it is long before they begin to fall towards
decay; fo that they are, in general, infinitely more
durable than dikes, although they are longer of be¬
coming of ufe to the perfon who plants them. Which
of thefe two kinds of fences may, upon the whole, be
moft eligible, mull, in general, be determined by the cir-
cumftances and views of the poffdfor of the ground to
be inclofed. If he is a tenant who has a (hort leafe, with¬
out a profpeft of getting it renewed ; or, if he has im¬
mediate occafion for a complete fence ; it will be, in
general, moft prudent in him to make choice of dikes,
if the materials for rearing thefe are at hand : but, if
there is any probability that his pofterity may reap any
advantage from thefe inclofures, it will be almoft always
more for his advantage to make choice of hedges.
“ A dike built of freeftone and lime will be almoft
as durable as a hedge; although, in general, it will nei¬
ther be fo cheap nor agreeable. But dry-ftone dikes,
unlefs built of the fineft quarried done, are of fuch a pe-
rifhable nature, as to be hardly ever worth the ex?
pence of rearing ; and never, excepting where the field
that you would wifh to inclofe has plenty of ftones up-f
on its furface, which you are under a neceflky of car¬
rying away before the field can be improved. In this
fituation a man may, in fome meafure, be excufed, if
he (hould be tempted to put them into dikes ; becauie
the carriage of thefe ftones may be faid to coft him
nothing : and he may, perhaps, be at fome lofs how to
dilpofe of them in any other manner. But, in all other
cii cumftances, it is very bad economy to rear fences of
this kind, as feal dikes can always be built at one-
fourth of the expence that thefe would coft—will an¬
fwer al! purpofes equally well; and, if carefully built,
will be kept in repair for any number of years at as
fmall an expence as they could be.
“ The want of durability generally complained of
in thefe dikes is owing to their bad conftruttion. The
greateft part of them are made of a confiderable thicks
ivefs, with a ditch on each fide; the heart of the dike
being made up with the earth that is taken from thefe
ditches ; and only a thin wall, on each fide, is built of
■ i’olid feal from top to bottom ; the confequence of
which is, that as the loofe earth that is thrown into
the middle of the dike fubfides much more than the
teal on each fide, the top of the dike finks down; and,
of courfe, the two fide-walls are preffed too much up¬
on the infide, fo as to bilge (1'well) out about the
middle, and quickly crumble down to duft. To avoid
this inconvenience, I have always chofen to build my
dikes of this fort thinner than ufual: they being only
three feet and a half thick at the bottom ; one foot, or
a very little more, at top ; and five feet high: taking
care to have them built in fuch a manner, as that every
fod (feal), from top to bottom binds the joinings of Fence;.
the others below it, with as much accuracy as the  v—“
bricks in a well built wall. The uppermoft courfe of
feal is cut a little longer than thofe that are immediate¬
ly below it, and placed with the grafiy fide upper¬
moft, fo as to projetb a little on each fide; which not
only helps to throw the water a little off the dike, but
alfo to prevent (beep or cattle from attempting to
jump over it fo readily as they otherwife might do. At
the foot of the dike, on each fide, is dug a fmall
ditch, about a foot and a half or two feet deep ; lea¬
ving a ledget of a few inches broad on each fide, that
the dike may not be undermined by the crumbling
down of the loofe earth into the inch. Thefe ditches
not only help to give the dike an additional height,
and keep its foundation dry; but are alfo of ufe to
prevent cattle from coming clofe to it and rubbing
upon it, or tearing it down with their horns, which
they are very apt to do if this precaution be omit¬
ted. The earth that is taken out of the ditches may
be thrown outwards into the place that was occupied
by the feal that has beeu taken to build the dike; and
if the field is in grafs, a few feeds may be fowed upon
it, and it will foon be covered as well as the reft of the
field.
“ By having the joints bound in every direftion,
the fabric is rendered much firmer than it could be by
any irregular manner of working, while it is at the
fame time more eafily reared. If the ground is foft,
and the feal rife well, I get a fence of this kind
done for one penny halfpenny per yard ; but, if it
is not good, to work, a little more than that muft be
allowed. As to .the time that a fence of this kind may
(land without needing any repair, I cannot fpeak with
certainty, as it is not longfince I fell into this method
of building them. The oldeil has juil now flood ten
years, and feems to be nearly as firm as, when firft built.
1 have feen fome walls, of poor cottages which have
been built fomewhat after this manner, that have been
good after Handing 40 or 50 years : but their durabi¬
lity depends greatly upon the nature of the feal of
which they are formed. The heft is that which,is ta¬
ken from.poor ground of a fpongy quality, wfrich i&
generally covered with a ftrong fward of coarfe benty
grafs. And, in fituations where this can be had, I
would have no hefitation in recommending this as the
cheapeft and heft temporary fence that could be reared.
_ “ The greateft inconvenience that attends this fpe-
cies of fence, is the danger it runs of being torn down
by the horns, or wafted away by the rubbing, of cattle
upon it; which they will fometimes do notwithftand-
ing of the ditches. This may be effeatially prevented .
by planting a row of fweet-briar [eglantine) plants be¬
tween the firft and fecond courfe of feal when the
dike is built, which will not fail to grow with luxuri¬
ance, and in a (hort time defend the dike from every
attack of this kind. Bat if (beep, are to be kept in the
inclofures, this plant ought not, on any account, .to he
employed ; for, as that animal naturally flies to the
fences for (belter in ftormy weather, the prickles of the
ftraggling branches of the briar will catch hold of the
wool, and tear it .off in great quantities,- to the great
detriment of the flock and lofs of the proprietor. In
thefe cafes, if the poffeffor of the ground is not afraid
of the bad coniequences that may be dreaded from the
fpread-
Fu;*;.
FEN [ 203 ] FEN
Fence, fpreading of whins ( furze), it would be much better
—v  to fcatter a few of the feeds of this plant along the led-
get at the foot of the dike, which would quickly become
a prefervative for it, and be otherwife of ufe as a green
food for his Lheep during the winter feafon. But, be¬
fore he rentures to fow this plant, let him remember,
that where it is once eftablilhed, it will hardly fail to
fpread through the adjoining fields, and can hardly be
ever afterwards thoroughly rooted out.
“ I have often imagined that this kind of fence
might be greatly improved both in beauty and ftrength,
by planting a row of ivy plants beneath the firit courfe
ot feal in building the dike ; which would, in a fhort
time, climb up the fides of the dike and cover the
whole with a clofe and beautiful network of woody
fibres ; covered with leaves of the moft. beautiful ver¬
dure ; which would tend to preferve the dike from be¬
ing eat away by froft, and other viciflitudes of wea¬
ther. And when it is arrived at the top, it would there
fend out a number of ftrong woedy branches, forming
a fort of hedge, th§t would afford fome flicker to the
fields, and break the force of the wind confiderably ;
but as I never have yet had an opportunity of trying
the experiment, I only here offer it as a probable con-
je£ture. 1 have feen a garden-wall that had been built
of ftone and clay, ornamented and Itrengthened in this
way. I have had the experience of ivy growing well
upon a dry ftone-dick; and have likewife feen it grow¬
ing up the walls, and covering whole cottages built of
feal; which have by this means been preferved entire,
long after the walls that had been naked have fallen to
decay. But, not having had plants of this kind at
hand, 1 have not had an opportunity of trying it in the
manner propofed; although, 1 think, there is the great-
eft reafon to hope for fuccefs.
“ Whins (furze) have been often employed as a
fence when fowed upon the top of a bank. They are
attended With the convenience of coming very quickly
to their perfe&ion, and of growing upon a foil on
which few other plants could be made to thrive : but,
in the wray that they are commonly employed, they are
neither a ftrong nor a lading fence. The firft of thefe
defedts may, in fome meafure, be removed, by making
the bank upon which they are fowed (for they never
fhould be tranfplanted) of a confiderable breadth ; in
Order that the largenefs of the aggregate body, confi-
dered as one mafs, may in fome meafure make up for
the want of ftrength in each individual plant. With
this view, a bank may be raifed of five or fix feet in
breadth at the top, with a large ditch on each fide of
it; raifing the bank as high as the earth taken from
the ditches will permit; the furface of which fhould be
fowed pretty thick with whin-feeds. Thefe will come
up very quickly ; and in two or three years will form
a barrier that few animals will attempt to break thro’,
and will continue in that ftate of perfeftion for fome
years. But the greateft objedlion to this plant as a
fence is, that, as it advances in fize, the old prickles
always die away ; there being never more of thefe alive
at any time upon the plant, than thofe that have been
the produce of the year immediately preceding: and
thefe thus gradually falling away, leave the Items na¬
ked below as they advance in height; fo that it very
foon becomes an exceeding poor and unfightly fence;
the items being entirely bare, and fo iknder withal as
not to be able to make a fufficient refiftance to almoft
any animal whatever. To remedy this great defeat,
either of the two following methods may be adopted.
The firft is, to take care to keep the bank always fto-
red with young plants ; never allowing them to grow
to fuch a height as to become bare below : and it was
principally to admit of this, without lofing at any
time the ufe of the fence, that I have advifed the bank
to be made of fuch an unufual breadth. For if one
fide of the hedge be cut quite clofe to the bank, when
it is only two or three years old, the other half will
remain as a fence till that fide become ftrong again ;
and then the oppofite fide ma}' be cut down in its turn;
and fo on alternately as long as you may incline : by
which means the bank will always have a ftrong hedge
upon it without ever becoming naked at the root. And
as this plant, when bruifed, is one of the moft valuable
kinds of winter-food yet known for all kinds of dome-
ftic animals *, the young tops may be carried home *
and employed for that purpofe by the farmer; whichc
will abundantly compenfate for the .trouble of cutting,1'
and the wafte of ground that is occafioned by the
breadth of the bank.
The other method of preferving a hedge of whins
from turning open below, can only be praiftifed where
(beep are kept; but may be there employed with great
propriety. In this cafe it will be proper to fow the
feeds upon a conical bank of earth, flroved up from the
furface of the ground on each fide without any ditches.
If this is preferved from the flreep for two or three
years at firit, they may then be allowed free accefs to
it; and, as they can get up clofe to the foot of the
bank upon each fide, if they have been accuftomed to
this kind of food, they will eat up all the young fhoota
that are within their reach, which will occafion them
to fend out a great many lateral fhoots ; and thefe be¬
ing continually browfed upon, foon become as clofe as
could be defired, and are then in no fort of danger of
becoming naked at the root, although the middle part
fhould advance to a confiderable height.
‘‘ The fences hitherto mentioned are only intended
to preferve fields from the intrufion of cattle ; but, on
fome occafions, it is neceflary to have a fence that would
even refill the efforts of men to break through it: as
around bleaching- fields, orchards, &c.; the want of
which often fubje&s the proprietor of fuch fields to
very difagreeable accidents. And, as fuch a fence
might, on fome occafions, be procured at no great ex¬
pence or trouble, it were to be wiflied that the method
of doing this were more generally known than it is at
prefent. To effe&uate this, it is neceffary to begin by
trenching up or ploughing a large belt all around the
field you mean to inclofe, of 40 or 50 feet or more i*
breadth, if you find it convenient: the outer edge of
which fhould be inclofed by a good dike, or a ditch
and hedge. This belt fhould be kept in culture one
year, and well manured, if your fituation will admit of
it ; and laid up before winter in fuch a manner that no
water may be allowed to lodge upon it; and planted
in the winter-time all over with plants of eglantine fo
thick as not to be above two feet from one another;
and between thefe put a good number of young birch
plants not above two years old, interfperfed with ha¬
zels, oak, afh, rav.n (wild fervice), and other trees that
you think will thrive upon your foil; together with
C c 2 thorn*,
• See Agri¬
culture,
47-
FEN [ 204
thorns, hollies, brambles, and wood-bine (honey-
fuckle) : and having then fenced it from cattle, and
kept down the weeds that may rife upon its furface by
the hoe, as long as you can conveniently get accefs in¬
to it, leave it afterwards to nature. If this is done, and
your foil be not extremely bad, the belt in a very few
years will be entirely filled with a clofe bulb of trees,
fa intermixed -with the bending branches of the eglan¬
tine, and bound together by the trailing firoots of the
bramble and wood bine, that no animal above the fize
of a cat could penetrate ; efpecially when it is of fuch
a depth as I have recommended.
“ The firft hint that ,1 got for a fence of this kind
was from a fmall thicket of brufhwood that I had plant¬
ed for ornament, pretty much in the manner above de-
feribed ; which in a Ihort time became fo much inter¬
woven with the fweet-briar, that it was impoffible to
find any accefs into it. But as all kinds of trees and
fhrubs, if planted very clofe upon one another, become
naked at the root when they arrive at any confiderable
lize, care Ihould be taken to prevent it from ever co¬
ming to that ftate, by cutting it down whenever it be¬
comes in danger of being open at the root. And as it
would be improper ever to leave the field entirely de-
fencelefs, it is a great advantage to have the belt as
broad as it conveniently may be, fo that the one half
of it may be a fufficient fence; by which means, we
will have it in our power to cut down the infide and
the outfide of the belt alternately, fo as ftill to keep
the thicket young, and never to want at any time a
fufficient fence ; and the brulh-wood that this afforded
at each cutting would, in almoft every fituation, yield
fuch a revenue as would do much more than indemnify
the proprietor for the rent of the ground that was oc
cupied by this fence. And if the field was in fuch a
fituation as required fhelter, fome trees might be al¬
lowed to grow to their full fize about the middle, with¬
out any inconvenience, if the belt were of a fufficient
breadth.
‘‘ There is one other fpecies of fencing as ufeful as
any of thofe already mentioned, which is in general
much lefs uaderftood, and more difficult to execute pro¬
perly, that deferves here to be taken notice of; viz.
the method of fecuring the banks of rivers from being
wafhed away by the violence of the ftream, and of pre¬
venting the damages that may otherwife be occafioned
by the fwelling of the waters.
“ It frequently happens that, when a river runs in
a bed of rich vegetable mould, the leaft accident that
may chance to divert the itream towards any particular
part of the bank, caufes it to fweep away large trafts
of fine ground, to the very great detriment of the pro
prietor, as well as the public; as this fine mould is
ufually carried to the -fea, and the place that the water
leaves to occupy the new bed that it thus forms for it-
felf is generally of a much worfe quality ; confiding
chiefly of Hones, fand, and gravel. In fome cafes, where
the whole force of the current is quite clofe to the bank,
and the materials neceflary for fencing it are not to be
found, it may perhaps be impoffible or very difficult
totally to prevent this evil; but, for the moll part, it
admits of a cure that can be obtained at a pretty mo¬
derate expence.
] FEN
“ Thefe ravages are always greateft where the bank
rifes perpendicularly to a pretty confiderable height u
above the ordinary furface of the water, and never at
thofe places where the banks (helve down gradually to¬
wards the water’s edge : for, when the river is fwelled
to a great height by rains, and runs with a force and
rapidity greater, than nfual, it ilrikes violently again 11
thefe perpendicular banks that direftly oppofe its
courfe, which being compofed of earth quite bare and
uncovered, are eafily foftened by the water, and quick¬
ly waflred away; fo that the upper part of the bank
being thus undermined, falls by its own weight into
the river, and is carried off in prodigious quantities:
whereas at thofe parts of the bank that (helve gradu¬
ally downwards to the water’s edge, when the river
rifes to any confiderable height, it gently glides along
its furface which being defended by the matted roots
of the grafs with which it is covered, Icarcely fuftains
any damage at all ; and is nearly the fame after the
water has retired within its banks as before the inun¬
dation. Thefe fa£ls, which no one who has bellowed
the leaft attention to this fubjeiff can fail to have ob-
ferved, clearly point out, that the firlt and mod necef-
fary Hep towards a cure, is to level down the edge of
the bank that is next to the water, fo as to make it
dope gradually down towards the river. If the bank
is very high, and you have no other particular ufe for
the earth that mud be taken from it, the eafied me¬
thod of difpofing of it, will be to throw it into the ri¬
ver : but, in whatever manner you may difpofe of the
earth, the dope of the bank mud be continued until
the inner edge of it is as low as the furface of the wa¬
ter at the dried time of the year, and be made to a-
feend gradually upwards from the water with an eafy
dope, till it comes to the level of the ground, or at lead
rifes to fuch a height as that the water never exceeds.
This operation ought to be performed as early in dim¬
mer as poffible, and Ihould be either immediately co¬
vered with turf, pared from the furface of fome field
that has a very drong fward upon it, taking care to
lay thefe in fuch a manner as to be in as little danger
as poffible of being walhed away by any accidental
dood that might happen before they had grown toge¬
ther ; or, if the turf of this kind cannot be eafily hads
it Ihould be fowed very thick with the feeds of fome
fmall matt-rooted grafs, that ffiould be kept in readi-
nefs for this purpofe (e).
“ If the dream has not been extremely rapid at the
foot of the bank, fome of the earth that was thrown
into the water will be allowed to fubfide to the bottom,.
and will there form a bank of loofe foft earth, which
will be of great ufe afterwards in preventing the face
of the bank under water from being walked away 5
but, in order to fecure this bulwark effectually for the
future, the furface of this foft earth ought to be in-
dantly duck full of the roots of bog-reeds, flags, wa-
ter-fpiderwort, rulhes, and other matt-rooted aquatic
plants ; which, if allowed to remain till they have once
llruck root, will afterwards form a barrier that nothing:
will ever be able to dedroy. But, if the dream be too
rapid to admit of this, and the bank of foft earth is
much deeper than the furface of the water, it will be
of ufe to fill up the bread of the bank with loofe dones
carelefsly
(c) The creeping meadoWrgrafs,/oa rej>ens, is a proper grafs for this purpofe.
■FEN [ 205 ] FEN
Pence, earelefsly thrown in, till they rife near the farface of
Fencing. the water ; which would moft effectually fecure it a-
v_gainft any future encroachments, if the bank is floped
away above.
“ If it fhould fo happen that ftones cannot be eafily
got for this purpofe, the only refource which in this
cafe remains, is to dig the bank fo low, that at the un-
demoft edge, it may be always below the furface of
the water, and carry it out in this way for a confider-
able diftance, and then flick the whole furface that is
below, the water full of matt-rooted aquatic plants;
which will in a great meafure, if not entirely, defend
it from any future encroachments. This bank ought
to continue to (helve downwards even where it was be-
low water, and thofe aquatics that will grow in the
greateft depth of water be planted on the innermoft
brink, and the others behind them. The water-fpider-
wort will grow in four feet depth of water, and the
roots of the common yellow-flowered water-iris forms
inch a flrong and compa£t covering upon the furface
of the foil on which it grows, as would defend it from
being affe&ed by the water almoft as well as if it were
a rock : it is likewife an advantage attending this plant,
that it grows upon a firm bottom, and chiefly delights
in running water.
“ If the flratum of foft earth is not fo deep as to
reach to the furface of the water, and lies upon a ftra-
tum of rock or hard gravel, there will be no occafion
for throwing in ftones of any kind But, as it is dif¬
ficult to unite the vegetable mould to any of thefe ftra-
ta, there will always be fome danger of its feparating
from thefe in violent inundations; and if the water
once get an entry, it will not fail to grow larger and
larger by every future inundation. To prevent this
inconvenience, it will be neceffary, after you have (lo¬
ped the earth away till you reach the gravel or rock,
to cover the place where the edge of the earth joins
the inferior ftiatum with a good many fmall ftones,
if they can be found ; fowing between them the feeds'
of any kind of plants that you think are moft like¬
ly to thrive, which have ftrong matted roots with as
fmall and flexible tops as poffible. You will eafdy ob-
ferve, that from the impoflibility of ever making earth
adhere firmly to (lone of any kind, it muft always be
an improper pra&ice to face the banks of a river to
a certain height with (tone which is coped at top
with earth.”
For the moft proper methods of raifrng hedges of
different kinds, fee Hedge.
Fence* Month,, the month wherein deer begin to
fawn, during which it is unlawful to hunt in the fo-
reft.
It commences 15 days before mid-fummer, and ends
15 days after it. This month, by ancient forefters, is
called defence-month.
FENCING, the art of making a proper ufe of the
fword, as well for attacking an enemy as for defend¬
ing one’s felf.
This art is acquired by pra£lifing with foils, called
in Latin rudes ; whence fencing is alfo denominated
gladiatura rtidiaria.—It is one of the exerdfes learnt
in the academies (fee Exercise and Academy); and
is an accomplilhment both agreeable and ufefulA-
greeable, as it affords gentlemen a noble and diftin-
guilhed amufement:—Ufeful, as it forms their body ;
5
and furnifhes them with the faculty of defence, whe- fer
ther it be of theirdionour or their life, when the one rei
or the other is attacked by thofe turbulent and dan¬
gerous perfons whofe correction is of fervice to fociety
in general.
Pyrard affures us, that the art of fencing is fo high¬
ly efteemed in the Eaft-Indies, that none but princes
and noblemen are allowed to teach it. They wear a
badge or cognizance on their right arms, called in
their language efaru; which is put on with great ce¬
remony, like the badges of our orders of knighthood,
by the kings themfelves.
Fencing is divided into two parts, fmple and com¬
pound.
Simple is that performed dire&ly and nimbly, on the
fame line ; and is either offenfive or defenfive.—The
principal objedl of the firft, is whatever may be at¬
tempted, in puffing or making paffes, from this or
that point, to the moft uncovered part of the enemy.
The fecond confifts in parrying and repelling the
thrufts aimed by the enemy.
The compound includes all the poffible arts and inven¬
tions to deceive the enemy, and make him leave that
part we have a defign on bare and unguarded, upon
finding we cannot come at it by force, nor by the a-
gility of the fimple play. The principal means here¬
of are, on the offenfive fide, feints, appeals, claffiings,
and entanglings of fwords, half-thrufts, &c. ; and, on
the defenfive, to puff in parrying. Of all which a
detail would be here ufelefs, as they are only to be un-
derftood and acquired from perfonal inftnnStions con¬
joined with pradtice.
FENELON (Francis de Salignac de la Motte),
was of an ancient and illuftrious family, and born at
the caftle of ,Fenelon in Perigord in 1651. In 1689,
he was appointed tutor to the dukes of Burgundy and
Anjou; and in 1695 was confecrated archbiff op of
Cambray. After this preferment, a ftorm rofe againft
him, that obliged him to leave the court for ever, oc-
cafioned by his performance intitled, jdn Explication of
the Maxims of the-Saints concerning the Interior Life ; in
which he was fuppofed to favour the extravagant no¬
tions of Madam Guyon, and. the principles of Qmet-
ifm. A controverfy on this occafion was for fome time
carried on between him and M. Boffuet, biffop of
Meux : wffich terminated in an appeal to the pope ;
when his holinefs condemned the archbiffop’s book,
by a brieFdated March 12 th, 1699. Some friends in¬
deed pretend, that there was more of court-policy than
religious zeal in this affair : but be this as it may, tfce
archbiffop fubmitted patiently to this determination ;
and, retiring to his diocefe of Cambray, acquitted
himfelf punSually in all the duties of his'ftation, and
led a moft exemplary life. The w*ork that gained him
the greateft reputation, and which will render his me¬
mory immortal, is his Adventures of Telemachus ; the
ftyle of which is natural, the fidfions well contrived, the
moral fublime, and the political maxims tending all to
the happinefs of mankind. Hence it is thought, as
the printing of this work was (lopped at Paris, that
the prelate’s herefy was in politics inftead of religion ;
and though his difgraqe was prior to this work, he
had, while he was tutor to the young princes, taught
them the fame principles afferted and exemplified in
Telemachus- Fenelon died in 1715 ; and a colleftion ■■
S'enr.el
■Origin of
J&uds.
F E G [ 206 ] F £ O
of all Ills religious works was afterwards printed at
Rotterdam, under the care of the marquis de Fene-
lon his grand nephew, when ambaffador to the States-
General.
FENNEL, in botany. See Anethum.
FENTON (Sir Geoffrey), privy-counfellor and fe-
cretary in Ireland during the reigns of queen Elizabeth
and king James I. is well known for his tranflation of
-Guicciardini Hijlory of the Wars of Italy, dedicated to
queen Elizabeth in 1579. He died at Dublin in 1608;
after having married his daughter to Mr Boyle, after¬
ward the great Earl of Corke.
Fenton (Elijah,), defcended from an ancient fami¬
ly, was born at Shelton near Newcaftle, but in what
year is uncertain. He was the youngeit of 12 chil¬
dren, and was intended for the miniftry ; but embra¬
cing principles contrary to the government, while at
.Cambridge, he became difqualified for entering into
holy orders. After he quitted the univerfity, he was
fecretary to the earl of Orrery ; but feems to have
fpent the mod of his life amongft his friends and rela¬
tions, and ufed to pay an annual vifit to his elder bro¬
ther, who enjoyed an effate of L. 1000 a-year. He
was a man of great tendernefs and humanity, enjoyed
the faireft reputation, and was much efteemed by Mr
-Pope ; who, when he died in 1730, paid him the tri¬
bute of a very elegant epitaph. He pubhflied a vo¬
lume of poems in the year 1717; and in 1723 was
a&ed his tragedy of Mariamne, built upon her dory
collefted from Jofephus in the third volume of the
;Spe£lator.
FENUGREEK. See Trigonella.
FEOD, or Feud, is defined to be a right which a
vaffal hath in lands or fome immoveable thing of his
lord’s, to ufe the fame, and take the profits thereof
hereditarily, rendering unto the lord fuch feodal du¬
ties and fervices as belong to military tenure, &c. and
the property of the foil always remaining to the lord.
FEODAL, of or belonging to a Feud or Fee.
Feodal Syjlem, the conftitution of Fiefs or Feuds.
About 12 centuries ago, this fyftem was fo univer-
fally received in Europe, that Sir Henry Spelman calls
it the law of nations in our wejlern world. Hence it
deferves our attention in a particular manner; a know¬
ledge of the different feuds being indifpenfably requi-
fite for a proper underftanding either of the civil go¬
vernment of our own country, or the laws by which its
landed property is regulated.
The military policy of the Celtic or northern na¬
tions, known by the names of Goths, Vandals, Franks,
Hunns, and Lombards, furniihed the original conftitu¬
tion or fyftem of feuds. Thefe people pouring out in
vaft multitudes from the fame off cinagentium or “ ftore-
houfe of nations,” over-ran all the European countries
on the declenfion of the Roman empire. They brought
the feudal fyftem along with them from the countries Feo4a1.
out of which they emigrated ; and, fuppofing it to be
the moft proper method of fecuring their new con-
quefts, they introduced it into their more foutherly
colonies.
According to this fyftem, the vi<ftorious general al¬
lotted confiderable tracks of land to his principal offi¬
cers ; while they, in like manner, divided their poffef*
fions among the inferior officers, and even thofe com¬
mon foldiers who were thought to be the moft defer-
ving. Allotmentsofthiskindwerenamedyeor/ij,yfr/r,yeej,
or feuds, from a combination of words, in the language
of thefe barbarians, fignifying a reward or ftipend be¬
llowed on certain conditions (a).* The condition up¬
on which thefe rewards were given was, that the pof-
feffors fliould faithfully ferve the perfon from whom
they were received, both at home and abroad, in the
military way. To this they engaged themfelves by a
juramentum fidelitalis, or oath of fealty* ; in the event * 5ee the
of a breach of which, either by not performing the Article
fervice agreed upon, by deferting their lord in time ofFeo^
battle, &c. the lands were to return to their original
pofhifor. 2
Thus the poffeffors of feodal allotments became in- General
terefted in the defence of them-; and not only the re- nature of
ceivers, but thofe who gave them, were equally and t'he
mutually bound to defend their poffeffions, none ofa ociatlon*
them being able to pretend any right but that of con-
queft. For this purpofe, government and fubordina-
tion were abfolutely neceffary ; it being impoffible to
conduft any fyftem of defence where every thing was
tumultuous and irregular. Every perfon, therefore,
who was a feudatory, i. e. who had received lands,
was bound to do every thing in his power to defend
the lord of his fee ; while, on the other hand, the lat¬
ter was no lefs fubordinate to his immediate fuperior;
and fo on to the prince himfelf. In like manner a re¬
ciprocal bond of defence exifted down from the prince
to the loweft feodifts.
Such were the foundations on which the feodal fy¬
ftem was properly eftablifhed ; and the natural confe-
quence was, a military fubjedtion throughout the whole
community. The prince could always colledt an army
of feudatories ready to defend not only the kingdom
in general, but the particular poffeffions of each perfon;
and the propriety of this conftitution was foon appa¬
rent in the ftrength which thefe newly eredled kingr
doms acquired, and the valour with which their con¬
quers were defended. *
Befides thefe feodal grants, however, which were of allocfi-
held only on the terms of military fervice above men- ality.j(
tioned, there were others called allodial, which were
given upon more enlarged principles. To thefe every
free man had a title; and could not only claim his
territory as well as the reft, but difpofe of it at his
pleafure
(a) We are informed by Pontopiddan, that odh in thefe northern languages is the fame with proprietas, and
ail with Mum in the Latin. Hence, among the northern nations, he tells us, that odh all fignifies nfgvk.*
• See Mac- and hence we may conjecture, that the udal right in Finland is derived*. By tranfpofing thefe two northern
dmvnll 1 In- fyllables, we form the word allodh; whence we have the etymology of the allodium or abl'olute property
,/e.part 2. c]a;me(j foy the holders of fiefs or feuds ; and by combining odh, fignifying “ property,” with the word fee,
fignifying, “ a conditional ftipend or reward,” we have .the word feodh, fignifying, “ a property given by¬
way of ftipend or reward upon a certain condition.”
F E O I 207 *| F E O
Fenflat. pleafure (b); and this fieedom was denominated al!o-
^ v 1 dtality. Thefe allodials, however, were not exempted
from military fervice. A part of their freedom con-
fifted in liberty to go to the wars; for this, in the bar¬
barous times we fpeak of, was the only way to acquire
any degree of renown. Only the Haves were deftined
to follow the arts of peace; while every free perfon was
not only at liberty to defend his country, but under
an obligation to do it in cafe of any urgent necef-
4 fity.
Feodal and Thus there was a feodal and a national militia. The
national free pe0ple only were allowed to polfefs property; the
militia. feu(lal vaJfah conftituted the army, properly fo called;
while the national militia was compofed of the allodial
proprietors. This allodiality, however, was not con¬
fined to landed property, but included likewife move-
able eftates or money ; fo that proprietors of the lat¬
ter kind were obliged alfo in times of danger to bear
Different arms and a?Pear in the field- Between the feodal and
fituations allodial proprietors, however, there was this farther
of the feo- difference, that the latter had no concern with any
dal and of prjvate quarrels which might take place among the
^a"°d‘al lords themfelves ; fo that they were never obliged to
P ^ ' appear in the field unlefs when called forth by the fo-
vereign againfl: the enemies of the nation at large.
This circumftance we might fuppofe to be an advan¬
tage, but it ultimately operated otherwife ; becoming
the means of changing the allodial right into a feodal
tenure. For fome time the holders of fiefs had an
eminent advantage over the allodial proprietors. This
was owing to the imperfection of government in thofe
days ; f© that the nobles had it in their power to re¬
venge their own quarrels, while the weak were equally
expofed to the infults of both parties. The lord and
his vaffals therefore were always formidable ; but the
allodial proprietors had fcarce any means of defending
themfelves. The reafon of this was, in the firft place,
that the law did not allow-them to commit any hoftili-
ties; and in the next, they were too diftant and un¬
connected to form any proper league for mutual de¬
fence ; and hence proceeded the neceffity already hint- Feodal.
ed at, of converting allodial property into feudal te- v—
nure. This was indeed owing in a great meafure to
the abfurdity and violence of the times, by which gifts
of property, burthened with fervice, and which might
return to the perfon who granted them, were rendered
fuptrior in value to the abfolute and unconditional
poifeifion of a fubjeCt. Other confiderations, how¬
ever, befides that juft mentioned, contributed to pro¬
duce the fame effeCt. As in thofe dark ages no right
exifted but what had its origin in conqueft, it thence
followed, that the greateft conqueror or warrior was
the moft honourable perfon. The king, in whom the
whole exploits of the community centred, as being
their head, was the moft honourable perfon ; all others
derived from him that portion of honour which they
enjoyed, and which was moft nicely adjufted in propor¬
tion as they approached him. Allodial proprietors
therefore having no pretenfions of this kind, were
treated with contempt as a kind of poltroons. From
this difagreeable fituation they vviihed to free them-
felves, by converting their allodial property into feudal
tenures ; while the princes, fuppofing it their intereft
to extend thofe tenures as much as poffible, difeouraged g
the allodial pofleffions. As the feodifts fupported the Converfion
importance of the nation and dignity of the monarch,of allodium
it was not thought proper to allow the allodial pro-iut0 tcnure'
prietors any greater compenfations than what were
given to vaflals in fimilar cafes. Thus they were ex¬
pofed to continual mortifications in the courts of juf-
tice; they were neglected by the king ; denied fuffi-
cient prote&ion from the laws; expofed not only to
continual infults, but to have their property on all oc-
cafions deftroyed by the great: fo that they were
without refource except from the feodal tenures, and
were obliged even to folicit the privileges which were
heft owed in other cafes on vaffals. In thefe unhappy
circumftances, they were glad to yield up their lands
to any fuperior whom they thought moft agreeable^,
and to receive them back from him as a feudal gift.
Thus
(b) The author of A View of Society in Europe, has traced the remote fources of the feodal laws in an ele¬
gant and fpirited manner (Book I. Chap. II. Seft. I.) Tacitus informs us, that the individuals of each of
the German nations cultivated by turns a track of land proportionable to their number, for the ufe of the
whole ; after which each individual received fuch an allotment of the cultivated track as his dignity feemed to -
require. Theft nations had not altered their political principles at the time they oyer-ran the Roman empire; -
and hence the provinces of it were then divided after the lame manner. The moft confiderable allotment
was bellowed on the king, as being the moft dignified perfon in the community, and this allotment was ftyled
his domain; while the lhares of citizens and warriors, which were likewife in proportion to the merit or
dignity of each, conftituted what was called allodiality. But as it often happened that all the land was not
exhaufted by thefe partitions, what remained was confidered as the property of the community, and in the
barbaric codes was called the lands of thefife. In fuch German nations as had thus obtained a fettlement, it was
neceffary that there fhould be a more clofe connexion betwixt the fovereign and the chiefs, as well as between
the chiefs and people, than in others. This was effe&ed by means of the lands of the fife ; for of thefe the .
fovereign took poffeffion, dealing them out to the chiefs under the burthen &f appearing in arms whenever he
Ihould pleafe to call; while the chiefs in like manner dealt out lands to thofe called their retainers, who were
alfo obliged to fupply them with military affiftance in cafes of necefiity. Hence a political fyftem was
founded, which had a prodigious effect on fociety in all thofe countries where it prevailed. The intention and
tendency of this fyilem was to render the nation independent both at home and abroad ; for while the people
were all armed in their common defence, individuals were alfo properly guarded againft the attacks of defpo-
tifm. .The power of the chiefs, who formed a regular nobility, was a counterpoife to that of the fovereign ; ,
v bile the number of the retainers and vaffals, conftituting the greatnefs and power of the nobility, was a
proper barrier againft ariftocratical oppreflion; for a chief who oppreffed his vaffals evidently adled againft:
his own intereft.
Teodal.
?
The feodal
incidents.
F E O [ 2o§ ] F E O
Thus the landed property was every where changed
into feudal tenures, and fiefs became univerfal(c).
For fome time the feodal fyftem was not only ufe-
ful in itfelf, but honourable in its principles ; but this
continued no longer than while the importers of it in¬
to Europe adhered to their original Ample and noble
maxims. During.that period, the lord exercifed his
bounty to the vafial, which the latter repaid by afts of
gratitude; fo that the intercourfe betwixt them was
of.the moft tender and affe&ionate kind ; and this
gave rife to what are called the feodal incidents.
The expeftants of fiefs were educated in the hall of
the fuperior, while the tenures were precarious or only
for life : and even when they became hereditary, the
lord took care of the fon and eftate of his deceafed
vaffal; not only protecting his perfon, but taking
charge of his education, and directing the manage¬
ment of his affairs. He took pleafure in obferving
his approach to maturity; and when he came of age,
never failed to deliver to him the lands, with the care
of which he had been entrufted, and which he had been
N° 126.
careful to improve. This was called the incident of Febtab
'tvardfhip. —y—«
The incident of relief was founded upon the grati¬
tude of the vaffal; who, upon entering on his fief,
brought a prefent to his lord, as an acknowledgment
of his care of him during the early part of his life, and
in order to conciliate his future regard.
The incident of marriage proceeded alfo upon the
principle of gratitude on the part of the vaffal. The
latter, confcious of the favours he had received, did
not choofe to ally himfelf with'a family inimical to
his chief: while the fuperior himfelf, ambitious to
aggrandife and augment the importance of his family,
fought how to find the moft advantageous match for
his vaffal.
Sometimes the fuperior himftlf was reduced in his cir-
cumftances by war or other accidents: but from what¬
ever caufe his diftrefs proceeded, even though it had
arifen from his own extravagance or prodigality, or
when only deftitute of means to fupport his ambition
or grandeur, his vaffals were bound to fupport and re¬
lieve
(c) It has been an objeft of inquiry to the learned, in what nation of barbarians fiefs had their origin ? But
it is probable, that they took place in all of thefe nations nearly about the fame time, on the fame principles,
and were continued by reafon of a fimilarity of manners, conquefts, &c. fo that we cannot aferibe the preva¬
lence of them to imitation.
In France, we find mention made of fiefs as early as the age of Childebert. They were introduced ints
Italy by the Lombards; among whom the cuftoms and laws relating to fiefs feem very early to have made
* Gmnmm rapid advances*. They were introduced into Spain before the invafion of the Moors or Saracens in the year
Hyt. of <710. Lands were granted for fervice and attachment among the Goths ; among whom alfo the perfon who
Naples, received the gift was the retainer of him who granted it. If he refufed his fervice, the grant was forfeited,
led^'T an<* was to rece^ve 11 tn patrocinio : he alfo fwore fealty to his lord ; and on this footing the national
f L./,.Jr:'-tmhria was regulated f. There can be very little doubt that the feodal law was known in England in the
JigotB,lib.v. Saxon times, as is mentioned in the text:}:. In Scotland, however, the hiftory of fiefs is ftill more uncertain
t.it- 3* than any where elfe ; which has been aferibed partly to the mutilated ftate of the Scottifh records, and partly
T'l xx t0 t^e want a^e antiquar’es *n t^ie nation. But, according to a late writer ||, allodiality and feudality have
$ Sec aifo exifted ever fince the foundation of the Scottifh monarchy, and have moft probably arifen from a firnilarity of
Whitaker s the manners and cuftoms in Scotland to thofe of other nations. It has indeed been fuppofed, that thefe cuf-
°f toms were introduced from fome foreign model by Malcolm II. According to fome, they were introduced
y^Stuart’7 dire&ly from England ; and the policy of Malcolm in eftablifhing them has been highly extolled : but, ac-
Obfer-oat. on cording to our author, there is no foundation for any notion of that kind. Both the opinions juft mentioned
the Law andth\ier diredtly affert or imply, that the feudal maxims were introduced into this country upon the principle
Conjifvtion of imitation ; but it is very improbable that they could be imported from one people to another, on account
vf Scotland. exceflive contrariety to the common ufages and precepts of government among mankind. It muft
undoubtedly have been very abfurd, if not altogether impracticable, to tranfplant the feudal tenures when the
grants of land were precarious, or depending entirely on the will of the prince, to a country which had never
known fuperiority or vaffalage. This would have required an alteration of all the orders of fociety from the
king to the peafant; while the whole chain of cuftoms, as well as the jurifdidion of the kingdom, both hi-rii
and low', muft have fuftained a correfponding alteration, in order to conform them to the new fyftem. It is
likewife obvious, that no conqueft could be made on purpofe to obtain a fettlement by any nation who had
already received the knowledge of fiefs. The eftablilhment of them implied, that the people had already a
fixed and fettled refidence ; and accordingly hiftory does not furniftr us with any account of a nation among
whom fiefs were known, who ever migrated from the country they already poffeffed, to feek for one in which
they might fettle. Feudal inftitutions muft have originated wherever they have been obferved to flourilh.
Scotland was formerly a feudal kingdom, and we know pretty nearly the time when the fiefs were hereditary
there: but in that form they could not be introduced by the fovereign; and there was not any nation among
whom fiefs were already known who conquered, or made an eftablift tnent by conqueft, in Scotland. Fiefs
therefore muft have gradually advanced to.fuch a ftate of perfection. The progrefs they made maybe likewife
eafily pointed out. At firft they were precarious, or at the pleafure of the lord ; afterwards they w-ere
granted for life ; then for a courfe of years longer than the natural life of a man ; and, laftly, they became
hereditary, which was their moft perfeA ftage. This progrefs has been obferved in every country where
feodal tenures exift ; and the fame muft have been known in Scotland, though in confidering it we are neceffarily
carried back to periods of remote antiquity ; for as fiefs were hereditary as early as the time of Malcolm IL
Shey muft have been in their precarious ftate feveral centuries before.
F li O [ 209 } F E O
lieve him according to their circumftances ; and this certain film or other gift, to be meafured only by his Feodr!
was called the own rapacity; and in cafe of delay or inability to Sylton
The incident of efcheat took place on the part of pay this demand, the fuperior continued in j oTeffion,
the vaffal, w hen, through Cowardice, treachery, or any of the eftate. Such fcandalous opprefiion could not
but produce the greateft difcontent.and clamour. Ap¬
plications were made to the law' without fuccefs; nor
were even the laws regarded which were fabricated on
purpofe for their relief. The incident of marriage now
proved a fouree of the moft dreadful oppreffion. The
remarkable milbehavioUr, he rendered hjmfelf unwor¬
thy of his fief. In that cafe, the taking it from him,
8 and giving it to one more worthy, was called an efcheat.
Happinefs While the lords and vaffals thus vied with one an-
*>f 'he feo- other in 'mutual afts of friendlhio and benevolence,
univerfal happinefs, liberty, and aftivity, were diffufed lord alfumed a right of marrying his vaffal to whom he
thro’: the fociety. The vafials behaved courteoufly to-
■Wards the retainers, who were immediately belowthem;
while they again were courted by the lords as conlli-
tuting their importance and ftrength; the lords, billy,
giving a like importance and dignity to the fovereign
shimfelf. Thus a regular, powerful, and compaft fy-
pleafed; and he not only exerted this right himfelf, but
would fell it to a ftranger, or allow the vaffal to buy it
himfelf; while the penalty annexed to a marriage with¬
out theconfent of the fuperior involved no lefs punilh-
ment than the lofs of the ellate itfelf, or fome grievous
infli&ion as for a Crime of the firll magnitude. The
tfs declcn-
turn.
Hem of government took place; an unanimity and cafe was Hill worfe with a female ward; whofe beauty
attention pervaded the various departments of Hate ; and accomplilhments became a fource of gain to the fu-
fo that while the fubjedls were free, the nation at large perior, or were facrificed to pjeafe his whim or caprice;
was formidable. fo that her relations were frequently obliged to buy
During this happy Hate of affairs, the members of from him the privilege of marrying her to the perfon
the national affembly in every country in Europe ap- Hie or they thought moft proper. In like manner the
peared there in arms, whether they came perfonally or aid, which was formerly a voluntary gift from the vaf-
by their reprefentatives. Such particularly was the cafe fal in cafes of diftrefs happening to his lord, now be-
under the Anglo-Saxon government; and the happi- came an unavoidable tax. An aid formerly was de¬
manded when the eldeft daughter of the fuperior was
married, when, his eldeft fon was knighted, or when
the fuperior himfelf was taken prifoner in battle. Thefe
were the only legal caufes of making a demand of this
kind : but in the fubfequent times of degeneracy, the
origin, declined ; the romantic ideas of moft frivolous pretences were every day made ufe of
fed ; and much more interefted notions of by the prince to opprefs the lords, and by the lords
* . - . to opprefs their vaffals; demanding fubfidies at pleafure,
which their inferiors were always obliged to comply
with. Laftly, the efcheat, which in former times took
place only in cafes of cowardice, treachery, or fome
other heinous crime, .was now inflidled on the moft
nefs they at that time enjoyed made the oppreffion and
tyranny of the Normans appear the more intolerable.
In procefs of time, however, the ftate of fociety began
to fuffer a remarkable alteration. The high and difin-
terefted notions, from which the happinefs above men¬
tioned took
® See Chi- chivalry * a
pr0perty came in their Head. The feparation of the
"C- interefts of the lords from their vaffals was the firft ftep
The per- towards the deftru&ion of the feodal fyftem. Thus
yerfion of the incidents, which, as has juft now been mentioned,
Promoted their happinefs, did the very reverfe. Pro¬
perty being now looked upon as a diftindtion fuperior trifling occafions. If the vaffal happened to be too long
to perfonal merit, naturally introduced the moft mer- in attending the court of his fuperior to take the oath
cenary views. In confequence of thefe the infant of fealty ; if he committed any adlion which could in
, ward, the care of whom was wont to be confidered as a the leaft be conftrued an infringement of the oath; if he
facred and honorary truft, was now only looked upon negledted to give his lord warning of any misfortune
as a mean of procuring emolument to the fuperior. which he might fuppofe was about to befal him; re-
The latter now regarded the profits of his vaffals as fo vealed any thing concerning him ; made love to his
many diminutions of his own'wealth. Inftead of taking After or daughter, &c.; or even if he Ihould grant a
care to improve the eftate of his Ward as formerly,
he impoverhhed it; not only negledling the education
tenure of land to another perfon in form different from
that in which he held his own; all thefe, nay others dill
of the heir, but offering infults to himfelf; infomnch more ridiculous, were judged fufficient reafons for the
that the relations of the unfortunate vaffal were fre¬
quently obliged to ranfom from the avaricious fuperior
both his perfon and effe&s. By merchandife of this
kind the coffers of princes were filled, and wardftn'ps
let out to ftrangers, who might exercife their rapacity
with greater freedom. When the vaffal at laft attained
the years of maturity. He caihe to the poffeffion of his
lands without any of that joy and feftivity which ufuaily
took place on the occafion. He received an inheri¬
tance wafted and deftroyed, while new grievances daily
prefented themfelves to augment the horrors of his lb
fuperior to feize on the eftate of the vaffal, and involve
him and his family in ruin. l3
Notwithftanding thefe oppreffions, however, the vaf- Confequent
fal was ftill obliged to fubmit to his lord ; to own him degeneracy
as his fuperior ; and even, in appearance, to pay him militia,
the fame refpedt as, formerly when the greateft unani¬
mity and cordial affedlion fubfifted between them. Still
he was obliged to perform the fame military fervice;
becaufe a failure in that refpeCt would have fubjedted
him to a forfeiture of lands according to the original
agreement. A vaft difference, however, now took
©pprefTed tuation. All the incidents, which in former times were place in the valour and activity which infpired the ar-
tftnation of many expreffions of gratitude on the part of the vaf-
t e va as. were now cgange(j into taxes which might be ex-
adted at the pleafure of the lord. Before the vaffal was
invefted in his land, the fuperior exadted from him a
Vox.. VII. Part I.
my. The vaffals, forced into the field with defpond-
ing hearts, were indifferent as to the fuccefs of the
caufe.in which they were engaged, and frequently ob-
ftrudted inftead of forwarding the operations of the
D d field.
F E O [ 2
Feoilal- field, lienee the fovereign found himftlf embarraffed;
, Syftem. an(jt though nominally at the head of a martial and
powerful people, was frequently unable to effetd any
thing by reafon of the mutual hatred and diffenfion
which every where prevailed.
Expedient Thus the feodal ftates of Europe became unnaturally
for its re- weak : a remedy was neceffary ; and it is remarkable,
covery. that the fame remedy was applied all over the continent.
This was, in fhort, the making fiefs hereditary, which
till now had only been granted for a long term of
years ; and, in return, burdening the lands with a cer¬
tain number of foldiers, which were not to be refufed
14 upon any pretence whatever. Hence was derived the
Invent;r n tenure of knight-fervice. A certain portion of land,
of knight- burdened with the fervice of one foldier or knight, was
fervice. called a knight's fee; and thus an eftate, furnilhing jiny
number of foldiers, was faid to contain as many knight’s
fees; fo that now the manours, baronies, &c. became
powerful according to the number of foldiers they were
bound to furnifh. in the grants from the crown, the
nobility were obliged to furnifh a certain number of fol¬
diers for the fervice of the fovereign; and in thofe from
the nobility to their vaffals, the like fervice was requi¬
red. Even the commons who had grants from the
crown furnifhed a certain proportion of knights. The
force of the nation was called into adtion by grants in
tapite, or from the fovereign and nobility. A numer¬
ous and powerful army was infiantly afl'embled, and aj
once ready for aftion. Of this army the king was the
general, the nobility the officers, and the vaffals fol¬
diers ; the whole being exadfly arranged, and capable
of entering upon any expedition without the leaft delay.
Thus a remedy was found in fome mcafure for the
weaknefs of the feodal fovereigns: but though the
knights-tenure could accomplifh this, it could not bring
back the former affe&ion and cordiality which fubfifted
between the various ranks of people. On the contrary,
by uniting them more firmly to one another by legal
ties, it rendered matters rather worfe. The oppreffion
originating from the operation of the feodal incidents,
ftill continued with unremitting violence. The grants
of knights-tenure were attended with the fame oaths
ro ] F E O
of homage and fealty; the fame incidents of relief, Fcodal-
wardfhip, marriage, aid, and efeheat, with the feodal
tenures. The princes promifed to abate fome what of v
their rigour in demanding the feodal perquifites, but
did not keep their word. Laws were occalionally pro¬
mulgated, and for fome time had an effedl; but pal¬
liatives foon became ineffe&ual, and a new ftate of
weaknefs began to commence. ,5
The two remarkable eras in the feodal hiftory are, Twoerasln
the time before the invention of knight-fervice (oj, and
that during which it continued. Fiefs were in a ftateot e **
of flu&uation from the deffrudfion of the Roman em¬
pire till the ninth century ; but they were rendered
perpetual in France about the yearlly"’, and were ge¬
nerally become fo in every country of Europe about the
beginning of the tenth. Du Cange, voce Militia, give?
us an example of a knight-fee in the year 880. By the
year 987, when Hugh Capet was raifed to the throne
of France, knight-fervice was become general all over
Europe, and was introduced into England after having jg
made its appearance in other countries ( e). In Eng-Doubts can-
land, however, there have been feveral doubts and in-cerning the
quiries among the learned concerning the introdu£tionintrod“c'
of the feodal laws. Many are of opinion, that they *
were firit introduced by William the Conqueror; and,into Erg-
confequently, that they were entirely unknown to the land.
Anglo-Saxons: but others think, that they exifted
among the latter in the fame form under which they
were continued by the Normans. Dr Stuart is of
opinion, that the Saxons who fettled in England could
not be Itrangers to fiefs. He fuppofes the conformity
of manners, which undoubtedly prevailed between the
Saxons and other barbarians, a fufficient proof that the
hereditary grant of land, as well as the fludluating ftate
of feodal tenures which preceded it, were known to the
former. Collateral proofs are derived from the fpirit
and tenure of the Anglo-Saxon laws, but efpecially
from the grants of hereditary eftates on condition of
military fervice (f). The condition of fiefs under the
Anglo-Saxons was very different from what it was af¬
terwards. In their times we find- no mention made of'
thofe opprefixons of which fo much notice has already
been
(d) For the difference between the knights produced by this fervice and the more ancient ones, or knights of
honour,-fee the article Knight.
(e) Dr Stuart informs us, that it appears from the records of Malcolm IV. in 1153, that knights-fervice
was known in Scotland, and that it was not a novelty at that time. The fame author thinks it even probable,
that it was known in the time of David I.
(f) The ufe of entails was known to the Anglo-Saxons; and this praiftice, as well as the fucceffion to al¬
lodial eftates, mud have contributed very much to eftablifti hereditary fiefs. This opinion feems alfo to be con¬
firmed by the accounts we have of the great power of many of the nobility among the Anglo-Saxons, and the
natural tendency that fiefs muft have, in the courfe of things, to become perpetual, though analogical argu¬
ments Cannot entirely be depended upon in this cafe. There is indeed poiitive evidence that the territory
which anciently condituted the kingdom of Mercland belonged to Ethelred as an hereditary fief and earldom.
The grant was given him by Alfred when he married his daughter Ethelfleda : and it is likewife atteiied by
Camden, thatjn the time of Ethelred the earldom of Leicefter was an inheritance, and the regular fucceffion
of its earls is ftill known. We are informed alfo by creditable hiftorians, that Bernicia and Deireland
were feodal and inheritable earldoms among the Saxons. The fame was true of the county of Cumberland
when poffeffed by the Scottilh monarchs. This laft appears from the Saxon Chronicle; in which the grant was
conveyed by Edmund king of England to Malcolm of Scotland in the following terms : “ Edmundus rex totara
Cumberland prjedavit et contrivit, e\. commenclavit earn Malcomo regi Scotise ; hoc pafto, quod in auxilio fibi
foret terra et mari.” I rom the ufe of the word commendavit, indeed, Spelman takes occafion to fay, that a.
feodal homage was not inteaded: but the contrary may be proved by the original Saxon from which the fore¬
going
F £ O f 4if ] F £ 0
Fsoda!- been taken'; and this may eafily be accounted for from .
Syftem. alterat;on of the feodal fpirit in different ages. Du-
.* 1 ’ ring the time that a warm and generous affedtion fub-
fifled between the feodal fuperiors and vaffals, the in¬
cidents were marks of generofity on the one part, and
gratitude on the other ; but as foon as a variance
had taken place, by reafon of the interefted dif-
pofition which the introdudiion of luxury produced,
.the fame incidents became fources of the moft flagrant
oppreflion. This was remarkably the cafe in the time
of William the Conqueror ; and, during the reign of
-king John, matters were come to fuch a crifis, that
the people every where complained loudly, and de¬
manded the reftoration of the laws of Edward the Con-
feflbr(G). “ What thefe laws of Edward the Confeffbr
were (fays Mr Hume), which the Englifh every reign
during a century and an half defired fo paffionately to
have reftored, is much difputed by antiquarians; and
our ignorance of them feems one of the greatell defedts
Infufficient of the ancient Englifh hiftory.” Dr Stuart has offered
folution of an explanation; but this- is in fadt no, more than a coa-
je^ure’ t^at “ by the laws or cultoms of the Confeflbr,
i tuart. tjiat con(i;t;on 0f felicity was exprefled which had been
enjoyed during the fortunate ftate of the feodal affocia-
tion. The cordiality, equality, and independence,
which then prevailed among a 1 ranks in fociety, con¬
tinued to be remembered in lefs profperous times, and
occafioned an ardent defire for the revival of thofe laws
and ufages which were the fources of fo much happi-
rS nefs.”
Diftindliwn Befides the great diftindtion (of which an'account
fiefsinthf ^as a’reaciy ^een giveI1) between the ftate of fiefs under
Anglo-Sax- the Anglo Saxons and under the Normans, they were
onandihe no lefs diftinguifhed by the introdudlion of knight-
Anglo Nor-femce> 'Hitherto the refinement of the Englifh had
man times. j3een 0ij{fru(cfeci the invafion of the Danes, and the
infular fituation of the kingdom ; but after the Nor¬
man conquefl the fiefs were made perpetual. Still,
however, the knight-fee and knight-fervice were ah
together unknown. William, the fixth prince who
enjoyed the duchy of Normandy, was well acquainted
with every thing relating to fiefs ; for that duchy had
experienced all the vaiiety incidental to them from
the time of its being granted to Rollo by Charles the
Simple in the year 912, to the year 1066, when Wil¬
liam was put in pofleflion of England by the tdUle of FeoJuI-
Haitings. i
On his acceflion to the throne, a number of for-
feitures took place among thofe who had followed the
fortune of Harold. Their eftates were to be difpofed
of at the pleafure of the conqueror; and it was natural
to fuppofe that he would follow the method praclifed 19
in his own country. Hence the origin of knight-fer-I-n-troduc-
vice in England. A grant of land, to any perfon^10"^
whatever, was eftimated at a certain number of knights
fees; and each of thefe required the fervice of a into ting-
knight. The grants of lands were even renewed tolmd.
the old tenants under this tenure ; fo that by degrees
the whole military people in the kingdom acquiefced in
it. To accomplifli this, Domesday Book is fuppofed
to have been compiled, which contained an exadt ac¬
count of all the landed property of the kingdom.
Hence it is to be concluded, not that William introdu¬
ced fiefs into England, as fome have imagined, but
that he brought them to their ultimate Hate of per-
feftion by the introduction of knight'-ferviee. This
is evident from the laws enkdted during his reign. In
thefe it is not only mentioned that knight-fervice was
enadted-, but that it was done exprefsly with the con-
fent of the common council of the nation ; which at
that time was equivalent to an adt of parliament (h).
The invention of knight-fervice proved generally
agreeable: for as only few of the Anglo-Saxon
fiefs were hereditary, the advancement of the relt to
perpetuity, under the tenure of knight-fervice, mull
have been accounted an acquiiition of fome import¬
ance; as not only augmenting the grandeur and dig¬
nity of the fovereign, but fecuring the independence
of the fubjedt, and improving his property. In the idea of ths
happy ftate of the feodal affociation, there was indeed feodal mi-
no necefiity for the knight’s fee; but when the dif-*k»*
cordance and oppreffion fo often mentioned began to
take place, it became then neceflary to point out par¬
ticularly every duty of the vaflal, as Well as of thd
lord; and this was fully done by the invention of
knight-feryice. The nobles poffeffed duchies, baronies, .
and earldoms; which extenfive pofleflxons were divided
into as many fees, each of them to furnifh a knight
for the fervice of the king, or of the fuperior : fo that
every feudal ftate could command a .numerous army
Dd 2 and
going is a Latin tranflation ; and the word, according to feveral learned critics, fignifies feodal homage with
the moft flridl propriety. Thus Du Cange informs us, that commendarefe allcul was the general expreilion for
faire I’homtriage a un fuferain.
(g) The laws which are now extant under the name of Edward, are generally allowed to be of doubtful au¬
thenticity ; nor are they, even fuppofing them to be genuine, of. any ufe in anfwering the prefent queftion.
They determine indeed the exiftence of fiefs among the Anglo-Saxons : and Dr Stuart is of opinion, that the
compilation which goes under the name of this prince, though pofterior to the date it bears, neverthelefs merits
greater attention than has ufually been beftowed upon it. M. Honard, a foreign lawyer, is the lateft writer who
has made it his ftudy ; but he is better acquainted with the Norman than the Anglo-Saxon cuftoms.
(h) The following law of William the Conqueror not only makes exprefs mention of the knight’s fee and
fervice, but alludes to a former law of William and his parliament, by which this tenure was a&ually eftabliftied.
“ Statuimus etiam et firmiter praecipimus, ut omnes comites, et barones, et milites, et fervientes, et univerfi
“ liberi homines totius regni noftri praedifti, habeant et teneant fe femper bene in armis, et in e^uis, ut decet
“ et oportet, et quod fint femper prompti et bene parati adfervhium fuum integrum nobis explendum, et pera-
“ gendum, cum Temper opus adfuerit, fecundum quod nobis debent de ftedis et tenementis fuis de jure facere,
“ et fie lit illis ftatuimus per commune conjilium totius regni noftri praedidii, et dedimus et conceflimus In feodo jure
“ Laereditaiio.” LL. GuilL c. 58.
F E O [* 212
Feodal- and militia to fupport and defend it in cafe of any
Syftem. emergency. The knights were alfo bound to aflemble
' 1 ^" in complete armour whenever the fuperior thought
proper to call, and to hold themfelves in readinefs for
action whenever the king or fuperiqr found it conve¬
nient to take the field: fo that thus the militia might
be marched, at the fiiorteft notice to defend or fupport
the honour of the nation.
The knights were ufually armed with an helmet,
fword, lance, and Ihield ; and each was befides obliged
to keep a hotfe. This laft requilite was owing to the
contempt into which the infantry had fallen through
the prevalence of tournaments and luxuries of various
kinds, though it was by means of the infantry that the
barbarians had originally diftinguifhed themfelves in
their wars with the Romans, and become able tp cope
with thefe celebrated warriors. All proprietors of
fees or tenants by knight-fervice fought on foot: the
cavalry were diftinguifhed by the name of battle ; and
the fuccefs of every encounter was fuppofed to depend
on them alone. They only were completely armed ;
the infantry, being furniftred by the villages under the
jurifdiftion of the barons, had at firft only bows and
flings ; though afterwards they were found worthy of
much greater attention.
Its ineffica- While the feodal afibciation remained in perfection,
ey and cor- the fuperior could at any time command the military
r;uption. fervice of his vaffals i but in the fubfequent degenera¬
cy this fervice could neither be depended upon when
wanted, nor was it of the fame advantage when obtain¬
ed as formerly. The invention of knight-fervice
tended in a great degree to remedy this inconvenience.
Thofe who were pofiefibd of knights fees were now
obliged to remain 40 days in the field at their own
expence ; and this without exception, from the great
crown vaffals to the fmalleft feudatories ; but if longer
fervice was required, the prince was obliged to pay
his troops. In thofe times, however, when the fate of
nations was frequently decided by a Angle battle, a
continuance in the field for 40 days was fufficient for
ordinary occafions.
Thus matters feemed once more to be reftored near¬
ly to their former ftate. It was now, as much as ever,
the intereft of the nation to adt with unanimity in its
defence, not only againft foreign enemies, but againft
the tyranny of the prince over his fubjedts, or of one
part of the fubjefts over the other. New inconveni-
encies, however, foon began to take place, owing to
the gradual improvements in life and the refinement
of manners. From the firft inftitution of military fer¬
vice, a fine had been accepted inftead of aCtual appear-
. ance in the field. In the times of barbarity, however,
when men accounted rapine and bloodlhed their only
glory, there were but few who made an offer of this
compenfation; but as wealth and luxury increafed,
and the manners of people became fofter, a general
unwillingnefs of following the army into the field be¬
came alfq prevalent. A new tenure, called efcuage,
was therefore introduced; by which the vaffal was only
* Seethe obliged to pay hisfuptrior a fum of money annually in-
particular ftead of attending him into the field . Hence origi-
eonfequen- nated taxes and their mifapplication ; fer as the king
under the* was ^or<^ paramount of the whole kingdom, it thence
article happened that the whole efcuage money collected
Knight.
Service,
] FER
throughout the nation centred in him. The' princes Feodal-
then, inftead of recruiting their armies, frequently fill- syft«n>
ed their coffers with the money, or diffipated it other- peraj;a
wife, hiring mercenaries to defend their territories ' ^
when threatened with any danger. Thefe being com-
pofed of the dregs of the people, and difbanded at the Rife of
end of every campaign, filled all Europe with a dif-handing
orderly banditti, who frequently proved very danger- ar‘lues> ^x'
ous to fociety. To avoid fuch inconveniehcies, Hand¬
ing armies were introduced, and taxations began to be*
raifed in every European kingdom. New inconveni-
encieSfc arofe. The fovereigns in moll of thefe king¬
doms, having acquired the right of taxation, as well as
the command of the military powf^ became complete¬
ly defpqtic : but in England the fovereign was de¬
prived of this right by Magna Charta, which was ex¬
torted from him, as related under the article Eng¬
land, n0 [153]; fo that, though allowed to command
his armies, he could only pay them by the voluntary
contributions of the people, or their fubmitting to
fuch taxations as were virtually impofed by themfelves.
FEOFFMENT, in law, (from the verb feojfare or
inftudare, “ to give one a feud”) ; the gift or grant
of any corporeal hereditament to another. He that
fo gives, or enfeoffs, is called the feoffees ; and the per-
fon enfeoffed is denominated the feoffee.
This is plainly derived from, or is indeed itfelf.the
very mode of, the ancient feodal donation; for though
it may be performed by the word “ enfeoff” or
“ grant,” yet the apteft word of feoffment is do or
dedi. And it is {till direCled and governed by the
fame feodal rules; infomuch that the principal rule
^elating to the extent and effeCt of the feodal grant,
tenor ejl qui legem dat feudo, is in other words become
the maxim of our law with relation to feoffments, mo¬
dus legem dat donationi. And therefore, as in pure feo¬
dal donations, the lord, from whom the feud moved,
muft exprefsly limit and declare the continuance or
quantity of eftate which he meant to confer, ne quis
plus donqffe prafumatur, quam in donatione exprejferit;
fo, if one grants by feoffment lands or tenements to
another, and limits or expreffes no eftate, the grantee
(due ceremonies of law being performed) hath barely
an eftate for life. For, as the perfonal abilities of the
feoffee were originally prefumed to be the immediate or
principal inducements to the feoffment, the feoffee's
eftate ought to be confined to his perfon and fubfift
only for his life ; unlefs the feoffer, by exprefs provifioa
in the creation and conftitution of the eftate, hath gi¬
ven it a longer continuance. Thefe exprefs provifions
are indeed generally made ; for this was for ages the
only conveyance, whereby our anceftors were wont to
create an eftate in fee-fimple, by giving the land to the
feoffee, to hold to him and his heirs for ever; though
it ferves equally well to convey any other eftate of
freehold.
But by the mere words of the deed the feoffment is
by no means perfedted: there remains a very material
ceremony to be performed, called//wry of feijtng; with¬
out which the feoffee has but a mere eftate at will. See
Seisin.
FERfrE, in zoology, an order of quadrupeds. See
Zoology.
FERALIA, in antiquity, a feftival obferved af
mpng
F E R [21
Feralia
I!
Feretrum.
mong the Romans on February 2ift, or, according
to Ovid, on the 17th of that month, in honour of the
manes of their deceafed friends and relations.
Varro derives the word from inferi, or from fero; on
account of a repaft. carried to the fepulchres of fuch as
the laft offices were that day rendered to. Feftus de¬
rives it from fer'w, on account of the vidtims facrificed.
Voffius obferves, that the Romans called death fera,
4t cruel,” and that the word feralia might arife thence.
—Macrobius Saturn, lib. i. cap. 13. refers the origin
of the ceremony to Numa Pompilius. Ovid, in his
Fafti, goes back as far as fEneas for its inftitution.
He adds, that on the fame day a facrifice was perform¬
ed to the goddefs Muta, or Dumb ; and that the per-
fons who officiated were an old woman attended with
a number of young girls.
During the continuance of this feftival, which lafted
eleven days', prefects were made at the graves of the
deceafed, marriages were forbidden, and the temples
of the gods fhut up. While the ceremonies continued,
they imagined that the ghofts fuffered no punifhments
in hell, but that their tormentors allowed them to
wander round their tombs, and feaft upon the meats
which their furviving friends had prepared for them.—
For a more particular account of the offerings and fa-
erificesand feafts for the dead, feelNFERiiE and Sjli-
CERNIUM.
Sometimes at the feralia public feafts were given to
the people at the tombs of the rich and great by their
heirs or particular friends.
FER de fourchette, in heraldry, a crofs having
at each end a forked iron, like that formerly ufed by
foldiers to reft their mulkets on. It differs from the
crqfs-fourche, the ends of which turn forked ; whereas
this has that fort of fork fixed upon the fquare end.
See Heraldry.
Fer de Moulin, Milrinde, Inke de Moulin, in heraldry,,
is a bearing fuppofed to reprefent the iron-ink, or ink
of a mill, which fuftains the moving mill-ftone.
FERDINAND V. king of Spain, called the Ca¬
tholic, which title was continued to his fucceffors. He
married Ifabella of Caftile, by which that kingdom
was united to the Spanifh crown. This illuftrious
couple laid the foundation of the future glory and
power of Spain. The conqueft of Granada, and the
difeoveries of Chriftopher Columbus, make this reign
a celebrated era in the hiftory of Spain. He died in
1516, aged 63. See {Hijlory of) Spain.
FERENTARII, in Roman antiquity, were auxi¬
liary troops, lightly armed ; their weapons being a
fword, bow, arrows, and a fling.
FERENT1NUM, (anc. geog.), a town of the
Herniciin Latium, which the Romans, after fubduing
that nation, allowed to be governed by its own laws.
Now Feretino, an epifcopal city in the Campania of
Rome. E. Long. 14. 5. N. Lat. 41. 45.
FERENTUM, or Forentum, (anc. geog.), a
town of Apulia in Italy. Now Foren%a, in the Bafili-
cata of Naples.
FERETRIUS, a furname of Jupiter, a ferendo,
becaufe he had affifted the Romans ; or a feriendo, be-
caufe he had conquered their enemies under Romulus.
He had a temple at Rome built by Romulus. It was
there that the fpoils called opima were always carried.
EERETPvUM, among the Romans, the bier ufed
3 ] FER
in carrying out the bodies bf the dead, which duty ^''g
was performed by the neareft male relations of the de- ^ ‘L
ceafed : thus, fons carried out their parents, brothers JrCrg_U °n‘f
their fifters, &c.
FERG, or Fergus, (Francis Paul), a charming
landfcape-painter, was born at Vienna in 1689, and
there learned the firft principles of his art. He fuc-
ceffively pra&ifed under Hans Graf, Orient, and Thi¬
ele. This laft, who was painter to the court of Sax¬
ony, invited him to Drefden to infert fmall figures in
his landlcapes. Ferg- thence went into Lower Saxo¬
ny, and painted for the duke of Brunfwick and for
the Gallery of Salzdalil. From Germany he went to
London, where he might have lived in the higheft
efteem and affluence, if, by an indifereet marriage, he
had not been fo effe&ually deprefiVd, that he was ever
after involved in difficulties. The neceffities which arofe
from his domeftic troubles, compelled him to diminifh
the prices of his paintings, in order to procure-an imme¬
diate fupport; and as thofe neceffities increafed, his
pi&ures were ftilfmore funk, in their price, though not
in their intrinfic value. By a feries of misfortunes he
was over-run with debts ; and to avoid the purfuit of
his creditors, he was conftrained to. fecrete himfelf in
different parts of London. He died fuddenly in the
ftreet one night as he was returning from fome friends
about the year 1738, having not attained his 50th
year; and left four children. This pleafing artift,
Mr Walpole obferves, had formed a manner of his
own from various Flemifh painters, though refembling
Poelemburg moft in the enamelled foftnefs and mellow-
nefs of his colouring: but his figures are greatly fu-
perior ; every part of them is fufficiently finifhed, ,
every a&ion expreffive. He painted fmall landfcapes,
fairs, and rural meetings, with the moft agreeable
truth ; his horfes and cattle are not inferior to Wou-
vermans ; and his buildings and diftances feem to owe
their refpedtive foftnefs to the intervening air, not to
the pencil. More faithful to nature than Denner, he
knew how to omit exa&nefs, when the refult of the
whole demands a lefs precifion in parts. The greateft
part of his works are in London and Germany ; and
they now bear fuch a price as is the moft indubitable,
evidence of their real merit. He alfo etched well with
aquafortis; and his prints of that kind are efteemed by
the curious.
FERGUS, the name of three kings of Scotland.
See (Hijlory of) Scotland.
FERGUSON (James), an eminent experimental
philofopher and mechanic, was born in Scotland, of
very poor parents. At the earlieft age his extraordi-'
nary genius began to exert itfeif. He firft learned to
read, by overhearing his father teach his elder brother: ,
and he had made this acquifition before any one fu-
fpedfed it. He foon dilcovered, a peculiar taile for
mechanics, which firft arofe on'feeing his father ufe a
lever. He purfued this ftudy a confiderable length,
even whilft very young; and made a watch in wood¬
work, from having once feen one. As he had no in-
ftru&or, nor any help from books, every thing he
learned had all the merit of an original difeoyery ; and
fuch, with infinite joy, he believed it to be. As foon
as his age would permit, he went to fervice; in which
he met with hardfhips, which rendered his conftitution
feeble through life, Whilft he was fervant to a farmer
(whole.
Ferial
F E R [2
Eejgrifon, '(wbofe goodnefs he acknowledges in the raodell and
. •i:c‘'ia;- humble account ofhimfelf which he prefixed to hislalt
publication), he frequently contemplated the liars;
and began the lludy of allronomy, by laying down,
from his own obfervations only, a celeftial globe. His
kind mailer, obferving thefe marks of his ingenuity,
procured him the countenance and affiftance of his fu-
periors. By their help and inftrudtions, he went on
gaining farther knowledge, and was fent to Edin¬
burgh. 1 here he began to take portraits ; an em¬
ployment by which he fupported himfelf and family
for feveral years, both in Scotland and England, whilft
he was purfuing more ferious ftudies. In London he
firft publilhed fome curious aftrohomical tables and cal¬
culations ; and afterwards gave public leftures in ex¬
perimental philofophy, which he repeated (by fub-
icripticn) in moll of the principal towns in England,
with the higheft marks of general approbation. He
was eledled a Fellow of the Royal Society, without
paying for admiffion (an honour fcarcely ever conferred
on a native) ; and had a penfion of 50I. per anti, gi¬
ven him, unfolicited, by our gracious king, at his ac-
ceflion, who had heard ledlures from him, and frequent¬
ly fent for and converfed with him on curious topics.
He alfo received, feveral prefents from his majefty, the
patron of real merit. To what a degree of confidera-
tion Mr Fergufon mounted by the ftrength of his na¬
tural genius, almoft every one knows. He was uni-
verfally confidered as at the head of aftronomy and me¬
chanics in this nation of philofophers. And he might
jultly be ftyled felf^taught, or rather heaven taught ;
for in his whole life he had not above half a year’s in-
ftruftion at fchool. He was a rtran of the cleareft
judgment, and the moll unwearied application to llu¬
dy ; benevolent, meek, and innocent in his manners
as a child : humble, courteous, and communicative;
iuftead of pedantry, philofophy feemed to produce in
him only diffidence and urbanity,—a love for mankind
and for his Maker. His whole life was an example of
refignation and Chiillian piety. He might be faid to
be an enthufiaft in his love of God, if religion, found¬
ed on fuch fubftantial and enlightened grounds as his
was, could be llyled enthufiafm. He died in 1776.
FERLE, in Roman antiquity, holidays, or days
upon which they abltained from work. Proclamation
was generally made by the herald, by command of the
Rex Sacrorum, or Flamines, that all Ihould abltain from
bufinefs ; and whoever tvanfgrelTed the order was fe-
verely fined.—The feriae were of two kind?, public
and private.
The public Feriae were fourfold, t. Stativa, which
were kept as public feafts by the whole city upon cer¬
tain immoveable days appointed in their kalendar ;—
fuch were the Compitalia, Carmentalia, Lupercalia, iafc.
2. Feria Conceptlva, which were moveable fealls, t-he
days for the celebration of which were fixed by the
tnagiilrates or prielts ; of this fort were the Ferht La-
thitz, Paganalia, Compitalia, &c. which happened every
year, but the days for keeping them were left to the
difcretion of the magiftrates or priells. 3. Fcria Imfe-
rativa, which were fixed and inlliuited by the mete
command of confuls, prastors, di&ators, upon the gain¬
ing of fome victory or other fortunate event, 4. Nun¬
dinal. See the articles Nundin.se, Agonalia, Car¬
mentalia, &c.
14 ] F E R
The private Ferlas were holidays obferved by par¬
ticular perfons or families on feveral accounts, as birth-
days, funerals, &c. The fence belonged to, and were naugh.
one divifion of, the dies fejli. See Festi. —y—-
Fkruz Latina;, a feftival at which a white bull was
facrificed, and the Latin and Roman towns provided
each a fet quantity of meat, wine, and fruits; and du¬
ring the celebration, the Romans and Latins fwore
eternal friendlhip to each other, taking home a piece
of the vidlim to every town. The feftival was inftitu-
ted by Tarquinius Superbus when he overcame the
Tufcans and made a league with the Latins, propo-
fing to build a common temple to Jupiter Latialis, at
which both nations might meet and offer facriflces for
their common fafety. At firft tl\e folemnity lafted but
-one day, but it was at different times extended to ten.
It was held on the Alban mount, and cel^rated with
chariot races at the capitol, where the vidtor was treat¬
ed with a large draught of wormwood drink.
FERIA, in the Romilh breviary, is applied to the
feveral days of the week ; thus Monday is the feria fe-
cunda, Tuefday the feria tertia ; though thefe days are
not working days, but holidays. The oecafion of this
was, that the firft Chriftians were ufed to keep the
eafter-week holy, calling Sunday the prima feria, &c.
whence the term feria was given to the days of every
week. But befides thefe, they have extraordinary fe¬
ria;, viz. the three laft days of paffion-week, the two
following eafter-day, and the fecond feria; of rogation.
FERIANA, the ancient city of Thala in Africa,
taken and deftroyed by Metellus in the war with Ju-
gurtha. It was vilited by Mr Bruce in his late travels
through Africa, who expedled to have found many
magnificent ruins in the place, but was difappointed.
The only remarkable objedts he met with were the baths,
which are exceffively warm. Thefe are without the
town, and flow from a fountain named El Tarmid.
Notwithftanding the exceffive heat of its water, the
fountain is not deftitute of fifhes. They are of the
fliape of a gudgeon, above four inches in length; and
he fuppofed that there might have been about five or
fix dozen of them in the pool. On trying the water
with a thermometer, he found the heat fo great, that
he was furprifed the fifh were not boiled in it. That
fifli Ihould exift in this degree of heat, is very furpri-
fing ; but it feems no lefs wonderful that Mr Bruce,
while Handing naked in fuch water, fhould leifurely
make obfervations on its heat, without fufpedting that
he himfelf would be boiled by continuing there. We
have to regret that the accidental wetting of the leaf
on udiich he wrote down his remarks has deprived the
public of the knowledge of the precife degree to which
the thermometer is raifed by this water. The fifh are
faid to go down the ftream to fome diftance during
the day, and to return to the fpring of warmeft part at
night.
FERMANAUGH, a county of Ireland, in the
province of Ulfter ; bounded by Cavan on the fouth,
Tir-Oen on the north and north-eaft, by Tyrconnel on
the north-weft, Leitrim on the fouth-weft, and Mona¬
ghan on the weft. It is 38 miles long and 24 broad.
A great part of it is taken up with bogs; and the
great lake called Lough-Earne, which is near 20 miles
in length, and in fome places 14 in breadth, diverfified
with upwards of 300 iflands, molt of them well wodd-
3 ed,
F E R [ :
Torment, f£}) inhabited, and covered with cattle. It abounds
tkm511* a^° w‘t^1 great variety of fifh, fuch as huge pike, large
* ^ ‘ bream, roach, eels, trout, and falmon. The water of
the lake in fome places is faid to have a particular foft-
jiefs and fliminefs, that bleaches linen much fooner
than could be done by other water. The lake is di¬
vided into the Upper and Lower, between which it
contrails itfelf for five or fix miles to the breadth of
an ordinary river. In one part of the county are marble
rocks 50 or 60 feet high. This county fends four mem¬
bers to parliament, viz. two for the {hire, and two for
Innifldllen the capital. Fermanaugh gives the title of
vifcount to earl Verney.
FERMENT, any body which being applied to
another, produces fermentation.
Ferments are either matters already in the aft of fer¬
mentation, or that foon run into this aft. Of the firft
kind are the flowers of wine, yeaft, fermenting beer,
or fermenting wine, &c. and of the fecond are the new
exprefltd vegetable juices of fummer fruit.
Among diftillers, ferments are all thofe bodies
which, when added to the liquor, only corredt fome
fault therein, and, by removing fome obftacle to fer¬
mentation, forward it by fecondary means : as alfo
fuch as, being added in time of fermentation, make
the liquor yield a larger proportion of fpirit, and give
it a finer flavour.
FERMENTATION, may be defined a fenfible
internal motion of the conftituent particles of a moift,
fluid, mixed or compound body!; by the continuance
of which motion, thefe particles are gradually removed
from their former fituation or combination, and a-
gain, after fome vifihle reparation is made, joined to¬
gether in a different order and arrangement, fo that a
new compound is formed, having qualities very fenfibly
different from thofe of the original fluid.
Subjedb of Fermentation, properly fo called, is confined to the
ftimenta- vegetable and animal kingdoms ; for the effervefcences
tion. between acids and alkalies, however much they may
refemble the fermentation of vinous liquors, are never-
thelefs exceedingly different. It is divided into three
kinds; or rather, there are three different ftages of it,
viz. the vinous, the acetous, and the putrefactive. Of
the firft, vegetables alone are fufceptible; the flefti of
young animals is in fome flight degree fufceptible of
the fecond (a) ; but animal fubftances are particularly
fufceptible of the third, which vegetables do not fo
cafily fall into without previoufly undergoing the firlt
and fecond. The produce of the firft ftage is wine, or
fome other vinous liquor; of the fecond, vinegar ; and
of the third, volatile alkali. See Brswing, Vine¬
gar, See.
Fermentation is one of the rcoft obfeure proceffes
in nature, and no attempt has been made to folve
it with any degree of probability. All that we
know with regard to it is, that the liquor, however
;I5 1 TER
clear and tranfparent at fi; ft, no fooaer begins to fer- Fermcrrs-
ment, than it becomes turbid, depoiks a fediment, t:°n-
emits a great quantity of fixed air, and throws up a *
feum to the top, acquiring at the fame time fome de- ph^mprai
gree of heat. The heat of the vinous ftage, however, 0f it.
is but moderate, feldom or never exceeding that of the
human body. The heat of the acetous is confiderably
greater ; and that of the putrefa&ive is the greateft of
all, infomuch that putrefying fubftances, when heaped
together in great quantities, will fometimes break forth
into aCtual flame. 3
From thefe phenomena, fermentation would feem Anempt
to be a procefs ultimately tending to the entire dif-
folution of the fermenting fubflance, and depending en0''
upon the aCtion of the internal heat, etherial fluid, or
whatever elfe' we pleafe to call it, which pervades, and
makes an effential ingredient in, the compofition of all
bodies. From fuch experiments as have been made up¬
on thib fubjeCt, it appears, that whether fixed air is the
bond of connection between the particles of terreftrial
bodies or not, yet the emiffion of it from any fubftance
is always attended with a diffoluiion of that fubftance,
We cannot, however, in the prefent cafe, fay that the
einiffion of the fixed air is the caufe of the fermenta¬
tion. It is in faCt otherwife. Fixed air hath no ten.
dency to fly off from terreftrial fubftances with which
it is united ; on the contrary, it wall very readily leave
the atmofphere after it hath been united with it, to
join itfelf to fuch terreftrial fubftances as are capable oF
abforbing k. The emiffion of it, therefore, muft de¬
pend upon the aCtion of fome other fluid ; moft pro¬
bably the fire or heat, which is dilperfed thro’ all fub¬
ftances in a latent ftate, and in the prefent cafe be¬
gins fenfibly to manifeft itfelf. But from what caufe
the heat originally begins to operate in this manner,
feems to be entirely unknown and inexplicable, except
that it appears fome how or other to depend on the air;
for, if that is totally excluded, fermentation will not
go on. 4
In the Memoirs of the Manchefter Society, Mr Hen* M;r bten-
ry gives an account of fome experiments, in which he rl's expei"
produced fermentation not only in bread and wort, but producing1
in liquors which we (hould think quite incapable of it, fennenta-
viz. punch and whey. Having previoufly fufpeCied,tion by im-
from fome obfervations and experiments, that yeaft: 'the^uor*
was only a quantity of fixed air involved and detained with'fixed.
among the mucilaginous parts of the fermenting liquor, air.
he uttempted to prepare it in the following manner.
Having boiled wheat-flour and water to the confiftence
of a thin jelly, he put this vifeous fluid into the middle
part of Dr Nooth’s machine for impregnating water
w'ith fixed air. The gas was abforbed in confiderable
quantity; and next day the matter w'as in a ftate of fer¬
mentation. The third day it had acquired fo much of the
appearance of yeaft, that an experiment was made on
fome pafte for bread; and after five or fix hours baking,
it
(a) Under the article China, n° 114. a fa£t is mentioned which feems to fhow that animal fubftances are
likewife capable of the vinous fermentation ; viz. that the Chinefe make ufe of a certain liquor called /ami-
•w'me, and likewufe that they ufe a kind of fpirit diftilled fromfieep'sflefh. This is related on the credit of M,
I * Grofier : but as he does not mention the particulars of the procefs, w>e are at liberty to fuppofe that the flefli
of thefe a nimals has been mixed with rice, or fome other ingredients naturally capable of producing a vinous
« 1 • liquor ; fo that, inftead of contributing any thing to the fermentation in queftion, they may in reality be de¬
trimental, and furnifii only that ftrong and difagreeable fmell complained of in the liquid.
PER [ 216 ] F E R
Ferment a- it was found to have anfwered the purpofe tolerably
tion. well. Another experiment was made with wort ; but
here the artificial yeaft was not made ufe of. Inftead
of this, part of the wort itfelf was put into Nooth’s
machine, and impregnated with fixed air, of which it
imbibed a large quantity. On being poured into the
remainder of the liquor, a briik fermentation came on
in 24 hours, “ a ftrong head of yeaft began to coliech
on its furface, and on the third day it feemed fit for
tunning.” In profecuting the experiment, good bread
■was made with the yeaft taken off from the furface 5
and beer was produced by keeping the fermented li¬
quor, and good ardent fpirit produced by diftilling it.
In another experiment, in which a fourth part of the
wort was impregnated but not faturated with fixed air,
the fermentation did not commence fo foon, though it
is probable that it would alfo have taken place at laft
w ithout any farther addition. The experiment com¬
menced about midnight; but in the morning' there
-were no figns of fermentation. At five in the after¬
noon there was only a flight mantling on the furface.
A bottle with a perforated ftopper and valve contain¬
ing an effervefeing mixture of chalk and vitriolic acid
was then let down to the bottom of the veflel; the dif-
charge of air from this mixture was going on rapidly
at nine o’clock ; while the liquor at the fame time
feemed to be in a ftate of effervefcence. At 11 o’clock
the bottle was withdrawn, as the fermentation was
commenced beyond a doubt, -the liquor having a pret¬
ty ftrong head of yeaft upon it. Next day the fermen¬
tation feemed to be on the decline, but was recovered
by a fecond immerfion of the mixture. When the vi¬
nous fermentation was finilhed, the liquor, by being
kept too long, was found converted into vinegar; fo
that in the courfe of thefe experiments, ale, bread,
yeaft, ardent fpirit, and vinegar, had all been produced.
"Remarks From thefe experiments it would feem natural to
• on them, fuppofe that fixed air was the cattfe of fermentation,
contrary to what has been already laid down. But in
fa& there is not any centradi&ion here to the pofition
juft mentioned ; for the quantity of fixed air introdu¬
ced into the liquor on Mr Henry’s experiments was too
great for it to contain. Some part of the latent heat
by which the elafticity of that fluid is produced may
likewife have been abforbed, and difpofed the liquor to
run into the fermenting ftate fooner than it would
otherwife have done. Or, perhaps, when any fluid fub-
llance of the aqueous kind contains an extraordinary
proportion of fixed air, it may be thus inclined to run
into the fermentative procefs, by fofiie difpofition of the
air itfelf to reaflume its elaftic Hate. This feems pro¬
bable from Mr Henry’s experiments with Pyrmont wa¬
ter. Having made feme punch with an artificial wa¬
ter of this kind, he put a pint of it into a quart bottle
and flopped it with a cork. On opening it three or
four days after, he found that it creamed and mantled
like the brifkeft bottled cyder ; fo that it was taken
for feme delicious liquor hitherto unknown. This
length of time he found was neceflary to give the briik-
nets juft mentioned to the fluid ; for artificial Pyrmont
water itfelf affumes a briik and fparkling appearance
after being kept three or four days, though it has it
not at firft, unlefs a very great.quantity of air be for¬
ced into it at its preparation. In like manner a quan-
N°i26.
tity of whey, impregnated with fixed air, was changed Fermenta'-
into a brifle and Iparklihg vinous liquor by keeping for don.
fome time in a bottle loofely corked.
On certain fubftances, however, both fluid and folid,
fixed air hath a different effe&. Thus, when mixed
with alkaline falts, whether fixed or volatile, fluid or
folid, it firft nestralifes, and then renders them acid,
without the leaft tendency to fermentation, unlefs an
acid be added. Then indeed a great effervefcence will
enfue; but this, as we have already faid, is not a true
fermentation. On calcareous earths its effedl is fome-
what fihgular : for thefe earths, when pure, are foluble
in water; when joined with a certain proportion of fixed
air, they become infoluble; and with an over-proportion
they become foluble again; but none of them flrow any
difpofition to fermentation, though kept ever fo long
in either ftate. As water therefore contains a great
quantity of latent heat which it readily parts with, the
probability ftill is, that a difpofition to unite with the
foiid part of fixed air exifts in that element, rather than
to remain combined with the water. It is likewife
well known that all fermentable fubftances, fuch as the
juices of ripe fruits, fugar, &c. contain much fixed air,
and therefore fall fpontaneoufly into fermentation when
kept in a gentle warmth. This laft circumftance fup-
plies a quantity of fenfible heat, or elementary fire ac¬
ting in its expanfive form, which the water more readi¬
ly parts with than that which afts upon its own par¬
ticles in fuch a manner as to keep them eafily moveable
upon one another, and thus occafion its fluidity. Other
fubftances contain lefs fixed air, as infulion of malt, po¬
tatoes, turnips, &c. whence it is neceffary to add an
extraordinary quantity to them, either inveloped in mu¬
cilaginous matter which is analogous to yeaft, or pure
as was done by Mr Henry.
Thus we may fuppole fermentation to confift in the
a&ion of elementary fire expanding the fixed air natu¬
rally contained in the fluid, or artificially introduced
into it; in confequence of which certain changes are
produced .in the nature of the fluid itfelf; and it be¬
comes a vinous, acetous, or putrid liquor; according to ,
the degree of aftion which takes place. This feems to ]> peHlw,
coincide with the opinion of Dr Penington of Philadel- ton’s opi-
phia, who, in his inaugural differtation on this fubje&,nion-
makes a change of the fenfible qualities of the fub-
ftance the only criterion of fermentation. Hence he
denies that any true fermentation exifls in the raifing
of bread, as is commonly fuppofed ; and indeed his ar- 7
guments on this fubjeft feem dectfive. To afeertain His expe-
this, he put into a retort fome dough which had beenriments oa
railed in three quarters of an hour ; and, on applying
a gentle heat, fome aqueous liquid came over, which did bread,
not Ihow the leaft veftige of vinous fpirit, though the
remainder of the fame dough afforded a good and well
fermented bread. On adding a little water to the dough
which -remained in the retort, and letting the mixture
ftand in a gentle warmth for nine hours, no fign offer-
mentation appeared ; but in 16 hours the procefs feem¬
ed to have been going on for fome time ; and on diltil-
lation yielded a fmall quantity of vinous fpirit. Hence
it appears that flour requires more than nine hours be¬
fore it ferments; but as bread frequently rifes in one
hour, the proceffes mutt fome how or other be effen-
tially different. “ From a variety of fa£ls (fays our an-
F E R [ 217 ] F E R
fermenta- tlior), I am induced to give the following explanation
tion- of the procefs (making of bread). Yeaft is a fluid
* containing a large quantity of fixed air or aerial acid ;
His expla- ant* ^ie ProPorti°n is greater as the fluid is colder. As
nation of f°on as fhe yeaft is mixed with the dough, heat is ap-
the procefs. plied ; this extricates the air in an elaftic ftate ; and as
it is now diffufed through every particle of dough, every
particle muft be raifed ; the vifcidity of the mafs re¬
tains it: it is now baked, and a ftill greater quantity
of air is extricated by the increafed heat; and as the
cruft forms, the air is prevented from efcaping ; the
water is difiipated : the loaf is rendered fomewhat dry
and folid ; and between every particle of bread we find
a particle of air, as appears from the fpongy appear¬
ance of the bread, owing to the apparent vacancies
which the air had made by infinuating itfelf intp it.”
This explanation he finds alfo confirmed by what is
called the falling of bread after it has once been raifed}
and which takes place fo rapidly, that we cannot fup-
pofe the procefs of fermentation to have been finiflied
in the time: nay, bread will fall before we are war¬
ranted from his experiment to fay that the fermentation
is well begun ; for this, as we have feen, required be¬
tween 9 and 16 hours.
That bread is raifed, not by a proper fermentation,
but by a mere effervefcence or efcape of fixed air, is
likewife evident from feveral fa£ts mentioned by Dr Pe-
nington. In Philadelphia, the bakers find fome diffi¬
culty in getting good yeaft in the fummer-time, on
account of the heat of the weather, which very foon
turns it four. In this cafe, they diffolve a fmall quan¬
tity of potaffi in waterj and mix it with their yeaft ;
when the effervefcence produced between the acid and
alkali produces fuch a difcharge of fixed air, as raifes
the bread in lefs than ten minutes. He informs us al¬
fo, on the authority of Dr Rufli late profeffor in the
college of Philadelphia, that “ near Saratoga there
are two mineral fprings, the waters of which have all
the properties of the famous Pyrmont water, being
highly impregnated with fixed air. When this water
is mixed with flour into dough, it is fufficient, with¬
out yeaft, to make a very light and palatable bread.”
A third fail is ftill more decifive. “ I procured (fays
the Doitor) fome nice cryftals of the fait formed by
the foffile alkali and fixed air, and diffolved them in
water fufficient to make a fmall loaf of bread. To
this I added a little of the marine acid, commonly
called fpirit of fea-falt; fixed air was generated, but
was abforbed by the cold-water; it was then mixed
with flour, fet in a warm place to rife, and fhortly af¬
ter baked ; and I had the exquifite pleafure to obtain
a tolerably light loaf of bread, fuch as any one would
have fuppofed to have been fermented, which was
feafoned by the fea-falt, formed by the union of the
foffile alkali and fpirit of fea-falt; whilft the fixed
air of the foflile alkali was difengaged, in order to
^ raife it.”
Other fads To thefe inftances mentioned by our author we ffiall
in confir- add two others, which (how that fixed air is not even
niation of neceffary to the raifmg of bread ; and of confequence
his opinion. we cannot fUpp0fe that fermentation, which produces
a great quantity of it, is the foundation of the procefs.
One is, that eggs, when beaten into a froth, areffome-
times made ufe of for railing bread ; but more efpe-
cially for puddings, &c. in which they perfqrm an
Vol. VII. Part i. '
operation fimilar to that of railing and rendering bread Fcrtnenta-
light and fpongy. This is done by the rarefaction of “on
the particles of air enveloped among the glutinous par- ’ 1' '_r.
tides of the egg: and hence fnow, on acccount of its
porous and fpongy nature, containing a’great quantity
of air enveloped amongft its particles, will do the fame
thing. This laft particular was lately publilhed by
Dr Rotheram of Newcaftle.
With regard to the other experimen ts of Mr Henry, His obfer-
they feem to Dr Penington not to be altogether con- 0:1
clufive. He doubts the juftice of Mr Henry’s idea, T^s
“ that wort cannot be brought into the vinous fer- ments.
mentation without the addition of a ferment.” When
we confider the analogy betwixt the infufion of malt
and other fermentable liquids, the Doctor fuppofes
that wort, as well as they, might fpontaneoufly fall
into a ftate of fermentation. He fays indeed, that he
has not as yet been able to difprove the idea by expe¬
riment : but Captain Cook has already made the ex¬
periment, and the event has decided the matter in the
Do&or’s favour*. We are told by that cdebrated * See the
navigator, that the infpiffated wort would have an- article Cooi,
fwered the purpofe excellently, provided it could have vo1'v- p"
been kept from fermentation in its infpiffated ftate. ^4’ COl‘ *’
But this was found impoffible: of confequence we
muft: conclude, that wort, as well as other liquors, will
fall into a ftate of fermentation fpontaneoufly, though
perhaps not fo readily, or with fuch a fmall degree of
heat, as other fermentable liquors. Hence we are not
altogether certain, as Dr Penington hints, whether the
fermentation in Mr Henry’s experiments might not
have taken place without it. “ In the memoir (Mr
Henry’s) above mentioned, fays the Dodlor, the au
thor feems to think, that fxed air is the true caufe of
fermentation in vinous liquors ; and he tells us of the
excellent tafte afforded to punch by being impreg¬
nated with it. Fixed air, it is well known, improves
the tafle of liquors; but we cannot fufpwff that it made
the punch ferment in his experiment: but he tells us,
that he made an artificial yeaft; that with this yeaft
he made beer (perhaps he might have made it with¬
out it) and vinegar; and that he fermented bread with
it. As for its fermenting bread, we might readily
allow that it would raife bread, upon the principles
already laid down : and when he tells us how quick
the fermentation takes place in his liquors when ex-
pofed to a-gen tie heat, may we not juftly fuppofe, that
the warmth extricated the fixed air that he had ar¬
tificially combined with it, and that from this pheno¬
menon alone he had fuppofed fermentation to be going
on in them ? Fixed air is the caufe of the briflenefs,
pungent tafte, and fparkling appearance, of vinous li¬
quors ; and it is remarkable, that, in equal Circum-
ftances, the colder they are, the more air they con¬
tain. It is alfo a curious fa&, that the fixed air in
liquors muft be in a peculiar ftate, otherwife they do
not poffefs that brilknefs or pungency we (poke of;
in fa£l, it muft be on the point of affuming its elaftic
form: hence liquors are not fo brilk in cold as in warm
weather; and a connoiffeur in porter, for inftance,
will tell you, that a bottle (hall open very brilkly in a
warm day ; and upon the coming on of cold weather,
all the reft (hall be flat and dead ; but let them be
corked up and kept in a warm room for a few days,
they will all recover their former ’brilknefs; nay, I
£ e have
F E R [21
Ferments- have feen a bottle opened in a cold day, that has been
, tl“n' quite vapid, which was made bnfk and lively by cork-
Vt' ing it up tight again, and fetting it for ten or twelve
minutes in a bafon of water a little more than milk
,, warm.'’
His theory Oar author’s theory of fermentation is to the fol-
cf fermen- lowing purpofe. 1. The heat occurring in the mix-
tation. ture, he explains on Dr Black’s principle of latent
heat. 2. In the fermenting procefs, he fuppofes the
inflammable part of the mixture to have a tendency to
combine with pure air, and thus to form what is call¬
edfixed air. 3. The pure air is fuppofed to be derived
fectn the atmofphere, while inflammable air is furnifhed
by the fermenting liquor. 4. The fixed air found in
fuch plenty above the liquid while in a ilate of fermen¬
tation, does not exift in it originally, but is farmed by
a combination of the two ingredients juft, mentioned.
5. On thefe principles the heat which takes place in
the mixture may be particularly explained in the fol¬
lowing manner. “ Suppofe that the quantity of heat
in the two airs before combination was in each as teh-,
or, in other words, that they were capable of contain¬
ing that quantity in a latent ftate effential to their ex-
iftence as matter in that form ; when they unite, they
form a very different kind of air, which is not capable
of combining with fo much heat, and perhaps quite
foreign to its exiftence as that kind of matter : we
will fuppofe then, that it can combine with but a
quantity of that heat as five; the confequence muft
then be, that there is a quantity of redundant heat, as
fifteen ; and there being no bodies at hand undergoing
any changes in their properties, by which their capa¬
cities to unite with heat as a principle are increafed, it
becomes mechanically diffufed among thofe bodies which
are neared to it; it gives the redundant heat to the
I4 band,” &c.
General re- We fltall conclude this article with one obvious re¬
mark. mark, vix. that the difpute concerning Mr Henry’s
method of inducing fermentation, may be eafily de¬
cided by a comparative trial. Let, for inftance, two
gallons of wort, the quantity he ufed in his experi¬
ment, be put into a certain veffel without addition,
and kept in a moderate heat for a certain time ; take
other two gallons, and impregnate the whole or any
part of it with fixed air, according to Mr Henry’s me¬
thod : put the whole then into a vefltl fimilar to the
other, /Kid fet it in the fame place ; and if the fermen¬
tation begins in the one impregnated with fixed air
fooner than the other, we have good reafen to believe
that the fixed air was the caufe of its doing fo. This
experiment is eafily made, and muft be of confiderable
importance to the public: for, as Mr Henry juftly
obferves, his experiments “ may be of extenfive uti¬
lity, and contribute to the accommodation, the plea-
fure, and the health, of men in various fkuatiorts, who
have hitherto been precluded in a great meafure from
the ufe of fermented liquors; and be the means of
furniftiing important articles of diet and of medicine.”
Even as matters Hand, we muft confider this end as
accomplifhed; though, -if the mere circumftance of
heat, without fixed air, would bring on fermentation,
it would undoubtedly render the procefs confiderably
eafier, by laving the trouble of impregnating the liquor
with fixed aii% With regard to bread, his method
feems to be entirely decifive..
8 ] f E n
The bufinefs of fermentation is one of the great pre- Ftrmenta-
patations to the diftillery. What we ufually call vi- tion-
nous fermentation in particular, is the kind in which » , y.
it is principally concerned. By this we ufually under-
ftand that phyfical action, of inteftiue commotion of
the parts of a vegetable juice, tincture, or foliition,
which render them fit to yield an inflammable fpirtt on
diftillation.
This fermentation in the hands of the di(filler differs
from the common one that is ufed in the making of
potable vinous liquors, as being much more violent,
tumultuary, active, and combinatory than that. A
large quantity of yeaft, or other ferment, is added to
the diftiller’s fermentation; the free air is admitted,
and every thing is contrived to quicken the operation,
fo that ft is fometimes fiuifhed in two or three days.
This great difpatch, however neceffary to the large
dealer, has its inconveniences attending it; for the
fpiri't is by this means always fouler, more grofs, and
really terreftrial, than it would have been if the liquor
had undergone a proper fermentation in a flower man¬
ner. It alfo fuffers a diminution in its quantity, from
the violent and tumultuary admiffion, conflict, and agi¬
tation of the free air, both in the body and upon the
furface of the liquor, efpecially if the liquor be not
immediately committed to the ftill as foon as the fer¬
mentation is fairly flacked or fully ended. It is a very
difficult talk to render the bufinefs of fermentation at
once perfect and advantageous. To ferment, in per¬
fection, nedeffarily requires length of time and care¬
ful attendance, and clofe veflels, befide feveral other
articles of nice management, which cannot be expect¬
ed to be received and praftifed in the large way, on
account of the trouble and expence, unltfs it could be
proved to the diftillers, as potfibly it fometime may,
that the quantity of fpirit would be fo ntuch greater
from the fame quantity of materials managed thus,
than by the common way, that it will more than pay
its own expence : to which may be added, the very
well known advantage of the fpirit thus procured by
perfeft fermentation, being much finer than that ob¬
tained in the common way. Till this fhaftbe made out,
it may not be amifs to try how much of the more per-
feCt art of vinous fermentation is profitably practicable
by the difttller in the prefent circumftances of things.
The improvements to be made in this affair will prin¬
cipally regard, 1. The preparation or previous difpo-
pofition of the fermentable liquor. 2. The additions
tending to the general or fome particular end. 3. The
admiffion or exclufion of the air. 4. The regulation
of the external heat or cold. And, 5. A fnitable de¬
gree of reft at laft. When proper regard is had to
thefe particulars, the liquor will have its due courfe of
fermentation, and it will thence become fit to yield a
pure and copious inflammable fpirit by diftillation.
The tin&ure, folution, or liquor, intended for fermen¬
tation, for the ftill, ftrould be confiderably thin and:
aqueous. Thatlfort of riehnefs there is in the twelve-
{hilling fmall beer, is the utmoft that ought to be al¬
lowed to it. This property not only fits it to ferment
readily, but alfo to yield a larger quantity in propor¬
tion of a pure vinous, fpirit, than it would do if it
were more rich or clammy : tire grofs, foul, vifeid,.
and earthy particles of fuch glutinous liquors, being
after fermentation apt to rife up with the boiling heat
which.
PER L *
Fermenta- wliicK mud necefTarily be employed to raife the fpirit;
ti°n. an(j the fpirk thus, of courfe comes over foul and fetid.
There is alfo another advantage attending the thinnefs
of this- liquor, which is, that it will foorter become tine
by handing before fermentation; whence it may be
commodioufly drawn off from its feces or bottom,
which muft always, in cafe of corn, malt, or any other
meally fubftance, be kjpt out where the purity of the
fpirit is confulted. A certain degree of warmth feems
neceflary in all the northern climates, to all forts of
artificial liquors intended for immediate fermentation,
efpecially in winter; but the natural juices of vege¬
tables, which have never been infpiffated, as that of
grapes' and other fruits when fully ripened, will ufu-
ally ferment, as foon as they are expreffed, without
any external affiltance. But as a certain degree of
infpifiation prevents all tendency to fermentation in all
vegetable juices, though otherwife ftrongly difpofed to
ferment ; fo a long continuance, or an increafe of the
infpiffating heat, efpecially if it afts immediately thro’
a metalline or folidbody upon the juice, will deftroy its
fermenting property j and it will do this the more effec¬
tually, as the heat employedapproachesto that of fcorch-
ing., or the degree capable of giving an empyreumai.
—After the fame manner, feveral experiments make it
appear that there is a certain degree of heat, the con¬
tinuance or leaft increafe of which proves detrimental
or deftruftive to fermentation, as there is another which
in a wonderful manner encourages and promotes it.
Thefe two degrees of heat ought to be carefully noted
and fettled by the thermometer, or other certain me¬
thods, for philofophical and chemical ufes; but for
common, or all economical occafions, they may be li¬
mited to what we call a tepid and fervid heat. A fer¬
vid heat is the bane of all vinous fermentation $ as a
tepid one, or rather imperceptible warmth, is the great
promoter of them. In this neutral ilate, therefore,
with proper contrivances to preferve and continue it,
the liquor is to be put into a fuitable veffel for fermen¬
tation ; at which time, if it works not of itfelf, it muft
be quickened by additions; and, in general, by fuch
things as are commonly called ferments.
The juices of plants are ftrangely altered by fermen¬
tation ; and are fufceptible of many, and thofe very va¬
rious, changes from it. And it is not only the juices
of fruits that are thus to be wrought upon, as thofe of
apples, pears, grapes, and the like, in the common
way; but there is an artificial change to be made in the
feeds of plants by what is called making. And it is not
grain alone that is thus to be wrought Upon, but any
other feed whatever may be made to yield its juices and
virtues freely to water by this proctfs. The juices of
roots alfo, for inllance that of liquorice, will be wrought
upon in the fame manner; and the juices of the bodies
of trees, as of the birch, and the like- If in the month
of March a hole be bored into the body of a birch-tree,
and this hole be flopped with a cork, 'through the
middle of which there is thruft a quill open at both ends,
the juices of the tree will drop out at the quill at the
‘ rate of a large drop every fecond of a minute, and a
* great quantity will in time be obtained in this manner.
This liquor is not unpleafant to the tafte, and looks
tolerably clear, refembling Water into which a little
milk had been fpilt. There are many ways of ferment¬
ing this juice, by all of which it is converted into a fort
t9 ] F E R
of wine. Thefe are well known. But there is another Pern
remarkable property in our maples, both the common p
fmall kind and the great one, which we call the fyca-. ^ 1
more: thefe being tapped in the fame manner, will
bleed freely in winter; and their juices, after a hard
froft breaks, will flow out in fo copious a manner as is
fcarce to be conceived. The willow, the poplar, and
the walnut-tree, will all bleed alfo ; and fermentation,
of which their feveral juices are eafily fufceptible, will
turn them all into palatable and ftrong wines.
FERN, filix, in botany. See Filices.
Fern is very common in dry and barren places. It
is one of the word weeds for lands, and very hard to
deftroy where it has any thing of a deep foil to root in.
In fame grounds, the roots of it are found to the depth
of tight feet. One of the moft effe&ual ways to de¬
ftroy it is often mowing the grafs ; and, if the field is
ploughed up, plentiful dunging thereof is very good :
but the moft; certain remedy for it is urine. However,
fern, cut while the fap is in it, and left to rot upon the
ground, is a very great improver of land.
In fome places of the north, the inhabitants mow it
green ; and, burning it to afties, make thofe allies up
into balls with a little water. They then dry them
in the fun, and make ufe of them to clean their linen
with; looking upon it to be near as good as foap for
that purpofe,
Male Fern. See Polypodium.
Female Fern. See Pteris.
FERNANDO, or Fernandes, an iflpnd in the Pa¬
cific ocean. See Juan Fernandes.
FERNELIUS (John), phyfician to Henry II.
king of France, was born in Picardy, in the latter end
of the 15th or the beginning of the 16th century.
Being fent to Paris to ftudy rhetoric and philofophy,
he applied himfelf in a moft intenfe manner. All
other pleafure was infipid to him. He cared neither
for play nor for walking, nor for entertainments, nof
even for converfation. He read Cicero, Plato, and
Ariftotle. The reading of Cicero procured him this
advantage, that the ledhires he read on philofophical
fubje&s were as eloquent as thofe of the other mafters
were barbarous at that time. He alfo applied himfelf
very earneftly to the mathematics. This continual
ftudy drew upon him a long fit of ficknefs, which obli¬
ged him to leave Paris. On his recovery, he returned
thither with a defign to ftudy phyfic ; but before he
applied himfelf entirely to it, he taught philofophy in
the college of St Barbara. After this he fpent four
years in the ftudy of phyfic ; and taking a doflor’s de¬
gree, confined himfelf to his clofet, in order to read
the heft authors, and to improve himfelf in the mathe¬
matics; that is, as far as the bufinefs of his profeflion
would fuffer him. Never was a man more diligent than
Femel. He ufed to rife at four o’clock in the morn¬
ing, and ftudied till it was time either to read ledlures
or to vifit patients. He then examined the urine that
was brought him ; for this was the method of thofe
times, with regard to the poor people, who did not fend
for the phyfician. Coming home to dine, he {hut him¬
felf up among his books till they called him down to
table. Rifing from table, he returned to his ftudy,
which he did not leave without neceffary occafions.
Coming home at night, he did juft as at noon: he ftaid
among his books till they called him to fupper; re-
E e 2 turned
F E R [ a.
FemeJius turned to them the moment he had flipped; and did
Ferra-a nui" ^eave them till eleven o’clock, when he went to bed.
Lj- — . In the courfe of thefe {Indies, he contrived mathema¬
tical inftmments, and was at great charges in making
them. But his wife murmuring at the expence, he
difrnifled his inllrument-makers, and applied himfelf in
good earneft to praftife phyfic. But as viliting pa¬
tients did not employ his whole time, he’ read public
le&ures upon Hippocrates and Galen. This foon gain¬
ed him a great reputation through France and in fo¬
reign countries. His bufinefs increafng, he left off
reading le&ures ; but as nothing could make him ceafe
to lludy in private, he fpent all the hours he could
fpare in compofing a work of phyfic, intitled Ph^fio-
logia, which was foon after publifhed. He was pre¬
vailed with to read le&ures upon this new work, which
he did for three years: and undertaking another
work, which he publifhed. De vena feftione, he laid him¬
felf under a neceflity of reading le&ures fame years
longer, in order to explain this new book to the youth.
While he was thus employed, he was fent for to court,
in order to try whether he could cure a lady, whofe
recovery was defpaired of. He was fo happy as to cure
her; which was the firft caufe of that efteem which
Henty II. who was then but dauphin, and was in love
with that lady, conceived for him. This prince offered
him, even then, the place of firit phyficianto him ; but
Fernei, who infinitely preferred his ftudies to the hurry
of a court, would not accept the employment. When
Henry came to the throne, he renewed his intreaties :
but Fcrnel reprefented, that the honour which was of¬
fered to him was due, forfeveralreafons, and as aft here¬
ditary right, to the late king’s phyficianand that, as
for himfelf, he wanted fome time to make experiments
concerning feveral difeoveries he had made relating to
phyfic. The king admitted this : but as foon as Fran¬
cis I.’s phyfician died, Fernei was obliged to go and
fill his place at Henry II’s court. And here juft the
contrary to what he dreaded came to pafs ; for he en¬
joyed more reft and more leifure at court than he had
done at Paris ; and he might have confidered the court
as an agreeable retirement, had it not been for the jour¬
neys which the new civil war obliged the king to take.
He died in 1558, leaving behind him a great many
works, befides what have been mentioned ; as, De ab-
ditis rerum caujis, feven books of Pathology^, a book on
Remedies, £5r. They have been printed feveral times;
wuth his life prefixed, written by William Plantius his
difciple.
FERONIA, the pagan goddefs of woods and orch¬
ards. This deity took her name from the town Fero-
pia, fituated at the foot of mount Soradte in Italy,
where was a wood and temple confecrated to her.
That town and wood are mentioned by Virgil, in the
catalogue of Turnus’s forces. Strabo relates, that
thofe who facrificed to this goddefs, walked barefoot
upon burning coals, without being hurt. She was the
guardian deity of freed-men, who received their cap
of liberty in her temple.
FERRARA, a city of Italy, in the territory of the
pope, capital of a duchy of the fame name. It is feat-
ed in an agreeable and fertile plain; watered by the ri¬
ver Po, which is a defence on one fide; and on the other
is encompafted by a itrong wall and deep broad ditches
full of water, as well as by a good citadel, finifhed by
,0 ] F E R
pope Paul. In the middle of the city is a magnificent Ferrara
caftle, which was formerly the palace of the dukes, and Fe Jars
is not now the leaf! ornament of Ferrara. It is quite "*
furrounded with water ; and the arfenal, which is near
it, deferves the obfervation of travellers. Over-againft
the palace is the duke’s garden ; with a park, called
Belvidere on account of its beauty. Behind the gar- 1
den there is a palace, built w’d1 white marble, called
the palace of diamonds, becauie all the Hones are cut
diamond fafhion.
Ferrara had formerly a confiderable trade ; but it is
now almoft deferted, being very poor, infomuch that
there is hardly a perfon to be feen in the ftreets.
This is owing to the exaftions of the'popes. The for¬
tifications are now negledled, and the ancient univerfi-
ty is dwindled into a wretched college of the Jefuits.
However, in 1735, it was advanced to an archbiihop-
ric by pope Clement XII. The country about it is
fo marfhy, that a fiiower or two of rain renders the
roads almoft impaffable. It is 24 miles north-eaft of
Bologna, 38 north-weft of Ravenna, 70 north-by-weft
of Florence, and 190 north of Rome. E. Long. 12.
14. N. Lat. 44. 36.
Ferrara, the duchy of; a province in the pope’s
territory, bounded on the north by the ftafe of Venice,:
on the weft by the duchies of Mantua and Mirandola,
on the fouth by the Boulognefe and by Romania, of
which it was formerly a part, and on the eaft by the-
Gulph of Venice. It is 50 miles in length, and 43 in¬
breadth along the coaft ; but grows narrower and nar¬
rower towards the Mantuan. This country is almolt
furrounded by the branches of the Po, which often over¬
flow the country, and form the great morafs of Coma-
chio, which has a bad effedt on the air. It is thin of
people, and indifferently cultivated, though fit for corn,
pulfe, and hemp. The Po and the lake of Comachio-
yield a large quantity of fifh. Ferrara is the capital;
town; befides which there are Arano, Comachio,
Magnavacca, Belriguardo, Cento, Buendeno, and Fi-
cherola. This duchy was formerly poffeffed by the
houfe of Efte. But the pope took poffeflion of it in
1598, after the death of Alphonfo II. duke of Fer¬
rara, it being a fief of the church.
FERRARIA, in botany : A genus of the trian-
dria order, belonging to the-gynandria clefs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the fixth or¬
der, .E/i/ate. The fpathse are uniflorous ; the petals
fix in number, and wavingly curled ; the ftigmata
cucullated or cowled; the capfule is trilocular, inferior.
There are two fpecies, natives of the Cape of Good-
Hope. There is a great Angularity in the root of'
one of thefe fpecies, that it vegetates only every other
year, and fometimes every third year; in the inter¬
mediate time it remains inadtive, though very found:
and good.
FERRARS (George); a lawyer, poet, hiftorian,
and accomplifhed gentleman, was defeended from an;
ancient family in Hertfordftiire, and born about the
year 15.10, in a village near St Alban’s, tie was edu¬
cated at Oxford, and thence removed to Lincoln’s inn;
where applying with uncommon diligence to the ftudy
of the law, he was foon diftinguifhed for his elocution
at the bar. Cromwell eaiTof Effex, the great minifter
of Henry VIII. introduced him to the king, who em¬
ployed him as his menial fervant, and,, in 1535, gave
4-, him ■,
F E R [2
Ferrars him a grant of the manor of Flamftead in his native
county. This is fuppofed to have been a,profitable
Ferretto. eftate . neverthelefs. Mr Ferrafs being a gay courtier,
and probably an expenfive man, about feven years af¬
ter waS taken to execution by a {heriff’s officer for a
debt of 200 merks, and lodged in the ‘compter. Be¬
ing at this time member for Plymouth, the houfe of
commons immediately interfered, and he foon obtained
his liberty. He continued in favour with the king to
the end of his reign, and in that of Edward VI. he
attended the lord prote&or Somerfet as a commiffion
er of the army in-his expedition to Scotland in 1548.
In the fame reign, the young king being then at
Greenwich, Mr Ferrars was proclaimed lord of mifrule,
that is, prince of fports and paitimes ; which,office he
difcharged during 12 days, in Chriflmas holidays,to the
entire fatisfadlion of the court. This is all we know
of Mr Ferrars ; except that he died in 1579, at Flam-
ficad in Hertfurdfhire, and was buried in the parifh-
church. He is not lefs celebrated for his valour in the
field, than for his other accomplifhments as a gentle¬
man and a fcholar. He wrote, 1. Hiftory of the Reign
of Queen Mary ; publifhed in Grafton’s chronicle,
1569, fob 2. Six tragedies, or dramatic poems ; pub¬
lifhed in a book called the Mirror for Magijlrates, rirfl
printed in 1559, afterwards in 1587, and again in
1610.
Ferrars (Henry), a Warwickfhire gentleman of a
good family, was eminent in antiquities, genealogies,
and heraldry. Mr Wood fays, that out of the collec¬
tions of this gentleman, Sir William Dugdale laid part
of the foundation of his celebrated Antiquities of War-
loickjhire. Cambden alfo makes honourable mention
of his affiftance in relation to Coventry. Some Mat¬
tered poems of his were publifhed among others in the
reign of queen Elizabeth ; and he died in 1633.
FERRET, in zoology. See Mu stela.
Ferretr, among glals-makers, the iron with which
the workmen try the melted metal, to fee if it be fit to
work.— It is alfo ufed for thofe irons which make the
rings at the mouth of the bottles.
FERRETTO, in glafs making, a fubftance which
ferves to colour glafs.
. This is made by a fimple calcination of copper, but
it ferves for feveral colours : there are two ways of ma¬
king it. The firft is this. Take thin plates of copper,
and lay them on a layer of powdered brimitone, in the
bottom of a. crucibRover thefe lay more brimftone,
and over that another layer of the plates, and fo on al¬
ternately till the pot is full. Cover the pot, lute it well*
place it in a w ind furnace, and make a ftrong fire about
it for two hours.- When it is taken out and cooled, the
copper will be found fo calcined, that it may be crum¬
bled to pieces between the fingers like a friable earth.
It will be of a reddrfh, .andj in fome parts, of a black-
ifh colour. This muft. be powdered and fifted fine
for ufe.
Another way of making ferretto is as follows. Make
a number of ftratifications of plates of copper and
white vitriol alternately in a crucible which place on
the floor of the glafs furnace near the eye ; and let it
'Hand there three days ; then take it out, and make a
new ftratification with more frelh vitriol; calcine again
as c fore. Repeat this operation fix times, and a molt
valuable ferretto will be obtained
21 ] fee
FERRI (Giro), a fkilful painter, born of a good Ferri,
family at Rome, in 1634. He was bred under Peter rw-
Cortona; and the works of the/cholar are often mifta- * 
ken for thofe of the jnaller. The great duke of Tuf
cany nominated him chief of the Florentine fchool •
and he was as good an architect as a painter. He died
in 1689. ■
FERRO, (W. Long. 19. N. Lat. 28), the molt
welterly of the Canary iflands, near the African coait,
where the firft meridian was lately fixed in moft maps;
but now, the geographers of almoit every kingdom make
their refpedive capitals the firit meridian, as we do Lon¬
don. It is a dry and barren fpot, affording no water
except what is fupplied in a very furpnfing manner by
a tree which grows in thefe iflands. See Fountain-
Tree.
Ferro, Faro, or Feroe Iflands; a clufter of little
iflands lying in the Northern ocean, between 61 > and
63° N. Lat. and between 50 and 8' W. Long. They
belong to Denmark. There are 17 which are habita-
table ; each of which is a lofty mountain ariling out
of the waves, divided from the others by deep and rapid
currents. Some of them are deeply indented with fe-
cure harbours ; Providence feeming to have favoured
mankind witn the fafeft-retreats in the moft boifterous
feas. All are very fteep, and moft of them faced with
moft tremendous precipices. The furface of the moun¬
tains confifts of a fhallow foil of remarkable fertility ;
for barley, the only corn fown here, yields above 20
for one ; and the grafs affords abundant pafturage for
Iheep. The exports are, falted mutton and tallow,
goofe-quills, feathers, and eider-down ; and, by the
induftry of the inhabitants, knit woollen waiftcoats,
caps, and ftockings. No trees beyond the fize of ju¬
niper or ft unted willows will grow here; nor are any
wild quadrupeds to be met with except rats and mice,
originally efcaped from the flupping. Vaft quantities
of fea-fowl frequent.the rocks; and the taking of them
furnifhes a very perilous employment to the natives, as
deferibed under the article Bird-Catching.
The fea which furrounds thefe iflands is extremely-
turbulent. The tides vary greatly on the weftern and
eaftern fides. On the. firft, where is received the un¬
interrupted flood of the ocean from the remote Green¬
land, the tide rifes feven fathoms'; on the eaftern fide
it rifes only three. Dreadful whirlwinds, called by
the Danes oes, agitate the fea to a ftrange degree ;
catch up a vaft quantity of water, fo as to leave a great
temj&orary chafm in the fpot on which it falls, and car¬
ries away with it, to an amazing diftance, any fifties
which may happen to be within reach of its fury..
Thus great ffioals of herrings have been found on the
highell mountains of Ftroe. It is equally refiftiefs on
land; tearing up trees, ftones, and animals, and carry¬
ing them to very diftant places^
Among the numerous whirlpools of thefeTeas, that ,
of Suderoe, near the ifland of the fame name, is the
moft noted. It is occafidned by a crater 61 fathoms
in depth in the centre, and from 50 to 55 on the fides.
The water forms four fierce circumgirations. .The
point they begin at is on the fide of a large bafon,'
where commences a range , of rocks running fpirally,
and terminating at the verge of the crater. This range
is extremely rugged, and covered with water from the
dypth of 12 to 8 fathoms only. It forms, four equi-
diftant.
Ferrol
Fellh
F E R r 222 1 FES
diftant wreatlis, with a channel from 35 to 20 fathoms on divers medals ; it con fids of a long ftem or fnank, Ferula
in depth between each. On the outfide, beyond that and a flat fguare head. The ufe of the ferula is very ^
depth, the fea fuddenly finks to 80 and 90. On the ancient among the Greeks, who ufed to cdl their (—L
fouth border of the bafon is a lofty rock, called Sumboe princes q. d. “ ferula-bearers.”
Muni’, noted for the multitude of birds which frequent In the ancient, eaftern church, ferula or narthex fig-
it. On one fide, the water is only 3 or 4 fathoms nified a place feparated from the church; wherein
deep ; on the other 15. The danger at moft times, the penitents or the catechumens of the fecond order,
efpecially in dorms, is very great. Ships are irrefift- called aufcultantes, axpoi/tanxix, were kept, as not being
ibly drawn in ; the rudder lofts its power ; and the allowed to enter the church ; whence the name of the
waves beat as high as the mafts ; fo that an efcape is place, the perfons therein being under penance or dif-
almoft miraculous: yet at the reflux, and in very ftill cipline : fub ferula erant ecclefia.
weather, the inhabitants will venture in boats for the Ferula, Fennel-giant, in botany ; A genus of the
fake of fifiling. digynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
FERROL, a fea-port town of Spain, in the pro- plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
vince of Gallicia, feated on a bay of the Atlantic 45th order, Umbellate. The fruit is oval, comprefs-
ocean. It has a good harbour, and is frequented by ed plane, with three ftriae on each fide. There
the Spanifh fleet in time of war. W. Long. 8. 46. are nine fpecies ; all of them herbaceous peren-
N* Lat. 43. 26. nials, riling from three to ten or twelve feet high, with
FERRUGINOUS, any thing partaking of iron, or yellow flowers. They are propagated by feeds, which
which contains particles of that metal. fliould be fown in autumn; and, when planted out,
FERRUGO, rust. See Rust. ought to be four or five feet diftant from each other,
FERRUM, Iron. See Iron. or from any other plants ; for no other will thrive un-
FERRY, a liberty by prefcription, or by the king’s der their ftiade. 1’he drug aflafetida is obtained from
grant, to have a boat for paffage, on a frith or river, a fpecies of ferula ; though not peculiarly, being alfo
for carrying paffengers, horfes, &c. over the fame for produced by fome other plants.
a reafonable toll. FESCENNIA, or Fescennium, (anc. geog.), a
FERTILITY, that quality which denominates a town of Etruria, above Falerii ; where the Fefcennine
thing fruitful or prolific. verfes were firft invented. Now Galefe, in the Ecclefia-
Nothing can produce fertility in either fex, but what ftical State, near the Tiber,
promotes perfect health: nothing ,but good blood, FESCENNINE verses, in antiquity, were a kind
fpirits, and perfect animal funftions, that is, high of fatirical verfes, full of wanton and obfcene expref-
health, can beget perfect fecundity ; and therefore, all fions, fung or rehearfed by the company, with many
means and medicines, all noftrums and fpecifies, to pro- indecent geftures and dances, at the folemnization of a
cure fertility, different from thofe which procure good marriage among the Romans; (Hor. ep. i. lib. v. 145.)
blood and fpirits, are arrant quackery. Dr Cheyne The word is borrowed, according to Macrobius, from
fays, that water-drinking males are very rarely infer- fafcinum, “ a charm;” the people taking fuch fongs to
tile ; and that if any thing in nature can prevent infer- be proper to drive away witches, or prevent their effefit;
tility, and bring fine children, it is a milk and feed but its more probable origin is from Fefcennium, a city
diet perfevered in by both parents. of Campania, where fuch verfes were firft ufed.
To increafe the fertility of vegetables, fays lord Ba- FESSE, in heraldry, one of the nine honourable
con, we muft not only increafe the vigour of the earth ordinaries. See Heraldry.
and of the plant, but alfo preferve what would other- FF.ssE-Point, is the exadt centre of the efcutcheon.
wife be loft.: whence he infers, that there is muchfaved See Point.
by fetting, in comparifon of fowing. It is reported, Fesse-JFays, or in Fesse, denotes any thing borne
continues he, that if nitre be mixed with water to the after the manner of a feffe ; that is, in a rank acrofs
thicknefs of honey, and after a vine is cut, the bud be the middle of the (hidd.
anointed therewith, it will fprout within eight days. Party per Fesse, implies a parting acrofs the middle
If the experiment be true, the caufe may be in the of the (hield, from fide to fide, through the feffe point,
opening of the bud, and contiguous parts, by the fpi- FESTI dies, in Roman antiquity, certain days in
tit of the nitre ; for nitre is the life of vegetables. the year, devoted to the honour of the gods.
How far this may be true, is not perhaps fufficiently Numa, when he diftributed the year into 12 months,
fliown, nofwithftanding the experiments of Sir Kenelm divided the fame into the dies fejli, dies profejli, and dies
Digby and M. Homberg. Confult Mr Evelyn’s Syl- intercifi.
va, the Philofophical Tranfaftions, the French Me- The fefti were again divided into days of facritices,
moirs, and Dr Stahl’s Philofophical Principles of Che- banquets, games, and feriae. See Feri.®.
miftry ; but a proper fet of accurate experiments feems The profejli were thofe days allowed to men for the
ftill wanting in this view. adminiftration of their affairs, whether of a public or
FERULA, a little wooden pallet or flice, reputed private nature : thefe were divided into fafti, comitia-
the fchoplmafter’s feeptre, wherewith he chaftifes the les, &c. See Fasti, Comitiales, &c.
boys, by ftriking them on the palm of the hand. The The intercifi were days common both to gods and
word is Latin, and has alfo been ufed to denote the men, fome parts of which were allotted to the fervice
prelate’s crofier and ftaff. It is fuppofed to be formed of the one, and fome to that of the other,
of the Latin,jOr/Vv, “ to ftrike.” Under the eaftern FESTINO, in logic, the third mood of the fecond
empire, the ferula was the emperor’s feeptre, as is feen figure of the fyllogifm, the firft propofition whereof is
Feftival
I)
Fetus.
F E T [ 223 ] . F E V
an univerfal negative, the fecond a particular affirma- FEUD, in our ancient cuftoms, is ufed for a capital Feud
tive, and the third a particular negative ; as in the fol- quarrel or enmity, not to be fatisfied but with the death pevg1!{^am
lowing example : of the enemy ; and thence ufually called deadly feud.— ~ ^1
FES No bad man can be happy. Feud, called alfofeida, andfaida, in the original German
TI Some rich men are bad men. fig ni ties guirram, i. e. ledum, “war.” Lambert writes
NO Ergo, Lome rich men are not happy. it feeth, and faith it fignifies capitales inimicUias, or
FESTIVAL, a time of feafting: See Feast.— “ implacable hatred.”
The term is particularly applied to anniverfary days of In Scotland, and the north of England, feud is par-
civil or religious joy. ticularly ufed for a combination of kindred, to re-
FESTOON, in archite&ure and fculpture. See. an venge the death of any of their blood, again ft the killer
ornament in form of a garland of flowers, fruits, and and all his race, or any other great enemy,
leaves, intermixed or twilled together. Feud (Feoda), the fame with Fief, or Fee. Sec
It is in the form of a firing or collar, fomewhat big- Feodal Sjflem.
geft in the middle, where it falls down in an arch; be- FEUDAL, or Feodal, of or belonging to a feud
ing extended by the two ends, the extremities of which or fee. See Feodal.
hang down perpendicularly. FEUDATORY, or Feodatory, a tenant who
Feftoons are now chiefly ufed in friezes, and other formerly held his eftate by feodal fervice. See Feo-
vacant places which want to be filled up and adorned; dal Tenure.
being done in imitation of the long clutters of flowers, FEU-duty, in Scots law, is the annual rent or du-
whieh the ancients placed on the doors of their temples ty which a vaflal, by the tenor of his right, becomes
and houfes on feftival occafions. bound to pay to his fuperior.
FESTUCA, fescue, in botany : A genus of the Fav-Holding, in Scots law, is that particular tenure
digynia order, belonging to the triandria clafs of plants; by which a vaflal is taken bound to pay an annual
and inthe natural method ranking under the 34th order, rent or feu-duty to bis fuperior.
Granina. The calyx is brvalved ; and the fpicula Or FEVER. See (./mfr.Y'fubjoined to) Mebicike-
partial fpike is oblong and a little roundifh, with the The ancients deified the difeafes as well as the
glumes acuminated. There are 16 fpecies ; two of paffions and affedtions of men. Virgil places them in
which, as being the moft remarkably ufefnl, are de- the entrance into hell, JEn. vi. 273. Among , thefe,
feribed under the article Agriculture, n°53—58. Fe-vtr had a temple on mount Palatine, and two o-
Another fpecies, called theJluitans, orJloatingfefcue, from ther parts of ancient Rome ; and there is fiiU extant
its growing in wet ditches and ponds, is remarkable an inferrption to this goddefs. FEBRI. DIVAL
for the ufes that are made of its feeds. Thefe feeds FEBRI. SANCTiE. FEB EL MAGNiE. CA- „
are fmall, but very fweet and nourifhing. They are MILLA. AMATA. PRO. FILIO. MALE. AF-
colledled in feveral parts of Germany and Poland, un- FECTO.
der the name of manna feeds; and are lifed at the tables Fever, in farriery. See there, feel, viii.
of the great, in fotips and gruels, on account of their FEVERFEW, in botany. See Matricaria.
nutritious quality and grateful flavour. When ground FEVERSHAM, a town of the county of Rent in
to meal, they make bread very little inferior to that England, fituated on a branch of the river Thames,
in common ufe. The bran, feparated in preparing which is navigable for hoys. It was a royal demefne
the meal, is given to borfes that have worms; but A. D. 811, and called in Kenulf’s charter the King's
they muft be kept from water for fbme hours after- little Town, though it is now a large one. It was in¬
wards. Geefe are alfo very fond of thefe feeds.—Mr habited by the Britons long before the invafion of Ck-
Lightfoot recommends this as a proper grafs to be fown far. In 903, king Athelilan held a great council
in wet meadows. here. King Stephen erected a ftately abbey, 1147,
FESTUS (Pompeins), a celebrated grammarian of whofe abbots fat in parliament; and he was buried in
antiquity, who abridged'a work of Verrius Flaccus, it, together with Maud his queen, and Eufiace his.
De Signijicatione Verborum ; but took fuch liberties in fon ; but of this building two mean gate-houfes arc
eaftration and criticifing, as, Gerard Vcffius obferves, sill that now remain.. The town was firfi incorporated
are not favourable to the reputation of bis author. A by the name of the Barons of Feveriham, afterward*
complete edition of his fragments was publiihed by M. by Henry VIII. with the title of the mayor and com-
Dacier in 1681, for the ufe of the Dauphin. Sealiger monalty, and lallly by that of the mayor and jurats,
fays, that Feftus is an author of great ufe to thofewho and commonaity. It is a populous flourifliing place,
would attain the Latin tongue with accuracy. confiding chiefly of two long broad ftreets, with a
FETLOCK, in the manege, a tuft of hair growing market-houfe in the centre, built 1574. Its ancient,
behind the pattern joint of many horfes ; for thofe of church, was rebuilt in 1754, at the ex pence of 23001.
a low fize have fcarce any fuch tuft, but was originally built in Edward II.’s reign. There
FETTI (Domenico), an eminent painter in the is a free grammar-fthool in the place, built and en-
fiyle of Julio Romano, was born at Rome in 15895 dowed by Queen Elizabeth in 1582-; alfo two charity-
and educated under Ludovico Civoli of Florence. He fchools. It is a member of the cinque port of Dover,
painted but little for churches, but excelled in hi- and has a masmfadtory of gunpowder. The London
ilory; his pictures are much fought after, and are markets • are fopplied from hence with abundance of
foarce. He abandoned himfelf to diforderly courfes ; apples and cherries, and the beft oyfters for ftewing.,
and put an end to his life, by excefies, m the 35th year Thefe lafi are alfo fetched away in fuch quantities by
of his age. the Dutch, that a prodigious number of men and boats
JETUS. See Foetus, are employed here in the winter to. dredge for them
£ ami
FEZ [ 224 ] FEZ
and it is faid they carry home as many as amount
to above 20001. a-year. The fifhermen will admit
, none to take up their freedom but married men.
FEVILLEA, in botany : A genus of the pentan-
dria order, belonging to the dioecia clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 34th or¬
der, Cucurlitacea. The male calyx is quinquefid; the
corolla the fame; there are five ftamina; and the nefta-
rium confifts of five filaments conniyent or clefing to¬
gether. The female calyx is quinquefid; the ftyles are
three ; and the fruit is an hard trilocular apple with an
hard bark.
FEVRE (Tanegui le), of Caen in Normandy, born
1615, was an excellent fcholar in the Greek and Roman
learning. Cardinal de Richelieu gave him a penfion of
2000 livres to infpeft all the works publiflred at the
Louvre, and defigned to have made him principal of a
college he was about to ereft at Richelieu. But the
cardinal’s death cut off his hopes ; and Cardinal Ma¬
zarine having no great relilh for learning, his penfion
was ill-paid. Some time after, the Marquis de Fran-
ciere, governor of Langres, took him along with him
to his government, and there he embraced the Prote-
ftant religion ; after which he was invited to Saumur,
where he was chofen Greek profelfor. He there
taught with extraordinary reputation. Young men
were fent to him from all the provinces'in the king¬
dom, and even from foreign countries, while divines
and profelfors themfelves gloried in attending his lec¬
tures. He was preparing to go to Heidelberg, whi¬
ther he was invited by the prince Palatine, when
he died, aged 57. He wrote, x. Notes on Anacre¬
on, Lucretius, Longinus, Phaedrus, Juftin, Terence,
Virgil, Horace, &c. 2. A Ihort account of the lives
of the Greek poets. 3. Two volumes of letters; and
many other works.
Fevre (Claud le), an eminent French painter, was
born at Fountainbleau in 1633, and iludied in the pa¬
lace there, and then at Paris under Le Sueur and Le
Brun ; the latter of whom advifed him to adhere to
portraits, for which he had a particular talent, and in
his ftyle equalled the beft matters of that country. He
died in England in 1675, a8ec^ 42-
FEZ, the capital of a kingdom of the fame name in
Barbary, in Africa. It is defcribed as a very larg£ place,
furrounded with high walls, within which there are hills
and valleys, only the middle being level and flat. The
river, which runs through the city, is divided into two
ftreams, from which canals are Cut into every part of
the town ; fo that the mofques, colleges, palaces, and
the houfes of great men, are amply fupplied with wa¬
ter. They have generally fquare marble bafons in the
middle of the court of their houfes, which are fupplied
with water by marble pipes that pafs through the
walls. They conttantly run over, and the ftream returns
back into the ftreet, and fo into the river. The houfes
are built with brick or ftone ; and are adorned on the
outfide with fine Mofaic work, or tiles like thofe of
Holland The wood-work and ceilings are carved,
painted, and gilt. The roofs are flat; for they fleep
on the tops of the houfes in fumjper. Mott of the
houfes are two ftories high, and fome three. There are
piazzas and galleries running all round the court oh the
infide, fo that you may go under cover from one apart¬
ment to another. The pillars are of brick, covered
N° 126.
with glazed tiles, or of marble, with arches betweert.
The timber-work is carved and painted with gay co¬
lours, and moft of the rooms have marble citterns of
water. Some of the great men build towers over their
houfes feveral ftories high, and fpare no expence to ren¬
der them beautiful; from hence they have a fine pro-
fpe<tt all over the city.
There are in this city 700 mofques, great and fmall;
50 of which are magnificent, and fupported with mar¬
ble pillars, and other ornaments. The floors are covered
with mats, as well as the walls to the height of a man.
Every mofque has a tower or minaret, like thofe in
Turkey, with a gallery on the top, from whence they
call the people to prayers. Thfe principal mofque is
near a mile and a half in circumference- The middle
building is 150 yards in length, and 80 in breadth,
with a tower proportionably high. Round this to the
eaft, weft, and north, there are great colonades 30 or
40 yards long. There are 900 lamps lighted every
night; and in the middle of the mofque are large
branches, which are capable of holding yoo lamps
each. Along the walls are feven pulpits, from which
the doctors of the law teach the people. The bufinefs
of the prieft is only to read prayers, and ditiribute alms
to the people ; to fupport which, there are large reve¬
nues.
Befides the mofques, there are two colleges built in
the Moorilh manner, and adorned with marble and
paintings- In one of them there are 100 rooms, be¬
fides a magnificent hall. In this there is a great marble
vafe full of water, adorned with marble pillars of various
colours, and finely poliftied. The capitals are gilt, and
the roof fliines with gold, azure, and purple. The walls
are adorned with Arabic verfes in gold charafters. The
other colleges are not near fo beautiful, or rather all are
gone to ruin fince the negled of learning.
There are hofpitals in the city, where formerly all
ftrangers were maintained three days gratis. But the
eftates belonging to them have been confifcated for the
emperor’s ufe. There are above too public baths, many
of which are (lately buildings. People of the fame trade
or bufinefs live in ftreets by themfelves.
Though the country about Fez is pleafant and fer¬
tile, and in many places abounding with corn and cat¬
tle, yet a great part of it lies wafte and uncultivated,
not fo much for want of inhabitants as from the oppref-
fion of the governors; which makes the people choofe
to live at fome diftance from the high roads, where
they cultivate juft as much land as is neceffary for their
own fubfiftence.
Round the city there are fine marble tombs, monu¬
ments, and gardens full of all manner of fruit-trees.
Such are the common accounts of this city. The
following are given by M. Chenier in his Recherches Hi~
Jloriques fur les Mauris.
Fez was built in the end of the eighth century by
Edris, a defcendant of Mahomet and of Ali; whofe fa¬
ther, in order to avoid the profcriptions of the calif
Abdallah, retired to the extremity of Africa, and was
proclaimed fovereign by the Moors. Sidy Edris, ha¬
ving fucceeded to the throne of his father, built the
city of Fez in the year 793. He caufed a mofque to
be erefted, in which his body was interred, and the
city ever afterwards became an afylum for the Moors,
and a place of devotion. In the firft moments of fer-
FEZ [ 225 ] F I n
vour which a new worfhip infpires, another mofque was that have been afterwards made are copied : but its fi-
bui!t called Carubin, which is perhaps one of the larged tuation, its fchools, and the induftry and great urba-
and moil beautiful edifices in Africa. Several others nity of its inhabitants, are the only circumitances that
were fuccefiively built, befides colleges and hofpitals; give it any preference to the other cities of the em-
and the city was held in fuch veneration, that when pire. There are feme pretty convenient inns here*
the pilgrimage to Mecca was interrupted in the fourth confiding of two or three dories. The houfes have no
century of the Hegira, the wedern Mahometans fub- elegance externally : the ftreets are ill paved, and fo
flituted that of Fez in its dead, while the eadern people drait that two perfons riding abread can hardly pafs.
went to Jerufalem. The fliops are like dalls; and have no more room in
When the Arabs had overfpread Alia, Africa, and them, than is fufficient to ferve for the owner, who is
Europe, they brought to Fez the little knowledge'they always feated with his wares around him, which he
had acquired in the fciences and arts ; and that capital Ihows to the pad’engers. But though the Moors of
conjoined, w ith the fchools of religion, academies where Fez are more civilized than the red, they are vain, fu-
philofdphy was taught, together wi h medicine and perditions, and intolerant ; and an order mud be ob-
adronomy. 'Phis lad gradually degenerated ; igno- tajned from the emperor before a Chtiftian or a Jew
france brought adrology into repute, and this quickly can be allowed to enter the city.
engendered the arts of magic and divination. _ The fituation of Fez is exceedingly fingular. It lies
Fez foon became the common refort of all Africa. 10 the bottom of a valley furrontided by little hills in
The Mahometans went thither for the purposes of de- the fhape of a funnel j the declivities ".re divided into
votion ; the affluence of drangers introduced a tade for gardens planted with tall trees, orange ihrubs, and all
pleafure ; libertinifm quickly followed; and, as its pro- of fruit-trees; a river meanders along the declivity,
grefs is mod rapid in warm countries- Fez, which had and a number of mills, which difperfe the' water
been the nurfe of fciences and ans, became a harbour abundantly to all the gardens, and almolt to every houfe.
for every kind of vice. The public baths, wdiich health. The defeent to the city, which dands in the centre, is
cleanlinefs, and cudom, had rendered necedary, and l°ng 5 ar,d the road lies through thefe gardens, which
which were every where refpe&ed as facred places, be- it traverfes, in a ferpentine dire&ion.
came feenes of debauchery ; where men introduced The gardens, feen from the city, form a mod de-
themfelves in the habit of women ; youths, in the fame lightful amphitheatre. Formerly each garden had a
difguife, with a dtdaffin their hands, walked the dreets houfe in which the inhabitants fpent the fummer. Thefe
at funfet in order to entice ftrangers to their inns, houfes were dedroyed in the times of the civil wars,
which were lefs a place of repofe than a convenience and in the revolutions to which Fez has been fubjecl,
for proditution. and few individuals have reftored them. The fituation
The ufurpers who deputed the kinofflom of Fez after of Fez, however, cannot be healthful ; mold vapours
the 16th century overlooked thefe abufes, and content- fid the air in fummer, and fevers are exceedingly corn¬
ed themfelves with fubje&ing the madevs of the inns to mon.
furnidi a certain number of cooks for the army. It is On the heighth above Fez, in a plain fufceptible of
to this laxity of difeipline that Fez owed its fird fplen- rich cultivation, dands New Fez, finely fituated, and
dour. As the inhabitants are beautiful, the Africans enjoying excellent air, containing fome old palaces, in
flocked thither in crowds; the laws were overturned, which the children of the emperor live, and where he
morals defpifed, and vice itfelf turned into an engine fometimer refides himfelf. New Fez is inhabited by
of political refource. The fame fpirit, the fame incli- f°me Moorilh families, but by a greater number of
•nations, the fame depravity, dill exid,in the hearts of Jew’s.
all the Moors. But libertinifm is not now encouraged : Fez is feated on the river Cebu, W. Long. 4. 25.
it wears there, as in other places, the made of hypocri- N. Lat. ^3. 58.
fy : and dares not venture to fhow itfelf in the face of FEWEL. See Fut t.
dayt FIASCONh, a town of Italy in the territories of
The Mahometans of Andalufia, thofe of Granada the pope, rtmaikable for its good wine. E. Long,
and Cordoua, migrated to Fez during the different re- 13* I2, Fat. 4*. 20.
volutions that agitated Spain: they carried with them FIAT, in law, a diort order or warrant figned by a
new cudoms and new arts, and perhaps fome fiight judge, for making out and allowing certain proceffes.
degree of civilization. The Spanifii Moors carried FIBRARIiL, a clafs of foflils, naturally and effen-
from Cordoua to Fez the art of daining goat and fheep tially fimple, not inflammable nor foluble in water; and
fliins with a red colour, w hich were then called Cor- compofed of parallel fibres, fome diorti r, others longer;
dona leather, and now Morocco leather, from that city their external appearance being bright, and in iome
where the art is lefs perfeft. They manufatture gauzes degree tranfparent : add to this, that they never give
at Fez, filk fluffs, and girdles elegantly embroidered fire with fleel, nor ferment with or are foluble in acid
with gold and filk, which fflow how far their ingenuity menflrua
might be carried if induftry were more encouraged. ^ IBRE, in anatomy, a perfectly fimple body, or at
There is dill fome tade'for fludy preferved at Fez, Rad as fimple as any thing in the human drudture ;
and the Arabic language is fpoken there in greater being fine and (lender like a thread, and ferving to
puritv than in any other part of the empire. The rich form other parts. Hence fome fibres are hard, as the
Moors fend their children to the fchools at Fez, where bony ones; and others foft, as thoie detlined for the
they are better indrufted than they could be elfewhere. formation of all the other parts.
Leo Africanus in the 16th century, gave a magni- _ The fibres are divided alfo, according to their fitua-
ficent defeription of this city, from which mod of thofe ti°n> ‘nt0 luuh as a,e dt'a'ght, oblique, tranfverfe, an-
Vou VII. Part 1. ' F -f nular,
F I C [ 226 ] FIG
Fibre nular, and fpiral; being found arranged in ail thefe
il direftions in different parts of the body.
Ficoides. Fibss is alfo ufed to denote the flender Filaments
v which compofe other bodies, whether animal, vegetable,
or mineral; but more efpecially the capillary roots of
plants.
FIBROSE, or FiBROUs, fomething confifting of
fibres, as the roots of plants. See Root.
FIBULA, in anatomy, the outer and flendever of
the two bones of the leg. See Anatomy, ri062.
Fibula, in furgery, an inftrument in ufe among
the ancients for the doling of gaping wounds. — Ctifus
fpeaks of the fibula as to be ufed when the wound was
fo patent as not eafily to admit of being fewed. (Op.
lib. vii. cap. 25. apudjin.)
Fibula, in antiquity, was a fort ofbutton, buckle,
or clafp, made ufe of by the Greeks and Romans fqr
keeping clofe or tying up fome part of their cloaths.
They were of various forms, and often adorned with
precious {tones. Men and women wore them in their
hair and at their (hoes. Players and muficians, by way
of preferving the voices of children put under their care
to learn their arts, ufed to keep clofe the prepuce with
a fibula, left they fhould have commerce with women.
FICINUS (Marfilius), a celebrated Italian, was
born at Florence in 1433, and educated at the expen.ce
of Laurence de Medicis. He attained a perfect know¬
ledge of the Greek and Latin tongues, and became a
great philofopher, a great phyfician, and a great divine.
He was in the higheft favour with Laurence and Cofmo
de Medicis, who made him a canon of the cathedral
church of Florence. He applied himfelf intenfely to
the tludy of philofophy ; and while others were driving
who fhould be the deepeft read in Ariftotle, who was
then the philofopher in fafhion, he devoted himfelf whol¬
ly to Plato. He was indeed the firft who reftored the
Platonic philofophy in the weft; for the better effefting
cf which, he tranflated into Latin the whole works of
Plato. There goes a ftory; but we know not how
true it is, that when he had finifhed his tranflation, he
communicated it to his friend Marcus Mufurus, to have
his appi'obation of it; but that, Mufurus difliking it,
he did it all over again. He next tranflated Plotinus;
and afterwards the works, or part of them at leaft, of
Proclus, Jamblicus, Porphyrins, and other celebrated
Platonifts.—In his younger years,'Ficinus lived like a
philofopher; and too much fo, as is faid, to the negleft
of piety. However, Savanorola coming to Florence,
Ficinus Went with every body elfe to hear his fermons;
and while he attended them for the fake of the preach¬
er’s eloquence, he inr,bibed a ftrong fenfe of religion,
and devoted himfelf henceforward more efpecially to
the duties of it. He died at Correggio in 1499 » an^>
as Baronius affures us upon the teftimony of what he
calls credible authors, appeared immediately after his
death to his friend Michael Mercatus: to whom, it
feems, he had promifed to appear, in order to confirm
what he had taught concerning the immortality of the
foul. His writings, facred and profane, which are
very numerous, were colle&ed and printed at Venice
in 1516, at Bafil in 1561 and 157(1, and at Paris 1641,
in two vols folio. Twelve books of his Epiftles, among
which are many treatifes. were printed feparately in
folio at Venice 1495, and at Nuremberg 1497, in 410.
FICOIDES, a name given to feveral diftinft plants,
as the mefembryanthemum, mufa, and opuntia. See FiAIory
MESEMBRYANTHEMUM, &C. Ficus.
FICTION. See Fable and Poetry. 1
FICUS, the fig-tree: A genus of the tricecia or¬
der, belonging to the polygamia clafs of plants; and
in the natural method ranking under the 5 3d order,
ScabrldtB. The receptacle is common, turbinated, car-
nous, and connivent; inclofing the florets either in the
fame or in a diftinft one. The male calyx is tripartite;
no corolla; three ftamina : The female calyx is quinqug-
partrte ; no corolla ; one piftil; and one feed.—There
are ten fpecies, of which the following are the moft
remarkable.
1. The Carica, or common Fig, with an upright Item
branching. 15 or 20 feet high; and garnifhed with
large palmated or hand-fhaped leaves. Of this there
are a number of varieties; as the common fig, a large,
oblong, dark purplifh blue fruit, which ripens in
Auguft either on ftandards or walls, and the tree carries
a great quantity of fruit.—The brown or cheftnut fig;
a large, globular, cheftnut-coloured fruit, having^a
purplifh delicious pulp, ripening in July and Auguft,
—The black Ifchia fig; a middle-fized, fhortifh, flat-
crowned, blackifh fruit, having a bright pulp; ripening
in the middle of Auguft.—The green Kchia fig; a
large, oblong, globular headed, greenifh fruit, flightly
ftained by the pulp to a reddifh-brown colour; ripens
in the end cf Auguft.—The brown Ifchia fig; a fmall,
pyramidal, brownifh-yellow fruit, having a purplifh
very rich pulp ; ripening in Auguft and September.—
The Malta fig; a fmall flat-topped brown fruit, ripen¬
ing in the middle of Auguft or beginning of Septem¬
ber.—The round brown Naples fig; a globular, middle-
fized, light-brown fruit, and brownifh pulp ; ripe in
the end of Auguft.—The long, brown, Naples fig ; a
long dark-br«wn fruit, having a reddifh pulp ; ripe in
September.—The great blue fig; a large blue fruit,
having a fine red pulp.—The black Genoa fig; a large,
pear-fhaped, black-coloured fruit, with a bright red
pulp ; ripe in Auguft.
2. The Sycamorus, or Sycamore of fcripture. Ac¬
cording to Mr Haflelquift, this is a huge true, the ftem
being often 50 feet round. The fruit is pierced in a
remarkable manner by an infeft. There is an opening
made in the calyx near the time the fruit ripens, which
is occafioned in two different - ways. 1. When the
fquamae, which cover the ealyx, wither and are bent
back; which, however, is more compion to the carica
than the fycamore. 2. A little below the fcales, on
the fide of the flower-cup, thene appears a fpot before
the fruit is ripe : the fruit in this place is affe&ed with
a gangrene which extends on every fide, and frequent¬
ly occupies a finger’s-breadth. It withers; the place
affedled becomes black ; the flefhy fubftance in the
middle of the calyx, for the breadth of a quill, is cor¬
roded ; and the male bloffoms, which are neareft to
the bare fide, appear naked, opening a way for the
infeft, which makes feveral furrows in the infide of the
fruit, but never touches the ftigmata, though it fre¬
quently eats the germen. The wounded or gangre¬
nous part is at firft covered or fhut up by the bloffoms;
but the hole is by degrees opened and enlarged of va¬
rious fizes in the different fruits; the margin and Tides
being always gangrenous, black, hard, and turned in¬
wardly. The fame gangrenous appearance is alfo
5 found
F I C
found near the fquamae, after the infeft has made a
hole in that place. The tree is very common in the
plains and fields of Lower Egypt. It buds in the
latter end of March, and the fruit ripens in the begin¬
ning of June. It is wounded or cut by the inhabi¬
tants at the time it buds; for without this precaution,
they fay it would not bear fruit.
3. The Religiofa, or Banian-tree, is a native of fe-
veral parts of the Eaft Indies. It hath a woody ftem,
branching to a great height and vaft extent, with heart-
fiiaped entire leaves ending in acute points. Of this
tree the following lines of Milton contain a defcription
equally beautiful and juft :
 There foon they chofe
The fig tree ; not that tree for fruit renown’d,
But fuch ns, at this day to Indians known
In Malabar or Decan, fpreads her arms,
Branching fo broad and long, that in the ground
The bended twigs take root, and daughters grow
Ab( ut the mother tree, a pillar’d ftiade,
High over arch’d, and echoing walks between ;
There oft the Indian herdfman, ihunning heat,
Shelters in cool, and tends his pafturing herds
At loop-holes cut through thickeft fhade. ,
Pa it. Tost, Book ix. 1.1100.
The Banian-tree, or Indian fig, is perhaps the moft
beautiful of Nature’s produftions in that genial cli¬
mate, where (he fports with the greateft profufion and
variety. Some of thefe trees are of amazing fize and
great extent, as they are continually increafing, and,
contrary to moft other things in animal and vegetable
life, they feem to be exempted from decay. Every
branch from the main body throws out its own i-oots; at
firft, in fmail tender fibres, feveral yards from the ground:
thefe continually grow thicker until they reach the fur-
face ; and there linking in, they increafe to large trunks,
and become parent trets, (hooting out new branches
from the top : thcfe in time fufpend their roots, which,
fwelling into thinks, produce other branches; thus
continuing in a ftate of progreffion as long as the earth,
the firft parent of them all, contributes her fuftenance.
The Hindoos are peculiarly fond of the Banian-tree ;
they look upon it as an emblem of the Deity, from its
long duration, its out-ftretching arms, and overlhadow-
ing beneficence ; they almoft pay it divine honours, and,
“ Find a fane in every facred grove.”
Near thefe trees the moft efteemed pagodas are gene¬
rally ere&ed ; under their (hade the Brahmins fpend
their lives in religious folitude; and the natives of all
calls and tribes are fend of recreating in the cool recef-
fes, beautiful walks, and lovely villas of this umbra¬
geous canopy, impervious to the hotteft beams of a tro¬
pical fun.
A remarkable large tree of this kind grows on an
ifland in the river Nerbedda, ten miles from the city of
Baroche in the province of Guzerat, a flourilhing
fettlement lately in poffeffion of the Eaft India com¬
pany, but ceded by the government of Bengal, at the
treaty of peace concluded with the Mahrattas in 1783,
to Mahdajee Scindia a Mahratta chief. It is diftin-
guilhed by the name of Cubbeer Burr, which was gi¬
ven it in honour of a famous faint. It was once much
larger than at prefent; but high floods have carried
away the banks of the ifland where it grows, and wuth
them fuch parts of the tree as had thus far extended
their roots: yet what remains is about 2000 feet in
circumference, meafured round the principal items; the
F I C
over-hanging branches, not yet ftruck down, cover a
much larger fpace. The chief trunks of this'fingle
tree (which in fize greatly exceed our Englilh elms and
oaks), amount to 350; the fmaller ftems, forming in¬
to ftronger fupporters, are more than 3000 ; and every
one of thefe is calling out new branches, and hanging
roots, in time to form trunks, and become the parents of
a future progeny. Cubbeer Burr is famed throughout
Hindoftan for its great extent and furpaffing beauty: the
Indian armies generally encamp around it; and, at Hated
feafons, folemn jatarras, or Hindoo feftivals, are held
there, to which tboufands of votaries repair from various
parts of the Mogul empire. It is faid that 7000 perfons
find ample room td repofe under it^ (hade. The Eng-,
lilh gentlemen, on their hunting and Ihootihg parties,
ufed to form extenfive encampments, and fpend weeks
together under this delightful pavilion, which is ge¬
nerally filled with greenwood pigeons, doves, peacocks,
and a variety of feathered fongllers; crowded with fami¬
lies of monkies performing their antic tricks; and (ha¬
ded by bats of a large fize, many of them meafuring up¬
wards of fix feet from the extremity of one wing to the
other. This tree not only affords Ihelter, but fufte-
xiance, to all its inhabitants, being .covered amid its
bright foliage with fmall figs of a rich fcarlet, on which
they all regale with as much delight, as the lords of
creation on their more collly fare in their parties.
Culture. The caricaisthe fpeciesof ficus moft frequent¬
ly cultivated in this country, and the only one which does
not require to be kept in a Hove. It may be propa¬
gated either by fuckers arifing from the roots by layers,
or by cuttings. The fuckers are to be taken off as
low down as pofiible ; trim off any ragged part at bot¬
tom, leaving the tops entire, efpecially if for ftand-
ards ; and plant them in nurfery-lines at two or three
feet diftance from each other,, or they may at once be
planted where they are to remain; obferving, that if
they are defigned for walls or efpaliers, they may be
headed to fix or eight inches in March, the more effec¬
tually to force out lateral (hoots near the bottom ; but,
if intended for ftandards, they muft not be topped,
but trained with a ftem, not lefs than 15 or 18 inches
for dwarf-ftandards, a yard for half-llandards, and
four, five, or fix feet for full ftandards. Then they mull
be fuffered to branch out to form a head ; obferving,
that, whether againft walls, efpaliers, or ftandards, the
branches or (hoots muft never be (hortened unlefs to
procure a neceffary fupply of wood: for the fruit is al¬
ways produced on the upper parts of the young (hoots;
and if thefe are cut off, no fruit can be expe&ed.—■
The bed feafon for propagating thefe trees by layers
is in autumn ; but it may be alfo done any time from
Gftober to March or April. Choofe the young pli¬
able lower (hoots from the fruitful branches: lay them
in the ufual way, covering the body pf the layers three
or four inches deep in the ground, keeping the top en¬
tire, and as upright as pofiible; and they will be root¬
ed and fit to feparate from the parent in autumn,; when
they may be planted either in the nurfery, or where
they are to remain, managing them as above dire&ed.
The time for propagating by cuttings is either in au¬
tumn at the fall of the leaf, or any time in March:
choofe well-ripened (hoots of the preceding fummer;
ftiort, and of robuft growth, from about 12 to 15
inches long; having an inch or two of the two-years
wood at their bafe, the tops left entire; and plant
F f 2 them
[ 227 1
FID [ :
tliem fix or eiglit inches deep, in a bed or border of good
earth, in rows two feet afunder : and when planted in
autumn, it will be eligible to proteft their tops in time
of hard froft, the firll winter, with any kind of long
loofe litter.
That part of the hiftory of the fig-tree, which for
many ages was fo enigmatical, namely, the caprification,
as it is called, is particularly worthy of attention, not
only as a fingular phenomenon in itfelf, but as it has
furnifired one of the moft convincing proofs of the rea¬
lity of the fexes of plants. In brief it is this : The
flowers of the fig-tree are fituated within a pulpy re¬
ceptacle, which we call the fig or fruit : of thefe re¬
ceptacles, in the wild fig-tree, fome have male flowers
only, and others have male and female, both diftindf,
though placed in the fame receptacle. In the cultiva¬
ted fig, thefe are found to contain only female flowers;
which are fecundated by means of a kind of gnat bred
in the fruit of the wild fig-trees, which pierces that of
the cultivated, in order to depofit its eggs within ; at
the fame time diffufing v/ithin the receptacle the farina
of the male flowers. Without this operation the fruit
may ripen, but no effedlive feeds are produced : hence
the garden fig can only be propagated by layers and
cuttings, in thofe countries where the wild fig is not
known. The procefs of thus ripening the-fruit, in the
oriental countries, is not left to nature, but is mana¬
ged with great art, and different degrees of dexterity,
fo as to reward the flrilful hulbandman with a much
larger increafe of fruit than would Otherwife be produ¬
ced. A tree of the fame fize,’ which, in Provence,
where caprification is not praftifed, may produce about
2J pounds of fruit, will, by that art, in the Grecian
iflands,-bring ten times that quantity. See the article
Caprification.
Ufes. Figs are a confiderable article in the materia
medica, chiefly employed in emollient cataplafms and
pe&oral decoiiions. The b'eft are thofe which come
from Turky. Many are alfo brought from the fouth
of France, where they prepare them in the following
manner. The fruit is firfi dipped in fcalding hot lye
made of the allies of the fig-tree, and then dried in the
lun. Hence thefe figs flick to the hands, and fcour
them like lixivial falls ; and for the fame reafon they
excite to ttool, without griping. They are moderate¬
ly nutrimental, grateful to the ftomach, and eafier to
digeft than any other of the fweet fruits. They have
been faid to produce lice’ when eaten as a common
food ; but this feems to be entirely without founda¬
tion. The reafon of this fuppofition feems to be, that
in the countries where they grow naturaliy, they make
the principal food of the poor people, who are general¬
ly troubled with thefe vermin. The wood of the fyca-
more is not fubjeft to rot; and has therefore been ufed
for making of coffins, in which embalmed bodies were
put. Mr Haffelquift affirms, that he faw in Egypt cof¬
fins made of this kind of wood, which had been prefer-
ved found for 2000 years.
F1DD, an iron pin ufed at fea to fplice or fatten
ropes together; it is made tapering and {harp at one end,.
There are alfo fidds of wood, which are much larger
than the iron ones.
The pin alfo in the he£l of the topmafi, which bears
it upon the chefs-tree,.is called a Jidd.
128 1 FID
F 1 &b-Hammer, is ufed for a hammer, the handle of Fiddle
which is a fidd, or made tapering into that form. II
FIDDLE. See Violin. FiekL
FiDDLE-Wcod. See Citharexelon.
FIDDES (Richard), a learned divine and polite
writer, was born in 1671, and educated at Oxford.
He was prefented to the living of Hailham in York-
Ibire, w here he was fo admired for the fweetnefs of his
voice and the gracefulnefs of- his delivery, that the
people for feveral miles round flocked to his fermons.
Coming to London in 1712, he was, by the favour of
Dean Swift, introduced' to the earl of Oxford, who
made him one of his chaplains, and the queen, foon af¬
ter appointed him chaplain to the garrifon at Hull :
but lofiirg his patrons upon the change of the miniftry,
he loft his chaplainlhip ; and being obliged to apply
himfelfto writing, compofed, 1. A Body of Divinity;
2. The Life of Cardinal Wolfey; 3. A Treatife of Mo¬
rality, &c. He died in 1725. '
FIDE-jussores Affidui. See Assiduus.
FiDE-JuJfor, in the civil law, is a furety, or one that
obliges himfelf in the fame contradl with a principal,
for the greater fecurity of the creditor or iiipulator.
FIDFI-commissum, in Roman antiquity, an eftate
left in trull with any perfon, for the ufe of another.
See Trustee.
FIDENA, or Fioenae, (anc. geog.) a town of the
Sabines, five miles to the north of Rome, w-here traces
of it are ftill to be fcen. Fidenates, the people, (Livy.)
FIDFS, Faith or Fidelity, one of the -virtues
deified by the Pagans She had a temple near the Ca¬
pitol, founded by Numa Pompilius; but no animals '
were offered, or blood fpilt, in her facrifices. During
the performance of her rites, her priefts appeared in
white veftments, with their heads and hands covered
with linen, to Ihow that fidelity ought to be facred.
FIDIUS, in Pagan w-orlhip, a god who prefided
over alliances and promifes. This deity, w-hich the Ro¬
mans borrowed Irom the Sabines, was alio called Sane-
tus, Semon, and Semi-pater.
FIELD, in agriculture, a piece of ground inclofed,
whether for tillage or pafture.
Field, in heraldry, is the whole furface of the
Ihield or the continent, fo called becaufe it containeth
thofe atchievements anciently acquired in the field of
battle. It is the ground on which the colours, bear¬
ing, metals, furs, charges, &c. are reprefented. A-
meng the modern heralds, field i§ kis frequently ufed
in blazoning than Ihitld or efcutcheon. See the article
Shield, &c.
Field Book, in furveying, that wherein the angles,
ftations, d'ifiances, &c. art fet down.
Field-Colours, in war, are finall flags of about a
foot and half fquare, which are carried along with the
quarter^matter general, for marking out the ground ;
for the fquadrons and battalions.
FiELD-Fare, in ornithology. See Turdus.
Field-Officers, in the art of war. See Officer.
. Field-Pieces, Imall cannons, from three to twelve
pounders, carried along with an army in the field.
Field-Staff', a weapon carried by the gunners, about
the length of a halbert, with a fpear at the end ; ha¬
ving on each fide ears ferewed on, like the cock of a
match-luck, where the gunners licrew in lighted ma'ches
when
F I G
when they are upon command ; and then the
ftaffs are laid to be armed.
Field Works, in fortification, are thofe thrown up
by an army in befieging a fortrefs, or'by the bdieged
to defend the place. Such ate the for ti heat ions of
camps, highways,-&c.
Elyfum Fields. See Ely si an.
PIELDING (Henry), a well known writer of the
prefent age, fon of lieutenant-general Fielding who
ferved under the duke of Marlborough, was born in
1707. He had four filters; of whom Sarah is well
known, as writer of The Adventures of David Sim¬
ple. On the death of his mother, his father married
again ; and Sir John Fielding, who fucceeded him in
the commiiTion of the peace forMiddlefex, is hisbrother
by this marriage. Henry was fent to ftudy at Leyden ;
but a failure in his remittances obliged him to return
in two years, when his own propsnfity .to gaiety and
profuhon drove him to wTrite for the ilage at 20 years
of age. His firlt dramatic piece, Love in feveral
Mafques, which was well received* appeared in 1727:
and all his plays and farces, to the amount of 18, were
wtitten before the year 1737; and many of them are
ft ill acted with applaufc. While he was thus employ¬
ed-, he married a young lady with 15001. fortune, and
inherited an ellate of 200 I. a-year from his mother :
all which, though on the plan of retiring into the
country, he contrived to ciifiipate in three years ; and
then applied himfelf to the ftudy of the law' for a main¬
tenance. In loling his fortune, he acquired the gout :
which rendering it impoffihle for him to attend the bar,
be with a {battered conftitution had recourfe to many
extempore applications of his pen for immediate fup_-
plies ; until, foon after the late rebellion, he accepted
the office of a&ing juftice for Middlefex, an employ¬
ment much more profitable than honourable in the
public efteem. Reduced at length by the fatigues of
this office, and by a complication of diforders, he by
the advice of his pbylicians went to Lifbon, where he
died in 1754. He w'rote a great number of fugitive
pamphlets and periodical efiays ; but is chiefly ditiin-
guilhed by his Adventures of Jofeph Andrews, and
Hiftory of Tom Jones. His works have been col¬
lected and publifned, with his life prefixed, by Mr Mur¬
phy.
FIENUS (Thomas), an ingenious and learned phy-
ftcian, born at Antwerp in 1566. He went into Italy
to itudy phyfic under Mercurialis and Aldrovandus ;
and on his return diftinguilhed himfelf fo much in the
univerfity of Louvain, that he was there chofen pro-
fefifor of phyfic, and was-afterwards made phyfician to
the duke of Bavaria. He wrote feveral works, among
which were, De virilus imaginationis; and Dsformatione
fatus. He died at Louvain in 1631.
FIERI facias, in law, a writ that ILs where a
pevfon has recovered judgment for debt or damages in
the king’s courts againft one, by which the Iheriflf is
commanded to levy the debt and damages on the defen-,
cant’s goods and chattels.
FIFE, in mufic, is a fort of wind inftrument, being
a:fmall pipe. See Pipe.
Fife, a county of Scotland, bounded on the w'elt by
Clackmannan and Perthlhire, on'the north by Perth-
fiiire only, on the north-eaft by the river Tay, on the
F I G
call by the German ocean, and on the fouth by the Lfe
Frith of Forth. It is above 32 miles long, and 17 II
broad ; though along the coaft, from Crail to Culrofs, Figure.
it extends about 40 miles in length. The face of the ^
country is vaiious. Towards the weft, it is mountain¬
ous, having the Lomond hills tiling to a great height;
to the ealt it is flat, well cultivated, and produces
grain of all kinds in great plenty. It is full of towms;
and has many gOod bays and harbours, which breed
great number of hardy feamen. Formerly thefe towns
carried on very extenlive trade, but now are gone in¬
to decay ; though, being all royal boroughs, they fend
ftveral members to parliament. The hills are covered
with fheep and black cattle ; coal, with which the
county abounds, is fbipped off in great quantities; and
the linen-manufa&ure is. carried on to a confiderable
extent. The principal rivers are the Leven and the
Eden, which produce trout and other filh of various
kinds.— Fife is the moft populous county.in Scotland,
having one full fynod and four prefbytery- feats within
itfelf. It fends one member to parliament ; and gives
an Irifti title of earl to the Duffs of Braco, the defen¬
dants of the ancient Thanes of Fife. Cupar is the
county-town.
Fife-Rails, in a fhip, are thofe that are placed on
banifters, on each fide of the top of the poop, and fo
along with haunces or falls. They reach down to the
quarter-deck, and to the ftair of the gang-way.
FIFTH, in mufic. See Interval.
FIG, or Fig-tree. See Ficus.
FIGWORT, a plant called by the betanifts Scro-
PHULARIA.
FIGURAL, Figurate, or Figurative, a term ap¬
plied to whatever is expreffed by obfeure refemblanees.
The word is chiefly applied to the types and myfteries
of the Mofaic law ; as alfo to any expreflion which is
not taken in its primary and literaLfenfe.
FIGURE, in phyfics, exprefl'es the furface or ter¬
minating extremities of any body.
Figu res, in arithmetic, are certain chara&ers
whereby we denote any number which may be ex¬
preffed by any combination of the nine digits, &c.
See Arithmetic.
Figure, among divines, is ufed for the myfteries
reprefented under certain types.
Figure, in dancing, denotes the feveral fteps which
the dancer makes in order and cadence, cpnlidered as
they mark certain figures on the fluor. See Dancing.
Figure, in painting and deligning, denotes the
lines and colours which form the reprefentatibn of any
animal, but more particularly of a human perfonage.
See the article Painting.
Figure, in the tnanufaftures,.is applied to the va¬
rious defigus reprefented or wrought on velvets, da-
malks, taffaties, fattins, and other fluffs and cloths.
The moft ufual figures for fueh defigns are flowers, .
imitated from the life ; or grotefques, and comparti-
ments of pure fancy. Reprefentations of men, beafts,
birds, and landfeapes, have only been introduced fincc
the talte for the Chinefe fluffs, particularly thofe call-
ed ftirees, began to prevail among us. It is the woof
of the fluff that forms the figures ; the warp only
ferves for the ground. In working figured fluffs, ,
there is required a perfon ta Ihow the workman how
far
[ 229 3
field-
£lem. of
Griticifm.
FIG [ 230 ] FIG
far he muft raife the threads of the warp, to reprefent
the figure of the defign with the woof, which is to be
paffed acrofs between the threads thus raifed. This
fome call reading the defign..
For the figures on tapeftry, brocade, &c. fee Ta¬
pestry, &c.
For thofe given by the calenders, printers, &c. fee
Calender, &c.
Figure, in logid, denotes a certain order and dif-
pofition of the middle term in any fyllogifm.
Figures are fourfold. 1. When the middle term is
the fubjeft of the major propofition, and the predicate
of the minor, we have what is called the fix it figure.
2. When the middle term is the predicate of both the
premifies, the fyllogifm is faid to be in the fecond fi¬
gure. 3. If the middle term is the fubjedt of the two
premifies, the fyllogifm is. in the third figure: and,
laftly, by making it the predicate of the major, and
fubject of the minor, we obtain fyllogifms in the fourth
figure. Each of thefe figures has a determinate num¬
ber of moods, including all the poffible ways in which
propofitions differing in quantity or quality can be
combined, according to any difpofition of the middle
term, in order to arrive at a juli conclufion. See
Logic.
Figure, in compofitlon. See Oratory ; alfo Al¬
legory, Apostrophe, Hyperbole, Metaphor,
Personification, &c.
A Figure, the means or infrument conceived to be the
agent. When we furvey a number of connected ob¬
jects, that which makes the greateft figure employs
chiefly our attention ; and the emotion it raiies, if
lively, prompts us even to exceed nature in the concep¬
tions we form of it. Take the following examples.
For Neleus’ fon Alcides* rage had flain.
A broken rock the force.oi Pirus threw.
In thefe inftances, the rage of. Hercules and the
force of Pirus, being the capital circumftances, are fo
far exalted as to be conceived the agents that produce
the effefts.
In the firft of the following inftances, hunger being
the chief circumftance in the defeription, is itfelf ima¬
gined to be the patient.
flidts it: and wine is faid to be jovial, as infpiring Figure.
mirth and jollity. Thus the attributes of one fubjedft v~“—J
are extended to another with which it is connedted;
and the expreffion of fuch a thought muft. be confider-
ed as a figure, becaufe the attribute is not applicable
to the fubjedt in any proper fenfe.
How we are to account for this figure, which we
fee lies in the thought, and to what principle fhall we
refer it ? Have poets-a privilege to alter the nature of
things, and at pleafure to beftow attributes upon a
fubjedl to which they do not belong?. It is obferved j', t Vid.
that the mind pafleth eafily and fweetly along a train
of connected objects; and, where the objects are inti- ^ -j pjrt
mately connedted, that it is difpbfed to carry along the 1. § 6/
good or bad properties of one to another; efpecially
when it is in any degree inflamed with thefe proper¬
ties. From this principle is derived the figure under
confideration. Language, invented for the communi¬
cation of thought, would be imperfedt, if it were not
exprefiive even of the (lighter propenfities and more
delicate feelings ": but language cannot remain fo im¬
perfedt among a people who have received any polifti ;
becaufe language is regulated by internal feeling, and
is gradually improved to exprefs whatever pafles in
the mind. Thus, for example, when a fword in the
hand of a coward is termed a coward fword, the ex-
prefiion js fignificative of an internal operation; for the
mind, in pafling from the agent to its inftrument, is dif-
pofed to extend to the latter the properties of the for¬
mer. Governed by the fame principle; we faylifening fear,
by extending the attribute Iferung of the man who li~
(tens, to the pafiion with which he is moved. In the
expreflion bold deed, or and ax facinus, we extend to the
eff’edf what properly belongs to the caufe. But not
to wafte time by making a commentary upon every ex-
prefiion of this kind, the beft way to give a complete
view of’the fubjedf, is to exhibit a table of the diffe¬
rent relations that may give occafion to this figure.
And in viewing the table, it will be obferved, that the
figure can never have any grace but where the rela¬
tions are of the moft intimate kind.
1. An attribute of the caufe exprefled as an attri¬
bute of the effect.
Whofe hunger has not tafted food thefe three days.
Jane Shore.
—;  As when the force
Of fubterranean wind tranfports a hill. Paradife IjJi.
  —    As when the potent rod
Of Amram’s fon, in Egypt’s evil day
Wav’d round the coaft, upcall’d a pitchy cloud
Of locufts. Paradife Lof
A Figure, which, among related objects, extends the
properties of one to another. This figure is not dignified
with a proper name, becaufe it has been overlooked by
writers. Giddy brink, jovial wine, daring wound, are
examples of this figure. Here are adjedtives that can¬
not be made to fignify any quality of the fubftantives
to which they are joined : a brink, for example, can¬
not be termed in a fenfe, either proper or figu¬
rative, that can fignify any of its qualities or attributes.
When we examine attentively the expreflion, we dif-
cover, that a brink is termedfrom producing that
effeft in thofe who Hand on it: in the fame manner, a
wound is faid to be daring, not with refpedt to itfelf,
but with refpedt to the boldnefs of the perfon who in-
Audax facinus.
Of yonder fleet a bold difeovery make.
An impious mortal gave the daring wound.
 To my adventurous fong,
That with no middle flight intends'to ioar. Paradife Loji.
2. An attribute of the effedt expreffed as an attri¬
bute of the caufe.
Quos periiffe anibos mifero cenfebam in mari. Plautus.
No wonder, fallen fuch a pernicious height.
Puradife Lojl.
3. An effedl expreffed as an attribute of the caufe.
Jovial wine, Giddy brink, Dn wfy night, Muling midnight.
Panting height, Aftonilh’d thought, Mournful gloom.
Carting a dim religious light. Milton, Comus.
And the merry bells ring round,
And therehecks found. Milton, Allegro.
4. An attribute of a fubjedt beftowed upon one of
its parts or members.
Longing arms.
It was the nightingale, and not the lark,
That pierc’d the fearful hollow of thine ear.
R-.meoand Juliet, a£l fc 7.
-Ok,
F I G
[ 23
Thofe moft ungentle looks and anury weapons:
Unlefs you mean my griefs and kil ing fears
Sh< uld llretch me out at your rdentUfi feet.
Fair penitent, a6i 3 .
.     And ready now
To ftoop with -wearied wing, and -willing feet,
On the bare outfide of this world. Paradife Left, b. 3.
5. A quality of the agent given to the inftrument
with which it operates.
Why peep your co-ward fwords half out their fliells ?
6. An attribute of the agent given to the fubjeff
upon which it operates.
High-climbing hill Million.
7. A quality of one fubjedh given to another.
Icci, hatis nunc Arabum invides
(jazis. Herat. Carm 1.1 ode 29.
When faplefs aee, and weak unable limbs,.
Should brine: thy father to his drooping chair.
Shahefpeare.
By art, the pilot through the boiling deep.
And howling tempeft, ileers the fearkfs fhip.
Iliad, xxiii. 383.
Then, nothing loth, th’ enamour'd fair he led.
And ftmk tranfj orced on the 'confeious be»'.
Od.jfcy, viii. 337.
A flubid moment motionlefs Ihe flood.
7 ^ Summer, l. 1336.
8. A circumftance connefted with a fubjeft, ex-
preffed as a quality of the fubjeft.
Breezy fummit.
’Tis ours the chance of fighting fields to try.
Iliad, i 30 r.
• Oh! had I dy’d before that •well-fought wa’l.
OdyJJlcy, V. 395.
From this table it appears, that the adorning a caufe
with an attribute of the effeft, is not fo agreeable as
the oppofite expreffion. The progrefs from caufe
to effeft is natural and eafy: the oppofite progrefs re-
R fembles retrograde motion * ;. and therefore panting
height, ajlonijh'd thought, are ftrained and uncouth ex-
i« preffions, which a writer of tafte will avoid.
It is not lefs ftrained, to apply ,to a fubjeA in its
prefent ftate, an epithet that may belong to it in fome
future ftate:
Suhmerfzfque obrue puppes. , JEneid, i. 73.
And mighty ruins fall. Iliad, v. 411.
Impious foils their mangled fathers wound.
Another rule regards this figure, That the property
of one fubjedf ought not to be bellowed upon another
with which that property is incongruous.
K. Rich. How dare thy joints forget
To pay their a-wful duty to our prefence ?
Richard II. aB 3. fc. 6
The conne&ion between an awful fuperior and his fub-
miflive dependent is fo intimate, that an attribute may
readily be transferred from the one to the other : but
awfulnefs cannot be fo transferred, becaufe it is incon-
liftent with fubmilfion.
Figure of Speech, as peculiarly diftinguifhed from
the above and from thofe firft referred to.J Under
the article Metaphor and Allegory, a figure of fpeech
is defined, “ The ufing a word in a fenfe different
from what is proper to itand the new or uncommon
fenfe of the word is termed the fguratiue fenfe. The fi¬
gurative fenfe nl-uft have a relation to that which is
i ] FIG
proper ; and the more intimate the relation is, the ft- Figure,
gure 5 s the more happy. How ornamental this figure 4
is to language, will not be readily imagined by any one
who hath not given peculiar attention ; and therefore r
we fhall endeavour to unfold its capital beauties and ad¬
vantages. In the firft place, a word ufed figuratively,
or in a new fenfe, fuggefts at the fame time the fenfe
it commonly bears: and thus it has the effedl to pre¬
fent two objects ; one fignified by the figurative fenfe,
which may be termed the principal objefi ; and one fig-
nified by the proper fenfe, which may be termed accef-
fory ; the principal makes a part of the thought; the
acceffory is merely ornamental. In this refpecl, a fi¬
gure of fpeech is prectfely fimilar to concordant founds
in mufic, which, without contributing to the melody,
make it harmonious.
To explain the matter by examples. Youth, by a
figure of fpeech, is termed the morning of life: This
exprefiion fignifies youth, the principal objeft which
enters into the thought; it fuggefts, at the fame time,
the proper fenfe of morning ; and this acceffory objeft,
being in itfelf beautiful, and connefted by refemblance
to the principal obje£l, is not a little ornamental. Im¬
perious ocean is an example of a different kind, where
an-attribute is expreffed figuratively: Together with
Jlormy, the figurative meaning of the epithet imperious,
there is fuggefted its proper meaning, viz. the fterm
authority of a defpotic prince 5 and thefe two are
ftrongly connefted by refemblance. Upon this figu¬
rative power of words, Vida defcants with elegance.
Poet. lib. iii. 44.
In the next place, this figure pdffeffes a fignal power
of aggrandifing an objedl, by the following means.
Words, which have no original beauty but what arifes
from their found, acquire an adventitious beauty from
their meaning : a word fignifyrng any thing that is
agreeable, becomes by that means agreeable; for the
agreeablenefs of the objeft is communicated to its name.
This acquired beauty, by the force of cuftom, adheres
to the word even when ufed figuratively; and the
beauty received from the thing it properly fignifies, is
communicated to the thing which it is made to fignify
figuratively. Confider the foregoing expreflion Impe¬
rious ocean, how much more elevated it is than Stormy
ocean.
Thirdly, This figure hath a happy effect by pre¬
venting the familiarity of proper names. The familia¬
rity of a proper name is communicated to the thing
it fignifies by means of their intimate connection; and
the thing is thereby brought down in our feeling.
This bad effeft is prevented by ufing a figurative word
inffead of one that is proper ; as for example, when we
exprefs the Iky by terming it the blue vault, of heaven ;
for though no work of art can compare with the fky in
grandeur, the expreflion, however, is relifhed, becaufe
it prevents the objeCt from being brought down by the
familiarity of its proper name. With refpeCt to the
degrading the familiarity of proper names, Vida has the
following paffage :
Mine fi dura rr.ihi. paffus dicendus UlyiTes,
Non ilium ver<> memorabo nomine, led q .i
Et mores hominum multorum vidir, et urbes,
Naufragus everfe poll Ixva incendia Trojse.
Poet, lib ii. 1. 46.
Laftly, By this figure, language is enriched, and
rendered more copious 5 in which refpecl, were there
FIG T 232 1 FIG
no ^"her, a figure of fpeech is a bappy invention.
This property is finely touched by Vida ; Poet. lib.
iii. 90.
The beauties we have mentioned belong to every
figure of fpeech. Several other beauties peculiar to
one or other fort, we ftiali have occafion to remark af¬
terward.
Not-only fubje&s, but qualities, actions, effetls, may
be exprefled figuratively. Thus, as to fubje&s, gates
of breath for the lips, the watery kingdom for the ocean.
As to qualities, [fierce for ftormy, in the expreffion
Fierce winter; altus for profundus, Altusputens, Ahum
mare ; breathing for perfpiring, Breathing plants. A-
gain, as to actions, The fea rages, Time will melt her
frozen thoughts, Time kills grief. An effect is put
for the caufe, as lux for the fun ; and a caufe for the
. effect, as bourn labores for corn. The relation of re-
femblance is owe plentiful fource of figures of fpeech ;
and nothing is more common than to apply to one ob-
je£t the name of another that refembles it in any re-
fpedt : Height, fize, and worldly greatnefs, refemble
not each other ; but the emotions they produce re¬
ferable each other, and, prompted by this refemblance,
we naturally exprefs worldly greatnefs by height or
fize : One feels a certain uneafinefs in feeing a great
depth ; and, hence depth is made to exprefs any thing
difagreeable by excefs, as depth of grief, depth of de-
fpair : Again, height of place, and time long pafl,
produce fimilar feelings ; and hence the exprefiion, Ut
altius repetam! Dillance in pail time, producing a
ftrong feeling, is put for any ftrong feeling ; Nihil mihi
antiquius mjlra amicltia : Shortnefs with relation to
1 fpace, for fhortnefs with relation to time ; Brevis ejfie
laboro, obfeurus Jio : Suffering a punifhment rei'embles
paying a debt ; hence penderepcenas. In the fame man¬
ner, light may be put for glory, funfhine for profpe-
rity, and weight for importance.
Many words, originally figurative, having, by long
and conflant ufe, loft their figurative power, are de¬
graded to the inferior rank of proper terms. Thus the
words that exprefs the operation of the mind, have in
aU languages been originally figurative : the reafon
holds in all, that when thefe operations came firft un¬
der confideration, there was no other way of deferibing
them but by what they refembled: it was not practi¬
cable to give them proper names, as may be done to
objefts that can be afeertained by fight and^ touch. A
foft nature, jarring tempers, weight of woe, pompous
phrafe, beget compaffion, ajfiuage grief, break a vow,
bend the eye downward, jltower down curfes, drown’d
in tears, wrapt in joy, warm’d with eloquence, loaded
with fpoils, and a thoufand other expreffions of the
like nature, have loft their figurative fenfe. Some
terms there are that cannot be faid to be altogether fi¬
gurative or altogether proper: originally igurative,
they are tending to fimplicity, without having loft al¬
together their figurative power. Virgil’s Regina faucia
cura, is perhaps one of thef: expreffions : with ordinary
readers, faucia will be confidered as exorefilng fimply
the effeCt of grief; but one of a lively imagination
will exalt the phrafe into a figure.
* El of F°r ePitom'fi,lg this fubjeCt, and at the fame time
Critl'cifm, for ciear view of it, Lord Karnes * gives a lift
II. 30^. ’ °f ^ fvvefal relations upon which figures of fpeech
are commonly founded. This lift he divides into two
N° 126. • i
tables ; one of fubjeCts expreffed figuratively, and one Figne.
of attributes. 'r"~
Tab. I. Subjeds exprejfedfiguratively.
1. A word proper to one fubjeCl employed figura¬
tively to exprefs a refemhling fubjeft.
There is no figure of fpeech fb frequent, as what is
derived from the relation of refemblance. Youth, for
example, is fignified figuratively by the morning of life.
The life of a man refembles a natural day in feveral
particulars: the morning is the beginning of a day,
youth the beginning of life ; the morning is cheerful,
fo is youth, &c. By another refemblance, a bold war¬
rior is termed the thunderbolt of war; a multitude of
trouble-s, a fea of troubles.
Tin’s figure, above all others, affords pleafure to the
mind by variety of beauties. Befides the beauties
above-mentioned, common to all forts, it pofTeffes in
particular the beauty of a metaphor or of a fimile : a
figure of fpeech built upon refemblance, fuggefts always
a companion between the principal fubjeCt and the ac-.
ceffory ; whereby every good effeCt of a metaphor or
fimile may, in a fhort and lively manner, be produced
by this figure of fpeech.
2. A word proper to the efftdl employed figura¬
tively to exprefs the caufe.
Lux for the fun ; Shadow for cloud. A helmet is
fignified by the expreffion glittering terror; a tree by
Jhadow or umbrage. Hence the expreffion,
Nee habet Pelion umbras. OviJ.
Where the dun umbrage hmgs. Spring, l. 102$.
A wound is made to fignify an arrow :
Vulnere nan j.edibus te confequar. Ovid.
There is a peculiar force and beauty in this figure :
the word which fignifies figuratively the principal fub-
jeft, denotes it to be a caufe by fuggefting the effeCt.
3. A word proper to the caufe employed figurative¬
ly to exprefs the effeCt.
Boumque labores for corn. Sorrow or grief for tears.
Again Ulyfies veil’d hb penfive head;
Again, urnnann’d, a fhoWV of furrow Hied.
Streaming Grief his faded cheek bedew'd.
BUndnefs for darknefs:
Cascis erramus in undis. JEneid. ,ij. 200.
There is a peculiar energy in this figure, fimilar to
that in the former : the figurative name denotes the
fubjeCt to be an effeCt, by fuggefting its caufe.
4. Two things being intimately connected, the pro¬
per name of the one employed figuratively to fignify
the other.
Day for light. Night for darknefs; and hence, A
fudden night. Winter for a ftorm at fea:
Int 'iea nagno mifeeri niurmuve ponmni,
Emiffamque Hyememfenfit Neptunus. JEneid. i. 11S.
This laft figure would be too bold for a Britifh writer,
as a florin at fea is not infeparably connected with win¬
ter in this climate.
5. A word proper to an attribute, employed figu¬
ratively to denote the fubjeCt.
Youth and beauty for thofe who are young and beau¬
tiful :
. Youth and beauty fhall be laid in duft.
Majefiy
FIG [ 233 ] FIG
Majejly for the king:
What art thou, that ufurp’ft this time of night,
Together with that fair and warlike form
In which the Majejly of buried Denmark
Did fomedme march? Hamlet, aB \ . fe. 1.
 Or have ye chofen this place
After the toils of battle, to repofe
Your weary’d -virtue ? ParadifeLojl.
Verdure for a green field. Summer, L 301.
Speaking of cranes,
The pigmy nations, wounds and death they bring.
And ail the ruar descends upon the wing. Iliad, iii. to.
'Coolage advances venerably wife. Iliad, iii. 149
The;peculiar beauty of this figure arifes from fug-
'gefting an attribute that embellilhes the fubjeci, or puts
it in a ftronger light.
6. A complex term employed figuratively to denote
one of the component parts.
Funus for a dead body. Burial for a grave.
7. The name of one of the component parts inftead
of the complex term.
'Tada for a marriage. The Eajl for a country fitua-
ted call from us. Jovis vejllgia fervat, for imitating Ju¬
piter in general,
8. A word fignifying time or place, employed figu¬
ratively to denote what is connected with it.
Clime for a nation, or for a conftitution of govern¬
ment : hence the expreflion, Merciful clime. Fleecy win¬
ter for fnow, Seculum felix.
9. A part for the whole.
The pole for the earth. The head for the perfon:
Triginta minas pro capite tuo dedi. Plautus.
Ter gum for the man :
Fugiens tergum. - Ovid.
Vultus for the man:
Jam fulgor armorum fugaces
Terret equos, equiiumque vultus. Horat.
Quis defideiio fit pudor aut modus
Tam chari capitis? Hory.t,
Dumque viren- genua ? Horat.
'Thy growing virtues juftify’d my cares,
And promis’d comfort to my fiver hairs. Iliad, ix. 616.
 Forthwith from the pole he rears
His mighty fiaturc. Paradife Lofl.
The filent heart which grief aflails. Parnel.
The peculiar beauty of this figure confifts in marking
that pgrt which makes the greateft figure.
10. The name of the container, employed figura¬
tively to fignify what is contained.
Grove for the birds in it ; Vocal grove. Ships for the
feamen; AgonizingJhips. Mountains for the fheep pa-
fturing upon them, Bleating mountains. Zacynthus, /-
thaca, &c. for the inhabitants. Ex mcejlis domibus, Livy.
11. The name of the fuftainer, employed figurative¬
ly to fignify what is fuftained.
Jltar for the facrifice. Field for the battle fought
upon it, Well-fought field.
12. The name of the materials, employed figura¬
tively to fignify the things made of them.
Ferfum for gladius.
1 3. Tiie names of the Heathen deities, employed
figuratively to fignify what they patronife.
Jove for the air, Mars for war, Venus for beauty,
Cupid for love, Ceres for corn, Neptune for the fea, Vul¬
can for fire.
Vol. VII. Part I.
This figure beftows great elevation upon the fubjed; Figure,
and therefore ought to be confined to the higher {trains v—J
of poetry.
Tab. II. Attributes exprejfedfiguratively.
1. When two attributes are connefted, the name of
the one may be employed figuratively to exprefs the
other.
Purity and virginity are attributes of the fame per¬
fon : hence the expreffion. Virgin fnow, for pure fnow.
2. A word fignifying properly an attribute of one
fubjeft, employed figuratively to exprefs a refembling
attribute of another fubject.
Tottering {late. Imperious ocean. Angry flood. Ra¬
ging tempeil. Shallow fears.
My fure civil ity {ball bear the fhield,
And edge thy fword to reap the glorious field.
Odyffey, xx. 6r.
Blach omen, for an omen that portends bad fortune.
Ater omen. Virgil.
The peculiar beauty of this figure arifes from fuggeft-
ing a comparifon.
3. A word proper to the fubjedl, employed to ex¬
prefs one of its attributes.
Mens for intelleEtus. Mens for a refolution :
Iftam, oro, exue mentem.
4. When two fubje&s have a refemblance by a com¬
mon quality, the name of the one fubjedt may be em¬
ployed figuratively to denote that quality in the other:
Summer life for agreeable l^fe.
5. The name of the inftrument made to fignify the
power of employing it :
 Melpomene, cui liquiJam pater
Vocem cum cithara dedit.
The ample field of figurative expreffion difplayed in
thefe tables, affords great fcope for reafoning. Seve¬
ral of the obfervations relating to metaphor *, are ap- * See M«.
plicable to figures of fpeech: thefe {hail be {lightly re- tapbor.
touched, with fome additions peculiarly adapted to
the prefent fubjedl.
1. As the figure under confideration is built upon
relation, we find from experience, and it muff be ob¬
vious from reafon, that the beauty of it depends on the
intimacy of the relation between the figurative and
proper fenfe of the word. A flight refemblance, in
particular, will never make this figure agreeable : the
expreffion, for example, Drink down a fecret, for liften-
ing to a fecret with attention, is harfh and uncouth,
becaufe there is fcarce any refemblance between lijlen-
ing and drinking. The expreffiqn weighty crack, ufed
by Ben Johnfon for loud crack, is worfe if poffible : a
loud found has not the flighteft refemblance to a piece
of matter that is weighty.
Phemius! let afts of jjods, and heroes old,
What ancient bards in hall and bow’r have told.
Attemper’d to the lyre, your voice employ.
Such the pleas’d ear -will drink with filent joy.
Odyjjey, i. 433.
Strepitumque exterritus haufit. JEneiJ. vi. 559.
—— Write, my queen,
And with mine eyes I’ll drink the words you fend.
Cymbeline, aB l.fc. 1.
As thus th’ effulgence tremulous \ drink.
Summer, l, 1684,
G g Neque
Figure.
Figure.
F I G
Neque audit currus habenas.
O prince! (Lycaon’s valiant fon reply’d).
Georg, i. 514,
234 1
Not !efs, e
F I
n this defpieable n
As thine the fteeds, be thine the talk
Tire horfes practis’d to their lord’s command,
Shall bear the rein, and anfwe'r to thy hand. Iliad, v. 288.
The following figures of fpeech feem altogether wild
and extravagant, the figurative and proper meaning
having no connexion whatever. Moving foftnefs,
Frefhnefs breathes. Breathing profpeft, Flowing fpring,
Dewy light, Lucid coolnefs, and many others of this
falfe coin, may be found in Thomfon’s Seafons.
2. The proper fenfe of the word ought to bear
fome proportion to the figurative fenfe, and not foar
much above it, nor fink much below it. This rule, as
well as the foregoing, is finely illuftrated by Vida,
Poet. iii. 148.
3. In a figure of fpeech, every circumftance ought
to be ^voided that agrees with the proper fenfe only,
not with the figurative fenfe ; for it is the latter that
expreffes the thought, and the former ferves for no o-
ther purpofe but to make harmony :
Zacynthus green with ever*fliady groves.
And Ithaca, prefumptuous boaft their loves;
Obtruding on my choice a fecond lord,
They prels the Hymenean rite abhorr’d.
Odyffey, six. 1J2,
Zacynthus here Handing figuratively for the injiabi-
a. a. „ i. — .1 ..r * „ c *. ... ^ /i „j , r 4. ^  ,4. ^ c i .
Than when my name fill’d Afric with afftights, c.
And froze your hearts beneath your torrid zone.
Don Sebajiian King of Portugal, aSl I,
How long a fpace, fince firft I lov’d, it is!
To look into a glafs I fear.
And am furpris’d with wonder, when I m:fs
Grey hairs and wrinkles there.
Cowley, vol. I p. 85.
I chofe the flourilhing’ft tree in all the park.
With frefhelt boughs, and faireft head ;
I cut my love into its gentle bark,
And in three days behold ’tis dead;
My very written flames fo violent be,
They’ve burnt and wither’d up the tree.
Cowley, vol. I. p. 136.
Ah, mighty Love, that it were inward heat
Which made this precious limbeck fweat!
But what, alas! ah what docs it avail
That file weeps tears fo wond’rous cold,
As fcarce the als’s hoof can hold,
So cold, that I admire they fall not hail ?
Cowley, vol. X.p. 134.
Such a play of words is pleafant in a ludicrous poem,
Almeria. O Alphonfo, Alphohfo!
Devouring feas have waih’d thee from my fight,
No time fliail rafe thee from my memory ;
No, l will live to be thy monument:
The cruel ocean is no more thy tomb ;
But in my heart thou art interr’d.
Mourning Pride, all l.fc. I.
tants, the defeription of the ifland is quite out of place: This would be very right, if there were any inconfift-
it puzzles the reader, by making him doubt whether
the word ought to be taken in its proper or figurative
fenfe.
And with mine eyes I’ll drink the words you fend,
Though ink be made of gall. ■ Cymbeline, aB I. fc. %.
The difguft one has to drink ink in reality, is not to
the purpofe where the fubjedl is drinking ink figura¬
tively.
4./To draw confequences from a figure of fpeech,
as if the word were to be underftood literally, is a
grofs abfurdity ; for it is confounding truth with fic¬
tion :
Be Moubray’s fins fo heavy in his bofom,
That they may break his foaming courfer’s back,
And throw the rider headlong in the lifts,
A caitiff recreant to my coufm ffereford.
Richard II. alt. l.fc. 3,
Sin may be imagined heavy in a figurative fenfe : but
weight in a proper ftnfe belongs to the accelfory only;
and therefore to deferibe the effefts of weight, is to
defert the principal fubject, and to convert the accef-
fory into a principal:
Cromwell. How does your Grace ?
Wdfey. Why, well;
Never fo truly happy, my good Cromwell..
I know myfelf now, and I feel within me
A peace above all earthly dignities,
A ftill and quiet confcience. The king has cur’d me,
J iuinilv'y thank his Grace : and, from thefe fhoulders,
Thefe ruin’di pillars, cut of pity, taken
A load would fink a navy, too much honour.
Henry Villi aS-^. fc. 6,
Ulyffes fpeaking of He£tor:
I wonder now how yonder city (lands,
When we have here the bafe and pillar by us.
Troilus and Creffda, adl tt. fc. 9.
Othello. No; my heart is turn’d to ftone : I ftrike it, and
it hurts my band. Othello, aft j,.fe. 5.
ence m being interred in one place really, and in ano¬
ther place figuratively.
From confidering, that a word ufed in a figurative
fenfe fuggefts at the fame time its proper meaning, we
difeover a fifth rule, That we ought not to employ a
word in a figurative fenfe, the proper fenfe of which is
inconfiftent or incongruous with the fubjeft : for every
inconfiftency, and even incongruity, though in the ex-
preflion only and not real, is unpleafant:
Interea genitor Tyberini ad fluminis undam
Vulnera Jiccubat lymph is   
JEneid. x. 833.
Tres adeo incertos ca:ca caligine foies
Erramus pelago, cotkiem fine lidere nodles.
JEneid. iii, 203.
. The foregoing rule may be extended to form a:
fixth, That no epithet ought to be given to the figu¬
rative fenfe of a word that agrees not alfo with its
proper fenfe :
■ Dicat Opunti*
Parcus deorum cultor, et
Infanientis dum fapientias
Confuhus erro.
Herat. Cam
infrequens.
lib. l. ode 27.
rat.Carm. 1. X. ode 34.
Seventhly, The crowding into one period or thought
different figures of fpeech, is not lefs faulty than crowd¬
ing, metaphors in that manner : the mind is diftraifted
in the quick tranfition from one image to another, and
is puzzled inftead of being pleafed :
I am of ladies mod deje£l and wretched,
That fuck’d the honey of his mufic vows. Hamlet;
My bleeding bofom fickens at the found.
A1. .. i- 43?*
— ——Ah mifer.
Quanta laboras in Charybdi !
Digne puer va.(i\\nYt fiamma.
Qua; faga, quis te folvere ThdTalis
Magus s'tmyk.r, quis goterit dcus l
[
F I G
Fignre, Vix il%atum tetriformi
«—Y-—' Pegafus expediet Chimera.
Hot-at. Carm. lib. I. oie 27.
Eighthly, if crowding figures be bad, it is ftill worfe
to graft one figure upon another: For inftance.
While his keen falchion drinks the warriors lives.
Iliad, xi. 211.
A falchion drinking the warriors blood is a figure built
upon refemblance, which is paffable. But then in the
expreffion, lives is again put for Hoad; and by thus
grafting one figure upon another, the expreffion is ren¬
dered obfcure and unpleafant.
Ninthly, Intricate and involved figures, that can
fcarce be analyfed, or reduced to plain language, are
lealb of all tolerable :
Votis incendimus aras. JEneid. Hi. 279.
 —— Onerentque caniftris
Dona laboratae Cereris. JEneid. viii. 180.
Vulcan to the Cyclopes :
Arma acri facienda viro : nunc viribus ufus.
Nunc manihus rapidis, omni nunc arte magiftra :
I rmcipitate moras. JEneid viii. 44t.
 Huic gladio, perque serea fcuta
Per tunicam fijualentcm auro, latus baurit apertum.
JEneid. X 313.
Scriberis Vario fortis, et hoftium
Vidor, Mctonii canninis aide.
Horat. Carm. lib. t. ode 6.
Elfe (hall our fates be number’d with the dead.
Iliad, v.' 2 94.
Commutual death the fate of war confounds.
Iliad, viii. 85. and xi. 117.
Speaking of Proteus.
Inftar.t he wears, elufive of the rape.
The mimic force of every favage fhape. Odyjfey, iv, 563.
Rolling convulfxve on the floor, is feen
The piteous objedt of a proflrate queen. Ibid, iv, 632.
The mingling tempeft weaves its gloom. Autumn, 337.
A various fweetnefs fwells the gentle race. Ibid. 640.
The diftant water-fall fwells in the breeze. Winter, 73S.
In the tenth place, When a fubjefl is introduced by
its proper name, it is abfurd to attribute to it the pro¬
perties of a different fubjedt to which the word is fome-
times applied in a figurative fenfe :
Hear me. oh Neptune! thou whofe arms are hurl’d
From Ihore to fliore, and gird the folid world.
Odyjfey, ix. 6 If.
Neptune is here introduced perfonally, and not figu¬
ratively for the ocean : the defeription therefore,
which is only applicable to the latter, is altogether
improper.
It is not fufficient that a figure of fpeech be regu¬
larly conftru&ed, and be free from blemiffi: it re¬
quires tafte to difeern when it is proper, when impro¬
per ; and tafte perhaps is our only guide. One, however,
may gather from refledfions and experience, that orna¬
ments and graces fuit not any of the difpiriting paf-
iions, nor are proper for expreffing any thing grave and
important. In familiar converfation, they are in fome
meafure ridiculous: Profpero, in the Tempejl, fpeak-
ing to his daughter Miranda, fays,
The fringed curtains of thine eyes advance.
And fay what thou feed yond
No exception can be taken to the juftnefs of the fi¬
gure ; and circunaftances may be imagined to make it
235 1 . . FIG
proper: but it is certainly not proper in familiar con- Figura
verfation. _ ii
In the laft place, Though figures of fpeech have a F’la'‘ient,‘
charming effedt when accurately conftrudted and pro¬
perly introduced, they ought, however, to be fcattered
with a fparing hand : nothing is more lufeious, and
nothing confequently more fatiating, than redundant
ornaments of any kind.
Figure is ufed, in theology, for the myfteries re-
prefented or delivered obfeurely to us under certain
types or adtions in the Old Teftament. Thus manna
is held a figure or type of the eucharift ; and the death
of Abel a figure of the fuffering of Chrift.
Many divines and critics contend, that all the ac¬
tions, hiftories, ceremonies, &c. of the Old Teftament,
are only figures, types, and prophecies, of what was
to happen under the New. The Jews are fuppofed
to have had the figures or ffiadows, and we the fub-
ftanee.
Figure is alfo applied in a like fenfe to profane
matters ; as the emblems, enigmas, fables, fymbols,
and hieroglyphics, of the ancients.
FIGURED, in general, fomething marked with
figures.
The term figured is chiefiy applied to fluffs, where¬
on the figures of flowers, and the like, are either
wrought or ftamped.
Figured, in mufic, is applied either to Ample notes
or to hatmony: to Ample notes, as in thefe words
figured bafs, to exprefs a bafs whofe notes carrying
chords are fubdivided into many other notes of leffer
value ; to harmony, when, by fuppofition and in a
diatonick procedure, other notes than thofe which form
the chord are employed. See Supposition.
To figure is to pafs feveral notes for one ; to form
runnings or variations ; to add fome notes to the air,
in whatever manner it be done ; in fhortr it is to give
to harmonious founds a figure of melody, by connedf-
ing them with other intermediate founds.
FILAGO, in botany : A genus of the polygamia
fuperflua order, belonging to the fyngenefia clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
49th order, Compofita. The receptacle is naked ; there
is no pappus; the calyx is imbricated ; the female
florets placed among the feales of the calyx.
FILAMENT, m anatomy, natural hiftory, &c. a
term ufed in the fame fenfe with fibre, for thofe fine
threads whereof the fleffi, nerves, Ikin, plants, roots,
&c. are compofed. See Fibre.
Vegetable Filaments form a fubftance of great ufe
in the arts and manufactures; furnifhing thread, cloth,
cordage, &c.
For thefe purpofes the filamentous parts of the Can¬
nabis and Linum, or hemp and flax, are employed a-
mongus*. But different vegetables have been em-* See Jfe/
ployed in different Countries for the fame ufts. Putre- anci Flax;
faftion deftroys the pulpy or flefhy matter, and leaves a^° CQ,ton'
the tough filaments entire: By curioufly putrefying
the leaf of a plant in water, we obtain the fine flexile
fibres, which conftituted the bafis of the ribs and mi¬
nute veins, and which now form as it were a Ikeleton
of the leaf. Alkaline lixivia, in fome degree, produce
fimilar effedts to putrefaction.
The Sieur de Flacourt, in his hiftory of Madagaf-
car, relates, that different kinds of cloth are prepared
Gg 2 *ia
F I L [ 236 ] F I L
Filaments. jn that ifland from the filaments of the bark of cer-
' 'r~~ tain trees boiled in ftrong lye ; that fome of thefe
cloths are very fine, and approach to the foftnefs of
filk, but in durability come fhort of 'cotton ; that
others are coarfer and ftronger, and laft thrice as long
as cotton ; and that of thefe the fails and cordage of
his veffel were made. See alfo the article Bark.
The fame author informs us, that the ftalks of nettles
are ufed for the like purpofes in his own country,’
France. And Sir Hans Sloane relates, in one of his
letters to Mr Ray, that he has been informed by feve-
ral, that muflin and callico, and moll of the Indian
linens, are made of nettles.
In fome of the Swedifh provinces, a ftrong kind of
cloth is faid t-o be prepared from hop-ftalks : and in
the tranfaftions of the Swedifh academy for the year
1750, there is an account of an experiment made in
confequence of that report. Of the ftalks, gathered
in autumn, about as many were taken, as equalled in
bulk a quantity of flax that would have produced a
pound after preparation. The ftalks were put into
water, and kept covered therewith during the winter.
In March they were taken out, dried in a ftove, and
drefled as flax. The prepared filaments weighed
nearly a pound, and proved fine, foft, and white :
They were fpun and woven into fix ells of fine ftrong
cloth. The author, Mr Shifler, oberves, that hop-
ftalks take much longer time to rot than flax ; and
that, if not fully rotted, the woody part will not fepa-
rate, and the cloth will neither prove white nor fine.
Hemp, flax, and all other vegetable filaments, and
thread or cloth prepared from them, differ remarkably
from wool, hair, filk, and other animal produdtions,
not only in the principles into which they are refoluble
by fire, but likewifeih fome of their more interefting
properties, particularly in their difpofition to imbibe
colouring matters ; fundry liquors, which give a beau¬
tiful and durable dye to thofe of the animal, giving no
ftain at all to thofe of the vegetable kingdom.
A folution of copper in aquafortis, which had
been changed blue by an addition of volatile fpirit, on
being mixed with a little folution of tin, became tur¬
bid and greenifti. Pieces of white filk and flannel
boiled, without any previous preparation, in this mix¬
ture, received a bright deep yellow dye; whilft pieces of
linen, prepared and unprepared, came out as colourlefs
as they were put in.
Fiihing-nets are ufually boiled with oak-bark or other
like aftringents, which render them more lafting.
Thofe made of flax receive from this decodtion a brown-
ifh colour, which, by the repeated alternations of wa¬
ter and air, is in a little time difeharged, whilft the fine
gloffy brown, communicated by the fame means to
filken nets, permanently refifts both the air and water,
and Hands as long as the animal filaments themfelves.
In like manner the ftain of ink, or the black dye from
folutions of iron, mixed with vegetable aftringents,
proves durable in filk and woollen ; but from linen,
the aftringent matter is extra&ed by wafhing, and only
the yellow iron-mould remains.
The red decodtion of cochinealj which, heightened
with a little folution of tin, gives the fiery fcarlet dye
to wool or filk that have been previoufly impregnated
with folution of tartar, makes no impreflion upon li-
men or cotton prepared in the fame manner. Mr du
Fay informs us in the Memoirs of the French Aca- Filament*
demy for the year 1737, that having prepared a mixed Fjje
cloth whofe warp was of wool and the woof of cot-
ton, and thoroughly blended the two together by ful¬
ling,, he ftill found the cotton to refill the adlion of
the fcarlet liquor, and the wool to receive the fame co¬
lour from it as wool by itfelf, the fluff coming out all
over marbled fiery and white.
Many other inftances of this kind are known too
well to the callico-printer ; whofe grand defideratum it
is, to find means of making linen receive the fame co¬
lours that wool does. The phyfical caufe of the dif¬
ference is wholly unknown ; and indeed, of the theory
of dyes in general, we know as yet extremely little.
(See Dyeing.) Are animal filaments tubular, and the
colouring atoms received within them ? Are vegetable
filaments folid, and the colour depofited on the furface?
Or does not their different fufeeptibility of colour de¬
pend rather on the different intrinfic properties of the
two ? There are many inftances of a like diverfity, even
in the metallic kingdom, where a mechanical difference
in texture can fcarcely be prefumed to be the caufe:
Thus filver receives a deep ftain from fulphureous or
putrid vapours, or the yolk of a boiled egg, which
have no eSe6t upon tin.
Filaments, among botanifts. See Botany, p. 434,
col. 1.
FILANDERS, in falconry, a difeafe in hawks, &c.
confiding of filaments or firings of blood coagulated ;
and occafioned by a violent rupture of fome vein, by
which the blood, extravafating, hardens into thefe fi¬
gures, and incommodes the reins, hips, &c.
Filanders, are alfo worms as fmall as thread, and
about an inch long, that lie wrapt up in a thin fkin or
net, near the reins of an hawk, apart from either gut
or gorge.
This malady is known by the hawk’s poverty ; by
ruffling her tail; by her draining the fill, or perch,
with her pounces; and laftly, by croaking in the
night, when the filanders prick her. The difeafe pro¬
ceeds from bad food ; and muft be remedied in time, to
prevent its fpreading over the whole body, and deftroy-
ing the bird. Thefe muft not be killed as other worms,
are, for fear of impofthumes from their corruption, be¬
ing incapable of palling away with the hawk’s meat.
They muft only be flupified, to prevent their being of-
fenfive ; and this is done by giving the hawk a clove,
of garlic, after which fhe will feel nothing of the filan¬
ders for 40 days. It will be prudent in the falconer,
when he obferves the hawk poor and low, to give
her a clove of garlic once a-month by way of pre¬
vention.
FILBERT, or Filberd, the fruit of the corylus,
or hazel. See Corylus.
FILE, among mechanics, a tool ufed in metal, &c.
in order to fmooth, polifh, or cut.
This inftrument is of iron or forged fteel, ,cut in
little furrows, with chiffels and a mallet, this and that
way, and of this or that depth, according to the graih
or touch required. After cutting the file, it muft be.
tempered with a compofition of chimney-foot, very
hard and dry, diluted and wrought up with urine,
vinegar, and fait; the whole being reduced to the con¬
fluence of muftard. Tempering the files confifts in;
rubbing them over with this compofition, and covering
them
F I L
File, them in loam ; after which they are put in a charcoal
Fihal. £rej an(j taken out by that time they have acquired a
“~v cherry colour, which is known by a fmall rod of the
fame fteel put in along with them. Being taken out
of the fire, they are thrown into cold fpring water;
and when cold, they are cleaned with charcoal and a
rag ; and being clean and dry, are kept from ruft by
laying them up in wheat bran. Iron files require more
heating than fteel ones. Files are of different forms,
fizes, cuts, and degrees of finenefs, according to the
different ufes and occafions for which they are made.
See Filing.
File, in the art of war, a row”of foldiers, Handing
one behind another, which is the depth of the battalion
or fquadron. The files of a battalion of foot are gene¬
rally three deep ; as are fometimes thofe of a fquadron
of horfe. The files muft be ftraight and parallel one
to another.
File, in law, a thread, firing, or wire, upon which
writs and other exhibits in courts and offices are fa-
ftehed or filed, for the more fafe keeping, and ready
turning to the fame. A file is a record of the court;
and the filing of a procefs of a court makes it a record
of it. An original writ may be filed after judg¬
ment given in the caufe, iffued forth before; decla¬
rations, &c. are to be filed, and affidavits muft be
filed, fome before they are read in court, and fome
prefently when read in court. Before filing a record
removed by certiorari, the juftices of B. R. may refufe
to receive it, if it appears to be for delay, &c.; and
remand it back for the expedition of juftice: but if the
certiorari be once filed, the proceedings below cannot
be revived. An indictment, &c. cannot be amended
after it is filed.
FILIAL, fomething belonging to the relation of
fon. See Son.
The divines ufually diftinguiffi between a fervile and
a Jilial fear. The moft abandoned may have a fervile
fear of God, fuch as that of a flave to his mailer ; but
not a filial fear, i. e. a fear refulting from love and re-
fpect. See Fear.
Filial Piety, the affeftionate attachment of children
to theirparents; includinginitlove,reverence,obedience,
and relief. Thefe are duties prompted equally by na¬
ture and by gratitude, iudependent of the injunctions
of religion. For where lhall we find the perfon who
hath received from any one benefits fo great or fo
many, as children from their parents ? And it may be
truly faid, that if perfonS are undutiful to their pa¬
rents, they feldom prove good to any other relation.
Profane hiftory furnilhes many fine examples of this
amiable virtue; a few of which we lhall feleft, according
to the plan obferved in other fimilar articles.
i. The Roman dictator T. Manlius having exer-
cifed great cruelty over the citizens, was cited at the
expiration of his office to anfwer for his conduCt.
Among other things that were laid to his charge, he
was accufed of treating with barbarity one of his own
fons. Manlius, according to Livy, had no other caufe
of complaint againft this fon than his having an impe¬
diment in hisfpeech. For this reafon he was banilhed
far from the city, from his home, and the company of
thofe of his own age and fortune, and condemned to
fervile works. All were highly exafperated againft
fnch inhuman condud, except the fon himfelf, who,
a.
F I L
under the greateft concern that he Ihould furnilh Filial,
matter of accufation againft his father, refolved upon a
moft extraordinary method to relieve him. One morn¬
ing, without apprifing any body, he came to the city
armed with a dagger, and went direftly to the houfe
of the tribune Pomponius, who had accufed his fa¬
ther. Pomponius was yet in bed. Young Manlius
fent up his name, and was immediately admitted by
the tribune, who did not doubt but he was come to
difcover to him fome new inllances of his father’s fe-
verity. But Manlius, as foon as he was left alone
with the tribune, diew qut his dagger, and prefented
it to his breaft; declaring he would tiab him that mo¬
ment if he did not fwear in the form he Ihould dic¬
tate, “ Never to hold the affembly of the peey’e for LjV 1. 7;
accufing his father.” Pomponius, who faw the dag-c-4, 5>
ger glittering at his breaft, himfelf alone without arms,
and attacked by a robult young man full of a bold
confidence in his own ftrength, took the oath demand-*
ed of him ; and afterwards confeffed with a kind of
complacency in the thing, and a fincerity which fuf-
ficiently argued he was not forry for what he had done,
that it was that violence which obliged him to defift
from his defign.
2. Among the multitude of perfons who were
profcribed under the fecond triumvirate of Rome,
were the celebrated orator Cicero and his brother
Quintus. The fate of the former, in endeavouring to
make his efcape, is related under the article Cicero,
The latter found means to conceal himfelf fo effedtually
at home, that the foldiers could not find him. Enraged
at their difappointment, they put his fon to the tor¬
ture, in order to make him difcover the place of his
father’s concealment; but filial affedtion was proof
againft the moft exquifite torments. An involuntary
figh, and fometimes a deep groan, was all that could
be extorted from the youth.. His agonies were in-
creafed ; but with amazing fortitude he ftill perfifted
in his refolution of not betraying his father. Quintus
was not far off; and it may be imagined better than
can be expreffed, how his heart muft have been affedled
with the fighs and groans of a fon expiring in tortures
to fave his };f He could bear it no longer ; but-
quitting the place of his concealment, he prefented
himfelf to the affaffins, begging of them to put him to
death, and difmifs the innocent youth, whofe generous
behaviour the triumvirs themfelves, if informed of the
fadf, would judge worthy of the higheli approbation.
But the inhuman monfters, without being the lealt
affedfed with the tears either of the father or the fon,
anfwered, that they both muft die ; the father becaufe.
he was profcribed, and the fon becaufe he had con¬
cealed his father. Then a new conteft of tendernefs
arofe who ftould die firft; but this the affaffins foon
decided, by beheading them both at the fame time.—
This anecdote is related by Appian, Dio, Plutarch,.
Valerius Maximus, and other hiftorians.
3. Cinna, who fcrupled no attempt, how atrociouspiuf_ ;n
foever, which could ferve his purpofe, undertook uxPomp,
get Pomponius Strabo murdered in his tent; but his
fon faved his life, which was the firft remarkable ac¬
tion of Pompey the Great. The treacherous Cinna,
by many alluring promifes, had gained over one Te-
rentius, a confident of Pompey’s, and prevailed on him
to alfallinate the general, .and feduce his troops. Young
Pompey,
1 237 1
F X L L 238 ] FI L
TiliaL Pompty being informed of this defign a few hours be-
fore it was to be put in execution, placed a faithful
guard round the prastorium ; fo that none of the con-
ipirators could come near it. He then watched all
the motions of the camp, .and endeavoured to appeafe
the fury of the foldiers, who hated the general his
father, by fuch a£ls of prudence as were worthy of the
toldeft commanders. However, fome of the mutineers
having forced open one of the gates of the camp, in
order to defert to Cinna, the general’s fon threw him-
felf flat on his back in their way, crying out, that they
fhould not break their oath and defert their comman¬
der, without treading his body to death. By this
means he put a flop to their defertion, and afterwards
wrought fo effedtually upon them by his affecting
fpeeChes and engaging carriage, that he reconciled
the;n to his father.
4. Olympias, Alexander’s own mother, was of fuch
an unhappy difpofition, that he would never allow her to
have any concern in the affairs of the government. She
^ Curttus u{-e(j frCqaently to make very fevere complaints on- that
account; but he always fubmitted to her ill-humour
with great mildnefs and patience. Antipater, one of
his friends, having one day written a long letter againft
her to the king then abfent, the latter, after reading it,
replied, “ Antipater does not know that one Angle
tear fhed by a mother will obliterate ten thoufand fuch
letters as this.” A behaviour like this, and fuch an
anfwer, fhow at one and the fame time, that Alexan¬
der was both an affeftionate fon and an able politi¬
cian.
5. Epaminondas is univerfally acknowledged to have
been one of the greateft generals and one of the beft
men which Greece ever produced. Before him the
city of Thebes was not diftinguifhed by any memora¬
ble aftion, and after him it was not famous for its vir¬
tues, but its misfortunes, till it funk into its original
obfeurity; fo that it faw its glory take birth and ex¬
pire with this great man. The vidtory he obtained at
Leuftra had drawn the eyes and admiration of all the
neighbouring people upon Epaminondas, who looked
upon him as the fupport of Thebes, as the triumphant
conqueror of Sparta, as the deliverer of Greece: in
a word, as the greateft man, and the moft excellent
captain, that ever was in the world. In the midft of
this univerfal applaufe, fo capable of making the gene¬
ral of an army forget the man for the viftor, Epami¬
nondas, little fenfible to fo affedling and fo deferved a
glory, “ My joy (faid he) arifes from my fenfe of that
which the news of my viftory will give my father and
my mother.”
6. Among an incredible number of illuftrious per-
fons who were falfely accufed and put to death by
Nero, was one Barcas Soranus ; a man, as Tacitus in¬
forms us, of Angular vigilance and juftice in the dif-
charge of his duty. During his conftnement, his
daughter Servilia was apprehended and brought into
the fenate, and there arraigned. The crime laid to
her charge was, that fhe had turned into money all her
ornaments and jewels, and the moft valuable part of her
drefs, to defray the expence of confulting magicians.
To this the young Servilia, with tears, replied, That
Ihe had indeed confulted magicians, but the whole of
her inquiry was to know whether the emperor and fe-
sate would afford prote&ion and fafety to her dear
and indulgent parent agairift his ^ccufers. “ With Filial
this view (faid fhe) I prefented the diviners, men till , j! *
now utterly unknown to me, with my jewels, apparel, ,
and the other ornaments peculiar to my quality, as I
would have prefented my blood and life, could my
blood and life have procured my father’s liberty. But
whatever this my proceeding was, my unfortunate fa¬
ther was an utter ftranger to it; and if it is a crime,
I alone am the delinquent.” She was, however, toge¬
ther with her father, condemned to die; but in what
manner, hiftory is Alent. [Vid. Taciti jinn ales, lib. 6.
cap. 20 ]
7. Valerius Maximus* likewife relates a very Angu- * Lib. v. 4.
lar fact upon this fubjeft. As*Woman of illuftrious Plmii HiJ}.
birth had been condemned to be ftrangled. The Ro- Ab. vii. 3<J.
man prmtor delivered her up to the triumvir, who
caufed her to be carried to prifon, in order to her be¬
ing put to death. The gaoler, who was ordered to ex¬
ecute her, was ftruck with compaflion, and could not
refolve to kill her. He chofe therefore to let her die
of hunger. Beftdes which, he fuffered het daughter
to fee her in prifon ; taking care, however, that fhe
brought her nothing to eat. As this continued many
days, he was furprifed that the prifoner lived fo long
without eating ; and fufpefting the daughter, upon
watching her, he difeovered that Ihe • nouriftied her
mother with her owm milk. Amazed at fo pious, and
at the fame time fo ingenious an invention, he told
the fadl to the triumvir, and the triumvir to the prae¬
tor, who believed the thing merited relating in the af-
fembly of the people. The criminal was pardoned,
and a decree was paffed that the mother and daughter
fhould be fubftfted for the reft of their lives at the ex¬
pence of the public.
The fame author gives a Amilar inftance of Alial
piety in a young woman named Xantippe to her aged
father Cimonus, who wras likewife conflned in prifon,
and which is univerfally knowm by the name of the
Roman Charity. Both thefe inftances appeared fo very
extraordinary and uncommon to that people, that they
could only account for them, by fuppoflng that the
love of children to their parents was the ftrft law of
nature. Putaret aliquis (fays our author) hoc contra
naturam fadtum ejje, niji prima natura lex ejfet diligere pa-
rentes.
In addition to the foregoing examples, we may re¬
fer to the article Etna, n° 51. par. 3. where a very
noble inftance of Alial piety is taken notice of. See al-
fo the article Pietas.
FILIBEG, or Fillebeg. See Fillebeg.
FILICAC1A (Vincent), a celebrated Italian poet,
w’as born at Florence in 1642. He wras a member of
the Academy della Crufca and of that of the Areadi,
and became fecretary to the duke of Tufcany. He died
in 1707. His poems are much efteemed for the deli¬
cacy and noblenefs of their fentiments. Scipio de Fi-
licacia, his fon, had them all printed together, under
the title of Poefte Fofiano di Vtncen%o da Filicacia, in
1707, qto.
FILICES, (from filum “ a thread,” quafi Jilatim
incifa), Ferns ; one of the feven tribes or families of
the vegetable kingdom, according to Linnseas, by
whom it is thus characterized : “ having their frintid¬
eation on the back fide of the frondes.” They conftitute
the ftrft order in the clafs cryptogamia ; and confift of
16
F I L [ 239 1 F I L
fflkcs j 6 genera, which are divided into fruBlficatlones, fplca~
II ta, frondofa, iff radio ales. This order comprehends
^Fillagree. entire xvith clafs of Tournefort, in whofe fyfiem
,“'_y the Alices make only a Angle genus, in the Arlt fedion
of the above mentioned clafs.
FILICES, is alfo an order of plants in the fragmenta
methodi mturalh of Linnaeus. See Botany, p. 469.
col. 2.
FILIGRANE, Filigree, or Fillagree, Work.
See Fillagree.
FILING, one of the principal operations in fmith-
ery, &c. fucceeding to forging. See File.
The coarfer cut Ales are always to be fucceeded by
jiner ; and in all the kinds the rule is, to lean heavy
on the Ale in thrufting it forward, becaufe the teeth of
the Ale are made to cut forwards. But in drawing the
Ale back again for a fecond ftroke, it is to be lightly
lifted juit above the work, by reafon its cuts not coming
back.
The rough or coarfe-toothed Ale (which, when large,
is called a rubber) ferves to take off the unevenncffes
of the work left by the hammer in forging.
The baftard-toothed Ale is to take out too deep
cuts, and Ale ftrokes made by the rough Ale. The Ane-
toothed Ale takes out the cuts or Ale-ftrokes the ba¬
ftard Ale made; and the fmooth Ale thofe left by the
ftne Ale.
In this order, the Ales of feveral cuts are to fucceed
each other till the work is as fmooth as it can be filed.
After which it may be made yet fmoother with emery,
tripoli, &c. See Polishing.
FILIPENDULA, in botany. See Spir.?ea.
-FILIX, in botany. See Filices.
FILLAGREE, Filigree, or Filigrane,
a kind of enrichment on gold or ftlver, wrought deli¬
cately, in manner of little threads or grains, or both in¬
termixed. The word is compounded of Jil or jilum
“ thread,” nadgranum “ grain.” In Latin it is call¬
edJilatim elaboratum opus, argentum, aurum.
There is no manufacture in any part of the world,
that has been more admired and celebrated, than the
Ane gold and Alver Allagree of Sumatra. And what
renders it a matter of greater curioAty is the coarfenefs
of the tools employed in the workmanfhip, and which,
in the hands of an European, would not be thought
fufficiently perfeft for the moft ordinary purpofes.—
They are rudely and inartiAcially formed, by the gold-
fmith [pandl), from any old iron he can pick up.
Marfiens When you engage one of them to execute a piece
Account of of work, his Arft requeft is ufually for a piece of iron
Sumatra, hoop, to make his wire drawing inftrument ; an old
P" l4t’ hammer head, ftuck in a block, ferves for an anvil;
and a pair of compaffes is often compofed of two old
nails tied together at one end. The gold is melted
in a piece of a preeoo or earthen rice-pot, or fometimes
in a crucible of their own make, of ordinary clay. In
general they ufe no bellows, but blow the Are with
their mouths, through a joint of bamboo ; and if the
quantity of metal to be melted is conftderable, three or
four perfons At round their furnace, which is an old
broken quallee or iron pot, and blow together. At
Padang alone, where the manufacture is more conft¬
derable, they have adopted the Chinefe bellows. Their
method of drawing the wire differs but little from that
ufed by European workmen. When drawn to a fuf- Fllfagroe,
Acient Anenefs, they flatten it by beating it on_ their
anvil; and when flattened, they give it a twill like ’ .
that in the whalebone handle of a punch-ladle, by rub¬
bing it on a block of wood with a flat ftick. After
twilling they again beat it on the anvil, and by thefe
means it becomes flat wire with indented edges. With
a pair of nippers they fold down the end of the wire,
and thus form a leaf, or element of a flower in their
work, which is cut off. The end is again folded and
cut off, till they have got a fufficient number of leaves,
which are all laid on ftngly. Patterns of the flowers or fo¬
liage, in which there is not very much variety, are prepa¬
red on paper, of the fizeof the gold plate on which the
ftllagree is to be laid. According to this, they begin to
difpofe on the plate the larger compartments of the fo¬
liage, for which they ufe plain flat wire of a larger fize,
and All them up with the leaves before mentioned. To
Ax the work, they employ a glutinous fubftance, made
of the red hot berry called bocafago, ground to a pulp,
on a rough ftone. This pulp they place on a young co¬
coa-nut about the Aze of a walnut, the top and bottom
being cut off. After the leaves have been all placed
in order, and ftuck on, bit by bit, a folder is prepared
of gold-Alings and borax, moiftened with water, which
they tlrew over the plate; and then putting it in the
Are for a (hurt time, the whole becomes united. This
kind of work on a gold plate, they call carrang papan;.
when the work is open, they call it carrang trohfe. In
executing the latter, the foliage is laid out on a card,
or foft kind of wood, and ftuck on, as before defcri-
bed, with the fago berry ; and the work, when ftnilh
ed, being ftrewed over with their folder, is put into
the Are, when the card or foft wood burning away, the
gold remains conne&ed. If the piece be large, they
folder it at feveral times. In the manufacture of bad-
joo buttons, they firft make the lower part flat, and ha¬
ving a mould formed of a piece of buffalo’s horn, in¬
dented to feveral fizes, each like one half of a bullet
mould, they lay their work over one of thefe holes,
and with a horn punch they prefs it into the form of
the button. After this they complete the upper part.
When the fillagree is Anilhed, they cleanfe it, by boil¬
ing it in water with common fait and alum, or fome¬
times lime juice ; and in order to give it that Ane purple
colour which they call fapo, they boil it in water with
brimftone. The manner of making the little balls
with which their works are fometimes ornamented, is
as follows. They take a piece of charcoal, and having
cut it flat and fmooth, they make in it a fmall hole,
which they fill with gold duff, and this melted in the
fire becomes a little ball. They are very inexpert at
finiihing and polifhing the plain parts, hinges, fere we,
and the like, being in this as much excelled by the Eu¬
ropean artifts, as thefe fall fhort of them in the finenefs
and minutenefs of the foliage. The Chinefe alfo make
fillagree moftly of filver, which looks elegant, but wants-
likewife the extraordinary, delicacy of the Malay work.
The price of the workmanfliip depends upon the diffi¬
culty or uncommonnefs of the pattern. In fome arti¬
cles of ufual demand, it does not exceed one third of
the value of the gold; but in matters of fancy, it is
generally equal to it.
FILLET,, or Filet, in archite&ure, denotes a
Jittl®
F I L [ 240 ] F I L
Fillet little fquare member or ornament ufed in divers places
il and on divers occafions, but generally as a fort of co-
Filter. rona over a greater moulding.
The fillet is the fame with what the French call re-
glet, lancle, and bandelette ; the Italians lifta or liftella.
Fillet, in heraldry, a kind of orle or bordure, con¬
taining only a third or fourth part of the breadth of
the common bordure. It is fuppofed to be withdrawn
-inwards, and is of a different colour from the field. It
runs quite round, near the edge, as a lace over a cloak.
Fillet is alfo u'fed for an ordinary drawn like the
Far from the finifter point of the chief acrofs the Ihield,
in manner of a fcarf; though it is fometimes alfo feen
-in the fituation of a bend, feffe, crofs, &c.
According to Guillim, the fillet is a fourth part of
the chief, and is placed in the chief point of the efcut-
cheon.
Fillet is alfo ufed among painters, gilders, &c. for
a little rule or reglet of leaf-gold, drawn over certain
mouldings ; or on the edges of frames, pannels, &c.
efpecially when painted white, by way of enrichment.
Fillets, in the manege, arethe loins of a horfe,
which begin at the place where the hinder- part of the
faddle refts.
FILLY, a term among horfe-dealers, to denote the
female or mare colt.
FILM, a thin fkin or pellicle. In plants, it is ufed
for that thin, -woody Ikin, which feparates the feeds in
the pods, and keeps them apart.
FILTER, or Filtre, in chemiftry, &c. a piece of
woollen cloth, linen, paper, or other matter, fome of
which are in the form of hollow inverted Cones, ufed to
filtrate or drain liquors through. The filtre has the
fame ufe and effedf with regard to liquids that the fieve
or fearce has in dry matters.
-Filters are of two forts. The fird are Ample pieces
of paper or cloth, through which the liquor is paffed
without farther trouble. The fecond are twided up
like a (kain or wick, and fird wetted, then fqueezed,
and^one end put in the veffel that contains the liquor to
be filtrated ; the other end is to be out, and hang
down below the furface of the liquor ; by means here¬
of the pured part of the liquor didils drop by drop out
of the veffel, leaving the coarfer part behind. This
filter a£ts as a fiphon.
Filter is alfo a charm, fuppofed to have a virtue
of infpiring love. The word is derived from
which fignifies the fame thing, of amo “ I love.
The Greeks, when their love was without fuccefs,
had feveral arts to procure the affections of their belo¬
ved. The Theffalian women were famous for their
fit ill in this as well as other magical praftices. The
means whereby it was effefted were of divers forts ; it
was fometimes done by potions called pocfya, which are
frequently mentioned in authors of both languages.
Juvenal fpeaks thus :
Hie mavicus affert cantus, hie 7le[Tala vendit
Philtre, quib'us valeant mtnUm -uexare mariti.
Their operations were violent and dangerous, and com-
pionly deprived fuch as drank them of their reafon.
Plutarch and Cornelius Nepos report, that Lucullus
the Roman general fird lod his reafon, and afterwards
his life, by one of them. Lucretius the poet ended his
life by the fame way ; and Cains Caligula, as Sueto¬
nius reports, was driven into a fit of madnefs by a fil-
126.
ter given him by his wife Coefonia, which (lory is men- Filtration
tioned by the fame poet. Ovid likewife affures us, that . li
this was the ufual effeft of fuch potions. , Finch.
The ingredients they were made of were of various ’
forts; feveral of which applied by themfelves were
thought effeftual.
FILTRATION, the aft of palling any liquor
through a filtre, called alfo colalure, percolation, and
iranfeolation. See Filter, and Chemistry, n° 568.
FlMBRIfE, Fringes. The extremities or borders
of the tubs Fallopianae were formerly thus called; the
word fignifying a fringed border, which thatpart refembles.
FIMBRIATED, in heraldry, an ordinary with a
narrrow border or hem of anotherlrinfture.
FIN, in natural hidory, a well-known part oLfilhes,
confiding of a membrane fupported by rays, or little
bony or cartilaginous ofiicles.
The office of the fins has commonly been fuppofed
to be analogous to that of feathers in fowll; and to
affid the fifh in its progreffive motion, or fwimming :
but the later naturalids find this a midake.
The tail is the great indrument of fwimming : the
fins only ferve to keep the filh upright, and prevent va¬
cillation or wavering. See Ichthyology.
FINAL, in general, whatever terminates or con¬
cludes a thing; asfinal judgment,fentence, &c.
Final Caufe,\% the end for which the thing is done.
The final caufe is the fird thing in the intention of a
perfon who does a thing ; and the lad in the execu¬
tion. See Cause.
Final Letters, among the Hebrew grammarians, five
letters fo called, becaufe they have a different figure
at the end of words from what they have in any other
fituation.
Final, in geography, a port-town of Italy, fubjeft
to Genoa, and fituated on the Mediterranean, about
37 miles fouth-wed of that city. It was fold to the
Genoefein 1713, by the emperor Charles VI. E.Long.
9. 12. N. Lat. 44. 30.
FINANCES, in the French policy, denote the re¬
venues of the king and date : much the fame with the
treafury or exchequer of the Englidi, and the fifeus of
the Romans.—The word is derived from the German
finantz, “ feraping, ufury.” Though Du Cange choo-
fes rather to deduce it from the barbarous Latin finan-
cia, prafiatio pecuniaria.
Council of the Financrs, correfponds to our lords-
commiffioners of the treafury : the comptroller-general
of the finances, to our lord high treafurer, &c.
The French have a peculiar kind of figures, or nu¬
meral charafter, which they call chiffre definance.
FINCH-kind, in ornithology, an appellation gi¬
ven to a genus of birds known among authors by the
name of Fringilla. See that article.
Finch (Heneage), earl of Nottingham, the fon of
Sir Heneage Finch, fome time recorder of London,
and of a younger branch of the Winchelfea family, was
born in 1621. By ,h>s good parts and diligence, he
became a noted proficient in the municipal laws; was
made folicitor-general by Charles II. on his redora-
tion, and was very aftive in the profecution of the re¬
gicides. In 1670, he was appointed attorney-gene
ral; about three years after, lord keeper of the great *
feal, on the removal of the earl of Shaftedmry; and
lord chancellor in 1675. He was created earl of Not¬
tingham
FIN [ 241 j FIN
tingham in 1681 ; and died the year following, being
quite worn out by the fatigues of bufinefs. He pub-
lifhed feveral fpeeches on the trials of the judges of
king Charles I. with fome few other things; and left
behind him Chancery Reports in MS.
FINE, that which is pure and without mixture.
The term is particularly ufcd in fpeaking of gold or
filver.
Fine, inlaw, hath divers-applications. Sometimes
it is ufed for a formal conveyance of lands or tene¬
ments, or of any thing inheritable, being in ejjie ternpo-
ris finis, in order to cut off all controverfies. Others
define it to be a final agreement between perfons, con¬
cerning any lands or rents, &c. of which any fuit or
writ is depending between them in any court.
Fine, fometimes fignifies a fum of money paid for
entering lands or tenements let by leafe; and fome¬
times a pecuniary muldt for an offence committed a-
gainft the king and his laws, or againft the lord of the
manor.
Fines for Alienation, in feodal law. One of the
attendants or confequences of tenure by vaffalfhip.
Knighr-Service, was that of fines due to the lord for
every alienation, whenever the tenant had occafion to
make over his land to another. This depended on the
nature of the feodal connexion ; it not being reafon-
able nor allowed, that a feudatory fhould transfer his
lord’s gift to another, and fubftitute a new tenant to
do the fervice in his own ftead, without the confent of
the lord : and, as the feodal obligation was confidered
as reciprocal, the lord alfo could not alienate his feig-
nory without the confent of his tenant, which confent
of his was called an attornment. This reftraint upon
the lord foon wore away ; that upon the tenant conti¬
nued longer. For, when every thing came in procefs
of time to be bought and fold, the lords would not
grant a licence to their tenants to aliene, without a fine
being paid ; apprehending that, if it was reafonable
for the heir to pay a fine or relief on the renovation of
his paternal eftate, it was much more reafonable that
a ftranger fhould make the fame acknowledgment on
his admiffion to a newly purchafed feud In England,
thefe fines feem only to have been exa&ed from the
king’s tenants in capite, who were never able to aliene
without a licence : but as to common perfons, they
were at liberty, by magna charta, and the flatute of
quia emptores (if not earlier), to aliene the whole of
their eftate, to be holden of the fame lord as they
themfelves held it of before. , But the king’s tenants
in capite, not being included under the general words
of thefe ftatutes, could not aliene without a licence:
for if they did, it was in ancient ftri&aefs an abfolute
forfeiture of the land; though fome have imagined
otherwife. But this feverity was mitigated by the fta-
tute 1 Edw. III. c. 12. which ordained, that in fuch
cafe the lands fliould not be forfeited, but a reafonable
fine be paid to the king. Upon which ftatute it was
fettled, that one-third of the yearly value fhould be
paid for a licence of alienation ; but, if the tenant
prefumed to aliene without a licence, a full year’s va¬
lue fhould be paid. Thefe fines were at laft totally
taken away by ftatute 12 Car. II. c. 24. See Knight-
Service.
Fine-Drawing, or Renterlng, a dexterous fewing
Vol. VII. Part I.
up or rejoining the parts of any cloth, fluff, or the
like, torn or rent in the dreffing, wearing, &c.
It is prohibited to fine draw pieces of foreign manu¬
facture upon thofe of our own, as has formerly been
praftifed. See Rentering.
FiNE-Stiller, in the diftiilery. That branch of the
art which is employed on the diftilling the fpirit from
treacle or other preparations or recrements of fugar, it
called fine-fiilling, by way of diftin&ion from malt-ftill-
ing; and the perfon who exercifes this part of the trade
is called a fine-fiiller.
The operation in procuring the fpirit from fugar is
the fame with that ufed in making the malt-fpirit; a
wafh of the faccharine matter being made with water
from treacle, &c. and fermented with yeaft. It is ufual
to add in this cafe, however, a confiderable portion of
malt, and fometimes powdered jalap, to the ferment¬
ing backs. The malt accelerates the fermentation,
and makes the fpirit come out the cheaper, and the
jalap prevents the rife of any mufty head on the fur-
face of the fermenting liquor, fo as to leave a greater
opportunity for the free accefs of the air, and thus to
fhorten the work, by turning the foamy into a hilling
fermentation.
FINERS of Gold and Silver, are thofe who pu¬
rify and part thofe metals frorp other coarfer ones by
fire and acids. They are alfo called parters in our old
law-books, and fometimes departers.
FINERY, in the iron works, is one of the two
forges at which they hammer the fow or pig iron.
Into the finery they firft put the pigs of iron, pla¬
cing three or four of them together behind the fire,
with a little of one end thruft into it; where, foften-
ing by degrees, they ftir and work them with long
bars of iron, and expofe at different times different
parts to the blaft of the bellows, in order to refine it
as equally as poffible, till the metal runs together with
a rpund mafs or lump, which they call a half bloom. They
then take this out, and give it a few ftrokes with their
fledges; afterwards they carry it to a great heavy
hammer,* raifed by the motion of a water-wheel ;
where, applying it dexteroully to the blows, they pre-
fently beat it out into a thick Ihort fquare. This they
put into the finery again, and heating it red-hot, they
work it under the fame hammer till it comes to be in
the fhape of a bar in the middle, but with two fquare
knobs at the ends, which they call an ancony. It is
then carried into the other forge called the chajfry.
FINEERING. See Veneering.
FINESSE, a French term, of late current in Eng-
lilh. Literally, it is of no farther import than our
Engliih finenefs; but among us it is chiefly ufed to de¬
note that peculiar delicacy or fubtilty perceived in
works of the mind, and the niceft and moft fecret and
fublime parts of any fcience or art.
It is fometimes ufed to exprefs that kind of fubtilty
made ufe of for the purpofes of deception.
FINGAL, king of Morven, in ancient Caledonia.
He flourilhed in the third century ; and according to
the Irifti hiftories died in the year 283, although there
is fome reafon from Ofiian’s poems for placing his
death a few years later. Fingal was defcended in all
probability from thofe Celtic tribes who were the firft:
inhabitants of Britain. Tradition, and the poems of
H h Offian,
FIN [ 242 ] FIN
Offian, give him a long line of royal anceftors, fuch as
Combal, Trenmor, Trathal, &c. who had all reigned
over the fame territory. Whether this territory was
bounded by the Caledonian fortft, or extended fome-
what farther to the fouth, towards the Roman pro¬
vince, is uncertain; but there is no doubt of its ha¬
ving extended over all the north and weft Highlands,
comprehending the Hebrides, whofe petty chiefs were
all fubjedt to the king of Morven. His principal place
of refidence was Selma, which was probably in the
neighbourhood of Glenco, fuppofed to be the Cona
of Offian ; though fome imagine it to have been in
Strath-Conan in Moray. The truth feems to be,
that as Fingal and his people lived by hunting, they
often ftrifted their habitation. Hence, in all parts of
the Highlands we find, ip the names of places, build¬
ings, &c. fuch monuments as juftify their feveral
claims for the honour of Eingal’s refidence. Fingal
acquired great fame by his prowefs in arms. He made
many fuccefsful incurfions into the Roman province,
from whence he carried away thofe fpoils which his
fon fo often mentions under the names of the wine of
theJlranger, and the wax of the Jlranger. By fea we
find him frequently making voyages to Scandinavia,
the Orkneys, and Ireland ; called by Offian Lochlin,
Inniftore, and UUin. Several of thefe expeditions were
celebrated by his fon in epic poems, of which two on¬
ly remain, Fingal and Temora. In the laft of thefe
p.oems, we find Fingal fighting together with his
grandfon Ofcar. How long he lived afterwards is un¬
certain. He is faid to have died a natural death; and
therefore none of his fon’s poems relate to this event,
though it is occafionally mentioned in many of them.
“ Did thy beauty laft, O Ryno ? Stood-the ftrength
of car-borne Ofcar ? Fingal himfelf paffed away ; and
the halls of his fathers have forgot his fteps. The blaft
of the north opens thy gates, O king, and I behold
thee fitting on mift, dimly gleaming in all thine arms.
Thy form now is not the terror of the valiant: but
like a watery cloud, when we fee the ftars behind it,
with their weeping eyes. Thy ffiield is like' the aged
moon ; thy fword vapour half kindled with fire. Dim
and feeble is the chief who travelled in brightnefs be¬
fore-But thy fteps are on the winds of the defert, and
the ftorms darken in thy hand. Thou takeft the fun
in thy wrath, and hideft him in thy clouds. The fans
of little men are afraid, and a thoufand ftiowers de-
fce n d. ”—Berrathon.
“ The character of Fingal (Dr Blair obferves) is
perhaps the moft perfedt that was ever drawn by a
poet, for we may boldly defy all the writers of anti¬
quity to ffiow us any hero equal to Fingal. Through¬
out the whole of Offian’s works, he is prefented to us
in all that variety of lights which give the full difplay
of a charadter. In him concur almoft all the qualities
that can ennoble human nature ; that can either make
us admire the hero, or love the man. He is not only
unconquerable in war, but he makes his people happy
by his wifdom in the days of peace. He is truly the
father of his people. He, is known by the epithet of
‘ Fingal of the mddeft look,’ and diftinguifhed on
every occafion by humanity and generofity. He is
merciful to his foes, full of affe&ion to his children,
full of concern about his friends, and never mentions
Agapdecca, his firft love, without the utmoft tender-.
nefs. He is the univerfal proteftor of the diftrefled ;
none ever* went fad from Fingal.—‘ O Ofcar! bend
the ftrong in arms, but fpare the feeble hand. Be
thou a ftream of many tides againft the foes of thy
people ; but like the gale that moves the grafs fo
thofe who a Ik thine aid : fo Trenmor lived ; fuch Tra¬
thal was; and fuch has Fingal been. My arm was the
fupport of the injured; che weak refted behind the
lightning of my fteel.’ Thefe were the maxims of
true heroifm, to which he formed his grandfon. His
fapie is reprefented as every where fpread ; the greateft
heroes acknowledge his fuperiority; his enemies tremble
at his name ; and the higheft encomiums that can be
beftowed on one whom the poet would moft exalt, is
to fay, That his foul was like the foul of Fingal.
Wherever he appears, we behold the hero. The ob-
jedfs he purfues are always great ; tp bend the proud,
to protedft the injured, to defend his friends, to over¬
come his enemies by generofity more than by force.
Some ftrokes of human imperfedlion and frailty are
what ufually give us the moft clear view and the moft
fenfible impreffion of a character, becaufe they prefent
to us a man fuch as we have feen; they recal known
features of human nature. When poets go beyond
this range, and attempt to defcribe a faultlefs heroi,
they, for the moft part, fet before us a fort of vague
undiftinguifhable charadler, fuch as the imagination
cannot lay hold of, or realife to itfelf as the object of
affedtion. But Fingal, though exhibited without any
of the common human failings, is neverthelefs a real
man; a charadter which touches and interefts every
reader.”
We may ohferve, that Fingal appears to have been
no lefs a poet than a warrior; at leaft, in all thofe
paflages afcribed to him in the poems of his fon, time
is a grandeur and loftinefs that elevates them above the
common ftyle even of Offian. The following pafiage
from the poem of Carthon may be taken as a fpeci-
men of Fingal’s poetry. “ —‘ Raife, ye bards,’ faid
the mighty Fingal, ‘ the praife of unhappy Moina.
Call her ghoft, with yoUr fongs, to our hills; that /he
may reft with the fair of Morven, the funbeams of other
days, and thq delight of heroes of .old.—I have feen
the walls of Balclutha, but they were defolate. The
fire had refounded in the halls ; and the voice of the
people is heard no more. The ftream of Clutha was
removed from its place by the fall of the walls. The
thiftle ffiook, there, its lonely head: the mofs whittled
to the wind. The fox looked out from the windows ;
the rank grafs of the wall waved round his head. De¬
folate is the dwelling of Moina : filence is in the houfe
of her fathers. Ri.ife the fong of mourning, O bards,
over the land of ftrangers. They have but fallen be¬
fore us; for, one day we muft fall.—Why doll thou
build the hall, fon of the winged days ? Thou lookeft
from thy towers to-day ; yet a few years, and theidaft
of the defart comes ; it howls in thy empty court, and
whiftles round thy half-worn ftrield.—And let the blaft
of the defart come! We ffiall be renowned in our day.
The mark of my arm ftiall be in the battle, and my
name in the fong of bards. Raife the fong ; fend round
the Ihell: and let joy be heard in my hall. When
thou, fun of heaven, ffialt fail ? if thou ffialt fail, thou
mighty light! if thy brightnefs is'for a feafon, like
Fingal; our fame 111 all furvive thy beams.’—Such was ,
the.
FIR [ 243 ] FIR
Fingers the joy of Fin gal in the day of his joy. His thoufand were obliged to have recourfe to a mechanical force
:Fire- bards leaned forward from their feats, to hear the voice or impulfe as the ultimate caufe of' fire in all cafes
of the king. It was like the mufic of the harp on the
gale of the fpring. Lovely were thy thoughts, O Fin-
gal ! Why had not Offian the ftrength of thy foul ?
But thou ftandeft alone, my father ; and who can e-
qual the king of Morven ?”
FINGERS, in anatomy, the extreme part of the
hand divided into five members. See Anatomy, n° 56.
FINING of Liquors. See Clarification.
FINISTERRE, the moil wefterly cape or promon¬
tory of Spain, in 10. 15. W. Long, and 430 N. Lat.
This cape is likewife the moil weilerly part of the
continent of Europe.
FINITE, fomething bounded or limited, in con-
tradiilin&ion to Infinite.
FINLAND (the duchy of), is bounded on the
weft by the gulph of Bothnia, on the eaft by Mufcovy,
on the fouth by the gulph of Finland and Ingria, and
on the north by Bothnia and Lapland. It is about
200 miles in length, and almoil as much in breadth.
It contains many lakes ; in which are feveral iilands,
which are generally rocks or inacceffible mountains.
The inhabitants are fmall of ftature, capable of endu¬
ring hardihips, and good foldiers. The Ruffians have
for fame time rendered themfelves matters of a good
part of this province ; the reft belongs to Sweden. It
is divided into feven provinces : 1. Finland ; 2. Caja-
na; 3. Thavafthia; 4. Nyeland; 5. Savolaxia; 6. Ca-
relia ; and, 7. Kexholmia.
Finland Proper is an agreeable country, and lies
over-againft the city of Stockholm, near the place
where the gulphs of Bothnia and Finland meet. It
is divided into South and North Finland. It is di-
Verfified with mountains, forefts, lakes, meadows, and
pleafant fields. The inhabitants fait the fifh they do
not confume themfelves, and fend it into foreign coun¬
tries.
FINNINGIA, or Fenningia, (anc. geog.), the
true reading for Eningia in Pliny, which he makes an
iiland, but is more truly a peninfula. Now Finland, a
province of Sweden. Fenni, or Flnni, the people;
whofe ferocity was extraordinary, poverty extreme,
herbs their food, fit ins their covering, and the ground
their couch : regardlefs of man and of gods, they at¬
tained to a very difficult thing, not to have a fingle
wiih to form, (Tacitus.)
FIR tree, in botany. See Pinus.
FIRE, in phyfiology, fignifies that fubtile invifible
caufe by which bodies are expanded or enlarged in
bulk, and become hot to the touch ; fluids are rarefied
into vapour; folid bodies become fluid, and in like
manner are at laft diffipated, or if incapable of being
carried off in vapour are at length melted into glafs.
It feems likevvife to be the chief agent in nature on
which animal and vegetable life have an immediate
dependence, and without which it does not appear
that nature itfelf could fubfift a fingle moment.
The difputes concerning fire, which for a long time
divided philofophers, have now in a great meafure,
though not wholly, fubfided. The celebrated philofo¬
phers of the laft century, Bacon, Boyle, and Newton,
were of opinion, that fire was no diftindl fubftance
from other bodies, tmt that it confiiled entirely in the
violent inotion of the parts of any body. As no mo¬
tion, however, can be produced without a caufe, they
Thus Boyle tells us, that when a piece of iron becomes
hot by hammering, “ there is nothing to make it fo,
except the forcible motion of the hammer impreffing
a vehement and varioufly determined agitation on the
fmall parts of the iron.” Bacon defines heat, which
he makes fynonymous with fire, to be “ an expanfive
undulatory motion in the minute particles of a body,
whereby they tend with fome -rapidity from a centre
towards a circumference, and at the fame time a little
upwards.” Sir Ifaac Newton faid nothing pofitive
upon the fubjeft; but conjedtured that grofs bodies
and light might be convertible into one another ; and
that great bodies of the fize' of our earth when vio¬
lently heated, might continue and increafe their heat by
the mutual adlion and rea&ion of their parts.
But while the mechanical philofophers thus endea¬
voured to account for the phenomena of fire upon the
fame principles which they judged fufficient to explain
thofe of the univerfe in general, the chemifts as ftre-
nuoufly afferted that fire was a fluid of a certain kind,
diftindl from all others, and univerfally prefent
throughout the whole globe. Boerhaave particularly
maintained this doctrine; and in fupport of it brought
the following argument, that fteel and flint would
ftrike fire, and produce the very fame degree of heat in
Nova Zembla which they would do under the equa¬
tor. Other arguments were drawn from the increafed
weight of metalline calces, which they fuppofed to pro¬
ceed from the fixing of the element of fire in the fub¬
ftance whofe weight was thus increafed. By thefe expe¬
riments Mr Boyle himfelf feems to have been daggered ;
as he publiflied a treatife on the poffibility of making
fire and flame ponderable; though this was direft-
ly contrary to his own principles already quoted. For
a long time, however, the matter was moil violently
difputed; and the mechanical philofophers, though
their arguments were equally inconclufive with thofe
of their adverfaries, at laft prevailed through the pre¬
judice in favour of Sir Ifaac Newton, who indeed had
fcarce taken any aftive part in the conteft.
That the caufe of fire cannot be any mechanical
motion which we can imprefs, is very evident; becaufe
on mechanical principles an effeA muft always be pro¬
portionable to the catife. In the cafe of fire, however,
the effeft is beyond all calculation greater than the caufe,
fuppofing the latter to be only a mechanical percuf-
fion, as in the cafe of hammering iron till it be red
hot. By a few ftrokes of an hammer, the particles of
a piece of iron, we fliall allow, may be fet in a violent
motion, and thus produce fire. If, however, we di-
redl the motion of thefe particles upon another body
whofe parts are at reft, and in fome degree coherent,
it is plain that the latter will refift and diminifti the
motion of the particles already moved, in proportion
to their vis inertia, as well as the cohefion of the parts
of the fecond body, if indeed we can fuppofe the vis
inertia of matter to be different from the effedl of gra¬
vitation, cohefion, or fome other power adting upon
it. By no argumentation whatever, then, can we
fliowT upon mechanical principles, why fire ftiould have
fuch a tendency to increafe and multiply itfelf without
end, as we fee it has, even abftradting from all con-
fideration of the neceffity of air for continuing the ac¬
tion of fire.
H h 2
The
FIR [ 244 ] FIR
The a<?tion of the air in augmenting and continu¬
ing the power of fire, feems fcarce at all to have been
confidered by thofe who firft undertook an inveftiga-
tion of the fubjeft. It evidently gave life to the
Hutchinfonian hypothefis, that fire, light, and air,
were convertible into one another. This, however, is
equally untenible with the mechanical hypothefis: for
later difcoveries have fhown, that our atmofphere is
compofed of two dittindt fluids, only one of which is-
fit for fupporting flame ; and if we fhould fuppofe this
to be the only proper air, it is in like manner demon-
ilrated, that this pure fluid is not homogeneous, but
com'pofed of a gravitating and non-gravitating fub-
ilance ; the latter of which only has the properties of
fire : fo that this element is flill as invifible as ever;
nor can it be fhown by any experiment that fire per fe
has ever been changed into a palpable or gravitating
fubftance.
The experiments which firft feemed to bring this
difpute to a decifion were thofe of Dr Black, concern¬
ing what he called latent heat; on which fome other
names, fuch as abfolute heat, fpecific fire, 8cc. have been
beftowed, very little to the advancement of fcience in
general. From thefe difcoveries it appears, that fire
may exift in bodies in fuch a manner as not to difcover
itfelf in any other way than by its aftion upon the
minute parts of the body ; but that fuddenly this
a&ion may be changed in fuch a manner as no longer
to be directed upon the particles of the body itfelf,
but upon external obje&s : in which cafe we then per¬
ceive its action by our fenfe of feeling, or difcover it
by the thermometer, and call it fenfible heat. This ex-
preffion, it muftbe owned, is improper; and the ufe of
the word heat, inftead offire, has produced fome confu-
fion, which it is not now eafy to avoid in fpeaking on
thefe fubjects. By the word heat, we ought always to
underftand the effedt of fire, or the fluid adting in a
certain manner, rather than the mere element itfelf;
which, it is certain, from the experiments juft men¬
tioned, may exift in fubftances adlually cold to the
touch.
From this difcovery made by Dr Black, along with
many others in eledlricity, and recorded at length in
various articles of this work, it is now almoft univer-
fally allowed, that fire is a diftindl fluid capable of be¬
ing transferred from one body to another. But when
this was difcovered, another queftion no lefs perplex¬
ing occurred, viz. what kind of a fluid it was; or whe¬
ther it bears any analogy to thofe with which we are
better acquainted ? Here we find two fluids, viz. the
folar light, and the eledtric matter, both of which occa-
fionally aft as fire, and which therefore feem likely
to be all the fame at bottom. By the vulgar, indeed,
the matter has long ago been determined; and the
tays of the fun as well as the eleftrical fluid have been
promifcuoufly denominated elementary fire. Philofo-
phers, indeed, have with-held their affent; though
their reafons for fo doing are by no means apparent.
The molt ftrange fuppolitious, however, have been
made concerning the nature of both thofe fluids, and
on the moil flender grounds imaginable; or rather,
on no grounds at all, they have been fuppofcd to be
phlogifton itfelf, or to contain a large proportion of
it. Mr Scheele went fo far in this way as to form an
hypothefis, which he endeavoured to fupport by fome
experiments, that fire is compofed of dephlogifticated
air and phlogifton. But it is now afeertained beyond
all pofiibility of difpute, that the refult of fuch a com¬
bination is not fire, but fixed air: fo that we need not
take any farther notice of this hypothefis than juft to
obferve, that it would have been altogether untenible,
even though this difcovery had not been made ; be-
caufe the dephlogifticated air itfelf is not a fitnple but
a compound fubftance, as has already been obferved ;
and that in all cafes of corftbuftion the one part of the
a ir is feparated from the other.
It was long ago obferved by Sir Ifaac Newton, that
heat was certainly conveyed by a medium more fubtile
than the common air; becaufe two thermometers, one
included in the Vacuum of an air-pUmp, the other pla¬
ced in the open air, at an equal diftance from the fire,
would grow equally hot in nearly the fame time. The
confequence of this, had he purfued the thought, was,
that fire itfelf was equally prefent in all places, and as
aftive where there was no terreftrial matter as where
there was. New improvements in the air-pump have
enabled fucceeding philofophers to make more perfect
vacuums, fuch as it has been fuppoied even .the electric
matter cannot pafs through. It is not to be doubted,,
however, that, even there, the thermometer would be
heated by a fire as well as in the open air. Fire, there¬
fore, exifts and afts where there is no other matter,
and of confequence is a fluid per fie, independent of-
every terreftrial fubftance, without being generated or
compounded of any thing we are yet acquainted with.
To determine the nature of the fluid, we have only
to confider whether any other can be difcovered whicfe
will pafs through the perfeft vacuum juft mentioned,
and aft there as fire. Such a fluid we find in the folar
light, which is well known to aft even i« vacuo as the
moft violent fire. The folar light will like wife aft in
the very fame manner in the moft intenfe cold; for
M. de Sauffure has found, that on the cold mountain
top the fun-beams are equally, nay more powerful, than
on the plain below. It appears, therefore, that the
folar light will produce heat independent of any other,
fubftance whatever; that is, where no other body is
prefent, at leaft as far as we can judge, except the
light itfelf, and the body to be afted upon. We can¬
not therefore avoid concluding, that a certain modifi¬
cation of the light of the fun is the caufe which produ¬
ces heat, expanfion, vapour, &c. and anfwers to the
reft of the charafters given in our definition of fire, and.
that independent of any other fubftance whatever.
Under the article Electricity, Seft. vi. we have
endeavoured to ftiow that the eleftric matter is no other
than the light of the fun abfqrbed by the earth, and.
thus becoming fubjeft to new laws, and afluming many
properties apparently different from what it has when
it afts«.as light. Even in this cafe it manifefts its idenr
tity with fire or light, viz. by producing a moft intenfe
heat where a large quantity of it paffes through a fmall
fpace. In -vacuo, indeed, we cannot manage it in fuck:
a manner as to make the proof decifive. But though
this muft be accounted a defeft, it never can amount,
to any pofitive proof that eleftricity and fire are differ¬
ent. We fee that in fome cafes they produce the very
fame effefts; and if they do not fo in all, we ought
rather to account for the difference from the variation,
of cir.cumftances, and our want of knowledge or abili-
FIR L 245 ] FIR
ties to make proper experiments, than to multiply ele¬
ments without any neceffity, when one is evidently ca¬
pable of anfwering all the purpofes of nature. At any
rate, the experiments which have already been made,
and the proofs adduced from the phenomena of nature,
fhow fuch a ftrong affinity between the elements of
fire, light, and eleftricity, that we may not only affert
their identity upon the moft probable grounds, but lay
it down as a pofition againfl which no argument of any
weight has an exiftence at prefent. For a further dif-
cuffion of this fubjeid, fee Chemistry, Part I. Sedf. i.
Electricity, Seft. vi. Heat, Flame, Fluidity, &c.
Wild Fire, a kind of artificial or faftitious fire,
which burns even under water, and that with greater
violence than out of it.
It is compofed of fulphur, naphtha, pitch, gum,
and bitumen ; and is only extinguilhable by vinegar
mixed with fand and urine, or by raw hides.
Its motion or tendency is faid to be contrary to that
of natural fire, and always follows the diredlion in
which it is thrown; whether it be downwards, fide-
wife, or otherwife. The French call it Greek Jire, or
feu Gregeoh, becaufe firll ufed by the Greeks, about the
year 660; as is obferved by the Jefuit Petavius, on the
authority of Nicetas, Theophanes, Cedrenus, See.
The inventor, according to the fame Jefuit, was an
engineer of Heliopolis, in Syria, named Callinicus, who
firll applied it in the fea-fight commanded by Conftan-
tine Pogonates againft the Saracens, near Cyzicus, in
the Hellefpont; and with fuch effedl, that he burnt
the whole fleet therewith, wherein were 30,000 men.
But others will have it of a much older date; and
hold Marcus Gracchus the inventor : which opinion is
fupported by feveral paffages both in the Greek and
Roman writers, which fhows it to have been anciently
ufed by both thefe nations in their wars.
Conilantine’s fuccefibrs ufed it on divers occafions
with equal advantage as himfelf; and what is remark¬
able enough is, that they were fo happy as to keep the
fecret of the compofition to themfelves, fo that no other
nation knew it hi the year 960.
Hugh king of Burgundy, demanding (hips of the
emperor Leo, for the liege of Frefne, defired likewife
the Greek fire.
F. Daniel gives us a good defeription of the Greek
fire in his account of the fiege of Damietta under St
Louis. Every body, fays that author, was alloniihed
with the Greek fire, which the Turks then prepared;
and the fecret whereof is now loft. They threw it out
of a kind of mortar; and fometimes (hot it with an
odd fort of crofs bow, which was ftrongly bent by
means of a handle or winch, of much greater force
than the mere arm. That thrown with the mortar
fometimes appeared in the air of the lize of a tun, with
a long tail, and a noife like that of thunder. The
French by degrees got the fecret of extinguilhing it;
in which they fucceeded feveral times.
Machine for Preferving from Fire. This machine
• confifts of a pole, a rope, and a bafket. The pole is
of fir, or a common fcaffold pole, of any convenient
length from 36 to 46 feet; the diameter at bottom, or
greateft end, about five inches; and at the top, or final-
left end, about three inches. At three feet from the
top is a mortife through the 'pole, and a pully fixed
to it of nearly the fame diameter with the pole in that
part. The rope is about three quarters of an inch dia¬
meter, and twice the length of the pole, with a fpring
hook at one end, to pafs through the ring in the handle
of the balket when ufed : it is put through the mortife
over the pulley, and then drawn tight on each fide to
near the bottom of the pole, and made fall there till
wanted. The bafket,ftiould be of ftrong wicker-work,
three feet and a half long, two feet and a half wide,
rounded off at the corners, and four feet deep, round¬
ing every way at the bottom. To the top of the baf-
ket is fixed a ftrong iron curve or handle, with an ey^-
or ring in the middle ; and to one fide of the balket,
near the top, i? fixed a fmall cord, or guide-rope, of
about the length of the pole. When the pole is raifed,
and fet againft a houfe over the window from which
any perfons are to efcape, the manner of ufmg it is fo
plain and obvious, that it needs not be deferibed. The
moft convenient diftance from the houfe for the foot
of the pole to (land, where prafticable, is about 12 or
14 feet. If two ftrong iron ftraps, about three feet
long, rivetted to 4 bar crofs, and fpreading about 14.
inches at the foot, were fixed at the bottom of the pole,,
this would prevent its turning round or flipping on the
pavement. And if a ftrong iron hoop, or ferule, ri¬
vetted (or welded) to a femicircular piece of iron
fpreadiug about 12 inches, and pointed at the ends,,
were fixed on at the top of the pole, it would prevent
its Hiding againll the wall.
When thefe two laft mentioned irons are fixed on,,
they give the pole all the lleadinefs of a ladder ; and-
becaufe it is not eafy, except to perfons who have been
ufed to it, 16 raife and fet upright a pole of 49 feet or
more in length, it will be convenient to have two fmall
poles or fpars of about two inches diameter, fixed to
the lides of the great pole at about two or three feet
above the middle of it, by iron eyes rivetted to two.i
plates, fo as to turn every way; the lower end of thefe
fpars to reach within a foot of the botom of the great
pole, and to have ferules and Ihort fpikes to prevent
Aiding on the pavement, when ufed occafionally to fup-
port the great pole like a tripod. There fhould be
two ftrong alh trundles let through the pole, one at
four feet and one St five feet from the bottom, to Hand
out about eight inches on each fide, and to ferve as-
handles, or to twill the rope round in lowering a very
heavy weight. If a block and pulley were fixed at about
the middle of the rope, above the other pulley, and the
other part of the rope made to run double, it would,
diminilh any weight in the balket nearly one-half, and.
be very uleful in drawing any perfon gp, to the aflift-
anee of tbofe in the chambers, or for removing any ef-
fedls out of a chamber, which it might be dangerous;
to attempt by the Hairs.
It has-he^n proved, by repeated trials, that fuch a.
pole as we have been fpeaking of can be raifed from,
the. ground, and two or three perfons taken out of the
upper windows of an houfe, and fet down lafely in the
ftreet, in the fpace of 35 feconds, or a little more than
half a minu.te. Sick and infirm perfons, women, chil¬
dren, and many others, who cannot make ufe of a lad¬
der, may be fafely and eafily brought down from any
of the window's of an houfe on fire by this machine^
and, by putting a Ihort pole through the handles of the
balket, may be removed to any diftance without being5
taken out of the balket. The pole mult always have
V 1 R
Tire, the rope ready fixed to it, and may be conveniently
laid up upon two or three iron hooks under any (hade
or gate-way, and the bafket (hould be kept at the
watch-houfe. When the pole is laid up, the two fpars
fhould always be turned towards the head of it. The
balket (hould be made of peeled rods, and the pole and
fpars painted of a light (lone-colour, to render it more
vifible when ufed in the night.
Machines for extmguifhmg Fire. In the year 1734, the
ftate of Sweden offered a premium of 20,000 crowns
for the beft method of Hopping the progrefs of acci¬
dental fires; when one Mr Fuches, a German phyfician,
made a preparation for that end, and, the experiment
was made on a houfe built on purpofe, of dry fir, at
Legard ifland. In the building were placed feveral
tubs of tar and pitch, and a great quantity of chips,
all which were fet on fire ; flames iffuing through the
top of the houfe, windows, &c. when he threw in one
of the barrels containing the preparation, which imme¬
diately quenched the flames; a fecond barrel entirely
cleared the fmoke away ; and the whole was executed
to the fatisfaftion of the fpeftators, and to the no fmall
fatisfa&ion of the inventor, who was about to return
home, when unexpectedly the flames broke out again,
fuppofed to be occafioned by a fmall quantity of com-
buftible matter being introduced and fet on fire fecretly
by fome malicious perfon. Upon this the wrong-head¬
ed mob fell upon Mr Fuches, and bear him moft un¬
mercifully, fo that he narrowly efcaped with his life.
He foon after left the country, and never could be
prevailed on (though ftrongly perfuaded by fome of the
mod eminent citizens) to return. Itisfaid, another ex¬
periment of the fame kind was tried in the year 1761 in
Holland; but rendered abortive through the perverfe-
nefs of the populace.
Attempts of a fimilar nature have met with a better
reception in England. Of thefe the moft. fuccefsful was
that of Mr Godfrey, whofe contrivance is thus de-
fcribed by Mr Ambrofe Godfrey, grandfoti to the in¬
ventor. “ The machine to be employed confifts of a
fmall portion of gunpowder clofely confined ; which,
when animated by fire, ads by its elaftic force upon a
proper medium, and not only divideth it into the mi-
nuteft atoms, but difperfeth it alfo in every diredion, fo
as immediately to extinguiftr any fire within a certain
diftance. This medium is a liquor ftrongly impregnated
with a preparation of antiphlogiftic principles, which by
their adion upon burning materials extinguifti the flames,
and reduce them in general to tire ftate of a black coal;
and, by its oppofite nature to fire, hinders the remain¬
ing fparks, notwithftanding the admiffion of the air,
from kindling the flames afrefh. By this means, the
great point is obtained, in giving fufficient time for to¬
tally extinguifhing any remains of fire.
“ They who prefume that water only will perform
this will find themfelves greatly miftaken, as the draught
of air will certainly rekindle the neighbouring mate¬
rials, which are very fit to receive a freih flame, the fire
not being extinguiftied by the quantity of v/ater, but
rather by the expanfion and rarefadion of its particles.
There are feveral fizes of thefe machines, frorh five to
fifty pounds weight, in a portable and rather fmall com-
pafs, and may generally be carried to any place where
a man can go himfelf.
“ But though thefe machines will prevent great fifes
FIR
by a timely application, they will not extinguifti them
after they have reached a frightful height, and feveral
houfes, perhaps near a whole ftreet, are in flames. The
floors muft be (landing, and accefs to the building
fafe, otherwife no perfon can be fuppofed to approach
near enough to apply them in a proper manner. Every
fire has its beginning for the moil part in fome apart;
ment; and, as foon as difcovered, the family, inftead of
lofing all prefence of mind, fhould immediately apply
one or more of thefe machines, which will then fully
anfwer the intention. The proper time of applying
them, fuppofes that they are ready at hand. It will
be in vain to think of fetching them from any confider-
able diftance, as it will then b« too late for them to
perform any important fervice; except indeed being the
probable means of faving fome adjacent houfe, by ex-
tihguifliing the flames as often as they break out, till
the building firft on fire is totally confumed, and, by
falling into ruins, leaves the other in perfed fafety,”
On the 19th of May 1761, at noon, Mr Godfrey’s
experiment for extinguiftiing fire, was tried in an houfe
ereded for that purpofe, near Mary le-bori. Their
royal highnefles the duke of York, prince William
Henry, prince Henry Frederic, a great number of
perfons of rank and diftindiori, and many of the learn¬
ed world, gave their attendance on this Angular occa-
fion. The houfe, which is. of brick, confifts of three
rooms one above another, a ftair-cafe, chimney, lath-
and-plafter ceilings, and a kind of wainfcotting round
the rooms, of rough deal. Exadly at 12 o’clock the
ground room, and that up one pair of flairs, were fet
on fire, by lighting the faggots and (havings laid in
there for that purpofe : in about 15 minutes the wain-
fcot of the under room was thought to be fufficiently
in flames, and three of the machines were thrown in ;
which, by almoft immediate and fudden explofions, in-
ftantaneoufly extinguiftied the flames, and the very
fmoke in that apartment in a few minutes totally dif-
appeared. By this time, the firemen, &c. who had the
care of throwing in the machines, gave an alarm that
the flair cafe had taken fire, and that it was neceflary
diredly to go to work upon the next room; which was
accordingly done, and with the fame eftedt. The expe¬
riment, however, hitherto did not univerfally fatisfy: ifl
the laft inftance efpecially it was thought to be too ha¬
ft ily put in execution ; and the populace without-fide
the paling, who were fuppofeft to amount to near
20,000, and whofe curiofity, from the very nature of
their fituation, remained much diflatisfied, began to
grow rather riotous, and talked of a fecond bottle-con¬
juror. For the fake of the experiment, therefore, and
to remove all manner of doubt, Mr Godfrey confented
to a third experiment in the upper room, which was
entirely of wood. The flames were now fuffered to get
to a confiderable height, and even the window frames
deftroyed, before the machines were thrown in: which,
however, anfwered exaftly as the former had done;
and, being quite in fight of the out-ftanders, met with
Univerfal approbation.
Thefe machines of Mr Godfrey’s, it is evident, would
be of great irfe in extinguiftiing fires on (hipboard; and
might be confidered as a no lefs neceflary part of a (hip’s
lading, than her (lores or ammunition.
The hint of thefe machines is faid to have been ta¬
ken by Dr Godfrey from the invention of one Zachary
Greyl,
1 246 1
FIR [ M7 J FIR
Fire. Greyl, who exhibited machines fitmlar to thofe of Dr
-Y-— Godfrey, before perfons of the firft. rank, but without
meeting with any encouragement. His machines were
made of wood, and the liquor employed was only wa¬
ter, and confequently inferior to Dr Godfrey’s in its
power of extinguilhing fire. The latter is faid to have
mixed his water with a certain quantity of oil of vi¬
triol, or with fal ammoniac. Thefe machines, how¬
ever, as already obferved, are found to be only fervice-
able in the beginning of a fire. When the roof had
fallen in, they had no effett.
Water-Engine for Extingw/hing Fire. See Hydro¬
statics, n° 33.
In ufing this machine we have the following im¬
provement by Dr Hoffman, which promifes to be of
great efficacy. As foon as the engine is in readinefs
to work, ftir into the water that immediately is to be
discharged, feven or eight pounds of pearl-afhes in pow¬
der, and continue to add it in this manner as occafion
requires ; taking care that it be diredfed againft the
timber or wainfcot, 8cc. juft beginning to burn, and not
wafted againft the brickwork : or, where time will ad¬
mit, diffolve any quantity of pearl-afhes in a copper with
water, and as faft as it diflblves, which will be in a few
minutes, mix a pail full with the water in the engine,
pretty often ; and whatever burning wood it is played
upon, will be extinguifhed as if it was dipped in water,
and will not burn afrefti in the part extinguifhed.
Ea/y Method of Extinguifhing Fire in Chimneys. It is
well known, that the inner parts of chimneys eafi-
ly take fire ; the foot that kindles therein emits a
greater flame, according as the tunnel is more eleva¬
ted, becaufe the inferior air feeds the fire. If this air
could therefore be fupprefled, the fife would foon be
extinguifhed. In order to this, fome difcharge a pi-
ftol into the chimney, which produces no effedt: others
lay under the chimney a copper full of water ; but the
vapours that rife from it, far from extinguifhing the
fire, feem to give it new force. Water thrown into
the chimney at top is equally of no effedl, becaufe it
comes down through the middle of the tunnel, and not
along the fides. It would be more advifable to flop
with dung the upper orifices of the tunnel for quench¬
ing the fire. But the fureft and readieft. method is, to
take a little gunpowder, and having, humedted. it with
fpittle for binding it, to form it into fmall mafles, and
fo throw it into the heart of the chimney. When it
is burnt, and has produced a confiderable vapourj a fe^
cond, afterwards a third, are thrown, and fo on, as
much as is neceffary. In a little time the fire is ex¬
tinguifhed, and, as it were, choaked by this vapour; and
cakes of inflamed foot are feen to fall from ,the tunnel,
till at laft not the leaft veftige of fire appears.
Securing Buildings againfi Fire. Dr Hales propofes
to check the progrefs of fires by covering the floors of
the adjoining houfes with earth. The propofal is
founded on an experiment which he made with a fir-
board half an inch thick, part of which he covered
with an inch, depth of damp garden mould, and then
lighted a fire on the furface of the mould ; though the
fire was kept up by, blowing, it was two hours before
the board was burnt through, and the earth prevented
it from flaming. The thicker the earth is laid on the
floors, the better : however, Dr Halts apprehends that
the depth of an inch wiligenerally be fufScient; and
he recommends to lay a deeper covering on the flairs,
becaufe the fire commonly afcends by them with the
greateft velocity.
M. Hartley made feveral trials in the years 1775
and 1776, in order to evince the efficacy of a method
which he had invented for reftraining the fpread of tire
in buildings. For this purpofe thin iron plates are
well nailed to the tops of the joifts, &c. the edges of
the tides and ends being lapped over, folded together,
and hammered clofe. Partitions, flairs, and floors, may
be defended in the fame manner ; and plates applied
to one fide have been found fufficient. The plates are
fo thin as not to prevent the floor from being nailed on
the joifts, in the fame manner as if this preventative
were not ufed : they are kept from ruft by being-
painted or varnifhed with oil and turpentine. The
expence of this additon, when extending through a
whole building, is eftimated at about 5 per cent. Mr
Hartley has a patent for this invention, and parliament
has voted a fum of money towards defraying the ex¬
pence of his numerous experiments. The fame prefer-
vative may alfo be applied to fhips, furniture, &c.
Lord Mahon has alfo difcovered and publifhed a very
Ample and effedlual method of fecuring every kind of
building againft all danger of fire. This method he
has divided into three parts, viz. under-flooring, extra¬
lathing, and inter-fecuring.
The method of underflooring is eitherfingleor double.
In fingle underflooring, a common ftrong lath of oak. or
fir, about one-fourth of an inch thick, fhould be nailed
againft each fide of every joift, and of every main tim¬
ber, fupporting the floor which is to be fecured. Other
fimilar laths are then to be nailed along the whole length
of the joifts, with their ends butting againft each other.
The top of each of thefe laths or fillets ought to be at
1! inch below the top of the joifts or timbers againft
which they are nailed ; and they will thus form a fort
of fmall ledge on each fide of all the joifts. Thefe
fillets are to be well bedded in a rough plafter here¬
after mentioned, when they are nailed on, fo that there
may be no interval between them and the joifts; and
the fame plafter ought to be.fpread with a trowel upon
the tops of all the fillets, and along, the fides of that
part of the joifts which is between the top of the fillets
and. the upper edge of the joifts. In order to fill up -
the intervals between, the joifts that fupport the floor, ,
fhort pieces of common laths, whofe length is equal to
the width of thefe intervals, fliould be laid in the con¬
trary direftion to the joifts, and clofe together in a
row, fo as to touch one another: their ends muft reft
upon the fillets, and they ought to be well bedded in
the rough plafter, but are not to be faftened with nails.
They muft then be covered with one thick coat of the
rough plafter, which is. to be fpread over them to the
level of the tops of the joifts: and in a.day or two
this plafter fhould be trowelled over clofe to the fides ■
of the joifts, without covering the.tops of the joifts .
with it.
In the method of double-flooring, the fillets and
fhort pieces of laths, are applied in the manner already
defcribed ; .but. the coat of rough plafter ought to be
little more than half as thick as that in the former
method. Whilft this rough plafter is laid on, fome
more of the fhort pieces of laths above mentioned muft
be laid in the intervals between the joifts upon the firft
coat,
FIR [ 248 ] FIR
coat, and be dipped deep in it. They (bould be laid
as clofe as poffibk to each other, and in the fame di-
fedtionwith the firft layer of fhort laths. Over this
fecond layer of fhort laths there muft be fpread another
coat of rough plafter, which fhould be trowelled level
with the tops of the joifts without rifing above them.
The rough plafter may be made of coatfe lime and
hair ; or, inftead of hair, hay chopped to about three
inches in length may be fubftituted with advantage.
One meafure of common rough fand, two meafures of
flacked lime, and three meafures ®f'chopped hay, will
form in general a very good proportion, when fuffi-
ciently beat up together in the manner of common
mortar. The hay fhould be put in after the two other
ingredients are well beat up together with water.
This plafter fhould be made ftiff; and when the floor¬
ing boards are required to be laid down very foon, a
fourth or fifth part of quicklime in powder, formed
by dropping a fmall quantity of water on the limeftone
a little while before it is ufed, and well mixed with this
rough plafter, will caufe it to dry veiy faft. If any
cracks appear in the rough plafter-work near the joifts
when it is thoroughly dry, they ought to be clofed by
wafhing them over with a brufh wet with mortar-wafh;
this wafh may be prepared by putting two meafures of
quicklime and one of common fand in a pail, and
ftirring the mixture with water till the water becomes
of the confiftence of a thin jelly.
Before the flooring boards are laid, a fmall quantity
of very dry common fand fhould be ftrewed over the
plafter-work, and ftruck fmooth with an hollow rule,
moved in the direction of theijoifts, fo that it may lie
rounding between each pair of joifts. The plafter-
work and fand fhould be perfettly dry before the
boards are laid, for fear of the dry rot. The method
of under-flooring may be fuecefsfully applied to a wood¬
en ftair-cafe ; but no fand is to be laid upon the rough
plafter-work. The method of extra-lathing may be
applied to ceiling joifts, to Hoping roofs, and to wooden
partitions.
The third method, which is that of inter-fecuring,
is very fiqjilar to that oftunder-flooring ; but no fand
is afterwards to be laid upon it. Inter fecuring is ap¬
plicable to the fame parts of a building as the method
of e^tra-lathing, but it is feldom neceffary.
Lord Mahon has made feveral experiments in order
to demonftrate the efficacy of thefe methods. In moft
houfes it is only neceflary to fecure the floors; and the
extra-expence of under-flooring,/including all mate¬
rials, is only about nine pence per fquare yard, and
with the ufe of quicklime a little more. The extra-
expence of extra-lathing is. no more than fix pence
per fquare yard for the timber fide-w^alls and par¬
titions ; but for the ceiling about nine pence per
fquare yard. But in moft houfes no extra-lathing is
neceflary.
Fire-Eater. We have a great number of mounte¬
banks who have procured the attention and wonder of
the public by eating of fire, walking on fire, wafhing
their hands in melted lead, and the like tricks.
The moft celebrated of thefe was our countryman
Richardfon, much talked of abroad. His fecret, as re¬
lated in the Journal des Scavans, of the year l6flo,
confifted in a pure fpiritof fulphur,. wherewith he rub¬
bed his hands, and the parts that were to touch the fire;
^ N° 127.
which burning and cauterifing the epidermis, hatdened
and enabled the flcin to refill the fire.
Indeed, this is no new thing: Amb. Pare allures
us he had tried it on himfelf; that after wafhing the
hands in urine, and with unguentum aureum, one may
fafely wafh them in melted lead.
He adds alfo, that by wafhing his hands in the juice
of onions, he could bear a hot fhovel on them while it
melted lead.
Fire, in theology. See Hell.
We read of the facred fire in the firft; temple of Jeru-
falem, which came down from heaven : it was kept
with the utmoft care, and they were forbidden to car¬
ry any ftrange fire into the temple. This fire is one
of the five things which the Jews confefs were wanting
in the fecond temple.
The pagans had their facred fires, which they kept
in their temples with the moft religious care, and which
were never to'be extinguifhed. Numa was the firft who
built a temple to Fire as a goddefs, at Rome, and infti-
tuted an order of prieftefles for the prefervation of it.
See Vestals.
Fire was the fupreme god of the Chaldeans; the
Magi were worfhippers of fire ; and the Greeks and
Armenians ftill keep up a ceremony called the holy jire%
upon a perfuafion that every Eafter-day a miraculous
fire defeends from heaven into the holy fepulchre, and
kindles all the lamps and candles there.
Fire kindled fpontaneoujly in the Human Body. See
Extraordinary Cafes of Burning.
Fire-Barrel. See Yi^-Ship, Note (b).
FiRE-Bavins. Ibid. Note (d).
Fire-Arrow, in naval artillery, is a fmall iron dart
furnifhed with fprings and bars, together with a match
impregnated with fulphur and powder, which is wound
about its fhaft. It is intended to fice the fails of the
enemy, and is for this purpofe difeharged from a muf-
quetoon or fwivel-gun. The match being kindled by
the explofion, communicates the flame to the fail againft
which it is direfted, where the arrow is faltened by
means of its bars and fprings. This weapon is pecu¬
liar to hot climates, particularly the Weft Indies,
where the fails being extremely dry by reafon of the
great heats, they inftantly take fire, and of courfe fet fire
to the mails and rigging, and laftly to the veflel itfelf.
Fire-Ball, in artillery, a compofition of meal-pow¬
der, fulphur, falt-petre, pitch, &c. about the bignefs
of a hand-grenade, coated over with flax, and primed
with the flow compofition of a fuze. This is to be
thrown into the enemy’s works in the night-time, to
difeover where they are; or to fire houfes, galleries,
or blinds of the befiegers; but they are then armed
with fpikes or hooks of iron, that they may not roll
off, but ftick or hang where they are defired to have
any effetft. See idre-Balls, and Z/ig^r-BALLs.
Balls of Fire, in meteorology, a kind of luminous bo¬
dies generally appearing at a great height above the
earth, with a fplendor furpaffing that of th e moon ;
and fometimes equalling her apparent fize. They ge¬
nerally proceed in this hemifphere from north tofouth
with vaft velocity, frequently breaking into feveral
fmaller ones, fometimes vanilhing with a report, fome¬
times not.
Thefe luminous appearances no doubt conftitute one
part of the ancient prodigies, blazing liars or comets,
which
FIR [ 249 ‘] FIR
which laft they fometimes refemble in being attended
with a train ; but frequently they appear with a round
and well defined dilk. The firft of thefe of which we
have any accurate account, was obferved by Dr Halley
and fome other philofophers at different places, in the
year 1719. From the flight obfervations they could
take of its courfe among the ftars, the perpendicular
height of this body was computed at about 70 miles
from the furface of the earth. The height of others
has alfo been computed, and found to be various;
though in general it is fuppofed to be beyond the li¬
mits affigned to our atmofphere, or where it lofes its
refradfive power. The moil remarkable of thefe on
record appeared on the 18th of Auguft 1783, about
nine o’clock in the evening. It was feen to the north¬
ward of Shetland, and took a foutherly diredtion for
an immenfe fpace, being obferved as far as the fouthern
provinces of France, and one account fays that it was
ieen at Rome alfo. Duringitscourfe it appears frequently
to have changed its fliape; fometimes appearing in the
form of one ball, fometimes of two or more ; fometimes
with a train, fometimes without one. It paffed ov.er E-
dinburgh nearly in the zenith, and had then the appear¬
ance of a well defined round body, extremely luminous,
and of a greenifh colour ; the light which it diffufed on
the,ground giving likewife a greenifh caftto objefts. Af¬
ter pa fling the zenith it was attended by a train of confi-
derable length, which continually augmenting, at laft
obliterated the head entirely ; fo that it looked like a
wedge, flying with the obtufe end foremoft. The
motion was not apparently fwift, by reafon of its great
height; though in reality it mull have moved with
great rapidity, on account of the vaft fpace it travelled
over in a fhort time. In other places its appearance
was very different. At Greenwich we are told, that
“ two bright balls parallel to each other led the way,
the diameter of which appeared to be about two feet;
and were followed by an expulfion of eight others, not
elliptical, feeming gradually to mutilate, for the laft
was fmall. Between each two balls a luminous ferra-
ted body extended, and at the laft a blaze iflued which
terminated in a point. Minute particles dilated from
the whole. The balls were tinted firft by a pure
bright light, then followed a tender yellow, mixed
with azure, red, green, &c. ; which, with a coalition
®f bolder tints, and a refledtion from the other balls,
gave the moft beautiful rotundity and variation of co¬
lours that the human eye could be charmed with. The
fudden illumination of the atmofphere, and the form
and Angular tranfition of this bright luminary, tended
much to make it awful: neverthelefs the amazing vi¬
vid appearance of the different balls, and other rich
conne&ive parts not veryeafy to delineate, gave an effedf
equal to the rainbow in the full zenith of its glory.”
Dr Blagden, in a paper on this fubjeft in the 74th
volume of the Philofophical Tranfaftions, has not on¬
ly given a particular account of this and other meteors
of the kind, but added feveral conje&ures relating to
the probable caufes of them. The firft thing which
occurred to philofophers on this fubjedt was, that the
meteors in queftion were burning bodies rifing from
the furface of the earth, and flying along the atmo¬
fphere with great rapidity. But this hypothefis was
foon abandoned, on confidering that there was no
power known bv which fuch bodies could either be
Von. VII. Part I.
raifed to a fufficient height, or projedted with the ve¬
locity of the meteors. The next hypothefis was, that
they do not confift of one Angle body, but of a train of
fulphureous vapours, extending a vaft way through the
atmofphere, and being kindled at one end, difplay the
luminous appearances in queftion by the fire running
from one end of the train to the other. To this hypo-
thefis, which was invented by Dr Halley, Dr Blagden
objedfs that no juft explanation is given of the natura
of the vapours themfelves, the manner in which they are
raifed up, or in which they can be regularly arranged in
ftraight lines of fuch vaft extent; or how they can be
fuppofed to burn in fuch rarefied air. “ Indeed,
(fays he) it is very difficult to conceive how vapours
could be prevented, in thofe regions where there is in a
manner no preffure, from fpreading out on all Aides in
confequence of their natural elafticity, and inftantly
lofing that degree of denfity which feems neceffary for
inflammation. Befides, it is to be expedted, that fuch
trains would fometimes take fire in the middle, and
thus prefent the phenomenon of two meteors at the
fame time, receding from one another in a diredf line.”
For thefe and ether reafons this hypothefis of Dr
Halley was abandoned, and another fubftituted in its
place. This was, that the meteors we fpeak of are
permanent fdlid bodies, not rifing from the earth, but
revolving round it in very eccentric orbits, and thus
in their perigeon moving with inconceivable rapidi¬
ty. But the Dodfor fhows, that even on this fup-
pofition, the velocity of fuch bodies muft fcarce be
one third of that with which fire-balls move, and
which has been calculated at upwards of 1000 miles
per minute. The hypothefis is likewife liable to a
number of other objedfions -which cannot be anfwer-
ed, particularly from the variations in their appear¬
ance ; for it is impoffible to fhow in what manner one
folid and permanent body could affume the appear¬
ance of eight or ten, as was the cafe with the meteor
of 1783 ; nor can it be ftiown why a body, which in
palling over Edinburgh appeared with a*dilk evident¬
ly lefs than that of the fun, Ihould, in palling over
Greenwich, affume the appearance of two bodies, each
of which had a dilk coniiderably larger than the ap¬
parent dilk of that luminary. To obviate, in forne
meafure, objedlions of this kind, it has been fuppofed
that the revolving bodies are furrounded by a kind of
eledtrical atmofphere by which they are rendered lu¬
minous ; “ but (fays the Dodlor) I think, whoever
carefully perufes the various accounts of fire-balls, and
efpecially ours of the 18th of Auguft, when it divided,
will perceive that their phenomena do not correfpond
with the idea of a folid nucleus involved in a fubtle
fluid, any more than with the idea of another learned
gentleman, that they become luminous by means of a
contained fluid, which occafionally explodes through
the thick folid outer Ihell.”
Another hypothefis, which DrBlagden has not men¬
tioned, is, thatthemeteorsinqueftion areakind of bodies
which take fire as foon as they come within the atmo¬
fphere of the earth. But this cannot be fuppofed with¬
out implying a previous knowledge of thefe bodies,
which it is altogether impoffible we can have. The
only opportunity we have of feeing them is when they
are on tire. Before that time they are in an invilible
and unknown ftate ; and it is furely improper to ar-
I i gue
F I 11
gue concerning them in this {late, or pretend to de¬
termine any one of their properties, when we have it
not in our power to fee or inveftigate them in the
lead. As the meteors therefore never manifeft them-
felves to our /enfes but when they are on fire, the on¬
ly rational conclufion we can draw from thence is, that
they have no exiftence in any other ftate ; and confe-
quently that their fubftance muft be compofed of that
fluid which, when acting after a certain manner, be¬
comes luminous and (hows itfelf as fire ; remaining in-
vifible and eluding our refearches in every other cafe.
On this hypothefis we muft conclude that the fire-balls
- are great bodies of ek-ftric matter, moving from one
part of the heavens where, to our conception, it is fu-
perabundant, to another where it is deficient. This
opinion is adopted by Dr Blagden for the follow¬
ing reafons:
1. On account of their prodigious velocity, which
is not lefs than 1200 miles in a minute, and feems in¬
compatible with any other fubftance we know befides
the eleftric fluid. “ This (fays he) is perhaps the
only cafe in which the courfe or direction of that fluid
is rendered perceptible to our fenfes, in confequence
of the large fcale on which thefe meteors move.”
2. Various eledlrical phenomena have beeq obferved
to attend them, fuch as lambent fires fettling upon
men, horfes, &c. and fparks coming from them, “ or
the whole meteor itfelf (adds our author), it is faid,
have damaged {hips, houfes, &c. after the manner of
lightning.” This laft circumftance, however, we can
believe only of another kind of fire-balls, of which we
fhall afterwards treat, which keep at a fmall diftance
from the earth, or run along its furface; for the great
meteors of which we now fpeak, flying at the diftance
of 50 or 60, or more miles from the furfaee of the
earth, cannot be lefs from their apparent fize than a
mile or a mile and an half in diameter. Such an im-
menfe body of ele&ric matter defcending on the earth,
would by its explofion ruin a large tradt of country j
and there is no probability that when engendered in
fuch a rare atmofphere it could break through the
whole body of grofs and denfe air which lies between
thefe regions and the earth, and which we know re¬
fills the paffage of the eleftric fluid very ftrongly.
Notwithftanding this, there is no impoffibility that the
atmofphere may be eleftrified to a great degree by
fuch a meteor palling over it; and thus electrical ap¬
pearances may attend thefe bodies without any aftual
emiflion of their fubftance, asDrBlagden fuppofes. “ If
there be really (fays he) any hilling noife heard while
the meteors are palling, it feems explicable on no
other fuppofition than that of ftreams of eledtric mat¬
ter iffuing from them, and reaching the earth with a
velocity equal to that of the meteor, namely, in two or
three feconds. Accordingly, in one of our late me¬
teors, the biffing was compared to that of electricity
iffuing from a condudtor. The fpaiks flying off fo
perpetually from the body of fire-balls may polfibly have
F I R
fome connexion with thefe ftreams. In the fame man»
ner the found of explofions may perhaps be brought tons
quicker than if it were propagated to us by the air alone.
Should thefe ideas be well founded, the change of direc¬
tion, which meteors feem at times to undergo, may pof-
fibly be influenced by the ftate of the furface of the earth
over which they are palling, and to which the ftreams
are fuppofed to reach. A fimilar caufe may occafion
the apparent explofion, the opening of more channels
giving new vent and motion to the eledlric fluid.
May not the deviation and explofion which appear to
have taken place in the fire-ball of the 18th of Auguft
over Lincolnlhire, have been determined by its ap¬
proach towards the fens, and an attraction produced
by that large body of moifture ?”
The explofion mentioned by our author over Lin¬
colnlhire does not feem to have been the only one
which happened during the courfe of this meteor . Se¬
veral people heard reports after it had vanilhed; and
thefe were fometimes Angle and fometimes double. At
Edinburgh two reports were heard, the one immediate¬
ly following the other, at the diftance of fix or feven
minutes after the meteor had paffed. Thefe reports no
doubt indicated a temporary diffolution of the body ;
but it is by no means probable that the diffolution could
have taken place either on account of the ftate of the
earth or atmofphere. We muft confider that both
earth and atmofphere are always full of electric fluid ;
and if therehappens to be what is called a deficiency (a)
in one of them, the other inftantly fupplies it. It is
impoffible, .therefore, that either the earth or atmo¬
fphere could receive fuch an immenfe additional quan¬
tity in one part without a vent being provided for it
fomewhere elfe. In thunder-ftorms we naturally con¬
clude that vaft quantity of eleCtrical matter is put in
motion ; but from the effefts of lightning it appears
that this quantity muft be very trifling in comparifon
with what the meteor we now fpeak of contained. A
violent flalh of lightning has been known to perforate
a looking-glafs, and make only a hole of about an inch
diameter. Now we have no reafon to fuppofe that the
flalh, tremendous as it might appear to our eyes, .was
any other than an eleftric fpark of an. inch in diame¬
ter. The meteor, on the other hand, appears not to
have been lefs than a mile in diameter; fo that the
difproportion betwixt it and a Angle flalh of lightning,
appears almoft beyond calculation ; and we may rea-
fonably conclude that it could not have been equalled
by iq,000 thunder-ftorms* Had this amazing body
of electric fire defeended through the atmofphere and.
dilfipated itfelf on the fens of Lincolnlhire, it muft
have produced the moll violent and unheard ofeffedts,
not only in that place, but probably throughout the
whole illand, Its diflipation muft therefore have been,
in the higher regions, where there was ample fpace to
receive it ; and where its explofion, whatever concuf-
fion it might make among the etherial matter itfelf,
could not affect our earth or atmofphere in; any re¬
markable..
[ 25O ]
(a) A real deficiency can never happen with regard to the eleftric fluid in any fubftance whatever, as is
fhown at large under the article Electricity, as well as many others in this work. What feems a deficiency is.
tmly when the fluid has a tendency to circulate. In this cafe, as the motion muft begin in one place and return
from another, the place where it begins feems to be deficient, becaufe the fluid is going away from it; while
that from which it returns feems, for a fimilar reafon, to have too much.
FIR f 251 ] FIR
Tire, markable degree. Its re-appearance was owing to the
-V— fame tendency in the fluid to circulate which had ori¬
ginally produced it; and which probably was the vio¬
lent earthquake in Calabria and the eruption in Ice¬
land. See Earthquake, n° m.
3. Another argument adduced by Dr Blagden in
favour of the ele&rical origin of fire-balls, is their con-
ne&ion with the aurora borealis, and the refemblance
they bear to thefe phenomena, which are now almoft
univerfally allowed to be eleftrical. “ Inftances (fays
he) are recorded, where northern lights have been feen
to join, and form luminous balls, darting about with
great velocity, and even leaving a train behind them
like the common fire-balls. This train I take to be
nothing elfe but the rarefied air left in fuch an electri¬
fied date as to be luminous; and fome ftreams of the
northern lights are very much like it.” The aurora
borealis appears to occupy as high, if not a higher re¬
gion above the furface of the earth, as may be judged
from the very diftant countries to which it has been
vifible at the fame time : indeed the great accumula¬
tion of eleCtric matter feems to lie beyond the verge
of our atmofphere, as eftimated by the ceflation of
twilight. Alfo with the northern lights a hiffing noife
is faid to be heard in fome very cold climates : Gme-
lin fpeaks of it in the moil pointed terms, as frequent
* See Aura- and very loud in the north-eaftern parts of Siberia * }
•va Be real is. an(j other travellers have related fimilar fails. ”
4. Our author thinks that the ftrongefl: argument
for the electrical origin of thefe meteors is the direc¬
tion of their courfe, which is conftantly either from
the north or north weft quarter of the heavens, or to¬
wards it ; or, as our author thinks, nearly in the di¬
rection of the magnetical meridian. Such a courfe,
however, feems only to belong to the very large fire¬
balls of which we now fpeak ; the fmaller ones, called
Falling Stars, being moved in all directions; “ perhaps
(fays the DoCtor), becaufe they come further within the
verge of our atmofphere, and are thereby expofed to
the aCtion of extraneous caufes. 1 hat the fmaller fort
of meteors, fuch as (hooting ftars, are really lower
down in the atmofphere, is rendered very probable by
their fwifter apparent motion : perhaps it is this very
circumftance which occafions them to be fmaller, the
-eleCtric fluid being more divided in more refilling air.
But as thofe maffes of eleCtric matter which move
where there is fcarce any refiftance, fo generally affeCt
the direction of the magnetic meridian, the ideas which
have been entertained of fome analogy between thefe
two obfcure powers of nature feem not altogether
without foundation. If the foregoing conjectures be
juft, diftinCl regions are allotted to the eleCtrical phe¬
nomena of our atmofphere. Here below we have thun¬
der and lightning, from the unequal diftribution of
the eleCtric fluid among the clouds ; in the loftier re¬
gions, whither the clouds never reach, we have the
various gradations of falling ftars ; till, beyond the li¬
mits of our corpufcular atmofphere, the fluid is put in¬
to motion in fufficient mafles, to fypld a determined
courfe, and exhibit the different appearances of what
we callJire-balls ; and probably at a ftill greater eleva¬
tion above the earth, the eleCtricity accumulates in a
lighter and lefs condenfed form, to produce the wonder¬
fully diverfified ftreams and corufcations of the aurora
Borealis.”
The paper from whence thefe extracts are taken was Fire,
written before Mr Morgan’s account of the non-con- —
duCting power of a perfeCt vacuum made its appear¬
ance. An abftraCt of his arguments on this fubjeCt is
given under the article Electricity, n° 130 —137.
and their infufficiency to prove the point intended, is
Ihown under the fame article, n° 277. Under that
article, we have only mentioned the deficiency in
Mr Morgan’s argument, without adducing any po-
fitive proof to the contrary. Such a proof, how¬
ever, is offered by the meteor in queftion, or by others
of the fame nature. Dr Halley, fpeaking of the fire¬
ball of 1719, the height of which he calculated at very
little lefs than 70 miles, expreffes iris furprife that
found Ihould be propagated through a medium near
300,000 times rarer than the common air, and the
next thing to a perfedt vacuum. Now it remains, and
for ever will remain, to be proved, that Mr Morgan’s
molt perfedt vacuum, formed by boiling quickfilver in
a tube ever fo long, contains a medium more than
300,000 times rarer than the common atmofphere.
From Mr Cavallo’s experiments * it appears, that when * See Elec-
air is only rarefied 1000 times, the eledtric light is
excelfively weak ; fo that there is not the leaft proba- n°i44*
bility that in .an aerial medium 300,000 times rarer
than the prefent, if indeed fuch a medium can exift,
there could be any light made vifible in the ordinary
experiments. We fee, however, by the many ex¬
amples of meteors which have occurred at prodigious
heights in the atmofphere, that the eledtric light in
fuch a rarefied atmofphere is not only viiible, but adts
as vigoroufly in every refpedt as if it were on the fur-
face of the earth. This circumftance therefore affords
a complete demonftration of the fallacy of Mr Mor¬
gan’s argument, and a diredt proof that the eledtric
fluid pervades fpace as completely divelled of air as
the belt artificial vacuum we can make; nay, where it
is generally believed by mathematicians that the at¬
mofphere has ceafed altogether. His other arguments
drawn a priori are ftill more inconclufive than that we
have juft mentioned. He tells us, that if a vacuum
was a condudtor, the whole quantity of eledtric matter
contained in the earth and atmofphere would be per¬
petually flying off through the regions of infinite fpace,
as being furrounded by a boundlefs condudtor. But
even this does not follow, though we Ihould fuppofe
thefe regions to be an abfolute vacuity; for-we know
that eledlricity does not fly to a condudting fubllance
merely becaufe it is a condudtor, but becaufe it opens
a. paffage to fome place whither it has a tendency to
go though the condudtor was not there. Now, on
the prefent hypothefis, as the condudtor would lead to
no place to which the eledtric matter had any previous
tendency, we cannot affign any reafon why it Ihould
acquire a tendency to fly off merely on account of the
neighbourhood of a condudtor, even though boundlefs.
His other objedtion (that, on the fuppofition of a
vacuum being capable of condudting eledlricity, the
whole fpace in the univerfe would be filled wkh elec¬
tric fluid) may be admitted in its fulleft extent, with¬
out any detriment whatever to fcience: and indeed, if
we allow the eledtric fluid to be only a modification of
the light of the fun, as is rendered very probable un¬
der the article Electricity, fedt. vi. as well as that
of Fire, and many others in various places of this
I i 2 work,
F I Tt f 252 ] FIR
work, we muft own that the whole univerre is filled
with it. The meteors in queilion then will Be no other
than difcharges of eledlricity from one part of the ce-
leftial fpaces to another, fimilar to the difchafges be¬
tween the pofitive and negative fide of an eledtrrfied
battle ; thus intimating, that a circulation has taken
place in the fluid, which the meteor at once com¬
pletes and puts an end to. See the article Meteo¬
rology.
Beiides thefe already juft mentioned of fuch vaft
magnitude, there are others much fmaller and nearer the
furface of the earth, rolling upon it, or falling upon
it, exploding with violence, as is the cafe with thofe
which appear in the tipie of thunder, and frequently
produce mifchievous effe&s. One,of thefe is mention¬
ed by fome authors as falling in a ferene evening in the
ifland of Jamaica; exploding as foon as it touched the
furface of the ground, and making a confiderable.hole
in it. Another is mentioned by Dr Prieftley as rolling
along the furface of the fea, then riflng and ftriking the
top-mall of a roan of war, exploding, and damaging
the fhip. In like manner we hear of an eledirified
cloud at Java in the Eaft Indies; whence, without any
thunder ftorm, there iffued a vaft number of fire-balls,
which did incredible mifchief. This laft phenomenon
points out to us the true origin of balls of this kind,
viz. an exceffive accumulation of eleClrieity in one part,
or a violent tendency to . circulate, when at the fame
time the place where the motion begins is at fo great a
diftance, or meets with other obftacles of fuch a na¬
ture, that it cannot eafily get thither. Urged on, how¬
ever, by the vehement preffure from behind, it is for¬
ced to leave its place ; but being equally unable to
.difplace the great quantity of the fame fluid, which
has no inqlinatipn to move the fame way with itfelf, it
is collefted into balls, which run hither and thither, ac¬
cording as they meet with condudtors capable of lead¬
ing them, into fome part of the circle. This is even
confirmed by an experiment related at the end of Dr
Prkftley’s fifth volume on Air. He relates, that a gen¬
tleman having charged, with a very powerful machine,
a jar, which had the wire fupporting tlie knob of a
confiderable length, and pafled through a glafs-tube, a
globe of fire was feen to ifiue out of it. This globe
gradually afcended up the glafs-tube till it came to the
top of the knob, where it fettled, turning fwiftly on
its axis, and appearing like a red-hot iron ball of three
quarters of an inch diameter. On continuing to turn
the machine, it gradually defcended into the jar; which
it had no fooner done, than there enfued a moil vio¬
lent explofion and flafh, the jar being difcharged and
broken at the fame time. This experiment, however,
is Angular in its kind ; for neither the gentleman who
performed it, nor any other, has yet been able to re¬
peat it. Single as it is, however, we may yet gather
from it, that a fire-ball will be the confequence of a
very violent eleftrification of any fubftance, provided
at the fame time that the air be in a very non-conduc¬
ting ftate, fo that the electricity may not evaporate
into it as fall as it iscolle&ed; for this would produce
©nly lucid ftreams and flafties, as in the common expe¬
riments with the Leyden phial: and it is probably an
inattention to this circumftance which has hitherto
prevented the repetition of the experiment above-men¬
tioned. The cafe is the fame in thunder-'fiorms, where
an excefiive accumulation of ele&ric matter always
produces fire-balls, the moft jtoifchievous kind of light¬
ning, as is explained under that article.
With regard to the ufes which fire-balls ferve in thi
fyftem of nature, it is plain that they are the means
of prefervingthe equilibrium in the eleCtric fluid in the
atmofphefe, which would otherwife produce the moll
dreadful tempefts. Under the article Aurora Borealis,
it is fliown why there mdfc be a conftant current of e-
leclric matter through the bowels of the earth’ from the
equator to the poles, and from the poles to the equa¬
tor through the atmofphere. The great meteors ferve
for keeping tip the equilibriurtt in this great atmofphe-
rical current, while the Imaller ones anfvver a like pur-
pofe in the general mafs of eleCtric matter difperfed
over the furface of the earth, and therefore are feen to
move in all directions, as the equilibrium happens to
require them in different parts. With regard to thofe
which are obfefved in the lower regions of the earth,
or rolling on the furface of the ground itfelf, they un¬
doubtedly anfwer purpofes of a fimilar kind in tbefe
lower regions ; for as fire-balls in general are prdduced:
by a great excefs of eleClricity in 6ne place, there muft
•of courfe be an equal deficiency in another; and to
reftore the equilibrium, or, to fpeak more properly, to
prevent a dangerous commotion from taking place
throughout the whole mafs of eleCtric fluid, the fire¬
ball breaks forth, arid either puts a flop at once to the
difturbance by an explofion, or by a filent and inviiible
evaporation. From Tome accounts indeed it would
feem that even the large celeilial meteors detached
part of their fubftance to accotnplifh this purpofe ;
though, for the feafons already given, it would feem
more probable that they operated by dedlrifying the
atmofphere, or felting the fluid contained in it in mo¬
tion, fo as to produce fmall fire-balls of itfelf, rather
than by detaching any part of their own bodies to fuch
a dillance. Dr Blagden, in the paper above quoted,
gives an account of an appearailce of this kind. It was
deferibed ip a letter to Sir Jofeph Banks from the
Abbe Mann, dire&qr of the academy at Bruffels. “ It
happened (fays the Abbe) at Mariekercke, a fmall vil¬
lage bn the ebaft, about half a mile weft of Oitend.
The curate of the village was fitting in the dufk of
the evening with a friend, when a fudden light fur-
prifed them, and, immediately after a fmall ball of
light-coloured flame came through a broken pane of
glafs, croffed the room where they were fitting, and
fixed itfelf on the chink of a door oppofite to the win¬
dow where it entered, and there died gradually away.
It appeared to be a kind of phofphoric lujht carried‘a-
Tong by the current of air. The curate and his friend,
greatly furprifed at what they faw, apprehended 'fire
in the neighbourhood ; but gotirg out, found that the
fire which had conie in through thewindo'w had be4n
detached from a large meteor in its paflage.”
Fire-Cocks. Chuichwardens in London and with¬
in the bills of moftality, are to fix fire-cocks at proper
diftances in ftreets, and keep a large engine and hand-
engine for extinguifliing fire, under the penalty of 10L
flat. 6 Ann. c. 31.
On the breaking out of any fire in London or Weft-
minfter, the conftables and beadles of parifhes lliall re¬
pair
FIR [ 253 ] FIR
pair to the place with their ilaves, and aflifl in ex-
tihguiftiing it, and caufe the people to work for that
end, See.
FiRE-Engine. See SrsAM-Engine.
Firs-Flair, in ichthyology. See Raja.
Fire-Flies, a fpecies of flies common in Guiana, of
which there are two' fpecies. The largeft is in jre than
an inch in length, having a very large head connected
tvith the body by a joint of a particular ftrutture, with
'which at fome times it makes a loud knock, particular¬
ly when laid on its back. The fly has two feelers or
horns, two wings, and fix legs. Under its belly is a
circular patch, which, in the dark, fhines like a candle;
and on each fide of the head near the eyes is a promi¬
nent, globular, luminous body, in fize about one-third
larger than a muftard- feed. Each of thefe bodies is like
a living itar, emitting a bright, and not fmall, light;
fmee two or three of thefe animals, put into a glafs-
veflel, afford light fufficient to read without difficulty,
if placed clofe to the book. When the fly is dead,
thefe bodies will ftill afford confiderable light, tho’ it
■is lefs vivid than before ; and if bmifed, and rubbed
over the. hands or face, they become lumrnons in the
dark, like a board fmeared over with Englifh phofpho-
rus. They have a reddifh-brown or chefnut colour; and
live in rotten trees in the day, but are always abroad
in the* night. The other kind is not more than half as
large as the former: their light proceeds from under
their wings, and is.feen only when they are elevated,
like fparks of fire appearing or difappearing at every
•fecond. Of thefe the air is full in the night, tho’ they
are never feen in the day. They are common not only
in the fouthern, but in the northern parts of America,
during the fummer.
FiRE-Lock, or Fufil, a fmall gun which fires with a
flint. It is diftinguifhed from an old mufket, or
match-lock, which was fired with a match. The fire¬
lock is now in common ufe in the European armies.
FiRE-Philofophers, or Philofaphi'per ignem, a fanatical
feft of phildfophers who appeared towards the clofe of
the i'6tb century, and made a figure in almoft all the
countries of Europe. The diftinguifhing tenet from
Which they derived this appellation was, that the inti-
'hiate effences of natural things were only to be known
Uy the trying efforts df fire, diredted in a chemical
procefs. They were alfo called Fheofophijls, from
their declaring againft human reafon as a dangerous
and deceitful guide, and reprefentjng a divine and fu-
’pCrnatural illumination as the only means of arriving
at’truth : theywere likewife'denominated Paraceljtjls,
’from the name of Paracellus, the eminent phyfician and
chemift, who Was the chief ornament and leader of this
"extraordinary feft. It was patronifed in England by
Robert Flood or Fludd, who endeavoured to illuftrate
the philofophy ofParacelfus in a great number of trea-
'tifesy in'France, it was zealoufly propagated by Ri-
vier; in Denmark, by Severinus ; in Germany, by
‘Kunrath, an eminent phyfician of Drefden ; and in
'other countries by warm and fuccefsful votaries, who
'affumed a ftriking air of piety and devotion, and pro-
pofed to themfelves no other end than the advance-
“ment of the divine glory, and the reftoration of peace
>and concord in a divided church: accordingly they
were joined by feveral perfons eminent for their piety,
and diftinguifhed by their zeal for the advancement of
true religion. One of the meft celebrated of thefe was Fire.
Daniel Hoffman, profeffor of divinity in the univer-  
fity of Helmftadt, who, availing himfelf of fome un¬
guarded paffages in the writings of Luther, extrava¬
gantly maintained, that philofophy was the mortal e-
nemy of religion ; that truth was diviiible into two
branches, the philofophical and theological; and that
what was true in philofophy was falfe in theology.
Hoffman was afterwards obliged, by the interpofition of
Henry Julius, duke of Brunfwick, to retraft his invec¬
tives againft philofophy, and to acknowledge in the
moft open manner the harmony and union of found
philofophy with true and genuine theology.
Fire-Places are contrivances for communicating heat
to rooms, and alfo for anfwering various purpofes of
art and manufadture. See Chimney, Furnace, and
•Stove.
The late ingenious Dr Franklin, having recount¬
ed the inconveniences and advantages of fire-places
in common ufe, propofes a new contrivance for this
purpofe, called the Pennfyhania Jire-place. 1. This
machine cohfifts of a bottom-place or hearth-piece
(fee fig. 1.) with a rifing moulding before for a fen- Plate
der, two perforated ears F, G, for receiving two CXCIIh
ferew-rods; a long air-hole a a, through which the
outward air paffes into an air-box ; and three fmoke-
holes reprefented by dark fquares in BC, thro’ which
the fmoke defeends and paffes away; befides, double
ledges for receiving between them the lower edges of
the otheY plates. 2. A back plate without holes, and
furnilhed with a pair of ledges to receive, 3. The two
fide-plates, each of which has a pair of ledges to re¬
ceive the fide-edges of the front plate, with a Ihoulder
on which it refts ; two pair of ledges to receive the
fide-edges of the two middle plates which form the
air-box, and an oblong air-hole near the top, through
which the air warmed in the box is difeharged into the
room, and a wing or bracket as H, and a fmall hole
as R, for the axis of the regifter to turn in. See
fig. 2. which reprefents one of thefe plates. 4. An
air-box, compofed of the two middle plates D E and
FG, fig. 3. and 4. The firft has five thin ledges or
partitions caft on it, the edges of which are received
into fo many pair of ledges caft in the other: the tops
of all the cavities formed by thefe thin deep ledges are
alfo covered by a ledge of the fame form and depth caft
with them; fo that when the plates are put together,
and the joints luted, there is no communication be¬
tween the air-box and the fmoke. In the winding
paffages of this box, frefli air is warmed as it paffes in¬
to the room. 5. A front-plate, which is arched on
the under fide, and ornamented with foliages, &c.
6. A top plate, with a pair of ears M, N, (fig. 5.)
anfwerable to thofe in the bottom plate, and perfora¬
ted for the fame purpofe. It has alfo a pair of ledges
running round the under fide to receive the top edges
of the front, back, and fide plates. The air-box does
not reach up to the top-plate by 2-*- inches.
All thefe plates are of caft iron ; and when they are
all in their proper places, they are bound firmly toge¬
ther by a pair of {lender rods of wrought iron with
ferews, and the machine appears as in fig. 5. There
are alfo two thin plates of wrought iron, viz. 7. The
{butter, which is of fuch a length and breadth as to
clofe well the opening of the fire-place, and ferving to
blow
FIR [ 254 ] FIR
blow up the fire, and to fecure it in the night. It is
railed or depreffed by means of two brafs knobs, and
Aides in a groove left between the foremoft ledge of the
fide plates and the face of the front plate. 8. The
regifter, which is placed between the back plate and
air-box, and furniihed with a key ; fo that it may be
turned on its axis, and made to lie in any pofition be¬
tween level and upright. The operation of this ma¬
chine, and the method of fixing it, may be underftood
by obferving the profile of the chimney and fire-places
in fig. 6. M is the mantle-piece or bread of the
chimney; C the funnel; B the falfe back, made of
brick-work in the chimney, four inches or more from
the true back, from the top of which a clofing is to
be made over to the bread of the chimney, that no air
may pafs into the chimney except that which goes un¬
der the falfe back, and up behind it; E the true back
of the chimney; E the top of the fire-place; F the
front of it; A the place where the fire is made ; D
the air-box ; K the hole in the fide plate, thro’ which
the warmed air is difcharged out of the air-box into
the room ; H the hollow, formed by removing fome
bricks from the hearth under the bottom plate filled
with frefti air, entering at the paffage /, and amend¬
ing into the air-box through the air-hole in the bot¬
tom plate near G, the partition in the hollow, defign-
ed to keep the air and'fmoke apart; P the paffage un¬
der the fidfe back, and part of the hearth for the
fmoke ; and the arrows in the figure ftiow the courfe
of the fmoke. The fire being made at A, the flame
and fmoke will afcend, drike the top T, and give it
a confiderable heat; the fmoke will turn over the air-
box, and defcend between it and the back plate to the
holes near G in the bottom plate, heating in its paf-
fage all the plates of the machine; it will then proceed
under and behind the falfe back, and rife into the
chimney. The air of the room contiguous to the fe-
veral plates, and warmed by them, becomes fpecifical-
ly lighter than the other air in the room, and is obli¬
ged to rife ; but being prevented by the clofure over
the fire-place from going up the chimney, is forced
out into the room, and rifing by the mantle-piece to
the ceiling, is again driven down gradually by the
deam of newly-warmed air that follows ; and thus the
whole room becomes in a little time equally warmed.
The air alfo, warmed under the bottom plate and in
the air-box, rifes and comes out of the holes in the
fide plates, and thus warming and continually changing
the air of the room. In the clofing of the chimney a
fquare opening for a trap door ihould be left for
the fweeper to go up: the door may be made of flate or
tin, and fo placed, that by turning up againft the back
of the chimney when open, it clofes the vacancy be¬
hind the falfe back, and Ihoots the foot that falls in
fweepmg out upon the hearth. It will alfo be conve¬
nient to have a fmall hole, about five or fix inches
fquare, cut near the ceiling thro’ into the funnel, and
provided with a (hutter; by occafionally opening which,
the heated air of the room and fmoke of tobacco, &c.
may be carried off without incommoding the company.
For a farther account of the manner of ufingthis fire¬
place, the advantages attending it, anfwers to ob-
jeftions, and diredtions to the brick-layer in fixing it,
the curious reader may confult Franklin’s Letters and
Papers on Philofophical Subjects, p. 284—318. edit.
I769‘ . .. ^
Fire-Pots, in the military art* fmall earthen pots,
into which is put a charged grenade, and over that
powder enough till the grenade is covered ; then the
pot is covered with a piece of parchment, and two pie¬
ces of match acrofs lighted: this pot being thrown by
a handle of matches where it is defigned, it breaks and
fires the powder, and burns all that is near it, and
likewife fires the powder in the grenade, which ought
to have no fufe, to the end its operations may be the
quicker.
Fire-Reeds. See-the next article, Note (c.)
Fire Ship, an old veffel filled with combuftible ma¬
terials, and fitted with grappling irons to hook, and fet
fire to, the enemies Ihips in battle, &c.
As there is nothing particular in the con ft ruction of
this fltip, except the apparatus by which the fire is in-
ftantly conveyed from one part to another, and from
thence to the enemy, it will be fufficient to defcribe
the fire-room, where thefe combuftibles are - enclofed,
together with the inftruments neceffary to grapple the
fhip intended to be deftroyed.
The fire-room is built between decks, and limited on
the after part by a lulk-head, L, behind the main-
maft, from which it extends quite forward, as re-
prefented in Plate CXCIII. The train inclofed in
this apartment is contained in a variety of wooden
troughs, D, G, which interfeft each other in different
parts of the fhip’s length; being fupported at proper
diftances by crofs-pieces and ftanchions. On each fide
of the fhip are fix or feven ports, H, about 18 inches
broad and 15 inches high ; and having their lids to
open downward, contrary to the ufual method.
Againff every port is placed an iron chamber (a),
which, at the time of firing the fhip, blows out the
port-lid, and opens a paffage for the flame Imme¬
diately under the main and fore-fhrouds is fixed a
wooden funnel M; whofe lower end communicates
with a fire-barrel (b), by which the flame palling thro’
the
(a) The iron-chambers are 10 inches long and.3.5 in diameter. They are breeched againft a piece of
wood fixed acrofs the ports, and let into another a little higher. When loaded, they are almoft filled with
corn-powder, and have a wooden tom on well driven into their muzzles- They are primed with a fmall piece
of quick-match thruft through their vents into the p • her, with a part of it hanging out. When the
ports art blown open by means of the iron-chambers, the port-lids eithei fall downward, or are carried away
by the explofion.
(b) TF fire-barrels ought to be of a cylindrical form, as moft fuitable to contain the reeds with which they are
filled, and more convenient for flowing them between the tioughs in <hc hi -room. Their in fide chambers fhould
arotbe leio than 21 inches, and 30 inches is iufiicu ut for their length. I he bottom parts are firft well ftored
with
FIR [ 25; 1 FIR
Fire, the funnel is condufted to the fhrouds. Between the
* ^—“ funnels, which are likewife calledJire-trunks, are two
Falconer t fcuttles, or fmall holes in the upper deck, ferving alfo
Xtiaianan- to 'et out tlie ^ames' funne^s mu^ *}e ftopped
“ ' with plugs, and have fail-cloth or canvas nailed clofe
over them, to prevent any accident happening from a-
bove to the combuftibles laid below.
The ports, funnels, and fcuttles, not only commu¬
nicate the flames to the outfide and upper-works of
the fhip and her rigging ; but likewife open a paflage
for the inward air, confined in the fire-room, which is
thereby expanded fo as to force impetuoufly through
thofe out-lets, and prevent the blowing up of the decks,
which mutt, of neceflity happen from fuch a hidden
and violent rarefadion of the air as will then be pro¬
duced.
On each fide of the bulk-head behind is cut a hole
L, of fufficient fize to admit a trough of the fame di-
menfions as the others. A leading trough, L /, whofe
foremoft end communicates with another trough with¬
in the fire-room, is laid clofe to this opening, from
whence it extends obliquely to a fally-port /, cut thro’
the (hip’s fide. The decks and troughs are well co¬
vered with melted rofin. At the time of the firing
either of the leading troughs, the flame is immediately
conveyed to the oppofite fide of the (hip, whereby both
fides burn together.
The fpaces N, 0, behind the fire-room, reprefent
the cabins of the lieutenant and matter, one of which
is on the (larboard, and the other on the larboard fide.
The captain’s cabin, which is feparated from thefe by
a bulk-head, is exhibited alfo by P.
Four of the eight fire-barrels are placed under the
four fire-trunks; and the other four between them,
two on each fide the fire-fcuttles, where they are fe-
curely cleated to the deck. The longed reeds (c) are
put into the fore and aft troughs, and tied down: the
(horteft reeds are laid in the troughs athwart, and tied
down alfo. The bavins (n), dipped at one end, are
tied faft to the troughs over the reeds, and the curtains
are nailed up to the beams, in equal quantities, on each
fide of the fire-room.
The remainder of the reeds are placed in a pofition
nearly upright, at all the angles of every fquare in the
fire-room, and there tied down. If any reeds are left,
they are to be put round the fire-barrels, and other va¬
cant places, and there tied faft.
Inftru&ions to prime.
Take up all your reeds, one after another, and
ftrow a little compofition at the bottom of all the
troughs under the reeds, and then tie them gently down
again : next ftrow compofition upon the upper part of
the reeds throughout the fire-room; and upon the faid
compofition lay double quick-match upon all the
reeds, in all the troughs: the remainder of the com¬
pofition ftrow over all the fire-room, and then lay your
bavins loofe-
Caft off all the covers of the fire-barrels, and hang
the quick-match loofe over their fides, and place lead¬
ers of quick-match from the reeds into the barrels, and
from thence into the vent of the chambers, in fuch a
manner as to be certain of their blowing open the
ports, and fetting fire to the barrels. Two troughs of
communication from each door of the fire-room to the
fally-ports, muft be laid with a ftrong leader of quick-
match.
with (hort double-dipped reeds placed upright; and the remaining vacancy is filled with fire-barrel compofition
well mixed and melted, and then poured over them. The compofition ufed for this purpofe is a mafs of ful-
phur, pitch, tar, and tallow.
There are five holes, of three-fourths inch in diameter and three inches deep, formed in the top of the
compofi^ion while it is yet warm ; one being in the centre, and the other four at equal diftances round the
fides of the barrel. When the compofition is cold and hard, the barrel is primed by filling thofe holes with
fufe-compofition, which is firmly driven into them, fo as to leave a little vacancy at the top to admit a<(brand of
quick-match-twice doubled. The centre-hole contains two ftrands at their whole length, and every ftrand'
muft be driven home with mealed powder. The loofe ends of the quick-match being then laid within the bar¬
rel, the whole is covered with a dipped curtain, faftened on with a hoop that flips over the head of the barrel,
to which it is nailed.
The barrels fhould be made very ftrong, not only to fupport the weight of the compofition before firing,
when they are moved or carried from place to place, but to keep them together whilft burning : for if the (laves
are too light and thin, fo as to burn very foon, the remaining compofition will tumble out and be dilfipated,
and the intention of the barrels, to carry the flame aloft, will accordingly be fruftrated.
The curtain is a piece of coarfe canvas, nearly a yard in breadth and length,- thickened with melted compo¬
fition, and covered with faw-duft on both fides.
(c) The reeds are made up in fmall bundles of about a foot in circumference; cut even at both ends, and
tied together in two places. They are diftinguilhed into two kinds, viz. the long and (hort; the former of
which are four feet, and the latter two feet five inches in length. One part of them are fingly dipped, i. e at
one end : the reft are dipped at both ends in a kettle of melted compofition. After being immeifed about fe-
ven or eight inches in this preparation, and then drained, they are fprinked over with pulverifed fulphur upon •
a tanned hide.
(d) The bavins are made of birch, heath, or other brulh-wood, which is tough and readily kindled. They
are ufually two or three feet in length, and have all their bu(h-ends lying one way, the other ends being tied>
together with final! cords. They are dipped in compofition at the bu(h ends, whofe branches are afterwards
confined by the hand, to prevent them from breaking off by moving about; and alfo to make them;
burn more fiercely. After being dipped in the fame manner as the reeds, they alfo are fprinkled with
fulphur.
F I R
match, four or five times double : alfo a crofs-piece to
go from the fally-port, when the ihip is fired, to the
communication trough, laid with leaders of quick-
match, that the fire may be communicated in both fides
at once.
What quick-match is left place fo that the fire may
be communicated to all parts of the room at once,
efpecially about the ports and fire-barrels, and fee that
the chambers are well and frelh primed. [N. B. The
port-fire ufed for firing the fhip, burns about 12 mi-
[ 256 1
F I R
found out likewife the method of adding decorations
to them of ftatues, with fire ifiuing from their eyes u
and mouths.
The art of preparing and managing thefe is called
pyrotechny. See Pyrotechny.
FIRING, in the military art, denotes the difcharge
of the fire-arms; and its objedl is to do the utmoft
execution to the enemy.
The pvefent method of firing by platoons is faid to
have been invented by Guftavus Adolphus, and firft
nutes. Great care mull be taken to have no powder ufed about the year 1618: the reafon commonly given
on board when the Ihip is fired.]
The flreer-hooks (reprefented by are fitted fo
as to faften on the yard-arms of the fire-lhip, where
they hook the enemy’s rigging. The fire-grapplings,
(Z?.) are either fixed on the yard-arms, or thrown
by hand, having a chain to confine the (hips together,
or faften thofe inftruments wherever neceftary.
When the commanding officer of a fleet difplays the
fignal to prepare for afition, the fire-(hips fix their
(heer-hooks, and difpofe their grapplings in readinefs.
The battle being begun, they proceed immediately to
prime, and prepare their fire works. When they are
for this method is, that a conftant fire may be always
kept up. There are three different ways of platoon
firing ; viz. Handing, advancing,*nd retreating. But
previous to every kind of firing, each regiment or bat¬
talion muft be told off in grand divifions, fubdivifions,
and platoons, exclufively of the grenadiers, which form
two fubdivifions or fohf platoons of themfelves. In
firing (landing, either by divifions or platoons, the firft
fire is from the divifion or platoon on the right; the
fecond fire from the left; the third from the right
again ; and fo on alternately, till the firing comes to
the centre platoon, which is generally called the colour
ready for grappling, they inform the admiral thereof platoon, and does not fire, remaining as a referve for
by a particular fignal. the colours. Firing advancing is performed in the fame
To avoid being difabled by the enemy’s cannon du- manner, with this addition, that before either divifion
ring a general engagement, the fire (hips continue or platoon fires, it advances three paces forward. Firing
fufficiently diftant from their line of battle, either to retreating varies from either of the former methods ;
windward or to leeward. for before either divifion or platoon fires, if they are
They cautioufly (him the openings or intervals of marching from the enemy, it muft go to the right
the line, where they would be dire&ly expofed to the about, and after firing, to the left about again, anft
enemy’s fire, from which they are covered by lying 1
the oppofite fide of their own (hips. They are atten¬
tively to obfervethe fignals of the admiral or his feconds,
in order to put their defigns immediately in execution.
continue the retreat as flow and orderly as poffible.
In hedge-firing the men are drawn up two deep, and
in that order both ranks are to fire (landing. Oblique
firing is either to the right and left, or from the right
Although no (hip of the line flrould be previoufly and left to the centre, according to the fituation of
appointed to proteft any fire-drip, except a few of the the objeft. The Pruffians have a particular contrU
fmalleft particularly deftined to this fervice, yet the (hip vance for this purpofe ; if they are to level to the
before whom (he paffes in order to approach the
my, (hould efcort her thither, and affift her with an
armed boat, or whatever fuccour may be neceffary in
her fituation.
The captain of the fire-ftrip (hould himfelf be parti¬
cularly attentive that the above inftrucfions are punc-
right, the rear ranks of every platoon make two quick
but fmall paces to the left, and the body of each fol-
dier turns one-eighth of a circle, and vice verfa. Pa¬
rapet firing depends on the nature of the parapet over
which the men are to fire, and alfo upon that of the
attack made to poffefs it. This method of firing is
tually executed, and that the yards may be fo braced fometimes performed by Angle ranks ftepping on the
when he falls along-fide of the (hip intended to be de- banquette and firing ; each man inftantly handing his
ftroyed, that the (heer-hooks and grapplings faftened arms to the centre rank of the fame file, and taking
to the yard-arms, &c. may effe&ually hook the enemy, his back in the room of it; and the centre rank
He is expefted to be the laft perfon who quits the giving it to the rear to load, and forwarding the arms
veffel; and being furniftied with every neceffary affift-
ance and fupport, his reputation will greatly depend
on the fuccefs of his enterprife.
Lambent Fires, as the (hining of meat at certain
of the rear to the front rank ; by which means thp
front rank men can fire fix or feven rounds in a minute
with exadtnefs. Parapet firing may alfo be executed
two deep, when the banquette is three feet broad, or in
feafons, the luminoufnefs of the fea, of infe&s, va- field works, where no banquettes are made. Square
pours, &c. See the articles Light, Pholas Me'
vvsa, Nereis, Fire-FUcs, Gioir lVorm, See.
Port-Fins. See PoRT-Fire.
Spur-Fire. See Spur-Fire.
FiRE-Works, are preparations made of gunpowder,
fulphur, and other inflammable and combuftible ingre-
firing is performed by a regiment or body of men
drawn up in a hollow fquare, in which cafe each front
is generally divided into four divifions or firings, and
the flanks of the fquare, being the weakeft part, are
covered by four platoons of grenadiers. The fiift fire
is from the right drvifion of each face ; the fecond
clients, ufed on occafion of public rejoicings and other from the le£t divifion of each face, &c. and the grena-
folemnities. diers make the laft fire. Street-firing is praftifed in
The invention of fire-works is by M. Mahudel at- two ways ; either by making the divifion or platoon
tributed to the Florentines and people of Sienna; who that has fired to wheel by half-rank tp the right and
NjI27. 5 left
FIR [2
Titkin left outwards from the centre, and to march in that
II order by half divifions down the flanks on each fide of
•Firft-born. jjjg column, and to draw up in the rear, and go on
v with their priming and loading ; or, to make the divi-
fion or platoon, after firing, to face to the right
and left outwards from the centre, and one half rank
to follow the other; and in that order to march in one
centre file down on £ach fide of the column into the
rear, and there draw up as before.
FiRma-Iron, in farriery, an inftrument not unlike
the blade of a knife; which being made red hot, is
applied to a horfe’s hams, or other places Handing in
need of it, as in preternatural fwellings, farcy, knots,
&c. in order to difcufs them.
FIRKIN, an Englilh meafure of capacity for things
liquid, being the fourth part of the barrel: it contains
eight gallons of ale, foap, or herrings; and nine gal¬
lons of beer.
FIRLOT, a dry meafure ufed in Scotland. The
oat-firlet contains 2i^th pints of that country; the
wheat-firlot contains about 2211 cubical inches; and
the barley-firlot, 31 ftandard-pints. Hence it appears
that the Scotch wheat-firlot exceeds the Englilh bufhel
by 33 cubical inches. '
FIRMAMENT, in the ancient aftronomy, the
eighth heaven or fphere ; being that wherein the fixed
liars were fupppfed to be placed. It is called the
eighth, with refpeft to the feven heavens or fpheres of
the planets which it furrounds.
It is fuppofed to have two motions; a diurnal mo¬
tion, given it by the primum mobile, from eaft to weft,
about the poles of the ecliptic ; and another oppofite
motion from weft to eaft; which laft it finilhes, accord¬
ing to Tycho, in 25,412 years; according to Ptole¬
my, in 36,000; and according to Copernicus, in
258,000; in which time the fixed ftars return to the
fame precife points wherein they were at the begin¬
ning. This period is commonly called Plato’s year,
or the great year.
In various places of Scripture the word firmament is
ufed for the middle region of the air. Many of the
ancients allowed, with the moderns, that the'firma¬
ment is a fluid matter; though they, who gave it the
denomination of firmament, muft have taken it for a
folid one.
FIRMAN, is a paffport or permit granted by the
Great Mogul to foreign veffels, to trade within the ter¬
ritories of his jurifdidlion.
FIRMICUS maternus (Julius), a famous writer,
who compofed in Latin, about the year 345, an ex¬
cellent book in defence of Chriftianity, intitled, De
errore profanarum religionum, which is printed with the
notes of John Wouver. There are alfo attributed to
him eight books of aftronomy, printed by Aldus Ma-
nutius in 1501; but this laft work appears to have
been written by another Julius Firmicus, who lived at
the fame time.
FIRMNESS, denotes the confiftence of a body,,
or that ftate wherein its fenfible parts cohere in fuch a
manner, that the motion of one part induces a motion
in the reft.
FIRST-born. See Primogeniture, for the li¬
teral meaning of the term.
In Scripture it is alfo ufed often in a figurative fenfe
for that which is firft, moft excellent, moft diftinguifli-
Vgl. VII. Parti.
i
57 1 FIS
ed in any thing. Thus it is faidof Chrift (Col. i. 5,), Firft-Fruits
that he is “ the firft-born of every creature;” and in H
Revelations (i. 5.) he is called “ the firft-begotten of, l''' .
the dead;” that is, according to the commentators,
Begotten of the Father before any creature was pro¬
duced ; and the firft who rofe from the dead by his own
power. “ The firft-born of the poor,” (Ifa. xiv. 30.)
fignifies. The moft miferable of all the poor; and in
Job (xviii. 13.) “ The firft-born of death;” that is,
The moft terrible of all deaths.
First-Fruits (primitia), among the Hebrews, were
oblations of part of the fruits of the harveft, offered
to God as an acknowledgment of his fovereign domi¬
nion. The firft of thefe fruits was offered in the name
of the whole nation, being either two loaves of bread,
or a fheaf of barley which was thre(lied in the court
of the temple. Every private perfon was obliged to
bring his firft-fruits to the temple; and thefe confifted
of wheat, barley, grapes, figs, apricots, olives, and
dates.
There was another fort of firft-fruits which were
paid to God. When bread was kneaded in a family,
a portion of it was fet apart, and given to the prieft
or Levite who dwelt in the place: if there was no prieft
or Levite there, it was caft into the oven, and confumed
by the fire. Thefe offerings made a confiderable part
of the revennes of the Hebrew priefthood.
Fiifi-fruits are frequently mentioned in ancient Chri-
ftian writers as one part of the church revenue. One
of the councils of Carthage enjoins, that they fhould
confift only of grapes and corn ; which fhows, that
this was the praftice of the African church.
FiRST-Fruits, in the church of England, are the
profits of every fpiritual benefice for the firft year, ac¬
cording to the valuation thereof in the king’s books.
FISC, fiscus, in the civil law, the treafury of a
prince or ftate ; or that to which all things due to
the public do fall. The word is derived from the
Greek aiu-x®- “ a great balket,” ufed when they went
to market.—By the civil law, none but a fovereign
prince has a right to have a fife or public treafury.
At Rome, under the emperors, the term mrarium
was ufed for the revenues deftined for fupport of the
charges of the empire; and fifais for thofe of the em¬
peror’s own family. The treafury, in effeft, belonged
to the people, and the fifeus to the prince. Hence the
goods of condemned perfons, if appropriated to the
ufe of the public, were fjid publicari; if to the fup¬
port of the emperor or prince, confifcari.
FISCAL, in the civil law, fomething relating to
the pecuniary intereft of the prince or people. The
officers appointed for the management of the fife, were
called procuratores fifei; and advocati fifei; and among
the cafes enumerated in the conftitutions of the em¬
pire where it was their bufinefs to plead, one is againft
thofe who have been condemned to pay a fine to the
fife on accountof their litigioufnefs or frivolous appeals.
FISCUS. See Fisc.
FISH, in natural hiftory, an animal that lives in
the waters as the natural place of its abode.
Fifties form the fourth clafs of animals in the Lin-
mean fyftem. Their moft general or popular divifion
is into frejh and fait water ones. Some, however, are
of opinion, that all fifties naturally inhabit the fait-
waters, and that they have mounted up into rivers
K k only
FIS [ 258 ] FIS
only by accident. A few fpecies only fwlm up into
the rivers to depofit their fpawn; but by far the great-
eft number keep in the fea, and would foon expire in
frefh water. There are about 400 fpecies of fifties
(according to Linnaeus) of which we know fomething:
but the unknown ones are fuppofed to be many more;
and as they are thought to lie in great depths of the
fea remote from land, it is probable that many fpecies
will remain for ever unknown.
For the fubdivifions, characters, and natural hiftory
of this clafs of animals, fee the articles Ichthyology
and Zoology.
Blowing of Fish, is a praftice fimilar to that of
blowing flelh, poultry, and pigs, and adopted for the
fame deceitful purpofes. The method of blowing fifh,
efpecially cod and whitings, is by placing the end of a
quill or tobacco-pipe at the vent, and pricking a hole
with a pin under the fin which is next the gill; there¬
by making the fifti appear to the eye large and full,
which when dreffed will be flabby, and little elfe than
Ikin and bones. But this impofition may be difcover-
ed by placing the-finger and thumb on each fide of the
vent, and fqueezing it hard ; the wind may be percei¬
ved to go out, the fkin will fall in, and the fifti appear
lank, and of little value.
Breeding of Fishes may be turned to great advan¬
tage ; for, befides furnifhing the table, obliging one’s
friends, and raifing money, the land will be thereby
greatly improved, fo as to yield more this way than by
any other employment whatever. See Fish-Fond, in¬
fra ; and Breeding of Fijh.
Cajlralion of Fish, is a method firft praCtifed by Mr
Tull, in order to prevent the exceffive increafe of fifti in
fome of his ponds, where the numbers did not permit
any of them to grow to an advantageous ftze. But he
afterwards found, that the caftrated fifti grew much
larger than their ufual fize, were more fat, and always
in feafon. This operation may be performed both on
male and female fifti; and the moft eligible time for it
is when the ovaries of the female have their ova in
them, and when the veffels of the male, analogous to
thefe, have their feminal matter in them; becaufe, at
this time, thefe veffels are more eafily diftinguiftied
from the ureters, which convey the urine from the kid¬
neys into the bladder, and are fituated near the feminal
veffels on each fide of the fpine ; which, without fiifli-
cient attention, may be miftaken for the ovaries, efpe¬
cially when thefe laft are empty. The time leaft pro¬
per for this operation, is juft after they have fpawned,
becaufe the fifti are then too weak and languid to bear,
with fuccefs, fo fevere an operation; however, with
fkill and care, it may be performed almoft at any time.
When a fifli is to be caftrated, it muft be held in a wet
cloth, with its belly upwards; then with a lliarp pen¬
knife, having its point bent backwards, the operator
cuts through the integuments of the rim of the belly,
taking care not to wound any of the inteftines. As
foon as a fmall aperture is made, he carefully inferts a
hooked pen-knife, and with this dilates the aperture
from between the two fore-fins almoft to the anus. He
then, with two fmall blunt filver-hooks, five or fix
inches long, and of this form F, by the help of an af-
fiftant, holds open the belly of the fifti; and, with a
fpoon or fpatula, removes carefully the inteftines from
4
one fide. When thefe are removed, you fee-the ure- FHh.
ter, a fmall veffel, nearly in the direction of the fpine, —-y—J
and alfothe ovary, a larger veffel, lying before it, near¬
er the integuments of the belly. This laft vefftl is ta¬
ken up with a hook of the fame kind with thofe before
mentioned, and, after detaching it from the fide far
enough for the purpofe, divided tranfverfely with a pair
of ftiarp fciffars, care being taken that the inteftines
are not wounded or injured. After one of the ovaries
has been divided, the operator proceeds to divide the
other in the fame manner ; and then the divided inte¬
guments of the belly are fewed with filk, the ftitches
being inferted at a fmall diftance from one another.
Mr Tull obferves farther, that the fpawning time is
very various; that trouts are full about Chriftmas;
perch in February ; pikes in March, and carp and
tench in May ; and that allowance muft be made for
climate and fituation, with regard to the fpawning of
fifti. When the filh are caftrated, they are put into
the water where they are intended to continue ; and
they take their chance in common with other fifti, as
though they were not caftrated. With tolerable care,
few die of the operation. Phil Pranf. vol, xlviii.
Fart 2. art. 106.
Although we could not properly avoid inferting the
above detail, it is prefumed that few will be pleafed
with the invention. The operation is peculiarly cruel,
and the purpofe of it only a deteftable piece of Apician
refinement.
Feeding of Fishes. When they are fed in large
pools or ponds, either malt boiled, or fefli grains, is
the be ft food; thus carps may be raifed and fed like
capons, and tenches will feed as well. The care of
feeding them is beft committed to a gardener or the
butler, who ftiould be always at hand. When fed in
a ftew, any fort of grain boiled, efpecially peas, and
malt coarfely ground, are proper food; alfo the grains
after brewing, while frefh and fweet; but one buftiel
of malt not brewed, will go as far as two of grains.
Stealing of Fish, by perfons armed and difguifed/ is
felony without benefit of clergy by 9 Geo. I. cap. 22.
See Black aQ. And by 5 Geo. III. cap. 14. the pe¬
nalty of tranfportation for feven years is infli&ed om
perfons ftealing or taking fifti in any wrater, within a
park, paddock, orchard, or yard ; and on the receivers,
aiders, and abettors ; and a forfeiture of five pounds
to the owner of the fifhery is made payable by perfons
taking or deftroying (or attempting fo to do) any fiftv
in any river or other water within any inclofed ground,
being private property.
Preferring of Fish for Calinets. Linnaeus’s Am^Acaik
thod is, to expoie them to the air; and when they ac- totn,
quire fuch a degree of putrefaction that the fkin lofes
its cohefion to the body of the fifh, it may be Aid off
almoft like a glove: the two fides of this fkin may
then be dried upon paper like a plant, or one of the
fides may be filled with plafter of Paris to give the fub-
jeft a-due plumpnefs.
A fifh may be prepared, after it has.acquired this
degree of putrefaction, by making a longitudinal inci-
fion on the belly, and carefully diffefting the flefhy
part from the fkin, which are but flightly attached to
it in confequence of the putrefcency. The fkin is therii
to be filled with cottou and the antifeptic powder
as-
FIS [ 259 ] FIS
Fifh. as dire&ed for birds; and, laftly, to be fewed up
where the incifion was made. See Methods of Prefer¬
ring Birds.
Gold-Fisa. See Cyprinus.
Gilding on Fish. In the pofthumous papers of Mr
Hooke, a method is defcribed of gilding live craw-fifh,
carps, &c. without injuring the fifh. The cement for this
purpofe is prepared, by putting fome burgundy-pitch
into a new earthen pot, and warming the veflel till it
receives fo much of the pitch as will flick round it;
then ftrewing fome finely-powdered amber over the
pitch when growing cold, adding a mixture of three
pounds of linfeed oil and one of oil of turpentine, co¬
vering the veffel, and boiling them for an hour over a
gentle fire, and grinding the mixture, as it is wanted,
with fo much pumice-ftone in fine powder as will re¬
duce it to the confiflence of paint. The fifh being
wiped dry, the mixture is fpread upon it; and the gold-
leaf being then laid on, and gently preffed down, the
fifh may be immediately put into water again, without
any danger of the gold coming off, for the matter
quickly grows firm in water.
Fish, in a fhip, a plank or piece of timber, fattened
to a fliip’s matt or yard, to ftrengthen it; which is done
by nailing it on with iron fpikes, and winding ropes hard
about them.
Fishes, in heraldry, are the emblems of filence and
watchfulnefs ; and are borne either upright, imbowed,
extended, endorfed refpefting each other, furmounting
one another, fretted, &c.
In blazoning fifties, thofe borne feeding, fhould be
termed devouring; all fifties borne upright and having
fins, fhould be blazoned hauriant; and thofe borne
tranfverfe the efcutcheon, muft be termed naiant.
Fisu-Ponds, thofe made for the breeding or feed¬
ing of fifh.
Fifh ponds are no fmall improvement of watery and
boggy lands, many of which are fit for no other ufe.
In making of a pond, its head fhould be at the loweft
part of the ground, that the trench of the flood-gate or
fluice, having a good fall, may not be too long in emp¬
tying, The beft way of making the head fecure, is to
drive in two or three rows ef flakes above fix feet long,
at about four feet diftance from each other, the whole
length of the pond-head, whereof the firfl roe fhould
be rammed at leaft about four feet deep. If the bot¬
tom is falfe, the foundation may be laid with quick¬
lime ; which flaking, will make iVas hard as a ftone.
Some lay a layer of lime, and another of earth dug out
of the pond, among the piles and ftrakes; and when
thefe are well covered, drive in others as they fee oc-
cafion, ramming in the earth as before, till the pond-
head be of the height defigned.
-The dam fhould be made Hoping on each fide, lea¬
ving a wafte to carry off the over-abundance of water
in times of floods or rains ; • and as to the depth of the
pond, the deeped part need not exceed fix feet, rifing
gradually in fhoals towards the Tides, for the fifh to fun
themfelves, and lay their fpawn. Gravelly and fandy
bottoms, efpecially the latter, are bed for breeding ;
and a fat foil with a white fat water, as the wafhings
of hills, commons, flreets, finks, &c. is 'befl for fat¬
tening all forts of fifh. For floring a pond, carp is to
be preferred for its goodnefs, quick growth, and great
increafe, as breeding five or fix times a-year. A pond
of an acre, if it be a feeding and not breeding one, Fifher.
will every year feed 200 carps of three years old, 300
of two years old, and 400 of a year old. Carps de¬
light in ponds that have marie or clay bottoms, with
plenty of weeds and grafs, whereon they feed in the
hot months.
Ponds fhould be drained every three or four years,
and the fifh forted. In breeding ones, the fmaller ones
are to be taken out, to ftore other ponds with ; lea-
ving a good flock of females, at leaft eight or nine
years old, as they never breed before that age. In
feeding ponds, it is befl to keep them pretty near of a
fize. See Breeding of Fifh.
FLSHER (John), bifhop of Rochefter, was born
at Beverly in Yorkfhire, in the year 1459, and educa¬
ted in the collegiate church of that place. In 1484,
he removed to Michael-houfe in Cambridge, of which
college he was defied matter in the year 1495. Ha¬
ving applied himfelf to the fludy of divinity, he took
orders; and, becoming eminent as a divine, attrafled
the notice of Margaret countefs of Richmond, mother
of Henry VII. who made him her chaplain and con-
feflbr. In 1 jot, he took the degree of doftor of di¬
vinity, and the fame year was defied chancellor of the
univerfity. In the year following, he was appointed
Lady Margaret’s firft divinity-profeflbr; and, in 1504,
confecrated bifhop of Rochefter; which fmall bifhopric
he would never refign, though he was offered both Ely
and Lincoln. It is generally allowed, that the foun¬
dation of the two colleges of Chrift-church and St
John’s, in Cambridge, was entirely owing to bifhop
Fifher’s perfuafion, and influence with the countefs of
Richmond : he not only formed the defign, but fuper-
intended the execution. On the promulgation of Mar¬
tin Luther’s dofliine, our bifhop was the firfl to enter
the lifts againfl him. On this occafion he exerted all
his influence, and is generally fuppofed to have written
the famous book by which Henry VIII. obtained the
title of Defender of the Faith. Hitherto he continued
in favour with the king; but in 1527, oppofing his di¬
vorce, and denying his fupremacy, the implacable
Harry determined, and finally effefled, his deftruflion.
In 1534, the parliament found him guilty of mifpri-
fion of treafon, for concealing certain prophetic fpeech-
es of a fanatical impoftor, called the Holy Maid of
Kent, relative to the king’s death; and condemned him,
with five others, in lofs of goods, and imprifonment
during his majefly’s pleafure ; but he was releafed on
paying 3001. for the king’s ufe.
King Henry being now married to Anne Boleyn,
his obfequious parliament took an oath of allegiance
proper for the occafion. This oath the bifhop of Ro¬
chefter fleadily refufed ; alleging, that his confcience
could not be convinced that the king’s firfl marriage
was againfl the law of God. For refufing this oath of
fucceffion, he was attainted by the parliament of 15 34 j
and committed to the Tower, where he was cruelly
treated, and where he would probably have died a na¬
tural death, had not the pope created him a cardinal.
The king, now pofitively determined on his deftruc-
tion, fent Rich, the folicitor-general, under a pre¬
tence of confulting the bifhop on a cafe of confcience,
but really with a defign to draw him into a converfa-
tion concerning the fupremacy. The honefl old bi¬
fhop fpoke his mind without fufpicion or referve, and
K k 2 an
FIS f 260 1 F
Fiiliery. an indiflment and convidion of high-treafon was the
t——v  confequence. He was beheaded on Tower-hill, on the
2 2d of June 153 J, in the 77th year of his age. Thus
died this good old prelate; who, notwithftanding his
inflexible enmity to the reformation, was undoubtedly
a learned, pious, and honeft man. He wrote feveral
treatifes againft Luther, and other works, which were
printed at Wurtzburgh, in 1597, in one volume folio.
FISHERY, a flace where great numbers of fiih
are caught.
The principal fifheries for falmon, herring, mackrel,
pilchards, &c. are along the coafts of Scotland, Eng¬
land, and Ireland ; forced, on the banks of Newfound¬
land ; for whales, about Greenland ; and for pearls, in
the Eaft and Weft Indies.
Free Fishery, in law, or an exclufive right of fifli-
ipg in a public river, is a royal franchife ; and is con-
fldered as fuch in all countries where the feodal po¬
lity has prevailed : though the making fuch grants, and
by that means appropriating, what it Teems unnatural to
reft rain, the ufe of running water, was prohibited for
the future by king John’s Great Charter ; and the ri¬
vers that were fenced in his time were direfted to be
laid open, as well as the forefts to be disforefted. This
opening was extended by the fecond and third charters
of Henry III. to thole alfo that were fenced under Ri¬
chard I.; fo that a franchife of free filhery ought now
Blaclft Com to as at ^ea^ as t^ie feign of Henry II. This
mfgnfl differs from a feveral of pifeary, becaufe he that has a
feveral Jilhery muft alfo be the owner of the foil, which
in a free-fifliery is not requifne. It differs alfo from
a common filhery, in that the free filhery is an exclu-
five right, the common filhery is not fo: and therefore,
in a free fifhery, a man has a property in the filh before
they are caught; in a common pifeary, not till after¬
wards. Some indeed have confidered a free filhery not
as a royal franchife ; but merely as a private grant of a
liberty to filh in the feveral filhery of the granter. But
the confidering fuch right as originally a flower of the
prerogative, till reftrained by Magna Charta, and de¬
rived by royal grant (previous to the reign of Ri¬
chard I.) to fuch as now claim it by prefeription, may
remove fome difficulties in refpeii to this matter with
which our law-books are embarraffed.
Fishery, denotes alfo the commerce of filh, more
particularly the catching them for fale.
Were we to enter into, a very minute and particular
confideration of filheries, as at prefent eftablilhed in
this kingdom, this article would fwell beyond its pro¬
per bounds ; becaufe, to do juftice to a fubjeift of fuch
concernment to the Britilh nation, requires a very am¬
ple and diftimft difeuffion. We lhall, however, ob-
ferve, that fince the Divine Providence hath fo emi¬
nently ftored the coafts of Great Britain and Ireland
with the moft valuable filh ; and fince filheries, if fuc-
cefsful, become permanent nurferies for breeding ex¬
pert feamen ; it is not only a duty we owe to the Su¬
preme Being, not to defpife the wonderful plenty he
hath afforded us, by neglefting to extend this branch
of commerce to the utmoft ; but it is a duty we owe
to. our country, for its natural fecurity, which de¬
pends upon the ftrength of our royal navy. No nation
can have a navy where there is not a fund of bufinefs
to breed and employ feamen without any expence to
the public; and no trade is fo well calculated for
training up thefe ufeful members of fociety as filhe- FIfliery.
ties.   
The fituation of the Britilh coafts is the moft advan¬
tageous in the world for catching fifh : the Scottilh
Hands, particularly thofe to the north and weft, lie
moft commodious for carrying on the filhing trade to
perfection ; for no country in Europe can pretend to
come up to Scotland in the abundance of the fineft
filh, with which its various creeks, bays, rivers, lakes,
and coafts are replenilhed. Of thefe advantages, the
Scots feem indeed to have been abundantly fenfible ;
and their traffic in herrings, the moft valuable of all the
filheries, is noticed in hiftory fo early as the ninth cen¬
tury*. The frequent laws which were enafted in the * See art.4,
reigns of James III. IV. and V. difeover a fteady de-'Y™-
termined zeal for the benefit of the native fubje&s,
and the full reftoration of the filheries, which the
Dutch had latterly found means to engrofs, and do
honour to the memory of thofe patriots whom modern
times affect to call barbarians.
The expedition of James V. to the Hebrides and
weftern parts of the Highlands, and his affiduity in
exploring and founding the harbours, difeovered a fix¬
ed refolution in that aCliye prince, to civilize the in¬
habitants, to promote the valuable filheries at their
doors, and to introduce general induftry. His death,
at an early period, and the fubfequent religious and
civil commotions in the kingdom, fruftrated thofe
wife defigns, and the weftern tilheries remained in their
original Hate of negleft. At length, 1602, James VI.
refumed the national purpofes which had been thus
chalked out by his grandfather. « Three towns,
(fays Dr Robertfon) which might ferve as a retreat
for the induftrious, and a nurfery for arts and com¬
merce, weie appointed to be built in different parts of
the Highlands ; one in Cantire, another in Lochaber,
and a third in the. ifle of Lewis; and in order to draw the
inhabitants thither, all the privileges of the royal bo¬
roughs were to be conferred upon them. Finding it,
however, to be no eafy matter to infpire the inhabi¬
tants of thofe countries with the love of induftry, a
refolution was taken to plant among them colonies of
people from the more induftrious countries. The firll
experiment was made in the ifle of Lewis ; and as it
was advantageoufly fituated for the filhing trade (a
fource from which Scotland ought naturally to derive
great wealth), the colony tranfported thither was drawn
out of Fife, the inhabitants of which were well Ikilled
in that branch of commerce. But before they had
remained there long enough to manifeft the good ef-
fedts of this inftitution, the illanders, enraged at fee¬
ing their country occupied by thofe intruders, took
arms, and furprifing them in the night-time, murdered
fome of them, and compelled the reft to abandon the
fettlement. The king’s attention being foon turned
to other objefts, particularly to his fucceffion to the
Englilh crown, we hear no more of this falutary pro-
jea.”
The Scottilh filheries were, however, refumed by
Charles I. who “ ordained an affociation of the three
kingdoms, for a general filhing within the haill feas
and coafts of his majefty’s faid kingdoms; and for
the government of the faid affociation, ordained, that
there Ihould be a Handing committee chofen and no¬
minated by his majefty, and his fucceffors from time
FIS [ 261 ] FIS
to time,” &c. &c. Several perfons of diftm&ion em¬
barked in the defign, which the king honoured with
his patronage, and encouraged by his bounty. He
alfo ordered lent to be more ftridly obferved; pro¬
hibited the importation of fiih taken by foreigners ;
and agreed to purchafe from the company his naval
itores and the fifh for his fleets. Thus the fcheme of
eftablifhing a fiihery in the Hebrides began to affume
a favourable afped ; but all the hbpes of the adventu¬
rers were fruftrated by the breaking out of the civil
wars, and the very tragical death of their benefador.
In 1661, Charles II. duke of York, lord Clarendon,
and other perfons of rank or fortune, refumed the bu-
finefs of the filheries with greater vigour than any of
their predeceflbrs. For thispurpofe the moll; falutary
laws were enaded by the parliaments of England and
Scotland ; in virtue of which, all materials ufed in, or
depending upon, the fifheries, were exempted from all
duties, excifes, or impofts whatever. In England, the
company were authorifed to fet up a lottery, and to
have a voluntary colledion in all parilh churches; houfes
of entertainment, as taverns, inns, ale-houfes, were
to take one or more barrels of herrings, at the dated
price of 30 s. per barrel; alfo 2 s. 6 d. per barrel was to
be paid to the dock of this company on all imported fiih
taken by foreigners. Some Dutch families were alfo ip-
vited, or permicted, to fettle at Stornaway: the herrings
cured by the royal Englilh company gave general fa-
tisfadion, and, as mentioned above, brought a high
price for thofe days. Every circumdance attending this
new edablilhment feemed to be the refult of a judici¬
ous plan and thorough knowledge of the bufmefs, when
the neceflities of the king obliged him to withdraw
his fubfcription or bounty ; which gave fuch umbrage
to the parties concerned, that they foon after diflblved.
In 1677, anew royal company was edabliihed in
England, at the head of which was the duke of York,
the earl of Derby, &c. Befides all the privileges which
former companies had enjoyed, the king granted this
new company a perpetuity, with power to purchafe
lands ; and alfo L. 20 to be paid them annually, out
of the cudoms of the port of Eondon, for every dog¬
ger or bufs they ihould build and fend out for feven
years to come. A dock of L. 10,980 was immediate¬
ly advanced, and afterwards L. t6oo more. This
ftnall capital was foon exhauded in purchafing and fit-
ing out buffes, with other incidental expences. The
company made, however, a fuccefsful beginning ; and
one of their -bufles or doggers actually took and
brought home 32,000 cod-filh ; other veflels had alfo
a favourable fiihery. Such favourable beginnings might
have excited frefh fubfcriptions, when an unforefeen.
event ruined the whole defign beyond the polfibility
of recovery. Mod of the buffes had been built in Hol¬
land, and manned with Dutchmen ; on which pretence
the French, who were then at war with Holland, feized
fix out of feven veffels, with their cargoes and filhing-
tackle ; and the company being now in debt, fold, in
1680, the remaining dores, &c. A number of gen¬
tlemen and merchants raifed a new fubfcription of
L. 60,000, under the privileges and immunities of the
former charter. This attempt alfo came to nothing,
owing to the death of the king, and the troubles of
the fubfequent reign.
Soon after the revolution this bufinefs was again re¬
fumed, and upon a more extenfive fcale; the propofed
capital being 300,000!. of which 100,0001. was to
have been raifed by the furviving patentees or their
fucceffors, and 200,0001. by new fubfcribers. Copies
of the letters patent, the conditution of the company,
and terms of fubfcription, were lodged at fundry pla¬
ces in London and Wedminder, for the perufal of the
public, while the fubfcription was filling. It is pro¬
bable, that king William’s partiality to the Dutch
fiflieries, the fucceeding war, or both of thefe circum-
dances, frudrated this new attempt; of which we have
no further account in the annals of that reign or fince.
The Scottiih parliament had alfo, during the three
lad reigns, paffed fundry adt's for ere&ing companies
and promoting the fiflieries ; but the intedine commo¬
tions of that country, and the great exertions which
were made for the Darien edabliihment, enfeebled all
other attempts, whether colleftively of by individuals^
within that kingdom.
In 1749, his late majefiy having, at the opening
of the parliament, warmly recommended the improve¬
ment of the fiflieries, the houfe of commons appointed
a committee to inquire into the date of the herring
and white fiflieries, and to confider of the mod pro¬
bable means of extending the fame. All ranks of
, nien were elevated with an idea of the boundlefs riches
that would flow into the kindom from this fource. A
fubfcription of 500,0001. was immediately filled in the
city, by a body of men who were incorporated for 21
years by the name of The Society of the Free Britijh
Fi/hery. Every encouragement was held out by go¬
vernment, both to the fociety and to individuals, who
might embark in this national bufinefs. A bounty of
36 s. per ton was to be paid annually out of the cudoms,
for 14 years, to the owners of all decked veffels or
buffes, from 20 to 80 tons burden, which fliould be
built after the commencement of the aft, for the ufe
of, and fitted out and employed in, the faid fiflieries,
whether by the fociety or any other perfons. At the
fame time numerous pamphlets and newfpaper-effays
came forth ; all pretending to elucidate the fubjeft,
and to convince the public with what facility the her¬
ring fiflieries might be transferred from Dutch to Bri-
tifli hands. This proved, however, a more arduous,
talk than had been forefeen by fuperficial fpeculators.
The Dutch were frugal in their expenditures and li¬
ving; perfeft maders of the arts of fifliing and curing,
which they had carried to the greated height and per-
feftion. They were in fullpoffeifion of the Europeant
markets; and their fifli, whether deferving or other-
wife, had the reputation of fuperior qualities to all
others taken in our feas. With fuch advantages, the
Dutch not only maintained their ground againd this
formidable company, but had alfo the pleafure of fee¬
ing the capital gradually finking, without having pro¬
cured an adequate return to the adventurers; notwith-
danding various aids and efforts of government front
time to time in their favour, particularly in 1757, when
an advance of 20&.per ton was added to the bounty.
In 1786 the public attention was again called to the
date of the Britilh fiflieries, by the fuggedions of Mr
Dempder inthe houfe of commons, and by different pub¬
lications that appeared upon the fubjeft: in confequence
of which, the minider fuffered a committee to be named,
to inquire into this great fource of national wealth. To
that
FIS [ 262 ]
Fifhery. that committee it appeared, that the beft way of impro- the bay of Canadaj
  ving the fifheries was to encourage the inhabitants living
neareft to the feat of them to become fifhers: And it be¬
ing found that the north rweftern coaft of the kingdom,
though abounding with fiih and with fine harbours,
F I S
the great bank of Newfound- Fiftiery.
land, and on the ifle of St Peter, and the ifle of —
Sable ; to which places velfels refort from divers parts
both of Europe and America. They are from
100 to 150 tons burden, and will catch between 30,000
was utterly deftitute of towns, an aft was palled for and 40,000 cod each. The moil effential part of the
incorporating certain perfons therein named, by the filhery is, to have a mailer who knows how to cut up
ftyle of “ The Brltijh Society for extending of the filhe- the cod, one who is Hulled to take olf the head pro-
•e Britifh Society ^
ries and improving the fea-coafts of this kingdom
and to enable them to fubfcribe a joint Hock, and there¬
with to purchafe lands, and build thereon free towns,
villages, and filhing ftations in the Highlands and
iflands in that part of Great Britain called Scotland,
and for other purpofes. The Ifle of Mull, Loch-Broom,
the Ifle of Sky and of Cannay, have already been pitch-
l pro¬
perly, and above all a good falter, on which the pre-
ferving of them, and confequently the fuccefs of the
voyage, depends. The bell feafon is from the begin¬
ning of February to the end of April; the filh, which
in the winter retire to the deepeft water, coming then
on the banks, and fattening extremely. What is
caught from March to June keeps well; but thofe ta-
ed upon as proper fituations for fome of thefe towns, ken in July, Auguft, and September, when it is warm
The progrefs of fuch an undertaking from its nature on the banks, are apt to fpdil foon. Every filher takes
mull be flow, but Hill flower when carried on with a
limited capital arifing from the fubfcriptions of a few
public-fpirited individuals. But it is not to be doubt¬
ed but that it will ultimately tend to the increafe of very ipuch.
our filheries, and to the improvement of the Highland is taken off
part of this kingdom. Its tendency :s alfo to leffen
the emigration of a brave and induftrious race of inha-
•bitants, too many of whom have already removed with
their families to America.
. Anchovy-FiSHERr. The anchovy is caught in the
but one at a time : the molt expert will take from 350
to 400 in a day ; but that is the moft, the weight of
the fifli and the great coldnefs on the bank fatiguing
As Toon as the cod are caught, the head
they'are opened, gutted, and failed ; and
the falter flows them in the bottom of the hold, head
to tail, in beds a fathom of two fquare ; laying layers
of fait and fifh alternately,but never mixing filh caughfr
on different days. When they have lain thus three
or four days to drain off the water, they are replaced
months of May, June, and July, on the coafts of Cata- in another part of tlie Ihip, and failed again ; where
Ionia, Provence, &c. at which feafon it conftantly re¬
pairs up the ftraits of Gibraltar, into the Mediterranean.
Collins fays they are alfo found in plenty on the well- veniency of carriage.
ern coafts of England and Wales.
The filhing for them is chiefly in the night-time j ^ ^
when a light being put on the Hern of their little filh- coaft of Placentia, in which eompafs there are divers
ing-veffels, the anchovies flock round, and are caught commodious ports for the filh to be dried in. Thefe,
they remain till the veffel is loaded. Sometimes they
are cut in thick pieces, and put in barrels for the con-
Dry. The principal filhery for this article is,
from Cape Rofe to the Bay des Exports, along the
in the nets. But then it is afferted to have been found
by experience, that anchovies taken thus by fire, are
neither fo good, fo firm, nor fo proper for keeping, as
thofe which are taken without fire.
When the filhery is over, they cut off the heads,
take out their gall and guts, and then lay them in bar¬
rels, and fait them. The common way of eating an-
though of the fame kind with the frelh cod, are
much fmaller, and therefore fitter to keep, as the fait
penetrates more eafily into them. The filhery of both
is much alike ; only this latter is moft expenfive, as it
takes up more time, and employs more hands, and yet
fcarce half fo much fait is fpent in this as in the other.
The bait is herrings, of which great quantities are
chovies is with oil, vinegar, &c. in order to which they taken on the colt of Placentia. When feveral veffels
are fiift boned, and the tails, fins, &c. flipped off.
Being put on the fire, they diffolve almoft in any li¬
quor. Or they are made into fauce by minching them
with pepper, &c. Some alfo pickle anchovies in fmall
delft or earthen pots, made on purpofe, of two or
three pound weight, more or lefs, which they cover
meet and intend to filh in the fame port, he whofe lhal-
lop firft touches ground, becomes intitled to the qua¬
lity and privileges of admiral: he has the choice of his
llation, and the refufal of all the wood on the coaft at
his arrival. As fall as the mafters arrive, they unrig
all their veffels, leaving nothing but the Ihrouds to fu-
with plafter to keep them the better. Anchovies ftain the malls; and in the mean time the mates pro-
Ihould be chofen fmall, frelh pickled, white on the out-
fide and red within. They mull have a round back ;
vide a tent on fliore, covered with branches of trees,
and fails over them, with a fcaffold of great trunks of
for thofe which are flat or large are often nothing pines, 12, 15, 16, and often 20 feet high, commonly
from 40 to 60 feet long, and about one-third as much
in breadth. While the fcaffold is preparing, the crew
are a-filhing ; and as fail as they catch, they bring their
filh alhore, and open and fait them upon moveable
benches; but the main falling is performed on the
fcaffold. When the filh have taken fait, they walh and
hang them to drain on rails; when drained, they are
laid on kinds of ftages, which are fmall pieces of wood
laid acrofs, and covered with branches of trees, having
the leaves ftripped off for the paffage of the air. On
thefe ftages, they are difpofed, a filh thick, head againlt.
Green. The chief filheries for green cod are in tail, with tlie back uppermoft, and are turned carefully
four
but fardines. Befide thefe qualities, the pickle, on
opening the pots or barrels, mull be of a good tafte,
and not have loft its flavour.
2. Cod Fishery. There are two kinds of cod-filh ;
the one green or white cod, and the other dried or cu-
SeeGWw.red cod; though it is all the fame filh *, differently pre¬
pared ; the former being fometimes failed and barrel¬
led, then taken out for ufe; and the latter, having lain
fome competent time in fait, dried in the fun or fmoke.
We lhall therefore fpeak of each of thefe apart; and
firft of the
FIS [ 263 ] FIS
Fifiiery. four times every 24 hours. When they begin to dry,
—"v— they are laid in heaps 10 or 12 thick, in order to re¬
tain their -varmth ; and every day the heaps are en¬
larged, till they become double their firft bulk ; then
two heaps are joined together, which they turn every
day as before : laftly, they are falted again, beginning
with thofe firft falted ; and being laid in huge piles,
they remain in that fituation till they are carried on
board the fhips where they are laid on the branches
of trees difpofed for that pprpofe, upon the ballaft, and
round the (hip, with mats to prevent their contra&ing
any moifture.
There are four kinds of commodities drawn from cod,
viz. the zounds, the tongues, the roes, and the oil ex-
trafted from the liver. The firft is falted at the fifhery,
together with the fi(h, and put in barrels from 600 to
700 pound. The tongues are done in like manner, and
brought in barrels from 400 to 500 pounds. The roes
are alfo falted in barrels, and ferve to caft into the fea
to draw fifh together, and particularly pilchards. The
oil comes in barrels, from 400 to.520 pounds, and is
ufed in dreffing leather. In Scotland, they catch a
fmall kind of cod on the coafts of Buchan, and all along
the Murray frith on both fides; as alfo in the frith of
Forth, Clyde, &c. which is much efteemed. They
fait and dry them in the fun upon rocks, and fometimes
in the chimney.
3. Coral-Fishery. See Coral.
4. Herring-FisHf.RY, Our great ftations for this fifiiery
are off the Shetland and Weftern Ifles, and off the coaft
* See the of Norfolk, in which the Dutch alfo (hare *. There
article C/a-are two feafons for fifhing herring: the firft from June
Pea' to the end of Auguft ; and the fecond in Autumn, when
the fogs become very favourable for this kind of fi(h-
ing. The Dutch begin their herring-fiihing on the
24th of June, and employ a vaft number of veffels
therein; called bujfes, being between 45 and 60 tons bur¬
den each, and carrying three or four fmall cannon.
They never ftir out of port without a convoy, unlefs
there be enough together to make about 18 or 20 can¬
non among them, in which cafe they are allowed logo
in company. Before they go out, they make a verbal
agreement, which has the fame force as if it were in
writing. The regulations of the admiralty of Holland
are partly, followed by the French and.-other nations,
and partly improved and augmented with new ones ;
as, that no fifher (hall caft his net within too fathoms
of another boat : that while the nets are caft, a light
fhall be kept on the hind-part of the veffel: that when
a boat is by any accident obliged to leave off fiftiing,
the light (hall be caft into the fea: that when the greater
part of a fleet leaves off fifliing, and cafts anchor, the
reft (hall do the fame, &c.
f Hijl. of Mr Anderfon j- gives to the Scots a knowledge of
Gommerce. great antiquity in the herring-fifhery. He fays that the
Netherlanders reforted to thefe coafts as early as A. D.
836, to purchafe falted fi(h of the natives; but, impo-
fing on the ftrangers, they learned the art, and took up
the trade, in after-times of fuch immenfe emolument
to the Dutch.
Sir Walter Raleigh’s obfervations on that head, ex^
tr.'fted from the fame author, are extrepiely worthy
th a- entlon of the Curious, and excite reflections on
the vaft ftrength refulting from the wifdom of well ap¬
plied induff ry.
In 1603, he remarks the Dutch fold'to different KAery.
nations, as many herrings as amounted to L. 1,759,000 '“■—v-—
Sterling. In the year 1615, they at once fent out
2000 buffes, and employed in them 37,000 fifher-
men. In the year 1618, they fent out 3000 (hips, with
50,000 men to take the herrings, and 9000 more (hips
to tranfport and fell the fifh ; which by fea and land
employed 150,000 men, befides thofe firft mentioned.
All this wealth was gotten on our coafts; while our
attention was taken up in a diftant whale-firtiery.
The Scottifh monarchs for a long time feemed to di-
reft all their attention to the prefervation of thefalmon
fifhery; probably becaufe their fubje&s were fuch no¬
vices in fea-affairs. At length James III. endeavoured
to ftimulate his great men to thefe patriotic underta¬
kings; for by an aft of his third parliament, he com¬
pelled “ certain lords fpiritual and temporal, and bur¬
rows, to make (hips, buffes, and boats, with nets, and
other pertinents, for fifliing. That the fame (hould be
made in each burgh ; in number according to the fub-
ftance of each burgh, and the lead of them to be
of twenty tons: and that all idle men be compelled by
the (heriffs in the country to go on board the fame.”
Numerous indeed have been the attempts made at
different periods to fecure this treafure to ourfelves, but
withoutfuccefs. In the latereign^a vejy ftrong effort was
made, and bounties allowed for the encouragement of
Britifti adventurers: the firft was of 3os./er ton to every
bufs of 70 tons and upwards. This bounty was after¬
wards railed to 50 s. per ton, to be paid to fuch adven¬
turers as were intitled to it by claiming it at the places
of rendezvous. The buffes are from 20 to 90 tons bur¬
den, but the beft fize is 80. A veffel of 80 tons ought
to take ten lafts, or 120 barrels of herrings, to clear
expences, the price of the fifh to be admitted to be a
guinea a barrel. A-(hip of this fize ought to have i8:
men, and three boats : one of 20 tons (hould have fix.
men ; and every five tons above, require an additional^
hand. To every ton are 280 yards of nets; fo a veffel
of 80 tons carries 20,000 fquare yards: each net is
12 yards long, and 10 deep; and every boat takes out
from 20 to 30 nets, and puts them together, fo as to
form a long train ; they are funk at each end of the
train by a (tone, which weighs it down to the full ex¬
tent : the top is fupported by buoys, made of (heeps-
fkin, with a hollow (lick at the mouth, faftened tight;
through this the (kin is blown up, and then (topped
with a peg, to prevent the efcape of the air. Some¬
times thefe buoys are placed at the top of the nets; at
other times the nets are fuffered to fink deeper, by the
lengthening the cords faftened to them, every cord be¬
ing for that purpofe 10 or 12 fathoms long. But the
beft fiftieries are generally in more (hallow water.
Of the Scots fifhery in the Weftern Ifles, the follow¬
ing account is given by Mr Pennant*. “The fifliing is- royagetr
always perfomed in the night, unlefs by accident. The^« Hebrides
buffes remain at anchor, and fend ourtheir boats a little
before fun-fet; which continue out, in winter and fum-
mer, till day-light; often taking up and emptying their
nets, which they do to or 12 times in a night, in cafe
of good fuccefs. During winter it is a moft dangerous:
and fatiguing employ, by reafon of the greatnefs and-
frequency of the gales in thefe feas, and in fuch gales
are the moft fuccefsful captures: but, by the Providencet
of-heaven, .the fiihers are feldozn loft; and, what is won-
derfidy,
FIS [ 26+ ] FIS
Flfhery. dcrful, few are vifited with illnefs. They go out well of a new migration ; for they are as fat, anal make Filliery.
'—v ' prepared, with a warm great coat, boots, and /kin the fame appearance, as thofe that compofed the firft.
aprons, and a good provifion of beef and fpirits. The The figns of the arrival of the herrings are flocks of
fame good fortune attends the buffes, which in the tern- gulls, who catch up the fi/h while they /kim on the
peftuous feafon, and in the darkeft nights, are conti- furface ; and of gannets, who plunge and bring them
no ally /hifting, in thefe narrow feas, from harbour to up from confiderable depths. Both thefe birds are
* harbour. Sometimes 80 barrels of herrings are taken -clofely attended to by the fifliers. Cod-fi/h, haddocks,
in a night by the boats of a Angle veflel. It once hap* and dog-fi/h, follow the herrings in vail multitudes ;
pened, in Loch-Slappan, in Skie, that a bufs of 80 thefe voracious fi/h keep on the outfides of the co¬
tons might have taken 200 barrels in one night, with . lumns, and may be a concurrent reafon of driving the
1 o,coo fquare yards of net; but the mafter was obliged Ihoals into bays and creeks. In fummer, they come
to defift, for want of a fufficient number of hands to into the bays generally wich the warmeft weather,
preferve the capture. The herrings are preferved by and with eafy gales. During winter, the hard gales
faking, after the entrails are taken out. This laft is from north-weft are fuppofed to affift in forcing them
an operation performed by the country-people, who get into /belter. Eaft winds are very unfavourable to the
three-halfpence per barrel for their trouble ; and fome- fifhery.”
times, even in the winter, can gain fifteen pence a-day. Herrings are cared either white or pickled, or red.
This employs both women and children ; but the fait- Of the Jirfi, thofe done by the Dutch are the
ing is only entrufted to the crew of the buffes. The moft efteemed, being diftingui/hed into four forts, ac-
fi(h are laid on their backs in the barrels, and layers of cording to their fizes; and the beft are thofe that are
fait between them. The entrails are not loft, for they fat, fle/hy, firm, and white, faked the fame day they
are boiled into an oil: 8000 fi/h will yield ten gal- are taken, with good fait, and well barrelled. The
Ions, valued at one /hilling the gallon. A vefiel of 80 Briti/h cured herrings are little inferior, if not equal,
tons takes out 144 barrels of fait; a drawback of 2 s. to the Dutch ; for in fpite of all their endeavours to
8d. is allowed for each barrel ufed by the foreign or conceal the fecret, their method of curing, lafting, or
Iri/h exportation ,of the fi/h; but there is a duty of ca/king the herrings, has been difeovered, and is as
is. per barrel for the home-confumption, and the fame follows. After they have hauled in their nets, which
for thofe fent to Ireland. The barrels are made of they drag in the ftern of their veffels backwards and
oak-ftaves, chiefly from Virginia; the hoops from feveral forwards in traverfing the coaft, they throw them upon
parts of our own ifland, and are either of oak, birch, the /hip’s deck, which is cleared of every thing for
hazel, or willow: the laft from Holland, liable to a du- that purpofe : the crew is feparated into fundry divi-
ty. The barrels coft about 3 s. each, they hold from fions, and each divifion has a peculiar talk ; one part
500 to 800 fi/h, according to the fize of the fi/h; and opens and guts the herrings, leaving the melts and
are made to contain 32 gallons. The barrels are in- roes; another cures and falls them, by lining or rub-
fpe&ed by proper officers: a cooper examines if they bing their infide with fait; the next packs them, and
are ftatutable and good ; if faulty, he deftroys them, between each row and divifion they fprinkle handfuls
and obliges the maker to ftand to the lofs. of fait; laftly, the cooper puts the finiftiing hand to
“ Loch-Broom has been celebrated for three or four all, by heading the calks very tight, and /lowing them
centuries as the refort of herrings. They generally in the hold. ,
appear here in July; thofe that turn into this bay are Red herrings muft lie 24 hours in the brine, in
part of the brigade that detaches itfelf from the we- as much as they are to take all their fait there; and
ftern column of that great army which annually deferts when they are taken out, they are fpitted, that is,
the vaft depths of the arftic circle, and come, heaven- ftrung by the head on little wooden fpits, and then
dire&ed, to the feats of population, offered as a cheap hung in a chimney made for that purpofe. After
food to millions, whom wafteful luxury or iron-hearted which, a fire of bru/h-wood, which yields af deal of
avarice hath deprived, by enhancing the price of the fmoke but no flame, being made under them, they
wonted fupports of the poor. The migration of thefe remain there till fufficiently fmoked and dried, and are
ii/h from their northern retreat is regular; their vifits afterwards barrelled up for keeping.
to the Weftern ifles and coafts, certain; but their at- 5. Lobjler*-Fishery. Lobfters are taken along the • See Cos-
tachment to one particular loch, extremely precari- Briti/h channel, and on the coaft of Nor way, whence cfr.
ous. All have their turns : that which fwarmed with they are brought to London for fale; and alfo in the
fi/h one year, is totally deferted the following; yet frith of Edinburgh, and on the coaft of Northumber-
the next loch to it may be crowded with the ftioals. land. By 10 and 11 W. III. cap. 24. no lob/ler is to
Thefe changes of place give often full employ to be taken under eight inches in length, from the peak
the buffes, who are continually /hifting their harbour of the nofe to the end of the middle fin of the tail;
in quell of news refpedling thefe important wanderers, and by 9 G. II. cap 33. no lobtters are to be taken
They commonly appear here in July; the latter end on the coaft of Scotland from the firft of June to the
of Auguft they go into deep water, and continue iirft of September.
there for fome time, without any apparent caufe : 6. Mackrel‘\-Fishery. The mackrel is a fummer fi/h )• See Seim*.
in November, they return to the /hallows, when a new of paffage, found in large fhoals, in divers parts of the&r.
fi/hery commences, which continues till January; at ocean, not far north; but efpecially on the French
that time the henings become full of roe, and are ufe- and Englifn coafts. The fi/hing is ufually in the
lefs as articles of commerce. Some doubt, whether months of April, May, and June, and even July, ac-
thofe herrings that appear in November are not part cording to the place. They enter the Engli/h chan-
N°I27. 6 nel
FIS [ 265 ] FIS
FHhery. nel in April, and proceed up to the ftraits of Dover
V"—^ as the fummer advances ; fo that by June they are on
the coafts of Cornwall, Suffex, Normandy, Picardy,
&c. where the fiihery is moft confiderable. They are
•an excellent food frelh ; and not to be defpifed, when
well prepared, pickled, and put up in barrels ; a me¬
thod of preferving them chiefly ufed in Cornwall.
The fifli is taken two ways; either with a line or
■nets : the latter is the more confiderable, and is ufually
performed in the night-time. The rules obferved in
the fifliing for mackrel are much the fame as thofe
•already mentioned in the fifhery of herrings.
There are two ways of pickling them : the firll is,
■by opening and gutting them, and filling the belly
with fait, crammed in as hard as poflible with a Hick ;
•which done, they range them in firata or rows, at the
bottom of the veffel, firewing fait between the layers.
In the fecqnd way, they put them immediately into
tubs full of brine, made of frefit water and fait; and
leave them to fteep, till they have imbibed fait enough
to make them keep ; after which, they are taken
out, and barrelled up, taking care to prefs them clofe
down.
Mackrel are not cured or exported as merchandize
except a few by the Yarmouth and Leofioff merchants,
but are generally confumed at home ; efpecially in
the city of London, and the fea-ports between the
Thames and Yarmouth, eaft, and the Land’s end of
Cornwall weft.
t ?ee 0- 7. 0}Jhr\-Fishery This fifliery is pinncipally carried
Jlrea. on at Cokheflig,. in Eflex; Feverlham and Milton in
Kent; the Ifle of Wight; the Swales of the Medway ;
and Tenby on the coaft of Wales. From Feverlham,
and adjacent parts, the Dutch have fometimes loaded a
hundred large hoys with oyfters in a year. They are
alfo taken in great quantities near Portfmouth, and in
all the creeks and rivers between Southampton and
Chichefter: many of which are carried about by fea
to London and to Colchefter, to be fed in the pits
about Wavenhoe and other places.
8. Pearl-Fishery. See Pearl.
9. Pilchard Fishery. The chief pilchard filheries are
along the coafts of Dalmatia, on the coaft of Bretagne,
and along the coafts of Cornwall and Devonlhire. That
of Dalmatia is very plentiful: that on the coafts of
■ Bretagne employs annually about 300 (hips. Of the
pilchard fiihery on the coaft of Cornwall the following
account is given by Dr Borlafe : “It employs a great
number of men on the fea, training them thereby to
naval affairs ; employs men, women, and children, at
land, in faking, prefling, walhing, and cleaning; in
making boats, nets, ropes, calks, and all the trades
depending on their conftrutlion and fale. The poor
are fed with the offals of the captures, the land with
the refufe of the filh and fait; the merchant finds the
gains of commiflion and honeft commerce, the filher-
man the gains of the fith. Ships are often freighted
hither with fait, and into foreign countries with the
fifli, carrying off at the fame time part of our tin. The
ufual produce of the great number of hoglheads ex¬
ported each year for ten years from 1747 to 1756 in-
clufive, from the four ports of Fowy, Falmouth, Pen¬
zance, and St Ives, it appears that Fowy has exported
yearly 1732 hoglheads ; Falmouth, 14,631 hoglheads
end two thirds: Penzance and Mounts-Bay 12,149
Vol. VII. Part I.
hogfheads and one third; St Ives, 1282 hogflieads : FilWy.
in all amounting to 29,795 hogflieads. Every hog-
Ihead for ten years laft paft, together with the bounty
allowed for each hoglhead exported, and the oil made
out of each hoglhead, has amounted, one year with an¬
other at an average, to the price of 1 1. 13s. 3d.;
fo that the cafli paid for pilchards exported has,
at a medium, annually amounted to the fum of
49,532 1. 10 s.”—The numbers that are taken at
one Ihooting out of the nets are amazingly great.
Mr Pennant fays, that Dr Borlafe allured him, that,
on the 5th of Odtober 1767, there were at one
time inclofed in St Ives’s Bay 7000 hoglheads,
each hoglhead containing 35,000 filh, in all 245 mil¬
lions.
The pilchards naturally follow the light, which con¬
tributes much to the facility of the fiihery : the feafon
is from June to September. On the coafts of France
they make ufe of the roes of the cod-filh as a bait;
which, thrown into the fea, makes them rife from the
bottom, and run into the nets. On our coafts there
are perfons polled afhore, who, fpying by the colour
of the water where the Ihoals are, make figns to the
boats to go among them to call their nets. When
taken, they are brought on Ihore to a warehoufe,
where they are laid up in broad piles, fupported with
backs and fides; and as they are piled,, they fait them
with bay-falt; in which lying to foak for 30 or 40 days,
they run out a deal of blood, with dirty pickle and
bittern: then they walh them clean in fea-water; and,
when dry, barrel and prefs them hard down to fqueeze
out the oil, which iffues out at a hole in the bottom of
the calk.
jo. Salmon*-Fishery. The chief falmon fiflieries in * ^ee Sal-
Europe are in England, Scotland, and Ireland, in the mo'
rivers, and fea-coafts adjoining to the river-mouths.
The moft diftinguilhed for falmon in Scotland are, the
river Tweed, the Clyde, the Tay, the Dee, the Don,
the Spey, the Nefs, the Bewly, &c. in moft of which
it is very common, about the height of fummer, efpe¬
cially if the weather happens to be very hot, to catch
four or five fcore falmon at a draught. The chief ri¬
vers in England for falmon are, the Tyne, the Trent,
the Severn, and the Thames. The filhing is performed
with nets, and fometimes with a kind of locks or weirs
made on purpofe, which in certain places have iron or
wdoden grates fo difpofed, in an angle, that being im¬
pelled by any force in a contrary diredtion to the courfe
of the river, they may give way and open a little at the
point of contadl, and immediately <hut again, doling
the angle. The falmon, therefore, coming up into the
rivers, are admitted into thefe grates, which open, and
fuffer them to pafs through, but Ihut again, and pre¬
vent their return. The falmon is alfo caught with a
fpear, which they dart into him when they fee him
fwimming near the furface of the water. It is cufto-
mary likewife to catch them with a candle and lan-
thorn, or wifp of ftraw fet on fire ; for the filh natu¬
rally following the light, are ftruck with the fpear, or
taken in a net fpread for that purpofe, mid lifted with
a fudden jerk from the bottom.
“ The capture of falmon in the Tweed, about the
month of July (fays Mr Pennantf) is prodigious. In f Brlt.Zotl.
a good filhery, often a boat-load, and fometimes near1U'
two, are taken in a tide: fome few years ago there were
L 1 above
FIS [ 266 1 FIS
Fifhery. above 700 fifh taken at one havd, but from 50 to 100
    is very frequent. The coopers in Berwick then begin
to fait both falmon and gilfes in pipes and other large
veffels, and afterwards barrel them to fend abroad, ha¬
ving then far more than the London markets can take
oif their hands.
“ Mod of the falmon taken before April, or to the
fetting in of the warm weather, is fent freih to Lon¬
don in balkets; unlefs now and then the vefiel is dis¬
appointed by contrary winds of failing immediately; in
which cafe the fifh is brought aihore again to the coop¬
ers offices, and boiled, pickled, and kitted, and fent to
the London markets by the fame ffiip, and freffi fal¬
mon put in the baikets in lieu of the dale ones. At
the beginning of the feafon, when a (hip is on the
point of failing, a frefli clean falmon will fell from a
Ihilling to eighteen pence a pound; and mod of the
time that this part of the trade is carried on, the prices
are from five to nine (hillings per done; the value rifing
and falling according to the plenty of fi(h, or the pro-
fpeft of a fair or foul wind. Some fiffi are fent in this
manner to London the latter end of September, when
the weather grows cool; but then the fiffi are full of
large roes, grow very thin-bellied, and are not etteem-
ed either palatable or wholefome.
“ The feafon for filhing in the Tweed begins No¬
vember 30th, but the fiffiermen work very little till af¬
ter Chridmas : it ends on Michaelmas-day; yet the
corporation of Berwick (who are confervators of the
river) indulge the fiffiermen with a fortnight pad that
time, on account of the change of the dyle.
“ There are on the river 41 confiderable fiffieries,
extending upwards, about 14 miles from the mouth,
(the others above being of no great value), which are
rented for near 5400 1. per annum : the expence at¬
tending the fervants wages,, nets, boats, &c. amount
to 5000 L. more ; which together makes up the fum
10,40c 1. Now, in confequence, the produce mud
defray all, and no lefs than 20 times that fum of fiffi
will edeftit; fo that 208,000 falmon mud be caught
there one year with another.
“ Scotland poffefles great numbers of fine fiffieries
on both fides of that kingdom. The Scotch in early
times had mod fevere laws againd the killing of this
fiffi ; for the third offence was made capital, by a law
of James IV. Before that, the offender had power to
redeem his life. They were thought in the time of
Henry VI. a prefent worthy of a crowned head: for
in that reign the queen of Scotland fent to the duchefs
of Clarence 10 cades of failed falmon; which Henry
direfted to pafs duty-free. The falmon are cured in
the fame manner as at Berwick, and a great quantity
is fent to London in the fpring ; but after that time,
the adventurers began to barrel and export them to fo¬
reign countries: but we believe that commerce is far
lefs lucrative than it was in former times, partly owing
to the great increafe of the Newfoundland fiffiery, and
partly to the general relaxation of the difeipline of ab-
liinence'in the Romiffi church.
“ Ireland (particularly the north) abounds with this
fiffi : the mod confiderable fiffiery is at Cranna, on the
river Baa, about a mile and an half from Coleraine.
When I made the tour of that hofpitable kingdom in
1754, it was rented by a neighbouring gentleman for
L. 620 a-year ; who affured me, that the tenant, his
predeceffor, gave L. 1600 per annum, and was a much FHhery.
greater gainer by the bargain, for the reafons before-
mentioned, and on account of the number of poachers
who deftroy the fiffi in the fence-months.
“ The mouth of this river faces the north ; and is
finely fituated to receive the fiffi that roam along the
coaft in fearch of an inlet into fome freffi water, as
they do all along that end of the kingdom which op-
pofes itfelf to the northern ocean. We have feen near
Ballicaftle, nets placed in the fea at the foot of the
promontories that jut into it, which the falmon ftrike
into as they are wandering clofe to ffiore; and numbers-
are taken by that method.
“ In the Ban they fiffi with nets 18 fcore yards -
long, and are continually drawing night and day the
whole feafon, which we think lafts about four months,
two fets of 16 men each alternately relieving one ano¬
ther. The beft drawing is when the tide is coming
in : we were told, that at a fingle draught there were
once 840 fiffi taken.
“ A few miles higher up the river is a wear, where
a confiderable number of fiffi that efcape the nets are
taken. We were lately informed, that, in the year
1760, about 320 tons were taken in the Crana fiffi-
ery.”
Curing Salmon. When the falmon are taken, they
open them along the back, take out the guts and gills,
and cut out the greateft part of the bones, endeavour¬
ing to make the infide as fmooth as poffible: they then
fait the fiffi in large tubs for the purpofe, where they
lie a confiderable time foaking in brine ; and about
October, they are packed clofe up in barrels, and fent
to London, or exported up the Mediterranean. They
have alfo in Scotland a great deal of falmon faked in
the common way, which after foaking in brine a com¬
petent time, is well preffed, and then dried in fmoke :
this is called kipper, and is chiefly made for home con-
fumption ; and if properly cured and prepared* is rec¬
koned very delicious.
Sturgeon f Fishery. The greateft fturgeon-fiffiery * See Au~
is in the mouth of the Volga, on the Cafpian fea; perfr.
where the Mufcovites employ a great number of hands,
and catch them in a kird of inclofure formed by huge
ftakes reprefenting the letter Z repeated feveral times.
Thefe fiffieries are open on the fide next the fea, and
clofe on the other; by which means the fiffi afeending
in its feafon up the rivet, is embarraffed in thefe nar¬
row angular retreats, and fo is eafily killed with a
harping-iron. Sturgeons, when freffi, eat delicioufly;
and in order to make them keep, they are faked or
pickled in large pieces, and put up in cags from 30 to
50 pounds. But the great objedt of this fiffiery is the
roe, of which the Mufcovites are extremely fond, and
of which is mack the cavear, or kavia, fo much efteem-
ed by the Italians. See Cavear.
Tunny-FisHERY. The tunny (a fpecies of Scomber,
which fee), was a fiffi well-known to the ancients, and
made a great article of commerce : And there are ftill
very confiderable tunny-fifberies on the coafts of Sici¬
ly, as well as feveral other parts of the Mediterranean.
The nets are fpread over a large fpace of fea by
means of cables faftened to anchors, and are divided
into feveral compartments. The entrance is always
direfted, according to the feafon, towards that part o£
the fea from which the fifh are known to come. A
man.
F I S
Fifliery. man placed upon the fummit of a rock high above the
  water, gives the fignal of the fifh being arrived ; for he
can difcern from that elevation what paffes under the
waters infinitely better than any perfon nearer the fur-
face. As foon as notice is given that the (hoal of fiih
has penetrated as far as the inner compartment, or the
chamber of death, the paffage is drawn clofe, and the
fiaughter begins.
The undertakers of thefe fi/heries pay an acknow¬
ledgment to the king, or the lord upon whofe land
they fix the main ftay or foot of the tonnara; they
make the beft bargain they can : and, till fuccefs has
crowned their endeavours, obtain this leave for a fmall
confideration ; but the rent is afterwards raifed in pro¬
portion to their capture.
The tunny enters the Mediterranean about the ver¬
nal equinox, travelling in a triangular phalanx, fo as
to cut the waters with its point, and to prefent an ex-
tenfive bafe for the tides and currents to aft againft,
and impel forwards. Thefe fifh repair to the warm
feas of Greece to fpawn, fleering their courfe thither
along the European fhores, but as they return, ap¬
proach the African coaft ; the young fry is placed in
the van of the fquadron as they travel. They come
back from the eafl in May, and abound on the coaft of
Sicily and Calabria about that time. In autumn they
fleer northward, and frequent the neighbourhood of
Amalfi and Naples; but during the whole feafcn
ftragglers are occafionally caught.
When taken in May, the ufual time of their ap¬
pearance in the Calabrian bays, they are full of fpawn,
and their flefh is then efteemed unwholefome, apt to
occafion headachs and vapours ; the milts and roes are
particularly fo at that feafon. To prevent thefe bad
effefts, the natives fry them in oil, and afterwards fait
them. The quantity of this fifh confirmed annually
in the two Sicilies almoft exceeds the bounds of calcu-
tion. From the beginning of May to the end of Oc¬
tober it is eaten frelh, and all the reft of the year it is
in ufe failed. The moft delicate part is the muzzle.
The belly faked was called tarantallum, and accounted
a great delicacy by the Romans ; its prefent name is
Surra. The reft of the body is cut into flices, and
put into tubs.
Turbot-FisHERY. Turbots grow to a large fize,
fome of them weighing from 23 to 30 pounds. They
are taken chiefly off the north coaft of England, and
others off the Dutch coaft. The large turbot (as well
as feveral other kinds of flat fifh) are taken by the hook
and line, for they lie in deep water ; the method of
taking them in weirs or flaked nets being very preca¬
rious. When the fifhermen go out to fifh, each perfon
is provided with three lines, which are coiled on a flat
oblong piece of wicker-work; the hooks being baited,
and placed regularly in the centre of the coil. Each
line is furnifhed with 14 fcore of hooks, at thediftance
of fix feet two inches from each other. The hooks are
faftened to the lines upon fneads of twifted horfe hair
27 inches in length. When fifhing, there are always
three men in each coble, and confequently nine of
thefe lines are faftened together, and ufed as one line,
extending in length near three miles, and furnifhed
with 2520 hooks. An anchor and a buoy are fixed at
the firft end of the line, and one more of each at the
end of each man’s lines; irt all four anchors, which
[ *67 1
F I S
are common perforated ftones, and four buoys made Ih/aefy.
of leather or cork. The line is always laid acrofs the
current. The-tides of flood and ebb continue an equal
time upon our coaft, and, when undifturbed by winds,
run each way about fix hours ; they are fo rapid that
the fifhermen can only fhoot and haul their lines at the
turn of tide, and therefore the lines always remain up¬
on the ground about fix hours ; during which time the
myxine glutinofa of Linnaeus will frequently penetrate
the fifh that are on the hooks, and entirely devour
them, leaving only the fkin and bones. The fame ra¬
pidity of tides prevents their ufing hand-lines; and
therefore two of the people commonly wrap themfelves
in the fail, and fleep while the other keeps a flrift
look-out, for fear of being run down-by fliips, and to
obferve the weather. For ftorms often rife fo fud-
denly, that it is with extreme difficulty they can
fometimes efcape to the fhore, leaving their lines be¬
hind,
Befid^s the coble, the filhermen have alfo a five-men
boat, which is 40 feet long and 15 broad, and 25 tons
burden ; it is fo called, though navigated by fix men
and a boy, becaufe one of the men is commonly hired
to cook, See. and does not fhare in the profits with
the other five. This boat is decked at each end, but
open in the middle, and has two large lug-fails. All our
able fifhermen go in thefe boats to the herring fifhery
at Yarmouth in the latter end of September, and re¬
turn about the middle of November. The boats are
then laid up till the beginning of Lent, at which time
they go off in them to the edge of the Dogger, and
other places, to fifh for turbot, cod, line, ikates, &c.
They always take two cobles on board; and when they
come upon their ground, anchor the boat, throw out
the cobles, and fifh in the fame manner as thofe do
who go from the fhore in a coble ; with this difference
only, that here each man is provided with double the
quantity of lines, and inftead of waiting the return of
the tide in the coble, return to their boat and bait their
other lines ; thus bawling one fet and fhooting ano¬
ther every turn of tide. They commonly run into har¬
bour twice a week to deliver their fifh.
The bell bait is frefh herring cut in pieces of a pro¬
per fize ; the five-men boats are always furnifhed with
nets for taking them. Next to herrings are the leffer
lampreys. The next baits in efteem are fmall haddocks
cut in pieces, fand-worms, and limpets, here called
Jlidders ; and when .none of thefe can be had, they
ufe bullock’s liver. The hooks are two inches and
a half long in the fhank, and near an inch wide be¬
tween the fhank and the point. The line is made of
fmall cording, and is always tanned before it is ufed.
Turbots are extremely delicate in their choice of
baits; for if a piece of herring or haddock has been 12
hours out of the fea, and then ufed as bait, they will
not touch it.
Whale*-FisHEnr. Whales are chiefly caught in the * See A*,
north feas: the largeft fort are found about Green-
land or Spitzbergen. At the firft difeovery of this
country, whales not being ufed to be difturbed, fre¬
quently came into the very bays, and were accordingly
killed almoft clofeto the fhore; fo that the blubber being
cut off was ilnmediately boiled into oil on the fpot. The
fhips in thofe times took in nothing but the pure oil
and the whalebone, and all the bufinefs was executed
LI 2 in
FIS [ 268 T FIS
m the country; by which means a (hip could bring drive as much as poffible to pull back what is given Fifhery.''
home the produft of many more whales than (he can out already, though they always find themfelves ne- — y—"““J
according to the prefent method of conducing this ceffitated to yield at lad to the efforts of the animal,
trade. The fidiery alfo was then fo plentiful, that they to prevent his finking their boat. If he runs out the
were obliged fometimes to fend other (hips to fetch off 200 fathoms of line contained in one boat, that be-
the oil they had made, the quantity being more than longing to another is immediately fadened to the end
the filhing (hips could bring away. But time and of the fird, and To on ; and there have been indances,
change of circumdances have drifted the fituation of where all the rope belonging to the fix boats has been
this trade. The (hips coming in fuch numbers from neceffary, though half that .quantity is feldom requi-
Holland, Denmark, Hamburgh, and other northern red. The whale cannot day long below water, but a-
countries, all intruders upon the Englidr, who were gain comes up to blow ; and being now much fati-
the fird difcoverers of Greenland,- the whales were di- gued and wounded, days longer above water than u-
durbed, and gradually, as other fidi often do, forefa- fual. This gives another boat time to come up with
king the place, were not to be killed fo near the (hore him, and he is again druck with an harpoon. He
as before ; but are now found, and have been fo ever again defcends, but with lefs force than before; and
fince, in the openings and fpace among the ice, where when he comes up again, is generally incapable of
they have deep water, and where they go fometimes a defcending, but fuffers himfelf to be wounded and
great many leagues from the (hore. killed with long lances which the men are provided
The whale-tifirery begins in May, and continues all with for the purpofe. He is known to be near death
June and July ; but whether the fiiips have good or when he fpouts up the water deeply tinged with.
bad fuccefs, they mud come away, and get clear of blood.
the ice, by the end of Augud ; fo that in the month The whale being dead, is lafhed along-fide the (hip..
of September at farthed they may be expe&ed home ; They then lay it on one fide, and put two ropes, one
but a diip that meets with a fortunate and early fidiery at the head, and the other in the place of the tail,,
in May may return in June or July. which, together with the fins, is druck off as foon as
The manner of taking whales at prefent is as fol- he is taken, to keep thefe extremities above water,
lows.—Every (hip is provided with fix boats, to each On the off-fide of the whale are two boats, to receive
of which, belong fix men for rowing the boat, and an the pieces of fat, utenfils, and men, that might other-
harponeer, whofe bufinefs is to drike the whale with wife fall into the water on that fide. Thefe precau-
hls harpoon. Two of thefe boats are kept condantly tions being taken, three or four men with irons at
on the-watch at fome didance from the (hip, fadened their feet to prevent (lipping, get oh the whale, and
to pieces of ice, and are relieved by others every four begin to cut out pieces of about three feet thick and ,
Lours. As foon as a whale is perceived, both the eight long, which are hauled up at the capdane or
boats fet out in purfuit of it, and if either of them can windlefs. When the fat is all got off, they cut off the
come up before the whale finally defcends, which is whiflcers of the upper jaw with an ax. Before they,
known by his throwing up his tail, the harpooner dif- cut, they are all laffied to keep them firm; which alfo
charges his harpoon at him. There is no difficulty in facilitates the cutting, and prevents them from falling
choofing the place vyhere the whale is to be druck, as into the fea: when on board, five or fix of them are.
fome have afferted ; for thefe creatures only come up bundled together, and properly do wed ; and after all
to the furface in order to fpout up the water, or blow, is got off, the carcafe is turned a-drift, and devoured
as the fiffiermen term it, and therefore always keep by the bears, who are very fond of it. In proportion
the foft and vulnerable part of their bodies above wa- as the large pieces of fat are cut off, the red of the:
ter. A late improvement was made in the method of crew are employed in dicing them fmaller, and picking
difcharging the harpoon ; namely, by (hooting it out out all the lean. When this is prepared,, they dow it
of a kind of fwivel or mufquetoon : but it doth not ap- under the deck, where it lies till the fat of all the
pear, that fince this improvement was made, the whales is on board; then cutting it dill fmaller, they
vvhale-fiihing (hips have had better fuccefs than before, put it up in tubs in the hold, cramming them very full
 As foon as the whale is druck, the men fet up one and clofe. Nothing now remains but to fail home-
of their oars in the middle of the boat as a fignal to wards, where the fat is to be boiled and melted down
thofe in the (hip. On perceiving this, the watchman into train-oil.
alarms all the reft with the cry of fall! fall! upon It were in vain to fpeak in this place of the advan-.
which all the other boats are immediately fent out to tages that may be derived to Great Britain from the
the affiftance of thefirft. whale-fidiery. We (hall^ only remark, that the le-
The whale finding himfelf wounded, runs off with gidature, juftly confidering that trade as of great
prodigious violence. Sometimes he defcends perpen- national importance, bellowed upon it at different
dicularly; at others goes off horizontally, at a fmall periods very confiderable encouragements. In par-
depth below the furface. The rope which is faftened ticular, every Britilh veffel of 200 tons or upwards,
to the harpoon is about 200 fathoms long, and pro- bound to the Greenland feas on the whale-fiffiery,
perly coiled up, that it may freely be given out as if found to be duly qualified according to the adt,
there is a demand for it. At firft, the velocity with obtained a licence from the commiffioners of the cu-
which this line runs over the fide of the boat is fo (toms to proceed on fuch voyage: and on the (hip’s
great, that it is wetted to prevent its taking fire : but return, the mafter and mate making oath that they
fn a (hort time the ftrength of the whale begins to fail, proceeded on fuch voyage and no other, and ufed all -
and the fiftiermen, inftead of letting out more rope, their endeavours to take whales, &c. and that all the
a whak-s
FIS r 269 ] F I S
Fiffieiy whale-fins, blubber, oil, &c. imported in their {hip,
H were taken by their crew in thofe feas, there was al-
» 1 ing‘ . lowed 40 s. for every ton according to the admeafurc-
- ment of the (hip.
It was afterwards found, however, that fo great a
bounty was neither neceffary to the fuccefs of the
trader nor expedient with regard to the public. In
1786, therefore, the afts conferring the faid emolu¬
ments being upon the point of expiring, the fubjeft
was brought under the confideration of parliament;
and it was propofed to continue the former meafures,
but with a redu&ion of the bounty from 40s. to 30 s.
In propofing this alteration, it was ftated, “ that the
firms which this country had paid in bounties for the
Greenland fifhery amounted to L. 1,265,461 > that, in
the lail year, we had paid L.94,858 ; and that, from
the consequent dedudtion of the price of the fifh, the
public at prefent paid 60 per cent, upon every cargo.
In the Greenland fifhery there were employed 6000 fea-
men, and thefe feamen coft government L. 13, 10s. per
man per annum, though we were never able to obtain
more than 500 of that number to ferve on board our
(hips of war. Befides, the vaft encouragement given
to the trade had occafioned fuch a glut in the market,
that it was found neceffary to export confiderable
quantities; and thus we paid a large (hare of the pur-
chafe-money for foreign nations, as well as for our own
people, befides fupplying them with the materials of
feveral important manufaftures.” This propofition
was oppofed by feveral members, but was finally car¬
ried ; and the propriety of the meafure became very
foon apparent. At that time (1786) the number of
{hips employed from England in the whale-filhery to
Davis’s Straits and the Greenland feas amounted to
139, befides 15 from Scotland. The propofed altera¬
tion took place the next year (1787) ; and notwith-
fianding the diminution of the bounty, the trade in-
creafed ; the number of {hips employed the fame year
from England amounting to 217, and the next year
(1788)to 222.
Fishgard, or Fisgard, a town of Pembrokefhire,
fituated on a fteep cliff on the fea-lhore, 254 miles
from London, at the influx of the river Gwaine into
the fea, which here forms a fpacious bay. It is govern¬
ed by a mayor, a bailiff, and other officers; and here
veffels may lie fafely in five or fix fathoms water. The
inhabitants have a good trade in herrings, and annual¬
ly cure, between Fifgard and Newport, above too©
barrels of them. The town fends one member to par¬
liament.
FISHING, in general, the art of catching fifh,
whether by means of nets, of fpears, or of the line
and hook.
Fishing in the great, performed by the net, fpear,
or harpoon, for fifh that go in {hoals, has been explain¬
ed in the preceding article. That performed by the
rod, line, and hook, for folitary fifh, is ufually termed
Angling : See that article; and for the particular
manner of angling for the different kinds of fifh, fee
their refpe&ive names, as Dace, Eel, Perch,. &c.
The following were omitted in their order.
• See Cy- 1. The Barbel*, (fo called on account of the bark
frjtius, 2. or beard that is under his chops), though a coarfe fifh,
gives confiderable exercife to the angler’s ingenuity.
They fwim together in great Ihoals, and are at their.
worff in April, at which time they fpawn, but come Fifliing.
foon in feaion : the places whi ther they chiefly refort,  
are fuch as are weedy and gravelly rifing grounds, in
which this fifh is faid to dig and root with his nofe
like a fwine. In the fummer he frequents the ftrongeft,
fwifteft, currents of water; as deep bridges, wears, &c.
and is apt to fettle himfelf amongft the piles, hollow
places, and mofs, or weeds; and will remain there im¬
moveable : but in the winter he retires into deep wa¬
ters, and helps the female to make a hole in the fands
to hide her fpawn in, to hinder its being devoured by
other fifli. He is a very curious and cunning fifh; for
if his baits be not fweet, clean, well fcoured, and
kept in fweet mofs, he will not bite ; but well-ordered
and curioufly kept, he will bite with great eagernefs.
The bell bait for him is the fpawn of a falmon, trout,
or any other fifh ; and if you would have good fport
with him, bait the places where you intend to fifli
with it a night or two before, or with large worms
cut in pieces ; and the earlier in the morning or the
later in the evening that you fifh, the better it will be.
Your rod and line muff be both flrong and long, with
a running plummet on the line ; and let a little bit of
lead be placed a foot or more above the hook, to
keep the bullet from falling on it: fo the worm will
be at the bottom, where they always bite ; and when
the fifh takes the bait, your plummet will lie and not
choke him. By the bending of your rod you maySportf.Ttiai.
know when he bites, as alfo with your hand you will
feel him make a firong fnatch ; then ttrike, and you
will rarely fail, if you play him well; but if you.
manage him not dexteroufly, he will break your line.
The befl time for fifliing is about nine in the morning,
and the moil proper feafon is the latter end of May,
June, July, and the beginning of Auguft.
2. The Bleak is an eager fifh, caught with allf See C -
forts of worms bred on trees or plants ; as alfo with/nW,
flies, pafte, fheep’s blood, &c. They may be angled
for with half a fcore of hooks at once, if they can be
all faftened on : he will alfo in the evening take a na¬
tural or artificial fly. If the day be warm and clear,
there is no fly fo good for him as the fmall fly at the
top of the water, which he will take at any time of
the day, efpecially in the evening: but if the day is .
cold and cloudy, gentles and caddis are the bell; a-
bout two feet under water. No fifh yields better fport
to a young angler than the bleak. It is fo eager, .
that it will leap out of the water for a bait.
There is another way of taking bleak, which is by .
whipping them in a boat, or on a bank-fide in frelh
water in a fummer’s evening, with a hazel top about
five or fix feet long and a line twice the length of the
rod. But the beft method is with a drabble, thus:
Tie eight or ten fmall hooks acrofs a line two incbes •
above one another; the biggeft hook the lowermoft,
(whereby you may fometimes take a better fifh), and
bait them with gentles, flies, or fame fmall red worms,
by which means you may take half a dozen or more
at a time.
3. For the Bream f , obferve the following direc- f See Cy~-
tions, which will alfo be of ufe. in carp-fiffiing.— Pro-/,r'”"> S- -
cure about a quart of large red worms; put them into
frefti mofs well wafhed and dried every three or fourdays, ■
feeding them with fat mould and chopped fennel, and
they will be thoroughly fcoured in about three weeks..
Let
FIS [ 270 ]- FIS
Fiflirnor. Let your lines be filk and hair, bat all filk is the
u—y ke£ . jct f}oats |je eJther fwan-quills or goofe-
quills. Let your plumb be a piece of lead in the fliape
of a pear, with a fmall ring at the little end of it: fa¬
llen the lead to the line, and the line-hook to the lead,
about ten or twelve inches fpace between lead and
hook will be enough; and take care the lead be heavy
enough to fink the float. Having baited your hook
well with a (Iroirg worm, the worm will draw the hook
up and down in the bottom, which will provoke the
bream to bite the more eagerly. It will be bell to
fit up three or four rods and lines in this manner, and
fet them as will be direfted, and this will afford you
much the better fport. Find the exaft depth of the
water if poffible, that your float may fwim on its fur-
face diredtly over the lead ; then provide the following
ground bait: take about a peck of fweet grofs-
ground-malt ; and having boiled it a very little, firain
it hard through a bag, and carry it to the water-fide
where you have founded ; and in the place where you
fuppofe the fifh frequent, there throw in the malt by
handfuls fqueezed hard together, that the ftream may
not feparate it before it comes to the bottom ; and be
fure to throw it in at leaft a yard above the place
where you intend the hook /hall lie, otherwife the
ftream will carry it down too far. Do this about nine
o’clock at night, keeping fomeof the malt in the bag;
and go to the place about three the next morning; but
approach very warily, left you fhould be feen by the
filh ; for it is certain that they have their centinels
watching on the top of the water, while the reft are
feeding below. Having baited your hook fo that the
worm may crawl to and fro, the better to allure the
fifh to bite, call it in at the place where you find
the fifli to flay moft, which is generally in the
broadeft and deepeft part of the river, and fo that
it may reft about the midft of your bait that is on the
Di£l ground. Caft in your fecond line fo that it may reft a
yard above that, and a third about a yard below it.
Let your roads lie on the bank with fame Hones to keep
them down at the great ends; and then withdraw your-
felf, yet not fo far but that you can have your eye up¬
on all the floats: and when you fee one bitten and
carried aw^ay, do not be too hafty to run in, but give
time to the filh to tire himfelf, and then touch him
gently. When you perceive the float fink, creep to
the water-fide, and give it as much line as you can.
If it is a bream or carp, they will run to the other fide;
which ftrike gently, and hold your rod at a bent a little
while; but do not pull, for then you will fpoil all;
but you muft firft tire them before they can be landed,
for they are very fliy. If there are any carps in the
river, it is an even wager that you take one or more of
them: but if there are any pike or perch, they will be
fure to vifit the ground-bait, though they will not touch
it, being drawn thither by the great refort of the fmall
fifli ; and until you remove them, it is in vain to think
of taking the bream or carp. In this cafe, bait one
of your hooks with a fmall bleak, roach, or gudgeon,
about two feet deep from your float, with a little red
worm at the point of your hook ; and if a pike be there,
he will be fure to fnap at it. This fport is good till
nine o’clock in the morning; and, in a gloomy day,
till night : but do not frequent the place too much,
left the fifli grow fliy.
4. The carp *. A perfon who angles for carp muft Filhing.
arm himfelf with abundance of patience, becaufe of.its  v—^
extraordinary fubtilty and policy: they always choofe * See CarP'*
to lie in the deepeft places, either of ponds or rivers,and cyPri'
where there is but a fmall running ftream.
Further, obferve, that they will feldom bite in cold
weather; and you cannot be too early or too late at the
fport in hot weather: and if he bite, you need not fear
his hold ; for he is one of thofe leather-mouthed fifh
that have their teeth in their throat.
Neither muft you forget, in angling for him, to
have a ftrong rod and line; and fince he is fo very wary,
it will be proper to entice him, by baiting the ground
with a coarfe pafte.
He feldom refufes the red worm in March, the cad¬
dis in June, nor the grafliopper in June, April, and
September.
This fifli does not only delight in worms, but alfo
in fweet pafte ; of which there is great variety; the
beft is made of honey and fugar, and ought to be
thrown into the water fome hours before you begin
to angle; neither will fmall pellets thrown into the wa¬
ter two or three days before be worfe for this purpofe,
efpecially if chickens cuts, garbage, or blood mixed
with bran and cow-dung, be alfo thrown in.
But more particularly, as to a pafte very proper for
this ufe, you may make it in the manner following :
Take a fufficient quantity of flour, and mingle it with
veal, cut fmall, making it up with a compound of ho¬
ney ; then pound all together in a mortar till they are
fo tough as to hang upon the hook without waftiing
off. In order toeffedt which the better, mingle whitifh
wool with it; and if you keep it all the year round,
add fome virgin wax and clarified honey.
Again, if you fifli with gentles, anoint them with
honey, and put them on your hook, with a deep fear-
let dipped in the like, which is a good way to deceive
the fifli.
Honey and crumbs of wheat-bread, mixed together,
make alfo a very good pafte.
In taking a carp either in pond or river, if the ang¬
ler intends to add profit to his pleafure, he muft take
a peck of ale-grains, and a good quantity of any blood
to mix with the grains, baiting the ground with it
where he intends to angle. This food will wonder¬
fully attradt the fcale-fifli, as carp, tench, roach, dace,
and bream.
Let him angle in a morning, plumbing his ground,
and angling for carp with a ftrong line: the bait mull
be either pafte or a knotted red worm; and by this
means he will have fport enough.
Defcription of proper Baits for the feveral forts of Fisa
referred to in the annexed Table.
Flies.~] i. Stone-fly, found under hollow ftones at
the fide of rivers, is of a brown colour, with yellow
ftreaks on the back and belly, has large wings, and is
in feafon from April to July. 2. Green drake, found
among ftones by river-fides, has a yellow body ribbed
with green, is long and flender, with ivings like a but¬
terfly, his tail turns on his back, and from May to Mid-
fummer is very good. 3. Oak-fly, found in the body
of an old oak or afli, with its head downwards, is of
a brown colour, and excellent from May to Septem¬
ber. 4. Palmer-fly or worm, found on leaves of plants,
is commonly called a caterpillar, and when it comes to
3 a
FIS [ 271 I FIS
Flfh'ng. a fly is excellent for trout. 5. Ant-fly, found in ant-
v"-'' lulls from June to September. 6. The May-fly is to
be found playing at the river-fxde, efpecially againft
rain. 7. The black-fly is to be found upon every
hawthorn after the buds are come off.
Pa/les.Ji 1. Take the blood of iheeps hearts, and
mix it with honey and flour worked to a proper con¬
fidence. 2. Take old cheefe grated, a little butter
fuflicient to work it, and colour it with faft’ron : in
winter ufe rufty bacon inftead of butter. 3. Crumbs of
bread chewed or worked with honey or fugar, moifl-
ened with gum-ivy water. 4. Bread chewed, and
worked in the hand till ft iff.
Worms.'} 1. The earth-bob, found in fandy ground
after ploughing, it is white, with a red head, and big¬
ger than a gentle: another is found in heathy ground,
with a blue head. Keep them in an earthen veffel well
covered, and a fufficient quantity of the mould they
harbour in. They are excellent from April to No¬
vember. 2. Gentles, to be had from putrid flelh : let
them lie in wheat-bran a few days before ufed.
3. Flag-worms, found in the roots of flags; they are
of a pale yellow colour, are longer and thinner than a
gentle, and muft be fcowred like them. 4. Cow-
turd-bob, or clap-bait, found under a cow-turd from
May to Michaelmas ; it is like a gentle, but larger.
Keep it in its native earth like the earth-bob. 5. Cadis
worm, or cod-bait, found under loofe ftones in flial-
low rivers; they are yellow, bigger than a gentle, with
a black or blue head, and are in feafon from April
to July. Keep them in flannel bags. 6. Lob-worm,
found in gardens; it is very large, and has a red head,
a ftreak down the back, and a flat broad tail. 7. Marih-
worms, found in marfliy ground: keep them in mofs
ten days before you ufe them : their colour is a bluifli
red, and are a good bait from March to Michaelmas.
8. Brandling red-worms, or blood-worms found in
rotten dunghill# and tanners bark ; they are fmall red-
worms, very good for all fmall fifh, have fometime# a
yellow tail, and are called tag-tail.
FijhandInft8s.} 1. Minnow. 2.Gudgeon. 3. Roach.
4. Dace. 5. Smelt. 6. Yellow frog. 7. Snail flit.
8. Grafliopper.
FisaiNG-Fly, a bait ufed in angling for divers kinds
of fi(h. See Fishing.
The fly is either natural or artificial.
I. Natural flies are innumerable. The more ufual
for this purpofe are mentioned in the preceding
page.
There are two ways to fifh with natural flies ; ei¬
ther on the furface of the water or a little under¬
neath it.
In angling for chevin, roach, or dace, move not
your natural fly fwiftly, when you fee the fifh make at
it; but rather let it glide freely towards him with the
ftream : but if it be in a ftill and flow water, draw the
fly flowly fidewife by him, which will make him ea¬
gerly puruie.
II. The artificial fly is feldom ufed but in blufter-
ing weather, when the waters are fo troubled by the
winds, that the natural fly cannot be feen, nor reft up¬
on them. Of this artificial fly there are reckoned no
lefs than 12 forts, of which the following are the prin¬
cipal.
I. For March, the dun-fly ; made of dun-wool, and
the feathers of the partridge’s wing ; or the body made
of black wool, and the feathers of a black drake. 2. For
April, the ftone-fly ; the body made of black wool,
dyed yellow under the wings and tail. 3. For the
beginning of May, the ruddy fly ; made of red wool,
and bound about with black filk, with the feathers of
a black capon hanging dangling on his fides next his
tail. 4. For June, the greenifh fly ; the body made of
black wool, with a yellow lift on either fide, the wings
taken off the wings of a buzzard, bound with black
broken hemp. 5,. The moorifh fly, the body made of
dufkifh wool, and the wings of the blackifh mail of a
drake. 6. The tawny fly, good till the middle of
June ; the body made of tawny wool, the wings made
contrary one againft the other, of the whitifh mail of
a white drake. 7. For July, the wafp-fly ; the body
made of black wool, caft about with yellow filk, and
the wings of drakes feathers. 8. The fteel-fly, good
in the middle of July ; the body made with greenifk,
wool, call about with the feathers of a peacock’s tail,
and the wings made of thofe of the buzzard. 9. For
Auguft, the drake-fly; the body made with black
wool caft about with black filk ; his wings of the mail
of a black drake, with a black head.
The beft rules for artificial fly-fifhing are,
1. To fiih in a river fomewhat difturbed with rain
or in a cloudy day, when the waters are moved by a
gentle breeze : the fouth wind is beft ; and if the wind
blow high, yet not fo but that you may conveniently
guard your tackle, the fifti will rife ip plain deeps; but
if the wind be fmall, the beft angling is in fwift ftreams.
2. Keep as far from the water-fide as may be ; fifh
down the ftream with the fun at your back, and touch
not the water with your line. 3. Ever angle in clear
rivers, with a fmall fly and {lender wings; but in mud¬
dy places, ufe a larger. 4. When, after rain, the wa¬
ter becomes brownifh, ufe an orange fly; in a clear
day, a light-coloured fly; a dark fly for dark waters,
&c. 5. Let the line be twice as long as the rod, un-
lefs the river be encumbered with wood. 6. For e-
very fort of fly, have feveral of the fame, differing in
colour, to fuit with the different complexions of feve¬
ral waters and weathers. 7. Have a nimble eye, and
aftive hand, to ftrike prefently with the riling of the
fifh ; or elfe he will be apt to fpue out the hook.
8. Let the fly fall firft into the water, and not the line,
which will fcare the -fifh. 9. In flow rivers, or ftill
places, caft the fly acrofs the river, and let it fink a
little in the water, and draw it gently back with the
current.
Salmon-flies fhould be made with their wings Hand¬
ing one behind the other, whether two or four. This-
fifh delights in the gaudieft colours that can. be ; chief¬
ly in the wings, which muft be long, as well as the-
tail.
Fishing by means of birds, a method peculiar to the
Chinefe, who train certain birds for the purpofe in the
fame manner as falcons are taught to parfue game.
See Ctprinus ; and China, n° 121.
FisaiNG-Floats, are little appendages to the line,,
ferving to keep the hook and bait fufpended at the
proper depth, to difcover when the fifh has hold of
them, &c. Of thefe there are divers kinds; fome
mads
FHhing.
Kfhing.
1=—Y—^
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[ 272 ]
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a „
PC
made of Mufcovy-duck quills, which are the heft for
flow waters ; but for ftrong ftrearns, found cork, with¬
out flaws or holes, bored through with an hot iron,
into which is put a quill of a fit proportion, is prefer¬
able : pare the cork to a pyramidal form, and make it
fmooth
127.
FiSHiNG-Hook, a fmalLinftrument made of fteel-wire,
of a proper form to catch and retain filh.
The filhing hook, in general, ought to be long in
the fhank, fomewhat thick in the circumference, the
point even and ftraight; let the bending be in the
fhank.
7
F I S
Fifliing., For fetting the hook on, ufe ftrong, but fmall filk,
Fiffureg. laying the hair on the infide of your hook ; for if it be
u—v on the outfide, the filk will fret and cut it afunder.
There are feveral fizes of thefe filhing-hooks, fome
big, fome little : and of thefe, fome have peculiar
names ; as, i. Single hooks. 2. Double hooks ; which
have two bendings, one contrary to the other. 3. Snap¬
pers, or gorgers, which are the hooks to whip the ar¬
tificial fly upon, or bait with the natural fly. 4. Spring¬
ers, or fpring hooks ; a kind of double hooks, with a
fpring, which flies open upon being ftruck into any
filh, and fo keep its mouth open.
FisMNG-Line, is either made of hair twilled ; or
filk ; or the Indian grafs. The bell colours are the
fori el, white, and grey ; the two laft for clear waters,
the firft for muddy ones. Nor is the pale watery green
defpifable ; this colour is given artificially, by fteeping
the hair in a liquor made of alum, foot, and the juice
of walnut-leaves, boiled together.
Fishing-Rody a long flender rod or wand, to which
the line is fattened, for angling.—Of thefe there are
feveral forts ; as, 1. A troller, or trolling-rod, which
has a ring at the end of the rod, for the line to go
through when it runs off a reel. 2. A whipper, or
whipping-rod ; a top-rod, that is weak in the middle,
and top heavy, but all flender and fine. 3. A drop¬
per ; which is a ftrong rod and very light. 4. A fnap-
per, or fnap-rod; which is a ftrong pole, peculiarly
ufed for the pike. 5. A bottom-rod ; being the fame
as the dropper, but fomewhat more pliable. 6. A
fniggling or procking ftick ; a forked flick, having a
fliort ftrong line, with a needle, baited with a lobe
worm : this is only for eels in their holes.
FisHiNG-Frog, or Angler. See Lofhiws.
Right of Fishing, and property of fifli. It has been
held, that where the lord of the manor hath the foil
on both fides of the river, it is a good evidence that he
hath aright of fiftiing ; and it puts the proof upon him
'y*cob'sLaw who claims Uberam pifcariam: but where a river ebbs
Dia. and flows, and is an arm of the fea, there it is common
to all, and he who claims a privilege to himfelf mutt
prove it; for if the trefpafs is brought for filhing there,
the defendant may juftify, that the place where is hra-
chlum marls, in quo unufquifque fubditus domini regis ha-
bet et habere debet liberam pifcariam. In the Severn the
foil belongs to the owners of the land on each fide ;
and the foil of the river Thames is in the king, but the
fitting is common to all. He who is owner of the foil
.of a private river, hath feparalis pifcaria ; and he that
■hath libera pifcaria, hath a property in the fitt, and
1 273 J
F I T
may bring a pofleflbry a&ion for them ; but communis fake.
pifcaria is like the cafe of all other commons. One
that has a clofe pond in which there are fitt, may call
.them pifees fuos, in an indidlment, &c. but he cannot
-call them Iona & catalla, if they be not in trunks.
There needs no privilege to make a fitt-pond, as there
doth in the cafe of a warren. See Franchise.
FISSURES, in the hiftory of the earth, certain in¬
terruptions, that in an horizontal or parallel manner
divide the feveral ttrata of which the body of our ter-
reftrial globe is compofed.
Fissure of the Bones, in furgery, is when they are
divided either tranfverfely or longitudinally, not quite
through, but cracked after the manner of glafs, by
any external force. See Surgery.
Vol. VII. Parti.
FISTULA, in the ancient mufic, an inllrument of Flftul*
the wind-kind, refembling our flute or flageolet. fl
The principal wind-inftruments of the ancients, were F‘tzfier*
the tibia and the fiftula. But how they were confti- bert' , f
tuted, wherein they differed, or how they were played ’ J
upon, does not appear. All we know is, that the fi¬
ftula was at firft made of reeds, and afterwards of other
matters. Some had holes, fome none; fome again
were Angle pipes ; others a combination of feveral ;
witnefs the fyringa of Pan.
Fistula, in furgery, a deep, narrow, and callous
ulcer, generally arifing from abfeefies.
It differs from afmus, in its being callous, the latter
not. See Surgery.
Fistula, in farriery. See Farriery, Sedt. xxxii.
FISTULARIA or Tobacco-pipe Fish; a ge¬
nus of fifties, belonging to the order of abdominales.
Of this genus Linmeus reckons two fpecies; but we
have a defeription only of one, viz. the tabacaria. It cPI*t*
is deferibed by Mr Catetty, from the only one he ever
faw. It was almoft a foot in length; the fore-part from
the nofe to half-way the body of nearly equal bignefs;
from whence it grew tapering to the tail, which was
forked, and from which grew a flender taper whip,
four inches long, of the confittence of whalebone; the
mouth narrow, from which to the eyes was almoft three
inches. The whole fitt was of a brown colour. They
are fometimes taken on the coafts of Jamaica.
FIT. See Paroxysm.
Dr Cheyne is of opinion that fits of all kinds,'whe¬
ther epileptic, hyfteric, or apopledtic, may be cured
folely by a milk-diet, of about two quarts of cows milk
a-day, without any other medicine.
FITCHES, in huttandry, a fort of pulfe, more ge¬
nerally known by the name of chick-pea. See Cicer.
Fitches are cultivated either for feeding cattle, or
improving the land. They make a wholefome and nou-
ritting food, whether given in the draw or thretted
out. When fown only to improve the foil, they are
ploughed in juft as they begin to bloflbm, by which
means a tough ftiff clay-foil is much enriched.
FITCHET, a name ufed in fome places for the
weafel, called alfo the foumart. See Mustela.
FITCHY, in heraldry, (from the French ffhe, i. e.
fxed); a term applied to a crofs when the lower branch
ends in a ttarp point: and the reafon of it Mackenzie
fuppofes to be, that the primitive Chriftians were Wont
to carry crofles with them wherever they went ; and
when they flopped on their journey at any place, they
fixed thofe portable crofles in the ground for devotion’s
FITZ, makes part of the furname of fome of the na¬
tural fons of the kings of England, as Fits.-roy ; which
is purely French, and fignifies the “ king’s fon.”
FITZHERBERT (Sir Anthony), a very learned
lawyer in the reign of king Henry VIII. was defeended
from an ancient family, and born at Norbury in Der-
byttire. He w’as made one of the judges of the court
of common-pleas in 1523; and diftinguitted himfelf by
many valuable works, as well as by fuch an honouiabie
difeharge of the duties of his office, as made him efteem-
ed an oracle of the law. His writings are, The Grand
Abridgment; The Office and Authority of Jufices of
Peace ; the Office of Sheriffs, Bailiffs of Liberties, Ef-
cheators, Coiflables, Coroners, &c.; Of the Diverfty of
M m Courts ;
V I X
[ 274 ]
F I X
¥?tz-{le* Ciuf/s ; ‘The New Natura Brevium ; Of the Surveying the acidity of the folvent, but may arife from the phlo- Fixed
°f huands; .and The Book of Hufhandry. He died in gifton contained in it. —~v
Fixed Air. 1 S38- . “ F‘xed air is.a1/0 luppofa* to be an acid, by dimi-
y—»< FITZ-STEPHEN (William), a learned monk of niihing the caufticity and promoting the cryftallization
Canterbury, of Norman extraction, but born of icfpec- of fixed alkalies: but this hypothefis does not agree
table parents in the city of London. He lived in the with the effeCts which are produced by the combina-
12th century; and being attached to the fervice of arch- tion of acids with alkalies. By thefe combinations
biihop Becket, was prefent at the time of his murder, neutral falls are produced; but alkalies do not become
In the year 1174, he wrote in Latin, The Life of St neutral by combination with fixed air, being only
Thomas, archh'fhop and martyr; in which, as Becket changed by fuch an union from cauftic and deliquef-
was a native of the metropolis, he introduces a defcrip- cent to mild and cryftallizable alkalies : whence it is
tion of the city of London, with a mifcellaneous de¬
tail of the manners and ufages of the citizens : this is
defervedly confidered as a great curiofity, being the
earlieft profeffed account of London extant. Fitz-Ste-
phen died in 1191.
FIVES, or Vives. See Farrierv, Se£l. xiv. 2.
FIXATION, in chemilhy, the rendering any vo¬
latile fubftance fixed, fo as not to fly off upon being ex-
pofed to a great heat: hence, «
FIXED bodies, are thofe which bear a confiderable
degree of heat without evaporating, or lofitlg any of
their weight. Among the moft fixed bodies are dia¬
monds, gold, &c. See Diamond, Gold, &c.
Fixed, or Fixalle Air, an invifible and permanently
elaftic fluid, fuperior in gravity to the common atmofphe-
ric air and moll other aerial fluids, exceedingly deftruc-
tive to animal life ; produced in great quantities, natu¬
rally from combullible bodies, and artificially by many
chemical procefles. From its apparently acid properties
it has obtained the name of aerial acid, cretaceous acid, and
carbonic acid; from its noxious qualities, it has been
called mephitic air, or mephitic gas; and, from the cir-
cumitance of being produced in vaft quantities during
the combuftion of charcoal, it firft obtained from Van
evident, that the alteration in them produced by fixed
air is not to be attributed to the introdudtion of an
acid.
“ We mult therefore (continues our author) turn our
eyes to the coniideration of fome other principle by
which thefe effe&s may be produced; and this prin-
ple appears to be phlogifton. The phlogifticated al¬
kaline lixivium is perfeftly mild when faturated ; and
by a flight evaporation is reduced to a concrete
cryltalline mafs, which does not deliquefee or imbibe
the leaft moilture from the air, and no longer retains
any alkaline charadter or property. M. Beaume, by an
elegant and ingenious experiment, has proved the pre¬
fence of phlogifton in mild alkalies; and has fliown,
that their power of eryftallizing depends upon their
union with that principle. He heated in a filver veffel
a lixivium of mild alkali, which imparted to the filver a
covering or coating of inflammable matter, by which
its furface was tarnilhed and became black. The lixi¬
vium was feveral times poured out of the filver velfel j
and after the furface of the metal had been freed from
the tarnilh, the lixivium was replaced in it, and again
heated, by which the tarnifh was renewed. This was
repeated till the lixivium no longer communicated any
Helmont the name of gas fylwfire. The term fixed ftain to the filver. The caufticity of the lixivium in-
air has been given from its property of readily lofing creafed in proportion as it imparted its phlogifton to
its elafticity, and fixing itfelf in many bodies, particu- the filver; and at the end of the procefs the alkali be-
lavly thofe of the calcareous kind ; and though fome came perfe&ly cauftic and incapable of cryftallizing.
objected to the propriety of the term, the fluid in “ Thofe inftances, and many others which might be
queftion is fo well known by the name of fixed air, adduced, feem to prove that the change which fixed
that we choofe ftill to retain it. air produces in cauftic alkalies is not effe&ed by acid
The nature and properties of fixed air are explained but phlogiftic matter. It is certain, that the matter
under the article Aerology. It is there confidered communicated to lime by fixed air is the very fame
as an acid, and the reafons for fuppofing it to be which it imparts to alkalies: for it may be transferred,
compofed of phlogifton and dephlogifticated air are fet unchanged, from one of thefe fubftances to another;
forth. In a paper of the Manchefter Tranfa&ions by and when united to either of them, ftill retains the
Mr Delaval on the permanent colours of opaque bodies, fame qualities. Therefore, if phlogifton renders al-
j he confiders the nature of fixed air, and gives an ac- kalies mild, and effedfs their cryftallization, the fame
Mr Dela- count fomewhat different. He denies its acid property, principle alfo precipitates lime, and in like manoer
fixeefri/ ^as keen generally looked upon as fo well afeer- reftores it to its ftate of mild calcareous earth.
© xe ‘*ir-t3;ne(ji “The change of colour produced in vege- “ The experiments and obfervations on which Dr
table juices by the eleftric fpark (fays he), is adduced Black has eftablilhed his comprehenfive and conliftent
as a proof of the acidity of fixed air ; but it has been theory, clearly prove, that lime is precipitated from
already fliown, that this does not arife from acid, but lime-water by fixed air; but his views were not ex-
* See Wro-phlogiftic matter *. The acid quality of fixed air is
matics, alf0 generally inferred from its power of diffolving
® 31, iron. But phlogifton is alfo a folvent of iron. Thus
a confiderable portion of that metal is always diffolved
and held in fblution by the phlogifticated alkaline
lixivium, which confifts of inflammable matter calci¬
ned with fixed alkali. M. Margraaf has ftiown, that
feveral other metals are foluble in this lixivium. Hence
it is evident, that the folubility of iron does not prove
5
tended to an inveftigation of the particular matter or
quality whereby fixed air operates that effe&.
“Lime, which has been precipitated from lime-water,
and reftored to the ftate of a mild calcareous earth, is
again foluble by the addition of a larger proportion of
fixed air ; which has been confidered as an additional
proof of the acidity of the latter. It has alfo been confi¬
dered as an extraordinary circumftance, that two fuch
oppolite effects Ihould be produced by the fame fubftance.
The
Air.
FIX [ 275 ] FIX
The fimplicity obferved by nature In her operations)
however, will not allow us to fuppofe that fixed air is
pofleffed of two different or ,oppofite qualities, by one
of which it precipitates, and by the other it difi'olves.
The precipitation of lime from lime-water, and its re-
folution, are effected by an equable uniform a&ion,
exercifed by one and the fame principle, which is a
conftituent and effential part of fixed air. Such a pre*
cipitation and refolution are not extraordinary or com¬
plex phenomena, as has been thought, but are ana¬
logous to the ordinary and conflant effefts which arife
from chemical affinities. This may be exemplified by
any compound which affumes a concrete and folid con-
fiftence by its union with a given quantity of fluid,
and which by the addition of a larger quantity of the
fame fluid is reduced to a liquid ftate. Thus, when a
due proportion of water is added to iron and vitriolic
acid, a mutual attradfion takes place between thefe
three ingredients, by means of which they are united ;
and, by their combination, a concrete vitriol or metallic
fait is formed. But if a greater quantity of water be
fadded to this concrete fait, as the mutual attra&ion
after this addition fubfifts equably between the vitriolic
fait and the whole mafs of water, the acid and ferru¬
ginous particles are more minutely divided, and diffu-
fed uniformly throughout every part of the water.
Thus the folid concrete fait is refolved, and a vitrio¬
lic liquor is formed, in which the water predominates.
“ Lime flrongly attra&s and unites with inflam¬
mable fubftances, as fulphur, camphor, and refins.
Fixed air has a ftill greater affinity with it; becaufe,
in all the more grofs fubllances, the phlogiflon is allayed
with fait, earth, and other matters: but in fixed air it
exifts in a purer, and confequently a more aftive ftate.
“ As alkalies are rendered mild or cauftic by the
prefence or abfence of the inflammable principle, it
can hardly be doubted that the difference between mild
and calcareous earth and quicklime is alfo occafioned
by a communication or deprivation of the fame prin-
cTle- , . .
“ The origin of fixed air feems to prove its phlo-
giftic nature ; for all bodies which yield it, yield alfo
inflammable matter, but many of them do not yield
any acid. Calcareous fpar, magnefia, and alkaline
falts, fend forth fixed air 5 and all thefe fubftances, by
the lofs of it, are deprived of their inflammable con¬
tents. Diamonds, expofed to the focus of a burning
glafs under a receiver, impart to the air contained in
it a power of precipitating lime from lime-water when
it is agitated with it : But it does not appear that any
acid can be derived from thefe bodies.
“ Some of the properties of fixed air are confiftent
with either the charafter of an acid or phlogifton.
Such are, its power of altering the colour of vegetable
juices; its affinity to alkalies, and ready union with
lime ; its power of diffolving iron, which is inftanced
in all acids, and likewife in the phlogifticated alka¬
line lixivium. The antifeptic quality prevails equally
in acids and in inflammable fpirits. Acids are difen-
gaged from fubftances which are decompofed by
ftronger acids; phlogifton is likewife expelled from
bodies which diflblved in acids.
“ The qualities of acid and phlogifton agree in thefe
and feveral other inftances; but fixed air is endowed
with properties which are peculiar to phlogifton : fuch Fixed Air-
as its power of effefting the cryftallization of alkalies » ^
without changing them to neutral falts; its tenden¬
cy to efcape from water ; and its affinity with the air,
by means of which a confiderable quantity of fixed air
is united with and diffufed throughout every part of
the atmofphere.
“ Water, as well as phlogifton, is a conftituent part
of all fubftances which yield fixed air. Both thefe
principles have a ftrong affinity to air. This appears
from the union which air forms with the inflammable
principle when it is difengaged from bodies by com-
buftion, fermentation, putrefaftion, or any other mode
of decompofition ; and from the mutual attraftion of
water and air, which is manifefted by evaporation, and
by the conftant prefence of aqueous particles in the
atmofphere.
“ The laws of chemical analyfis will hardly permit
us to doubt that the air which is obtained from mild
alkalies, calcareous earth, and various other fubftances,
receives from them, when they are decorapofed, the
fame contents which were united in them as conftitu¬
ent parts while they were in their entire ftate; and
their analyfis invariably (hows, that air, water, and
phlogifton, enter their compofition.
“ Hence it feems to follow, that fixed air confifts of
thefe three ingredients, either united in bodies, and
difcharged from them already combined, or that it is
formed in the atmofphere by the concurrence and
union of thefe principles : and the phenomena both of
fixed and phlogifticated air may be folved by the attion
and properties of thefe ingredients.
“ The weight of fixed air indicates that it contains
a confiderable portion of aqueous matter; and it is
by means of this conftituent principle that it is mif-
cible with water, in like manner as ardent fpirits are,
notwithftanding their inflammable nature.
“ Phlogiftic matters are mifcible with water only
in proportion as they contain a quantity of the aque¬
ous principle in their compofition. When the rela¬
tive proportion of this conftituent principle is lefs than
that of the phlogifton combined with fuch matters,
they are either immifcible with water, or mifcible only
in part. Thus, fpirit of wine unites with water in all
proportions. Ether, which is fpirit of wine deprived
of part of its water by means of the vitriolic acid, is '
not mifcible with water in all proportions; but ten
parts of water are requifite to the abfprption of one
part of ether. Oil, which has ftill lefs water in ita
compofition, does not in any degree mix with water.
Refinous fubftances do not combine with water, be¬
caufe their aqueous part is not in fufficient quantity
to ferve as a medium for the union of their phlogifton.
In gums the relative proportion of phlogifton is much
lefs than in refins, and that of the water is much
greater; and, by the intervention of their aqueous
part, gums are readily mifcible with water. Refins,
when united with a due proportion of gum, are by its
mediation alfo rendered foluble in water. But if a
lefs proportion of the gum be joined with the refin,
only a part of the compound refulting from this union
is difpofed to mix with water, and a refiduum is left
which is incapable of being diffolved in any aqueous
liquor.
Mm2
“ Fixed
FIX [ 276 ] FIX
Fixed Air. “ Fixed air feems to referable thofe matters which
d0 not poflefs a fufficient quantity of aqueous matter
to render them totally foluble in water; for after a
given portion of fixed air has been imbibed by water,
a refiduum remains which is incapable of being ab-
forbed by it, and is called phlogijitcated air. This air
may be formed from fixed air, not only by the fub-
tradtion of water, but by the addition of the inflam¬
mable principle ; as when phlogifton is communicated
to fixed air by eledtric fparks, or the vapours difen-
gaged from a mixture of fulphur and iron-filings.
“ The origin of phlogifticated air, (hows that its
difference from fixed air confifts chiefly in the deficien¬
cy of water. Hence, as metals contain no water, the
phlogifton which arifes from them during calcination
produces no fixed but phlogifticated air. But vitriols,
and all other faline matters, cqntaining water as acon-
ftituent part, yield fixed air. Calces of metals alfo,
which have received aqueous matter in the procefs of
their calcination, as white-lead and other calces, which
have abforbed water, together with the air, from
the atmofphere, yield alfo fixed air. The fermenta¬
tion and putrefadtion of animal and vegetable fubftan-
ces is effedted by means of their moifture, and there¬
fore fixed air is produced in thefe proceffes. It is
more effedtually produced by refpiration than by many
other phlogiftic proceffes, in confequence of the copious
ffipply of the aqueous as well as the phl'ogiftic princi¬
ple, which the air receives from the lungs.
“ Fixed air may be formed from vegetable acids;
but when it is thus conftituted, it does not differ from
that which is produced from alkalies, magnefia, and
other fubftances which yield no acid. It is therefore
evident, that in each of thefe inftances it is formed by
the combination of fome principles which are common
to all thofe fubftances. Thefe principles are-water
and phlogifton. In vegetable acids, the phlogifton
combined with the water is equal in quantity to that
which conftitutes the inflammable part of fpirit of
wine ; for radical or concentrated vinegar is totally
inflammable. The acid ftate of vegetable matters is
pot effential to them, nor is it requifite to the produc¬
tion of fixed air from them; for fixed air is producible
from recent plants. Hence it appears, that in their
acid, as-well as in their recent, vinous, or putrefaftive
ftate, they yield fixed air by means of their aqueous
and phlogiftic principles.
“ All fixed air, from whatever fubjedt it may be pro¬
cured, or to whatever bodies it is transferred, confifts
conftantly and invariably of the fame materials, com¬
bined in the fame proportions; otherwife it could not
refto.re lime, cauftic alkalies, &c. to their original mild
flate ; becaufe thefe fubftances cannot be recompofed
but by the fame proportion of their conftituent prin¬
ciples which they contained before their decompofi-
tion. Thus, lime cannot be reftored to the ftate of
mild calcareous earth by water or by pure dephlogif-
ticated air, becaufe each of thefe principles confifts
only of one of the three ingredients which are requi¬
fite for that purpofe. Nor can the recompofition of
calcareous earth be efftdied by phlogifticated air, be-
caule it contains an excefs of phlogifton and a defied!
of water. Compounds formed of fuch ingredients as
do not contain a requifite quantity of the principles
neceffary to conftitute fixed air, may acquire a due Fixed Air.
proportion of them by an addition of the ingredients —v-—'
in which they are deficient. Pure dephlogifticated
air is reduced to fixed air by the communication of a-
queous and phlogiftic vapours difengaged from'bodies
by various proceffes : thefe principles have a great af¬
finity to air, and readily combine with it. Phlogifti¬
cated air, when agitated with water, receives into its
compofition a quantity of aqueous particles fufficient
to ccnftitute it fixed air; and by that means it be¬
comes capable of precipitating lime from lime-water.
If the analyfis arfd recompofition of calcareous earth
be ever fo often repeated, its analyfis will always yield,
and its recompofition will always require, the fame re¬
lative quantities of air, water, and phlogifton. Fixed
air therefore feems to confift of thefe three principles
invariably and conftantly combined in the fame pro¬
portions. It has been frequently confidered as a mere
compound of air and phlogifton; but fuch a compound
feems to approach nearer in its nature to phlogifttca-
ted air, as it is deficient in one of the principles which
is effential to fixed air.” 2
On this account of fixed air it may be obferved, obferva-
that notwithftanding all our author’s arguments, tions on this
there is no pofitive proof adduced againft the acidity theory-
of fixed air. It is not certainly knowm whether
mere phlogifton will perfectly neutralize alkalies.
The colouring matter of Pruffian blue indeed will cer¬
tainly do fo : but this is not pure phlogifton, but a
compound of different fubftances; and befides, the al¬
kalies neutralized by it differ very confiderably from
thofe rendered neutral by fixed air. Before we can
attribute the effe&s of fixed air to mere phlogifton,
therefore, it would be neceffary to form out of a cauftic
alkali, by means of pure phlogifton, a fait exactly re-
fembling mild alkali produced by the union of the
fame cauftic fait with fixed air ; fo that it (hall not only
have the fame tafte and other external properties, but
likewife emit fixed air upon the addition of a mineral *
acid. But by no experiment have we yet been able to
effeft this. It is abfolutely neceffary that the inviiible
and unknown fubftance called by Lavoifier the oxyge¬
nous principle, by others the baju of dephlogijlicated or
vital air, ftiould be united to the inflammable matter,
in order to the formation of the fixed air : and as this
bafis is Jikewife found to be neceffary to the formation
of every acid, or at leaft to tbofe of the mineral kind,
we have' equal reafon to call fixed air an acid while it
difplays the properties of one.
That water is an effential ingredient in the compo--
fition of fixed air as well as all other kinds of aerial
vapours, is not to be doubted; but we are by no means
certain whether the difference between fixed and phlo¬
gifticated air confifls in the want of water in the latter.
The fpecific gravity here cannot be any rule for us to
judge of the matter : for inflammable air, the lighteft
of all the kinds hitherto known, cannot be produced
without a certain proportion of water ; and by fome
proceffes filed air may be converted into inflammable
as well as phlogifticated air. 3
The noxious properties of fixed air are well known,
and are too often fatally experienced by the miners, fc<fts 0fthls
who have given it the appellation of the choke-damp, air on a
In-the Mauchefter Tranfaitions, however, we have anPerfon ion£'
accountt0
■
FIX [ 277 ] FIX
Fixed Air. account of one who continued feven days below
w“—v~~ ground, not only expofed to the effedts of this gas,
but without any kind of fudenance ; notwithftand-
ing which, he was taken out alive- When firft
found in the pit, the fides of which had fallen in and
confined him for the time above mentioned, his eyes
were fo fwollen and protruded out of their fockets,
that he bad a (hocking appearance ; for which reafon,
the people tied a handkerchief round his head. While
in this protruded (late, however, he was capable of di-
ftinguifiiing objects; but in a little time his eyes funk
within their fo^kets, and he became quite blind. On
being taken out of the pit, he feemed for fome time to
be in a way of recovery ; but all ^favourable fymptoms
foon vanifhed, and he expired in three days after his
releafe.
During all the time of his confinement he had only
a fpace to breathe in of three yards in length and two
in breadth, in which he lay upon his belly. It com-
' municated indeed with another pit by a paffage 80
yards in length and about eight or ten inches wide; but
as the mouth of the pit into which he defeended was
flopped, and the body of earth through which he had
dug throwm behind him, no circulation of air could
poffibly take place. The truth of this conclufion was
like wife evinced by the date of the air in the other
pit through which the people entered to dig out the
unfortunate fufferer ; for it was there fo foul, that the
candles they carried down with them were immediately
extinguiftiedi In this date of the air which furround-
ed nim, it is remarkable, that the patient, who was
naturally afthmatic, breathed freely, and continued to
do fo till his death: And on this fubjeft Dr Percival
4 makes the following remarks.
GonjetSfures “ As he had been long adhmatic, we may reafon-
c< ncerning ably conclude from his differing fo little, that the
in'whkh'h c<Mnmonty received opinion of the fuJoe at mg nature of
ahls. the mephitis or choke-damp, that it dedroys the ela-
dicity of the air, and occafions a collapdon of the
lungs, is without foundation, notwithflanding all the
refpe£table authorities that may be advanced in fupport
of it. Indeed, from the phenomena which attend the
extinction of life in thofe to whom fuch vapours have
proved mortal, it is evident that the poifon ads
chiefly on the nervous fydem. The vital principle
feems to be arreded and aimod indantaneoufly de-'
droved ; fometimes even without a druggie, and pof-
dbly without any antecedent pain. Pliny the elder
was found, after the fatal eruption of Mount Vefu-
vius, exa&Iy in the podure in which he fell, with the
Symptoms aPPearance °f °ne afletp rather than dead. Some
produced perfons killed by foul air in a cellar at Paris, were
in various found diff as datues, with their eyes open, and in the
perfons podure of digging. M. Beaume relates the hidorv of
who breath-r fa ^ ,
edit. a man 'vho was recovered from apparent death produ¬
ced by, a fimilar caufe, and who afferted that he had
neither felt pain nor oppreffion ; but that at the point
of time when he was lofing his fenfes, he experienced
a delightful kind of delirium. This account receives
fome confirmation from what Dr Heberden fays in his
ledures on poifons, that he had feen an indance in
which the fumes of charcoal brought on the fame kind
of delirium that is produced by henbane and other
intoxicating poifons of the vegetable kind. Abbe Fon¬
tana breathed a certain portion of indammable air, not
only without inconvenience, but with unufual plea- Fixed Air.
fure. He had a facility in dilating the bread, and ne-
ver felt an equally agreeable fenfation even when he
inhaled the pured dephlogidicated air. But he fuffered
greatly in a fubfequent experiment: for having filled
a bladder, containing about 350 cubic inches, with
inflammable air, he began to breathe it boldly after
difeharging the a-.mofpheric air contained in his lungs
by a violent exfpiration. The fird infpiration produced
a great oppreffion; towards the middle of t he fecond, he
was obferved to become very pale, and objeCts appear¬
ed confufed to his eyes : ntvcrthelefs he ventured on a
third ; but his drength now failed, fo that he fell up¬
on his knees, and foon afterwards upon the door. His
refpiration continued to be effeCled with pain and dif¬
ficulty, and he did not perfeftly recover till the fue-
ceeding day. In this indance fome degree of palfy
was probably induced in the nerves of the lungs by the
aClion of concentrated inflammable air conveyed into
the vedcles forcibly emptied of their atmofpheric air
by exfpiration. For, in ordinary refpiration, about 35
inches of air are inhaled and exhaled ; but in a violent
exfpiration, about 60 cubic inches may be difeharged.
In the cafe of the unfortunate collier (Travis), it will
be remembered, that the air was fufficiently falubrious
when he went down into the pit ; that by dagnatioh it
became gradually noxious ; and that his nervous fy¬
dem mud therefore have been progreffively habituated
'to its induence. This is conformable to the obferva-
tions of Dr Prieftley; who found, that if a moufe can
bear the drd {hock of being put into a veffel filled with
artificial gas, or if the gas be increafed by degrees, it
will live a confiderable time in a fituation that would
indantly prove fatal to other mice : and he frequently
noticed, that when a number of mice had been confined
in a given quantity ofinfecled air, a frefh moufe intro¬
duced among them has immediately died in convul-
fions. g
“ It has been found by experiment, -that the fumes Noxious
emitted by aimod every ipecies of burning fuel prove fumes from
fatal to animals, when applied in a fufficiently concen-r'ie <luan'
trated date. I have computed, that 300 tons of coal corifumed^
are every day confumed in the town of Mancheder du-jn ]argC cj.
ring the winter feafon. The fadlitious gas generated ties,
by its confumption mud amount to at lead a third
part of that quantity ; it is probable that the fmoke
ptoceeding from it conditutes another third part; and
both together are capable of occupying a fpace of very
wide extent. Now, if it were not for the difperfion of
thefe vapours by the wind, the precipitation of" them
by rain, and the induence of other caufes, refpirution
could not be carried on in fuch circumdances. And
we may obferve, that frody weather, which is general¬
ly ferene and without wind, proves, extremely op-
preffive, and fometimes even fatal, to adhmatic pati¬
ents, efpecially in great, cities. Indeed the rate of hu¬
man mortality is nearly in proportion to their magni¬
tude and population. It is evident, therefore, that
habit, however it may abate, cannot entirely counter¬
act the baneful efte&s of bad air ; and thofe will feel
its effedts the more ftrongly, in every fituation, whofe
nervous fydems are endowed with more than ordinary
fenfibility. Such perfons I would caution not to in¬
dulge their curiofity in the infpedtion of unwhole-
fcme manufadlures, npr in _vifiting’mines, caverns,-
FIX [2
Fixer! Air. fioves, Kofpitals, or prifons. The late Dr Brown fuf-
v fered very feverely by accompanying two foreigners of
dillinAion into the duke of Bridgewater’s works at
Worlley. It happened that they were the firft who
entered the tunnel on that day. The candles which
they carried with them were obfervcd to burn very
dimly ; but neither the paffengers nor the boatmen
experienced any difficulty in refpiration. After re¬
maining in the coal-pits a confiderable time, they pro¬
ceeded to Warrington, where Dr Brown was attacked
by violent pains, which drifted fuddenly from one
part of his body to another; fmall purple fpots over-
ipread his Ikin ; his throat became tumefied fo as to
render fwallowing difficult; and great proftration of
ilrength, with a low fever, enfued. The doctor was
fubjeft to the anomalous gout; had once a paralytic
complaint of long continuance; and hence we may
conclude that his nervous fyftem was endowed with
peculiar irritability. He was not, however, the only
fufferer ; for one of the foreigners was affected with
fimilar petechias, but attended with little pain or dif-
^ order.”
Tn what Here we may obferve, that our knowledge of the
manner the compofition of fixed air feems to throw' fome light up-
atnn fphere
on the fubjeft in queftion. Dephlogifticated air and
rifled from* pWogifton are univerfally allowed to be the compo-
too great nent parts; and whether we fuppofe, with Mr Dela-
a quantity val, water to be a third ingredient or not, the cafe
cf fixed air. w;]l be the fame ; for by whatever means the re¬
paration of the phlogifton can be effected, the air
will be rendered pure. This is afcertained by fome of Dr
Prieftley’s experiments, particularly thofe related under
the article Aerology, n° 113. where the phlogifton
was plainly feparated by the ele&ric fpark, and the
dephlogifticated air remained in a ftate of purity.
When the atmofphere is contaminated by a mixture of
fixed air, therefore, it may be purified in two very dif¬
ferent ways: one is by the abforption of the gas with¬
out any decompofition, as by lime-water, alkaline falls,
&c. the other, by the feparation of its component
parts, by which a portion of it muft neceffarily be ex¬
changed for a portion of pure refpirable air. It is
probable that nature purfues both thefe methods in
freeing the atmofphere from this noxious gas : but in¬
deed, whatever method (he takes, it is certain that any
large portion of atmofpheric air cannot long be con¬
taminated with this gas, even though feemingly in a
confined fituation. This is evident from fome experi¬
ments, where large quantities of fixed air being poured
out into the atmofphere of a room, entirely vaniffied, fo
that it could not be perceived by the niceft teft, in
half an hour. As we are not yet acquainted with the
adtion of atmofpheric and fixed air upon each other,
when the former is in large proportion, it naturally be¬
comes a matter of fufpicion whether the fixed air has
not a natural tendency to decompofition, and confe-
quently to render the air falutary after it has for a (hort
time rendered it noxious. This is certainly the cafe
when it meets with vegetables ; for many of them are
fupported by every kind of noxious air. In cafes
where many animals are confined together, it is pro¬
bable that their death is not occafioned by the jixedair
produced from their refpiration, but by that which is
called phlogi/licated, or moft probably by the total
deprivation of the vital principle fupplied by the de-
78 ] F 1 . x
phlogifticated kind. The perfpiration of animal bo- Fixed Air,
dies of itfelf fupplies a refource for the abforption of ——v—
pure fixed air; for all animal exhalations are of the
alkaline kind, and therefore are capable of neutralizing
this kind of gas. This is evident from a circumftance
generally unnoticed, but which is obvious to every one
who choofes to give himfelf the trouble of inquiry.
In walking over the walls of rooms with lime and wa¬
ter, which is the firft preparatory operation for paint¬
ing, a violent fmell of volatile alkali is perceptible ; and
there can be no doubt that this proceeds from a de¬
compofition of the neutral fait formed by the union of
the fixed air, produced in refpiration, with the fubtile
phlogiftic and alkaline effluvia which rife in perfpira¬
tion. To this caufe we may in a great meafure a-
feribe the prefervation of the Ruffians, which Dr Per-
cival alfo takes notice of, but aferibes it to an accommo¬
dating quality of the human frame by which it can
fubfift in fo great a variety of circumftances. “ A
Ruffian boor (fays he), in the winter feafon, experiences
all the varieties of air, heat, and cold, without any in¬
convenience. When labouring out of doors, he is ex-
pofed to the intenfity of froft and fnow; when he re¬
tires in the evening to his hut, which confifts only of
one clofe apartment, never ventilated during fix
months, he feeds upon faked fifh or fleffl, and after¬
wards repofes on a greafy mattrafs placed over an oven
in which billets of wood are burned. In thisfituatiom
he is literally ftewed, with his whole family, who live
in a conftant fteam, not offenfive to themfelves, but
fcarcely fupportable by a ftranger. The atmofphere
of a crowded town muft, in many refpefts, referable
the foul ait of a Ruffian cottage; yet thoufands enjoy
in it a confiderable (hare of health.”
On this we muft further obferve, that in certain
cafes the human body requires much more of the vital qUantffy
principle fupplied by dephlogifticated air to fupport of vital air
life than in others. This is particularly the cafe r^quifite
when much motion and exercife are ufed ; fo that the
computations made of the quantity of air confumed ^
by a human creature in a minute, muft be very vague different
and variable. This wras evident in M. Sauffure’s fltuatlons.
journey to the top of mount Blanc, where, befides the
general rarefa&ion of the atmofphere, there was a great
mixture of fixed air, as appeared by the precipitation
of lime-water when expofed to the action of the com¬
mon air. Here, though always fomewhat uneafy, yet
he was comparatively well while he remanied in a '
ftate of inaftion; but felt exceffive trouble on being
obliged to exert his ftrength, infomuch that he
could fcarce accomplilh in four hours and an half, the
experiments which at the foot of the mountain he
would have eafiiy done in three. “ While I remained
perfe&ly ftill (fays he), I experienced but little unea-
finefs, more than a (light oppreffion about the heart;
but on the fmalleft bodily exertion, or when I fixed
my attention upon any objedk for fome moments toge¬
ther, particularly when I preffed my cheft in the a&
of (looping, I was obliged to reft and pant for fome
minutes.”
From this account we muft naturally conclude, that
in cafes where the powers of life and circulation are
ftrong and vigorous, a great quantity of vital principle
is requifite to fupport life; and the fudden deprivation
of any confiderable part of it may occafion death, even
though
FIX [ 279 ] FIX
Fixed Air. though as much ftill remain as would be fufficient to
fupport Ufe in other circumflances. Hence, if a
ftrong and healthy animal is fuddenly plunged into an
atmofphere loaded with mephitic or other noxious va¬
pours, it will very frequently die in a moment; while
the mere circumltance of debility caufes others to bear
Whyfud- the fame fituation with impunity. In thefe circum-
den changesllances a fudden expofure to very pure air might
from noxi. even ke fatal to an animal very long confined in fuch
air a replan 38 18 nox*ous> ju^ as ^re raa>r Put out t0° vi°lcnt
gerous. a hlaft of air. Hence we may uuderftand why con-
fumptive perfons are not recovered, but often made
manifeftly worfe, by being brought into purer air ; and
in all probability the death of Travis was hailened by
his fudden removal into the open atmofphere. His
remaining alive, therefore, for fuch a length of time in
circumftances fo very unfavourable, we are to attri¬
bute in a particular manner to the extreme debility of
the vital powers,by which an exceedingly fmall quantity
of dephlogifticated air was required to fupport them.
We arebefides to take into confideration, that in cer¬
tain cafes the air will impart nouriihment, even to the
bodies of animals as well as vegetables. Under the
article Abstinence, inftances are brought of animal
bodies being augmented in bulk without any nourifh-
ment taken in by the mouth. In fuch cafes we mull
IO conclude, that the nourilhment came from the phlo-
The human giftic particles difperfed through it. It is not im-
1 ody may poffible, therefore, that in fome cafes the human body,
abforb^ou ^7 abfoibing from the atmofphere the phlogiflon
rifhment° which it had jult emitted by refpiration, may purify
from the the air which it had juft before contaminated : and
atmo- thus life might be prolonged in the cafe of Travis, who
fphere. wag not oniy deftitute of air proper for refpiration,
but of food and drink alfo. In cafes of famine, it is
manifeft that there is a great abforption from the at-
nrofphere. Thus a negro who was gibbeted at Charlef-
town, and had nothing given him afterwards, voided a
large quantity of urine every morning ; and in cafes of
lientery and diabetes, the quantity of evacuations
greatly exceeds the nourifhment taken in by the
mouth. On this principle, perhaps, we may account
for that very ftrange phenomenon of animals being
found alive in the heart of folid bodies, where there
could be no pofirbility of any connexion with the ex¬
ternal atmofphere. inftances of thefe are given under
tl the article Animalcuxe, n° 57.
Effefb of We ftiall conclude this part of our fubjeft with fome
fixed air on obfervations made by Mr Henry on the effefts of fix-
vegetation. ed air on vegetation. Experiments on this fubjecl had
been made firft by Ur Prieftley, and afterwards by Dr
Percival, but with very different refults; the former
concluding that fixed air was prejudicial to the growth
of vegetables, and Dr Percival that it was favourable
to it. Mr Henry endeavours to reconcile the diffe¬
rence. He fuppofes Dr Percival’s meaning to be, not
that fixed air, in its pure ftate and ftagnant, was fa¬
vourable to vegetables immerfed in it; but that gra¬
dually applied, and in a continued ftream, while the
plants at the fame time are not confined from the com¬
mon air, do receive from fixed air fuch a proportion
of nouriftiment as is fufficient for their temporary fup¬
port, even when removed from every other means of
being fupplied with food.
Dr Prieftley, in his third volume on Air, acknow¬
ledges the fairnefs and candour with which the experi- t
ments of Dr Percival were related, but fuppofes there '
mull have been fome miftake ; particularly, as the air
was produced by Dr Nooth’s apparatus, he thinks the
quantity could not be fo great as was imagined. In
fupport of this opinion he mentioned a great number
of experiments, in which fixed air was tried in all pro¬
portions, from a ftate of purity to a mixture of one-
third of fixed air with feven-eighths of common air ;
and in all thefe the fixed air was found to be injurious,
and to dellroy the colour of rofe-leaves.
From fome experiments made by Mr Henry himfelf,
the contrary opinion feemed to be eftablilhed. By thefe
it appeared that a ftravvberry plant had not only been
preferved alive, expofed in the middle of Dr Nooth’s
machine to copious ftreams of fixed air, from the 23d
of April to the 14th of May, but that the bloffoms,
which were only budded when put into the machine,
had adlually expanded ; a ftrong proof that the plant
had continued to vegetate. It was ftill alive, but in
a fituation fomewhat drooping ; and happening to be
crulhed on taking it out of the apparatus, it was
thrown away altogether. Two fprigs of mint, with
fome earth loofely adhering to their roots, were fubjec-
ted to a fimilar experiment from the lit to the 12 th of
September ; the one having a continual current of fix¬
ed air applied to it, but the other being left to the
operation of common atmofpherieal air. The roots of
both were cut off on the 7th : that in common air ex¬
hibited fymptoms of decay on the 12th; but the other
continued frelh for more than a week after the other
had been decayed almoft to the top.
On the 1 ith ©f April 1777, the weather being;very
cold and backward, Mr Henry filled the middle part of
Dr Nooth’s machine entirely with fixed air, by firft
filling it with water, inverting it in the fame fluid.
Hopping up the capillary tubes, and then driving out
the water from the veffel by a ftream of fixed air from
an effervefeing mixture. The middle was then imme¬
diately placed in the lower part of the machine, con¬
taining an effervefeing mixture alfo, which had been
working for feveral minutes; and a crimfon polyan¬
thus was introduced into the middle part, and fufpend-
ed by a firing. In palling through the mouth of the
veffel, the petals were compreffed, and one or two re¬
ceived fome damage. A young fprig of mint, with its
root, was introduced the fame day, and into the fame
veffe! ; while a fimilar fprig, as a ftandard, was placed
in a large glafs decanter. The polyanthus began to
droop on the 15th, and was taken out next day ihri-
velled but not difcoloured. The mint, when examined
on the 12th, was apparently more frelh than when firft
put into the veffel with fixed air; the next day two
young Ihoots appeared ftill more vigorous. On the 15th
its appearance was more vivid than that in common
air; but next day it was taken out quite dead. This
fudden change, however, our author fuppofes to have
been owing to the machine having no valve ; and ha¬
ving been violently lhaken, he fufpefted that fome of
the vitriolic acid had been forced up through the tubes ;
for the moifture on the infide of the middle part was
found to be more acid than it Ihould have been by fix¬
ed air alone.
The experiment was repeated on the 26th of April
with a polyanthus plant with its root and flowers,
which.
FIX [ 280 1 FIX
Fixed Aii*. •which, with feveral others, were put into the middle
part of Nooth’s machine. Here it continued till
the roth of May. The effervefcence was frequent¬
ly renewed; for the firft: four days twice, and then
once a-day ; but the difcharge of air was continually
going on. It continued ten days without any figns of
decay; and when taken out of the machine on the 14th
day, though Tome of the older flowers were fading, the
others were as frefh and blooming as when put into
the veffcl; more fo than thofe which had been purcha-
fed on the fame day, and planted in the garden. The
body of the plant was green, fucculent, and undecayed.
The airextinguifhed flame. On trial it was found to be
one-third fixed air ; and during feveral days, the pro¬
portion of fixed air muft; have been larger.
■ But, when confined in veffels of fixed air, or even in
Nooth’s machine, with the upper part and grooved
ftopper put on, plants died fooner than in common air.
12 The air meafured was feven-eighths fixed air.
Phlogifton “ I am informed (fays Mr Henry), that an ingeni-
the food of ous philofopher of Geneva has made fome experiments,
” 1 ’ by which he has proved, not only that phlogifton is
the food of plants, but alfo, to the fatisfaCtion of Dr
Prieltley, that it is in the form of fixed air, in pro¬
per proportion and place, that this pabulum is admini-
Itered. In regard to the animal body, it would furely
be wrong,to fay that nothing was nutritious orfalutary
to it which it could not bear to receive unmixed or un¬
diluted. Why then may we not fuppofe, that though
fixed air, when pure, may be fatal to plants confined
in it, and excluded from communication with the ex¬
ternal air ; yet, when applied in a proper dofe, and to
plants enjoying a free intercourfe with the atmofphere,
it may have a contrary effeft, and ferve to nourilh and
fupport them ? But in Dr Prieftley’s experiments, this
free intercourfe does not appear to have been allowed ;
and herein, I apprehend, confifted the caufe of the dif¬
ference in our refults.
“ At that time the conftitution of fixed air was not
underftood. It is now generally allowed to be form¬
ed by a combination of phlogifton with the pure part
of atmofpheric air. The firft of thefe ingredients has
been proved by Dr Prieftley and others to be favour¬
able to vegetation ; while plants droop and decay when
expofed to the a&ion of the latter. It (hould further
appear from Dr Ingenhoufis’s experiments, that plants
have the power of feparating phlogifton from common
air, applying it to their nurture (a), and throwing out
the pure or dephlogifticated refiduum as excrementiti-
ous. Now allowing, what is highly probable, that
they hare a fimilar power of decompofing fixed air,
and of applying and rejedfing its conttituent parts, our
method of conducing the experiments was not inju¬
rious to the procefs; whereas, when confined in clofe
yeflels, as by Dr Prieftley, the plants would be fuffo-
cated in a manner reverfed to what would happen to an
animal. For as in that cafe, from a want of commu¬
nication with the atmolphere, as neceffary to carry off
the phlogiftic air from the lungs (according to the beau¬
tiful theory of refpiration advanced and fo well fupport-
ed by Dr Pueftley), the animal muftperilh ; fo, in the
other inftaoce, the plant would die if cut off from the air
of the atmofph&re in fuch a manner that the .pure air ex-
N° 127. - . .
creted by its veffels would not be conveyed from it. Fixed Ain
For in thefe circumftances, this fluid, fo falutary to ani- —-J
malbut deftru&ive to vegetable life, muft be aecumula-^ ,
ted in the body of the plant; and its fun&ions being-
thus impeded, death is the neceflary confequence.” ting water
As fixed air is now an article of the materia medica,or other li-
a method of obtaining it readily and in large quantity ^ll0rs m
becomes an objeft of confiderable confequence. Mr with"
Henry, who has proved that fixed air is the proper fixed air.
bafe of ferments, and the immediate caufe of fer¬
mentation f, defcribes an apparatus for impregnating tSee-fer-
wort or other fermentable liquors with it. This appa- mentatton‘
ratus is reprefented Plate CXCIII.
ji A, Fig. 1. reprefents the cafk in which the wort
is to be impregnated; dd, the firings by which the
air-veffel is to be let down.
Fig. 2. DD, The air-veffel, fimilar to the bottom
part of Dr Nooth’s glafi? machine, to be made of glafs
or earthen ware, cc, A glafs-ftopper ground in to fit
the mouth of the veffel, having a number of capillary
tubes running from bottom to top in a diverging di¬
rection, fo as to fpread the air in its paffage through
the liquor.
Fig. 3. The ftopper viewed feparately to /how the
capillary tubes.
The method of ufing this apparatus is obvious from
an infpe&ion of the figure; but at the fame time it
muft be equally evident, that it cannot be applied where
any very large quantity is to be impregnated. Where
great quantities of fixed air are required, we muft alfo
ufe great quantities of fermenting materials ; and it
would be inconvenient in the higheft degree to immerge
thefe in the liquor to be fermented ; not to mention,
that where large quantities of this kind of materials
are mixed, they ought frequently to be ftirred or fhaken,
left they fhould concrete into hard lumps ; while at the
fame time they are often apt to fwell, and would thus
endanger the fpoiling of the liquor altogether. It
muft alfo be remarked, that any liquid receives an
impregnation of fixed air more readily from the
furface than by blowing it through the mafs of li¬
quid. The apparatus reprefented fig. 4. therefore fcems
preferable to that of Mr Henry, as capable of being
extended indefinitely almoit without any additional
trouble. ABGD reprefents a large wooden cafk filled
with materials to the height reprefented by k k.
£ is a large flat cooler for holding the liquor to be im¬
pregnated. This veffel is to be clofely covered, and
may be conveniently made of lead, having a wooden
top, the edges of which are clofely luted all round with
a mixture of falad oil and finely powdered chalk.
fi Reprefents a tin pipe, about an inch in diameter, by
which a communication is made between the cafk and
cooler for the tranfmiffion of the fixed air. ^ Is a
wooden axis pafiing quite through the 'cafk from top
to bottom, and moveable on a centre h, having a ftrong
handle at top, to turn it in order to ftir the mixture.
i i it, Are four crofs blade? fixed into the axis, which,
in confequence of turning the handle, ftir and raife a
great commotion in the liquor contained in the cafk.
m, Is a large hole flopped with a wooden plug, by
which the materials may be put in or taken out ; and
for this laft purpofe a kind of ladle with an upright
ft era
(a) See this further difcuffed under the article Aerology, n° 51, 52.
»
FIX [2
Fixed Stars ftem as M may be made ufe of. I, Is a plug (lopping
I! up a hole in the lid of the cooler E, by which the li-
, ags' quor to be impregnated may be put in, and let out
again by the cock «.
In this apparatus it is evident, that when an effer-
vefcing mixture is put into the cadi, the fixed air mull
pafs through the tube f into the cooler, where it will
be abforbed by the liquor as faft as it is emitted by the
materials; but in order to prevent it from efcaping, all
the jundlures muft be luted carefully with the mixture
of faiad oil and chalk already mentioned, which is both
fufficiently adhefive, and remaining foft for a longtime,
may be inllantaneoufly repaired where it happens to be
broken. When the effervefcence begins to turn lan¬
guid, it may inftantly be quickened by turning the
handle ; but this will difturb the luting at 0 0, which
muft therefore be clapped clofe all round the axis as foon
as the matter is fufficiently ftirred.
Fixed Stars, are fuch as conftantly retain the fame
* See4/?«-pofition and diftance with refpetft to each other* ; by
nomy, which they are contradiftinguilhed from erratic or wan-
11 dering ftars, which are continually drifting their flota¬
tion and diftance.—The fixed ftars are what we pro¬
perly and abfolutely call Jiars: the reft have their pe¬
culiar denominations of planet and comet. See A-
Stronomy, per Index.
FIXITY, or Fixedness, in chemiftry, is in a pe¬
culiar manner ufed for the aftedtion oppofite to volati¬
lity ; i, e. the property whereby bodies bear the action
of the fire, without being diffipated in fumes.
FLACCUS (Caius Valerius), an ancient Latin poet,
of whom we have very imperfedt accounts remaining.
He wrote a poem on the Argonautic expedition ; of
which, however, he did not live tofinilhthe eighth book,
dying at about 30 years of age. John Baptifta Pius,
an Italian poet, completed the eighth book of the Ar-
gonautics; and added two more, from the fourth of
Apollonius; which fupplement was firft added to Al¬
dus’s edition in 1523.
FLAGS, in the army, are fmall banners of diftine-
tion ftuck in the baggage-waggons, to diftinguidi the
baggage of one brigade from another, and of one bat¬
talion from another ; that they may be marfhalled by
the waggon matter general according to the rank of
their brigades, to avoid the confufion that might other-
wife arife.
Flag, in the marine, a certain banner or ftandard,
by which an admiral is diftinguifhed at fea from the
inferior (hips of his fquadron ; alfo the colours by
which one nation is diftinguiffied from another. See
Plate CXCIV.
In the Britiffi navy, flags are either red, white, or
blue ; and are difplayed from the top of the main-maft,
fore-maft, or mizen-maft, according to the rank of the
admiral. When a flag is difplayed from the flag-ftaff
on the main-maft, the officer dillinguifhed thereby is
known to be an admiral; when from the fore-maft, a
vice admiral; and when from the mizen-maft, a rear-
admiral.
The firft flag in Great Britain is the royal ftandard,
which is only to be hoifted when the king or queen are
on hoard the veffel: the fecond is that of the anchor
of hope, which charafterifes the lord high admiral, or
lords commiffioners of the admiralty ; and the third is
the union-flag, in which the croffes of St George and
Vox. VII. Part I.
Si ] FLA
St Andrew are blended. This laft is appropriated to flags
the admiral of the fleet, who is the firft military officer flaf!elIan“
under the lord high admiral.
The next flag after the union is that of the while v
fquadron, at the main-maft head; and the laft, which
charafterifes an admiral, is the blue, at the fame maft-
head.
For a vice-admiral, the firft flag is the red, the fe¬
cond the white, the third the blue, at the flag-ftaff oh'
the fore-maft.
The fame order proceeds with regard to the rear-ad¬
mirals, whofe flags are hoifted on the top of the mizen-
maft : the loweft flag in our navy is accordingly the
blue on the mizen-maft.
To Lower or Strike the Flag, in the marine, is to
pull it down upon the cap, or to take it in, out of
the refpeft, or fubmiffion, due from all (hips or fleets
inferior to thofe any way juftly their fuperiors. To
lower or ftrike the flag in an engagement is a fign of
yielding.
The way of leading a (hip in triumph is to tie th6
flags to the (hroudsj or the gallery, in the hind-part
of the (hip, and let them hang down towards the wa¬
ter, and to tow the veffels by the (tern. Livy relates,
that this was the way the Romans ufed thofe of Car¬
thage.
To Heave out the Flag, is to put out or put abroad
the flag.
To Hang out the White Flag, is to afk quarter ; or
it (hows, when a veffel is arrived on a coaft, that it has
no hoftile intention, but comes to trade, or the like.
The red flag is a fign of defiance, and battle.
Flag is alfo ufed for fedge, a kind of ru(h.
Corn-pLAG. See Gladiolus.
Sweet-fcented Flag. See AcOrus.
pLAG-OJicers, thofe who command the feveral fqua-
drons of a fleet; fuch are the admirals, vice-admirals^
and rear admirals.
The flag-officers m our pay, are the admiral, vice-
admiral, and real admiral, of the white, red, and blue.
See Admiral, Flag, and Fleet.
FLAG'Ship, a (hip commanded by a general or flag-
officer, who has a right to carry a flag, in contradi-
ftinftion to the fecondary veffels under the command
thereof.
FLAG-Slone, a genus of argillaceous earths, of a grey,
yellowilh, or reddifli-white colour; not giving fire
with fteel, nor effervefeing with acids. Its fpecific
gravity is from 2600 to 2780. Sometimes it is found
compaft, and fometimes like the argillaceous grit; in
which cafe its gravity is lefs. Its general ufe is for
flooring houfes, though fometimes it is made ufe of
for covering them. There is alfo a calcareous flag-
ftone found near Woodftock in England. It is of a
yellowiflr-white colour, and moderately hard, contain¬
ing a little iron. Its fpecific gravity is 2585.
FLAGELLANTES, a feft of wild fanatics who
chaftifed and difeiplined themfelves with whips in
public.
The feft of the Flagellantes had its rife in Italy in
the year 1260 ; its author was one Rainier a hermit;
and it was propagated from hence through almoft all
the countries of Europe. It was in all probability no
more than the effeft of an indifereet zeal. A great
number of perfons' of all ages and fexes made procef-
N n fions,
F h A [ 2S2 ] F L A
Higci'an- fions, walking two by two with their Ihoulders bare, whitenefs and the certainty of its (landing, all the ce- Flambeau*
tcS which they whipped till the blood ran down, in order rufs or white lead made with us in common. It is Flambo-
Piake. to obtain mercy from God, and appeafe his indigna- ufed in oil and varnifh painting for all purpofes w'here Head.*
■ "j-'- tion againlt the wickednefs of the age. They were a very clean white is required. The white flake fhould f
then called the devout; and having ellablilhed a fupe- be procured in lumps as it is brought over, and leviga-
rior, he was called the general of the devotion. Though ted by thofe who ufe it; becaufe that which the co--
the primitive Flagellantes were exemplary in point of lourmen fell in a prepared ftate is levigated and mixed
morals, yet they were joined by a turbulent rabble, up with ftarch, and often with wdiite lead, and worfe.
who were infedled with the moft. ridiculous an impi- fopliiftications.
ous opinions; fo that the emperors and pontiffs thought FLAMBEAU, or Flamboy, a luminary madq of*
proper to put an end to this religious phrenfy, by de- feveral thick wicks, covered over with wax, ferving to
daring all devout whipping contrary to the divine law, burn at nights in the ftreets ; as alfo at funeral procef-
and prejudicial to the foul’s eternal interell. fions, illuminations, &c.
However, this fed revived in Germany towards the Flambeaux differ from links, torches, and tapers.—
middle of the next century, and rambling through They are made fquare, fbmetimes of white wax and
many provinces, occafioned great difturbances. They fometimes of yellow. They ufually confifl of four
held, among other things, that flagellation was of wicks or branches near an inch thick, and about three
equal virtue with baptifm and the other facraments; feet long, made of a fort of coarfe hempen yarn half;
that the forgivenefs of all fins was to be obtained by it twilled. They are made with the ladle much as torches
from God without the merits of Jefus Chrifl; that the or tapers are ; viz. by firft pouring the melted wax
old law of Chrifl was foon to be abolifhed, and that a on the top of the feveral fufpended wicks, and letting
new law enjoining the baptifm of blood to be admini- it run down to the bottom. This they repeat twice,
ftered by whipping was to be fubflituted in its place : After each wick has thus got its proper cover of waxr
upon which Clement VII. by an injudicious as well as they lay them to dry; then roll them on a table, and
unrighteous policy, thundered out anathemas againfl fo join four of them together by means of a red-hot-
the Flagellantes, who were burnt by the inquifitors in iron. When joined, they pour on more wax till the
fcveral places ; but they were not eafily extirpated, flambeau is brought to th£ fize required, which is
They appeared .again in Thuringia and Lower Saxony ufually from a pound and half to three pounds. The-
in the 15th century ; and rejected not only the facra- lafl thing is to finifh their form or outfide, which they
ments, but every branch of external worfhip ; and pla- do with a kind of polifhing inflrument of wood by.
ced their only hopes of falvation in faith and flagella- running it along all the angles formed by the union of
tion, to which they added other flrange doftrines con- the branches.
cerning evil fpirits. Their leader Conrad Schmidt and The flambeaux of the ancients were different from. 1
many others were committed to the flames by German ours. They were made of woods dried in furnaces or
inquifitors in and after the year 1414. otherwife. They ufed divers kinds of wood for this.
FLAGEOLET, or Flajeolet, a little flute, ufed purpofe ; the wood mofl ufual was pine. Pliny fays,. .
chiefly by fhepherds and country-people. It is made of that in his time they frequently alfo burnt oak, elm,
box or other hard wood, and fometimes of ivory ; and and hazle. In the feventh book of the zEneid, men-
has fix holes befides that at the bottom, the mouth- tion is made of a flambeau of pine; and Servius on that
piece, and that behind the neck. paffage remarks, that they alfo made them of the cornel-
FLAIL, an inflrument for threfhing corn. It con- tree,
fills of the following parts. 1. The hand-flaff, or piece FLAMBOROUGH-head, in geography, a cape-
held in the threfher’s hand. 2. The fwiple, or that part or promontory on the eaflern coafl of Yprkfhire, five
which flrikes out the corn. 3. The caplins, or flrong miles eafl of Burlington, and 216 from London,
double leathers, made fall to the tops of the hand-llaff E. Long. 20°. N. Lat. 54, 15.—This was the Fleam-
and fwiple. 4. The middle-band, being the leather lurg of the Saxons ; fo called, as fome think, from the-
thong or fifh fkin that ties the caplins together. lights made on it to direft the landing of Ida, who. in
FLAIR, in fea-language. The feamen fay that 547 joined his countrymen in thefe parts with a largei
the work doth flair over, when a fhip being houfed in reinforcement from Germany, and founded the king-
near the water, fo that the work hangs over a .little too dom of Northumberland. In the time of Edward the
much, and thus is let out broader aloft than the due Confefibr, Flamborough was one of the manors of
proportion will allow. Harold, Earl of the Weft Saxons, afterwards king of
FLAKE, in the cod-fifhery, a fort of fcaffold or England. On his death, the Conqueror gave it to-
platform, made of hurdles, and fupported by ftanehions, Hugh Lupus; who, in perpetual alms, beftowed it:
and ufed for drying cod-fifh in Newfoundland. Thefe on the monaftery of Whitby.—The town is on the-
flakes are ufually placed near the fhores of fifhing-harr north fide ; and confiftsiof about 150 fmall houfes, en-.
hours. tirely inhabited by fifhermen; few of whom, as is faid*.
Flake, in gardening, a name given by the florifts die in. their beds, but meet tlteir fate in the element
to a fort of carnations which are of two colours only, they are fo converfant in. The cliffs of the Head are
and have very large flripes, all of them going quite of a tremendous height and amazing grandeur. Beneath
through the leaves. are feveral vaft caverns; fame clofed at the end, others
White Flake, in painting, is lead corroded by means pervious, formed with a natural arch. In fome places
of the preffing of grapes, ora cerufs prepared by the the rocks are infulated, and of a pyramidal figure,
acid of grapes. It is brought here from Italy; and fearing up to avail height. The bafes of moft are
far furpafles, both with regard to the purity of its folid, but in fome pierced through and arched. Tha
colour
FLA [ *h ]
colour of all thefe rocks is white, from the dung of
~ the innumerable flocks of migratory birds, which quite
cover the face of them, filling every little projeftion,
every hole that will give them leave to reft.
FLAME, is a general name for every kind of lu¬
minous vapour, provided the light it emits hath any
confiderable degree of intenfity. The name Jiame, how¬
ever, is moft generally applied to fuch as are of a coni¬
cal figure, like thofe arifing from our common fires;
-without this, they are commonly called luminous vapours,
•or fimply lights.
According to Sir Ifaac Newton, flame is only red-
'hot fmoke, or the vapour of any fubftance raifed from it
by fire, and heated to fuch a degree as to emit light
'copioufly. This definition feems to be the moft accu¬
rate and expreffive of any. It is certain, that bodies
•are capable of emitting flame only in proportion to the
quantity of vapour that rifes from them. Thus wood,
coals, &c. which emit a great quantity of vapour,
flame violently; while lead, tin, ,&c. which emit but a
fmall fume, can fcarce be perceived to flame at all. .
This rule, however, is by no means to be depended
upon in all cafes. Some vapours feem to be in their
own nature uninflammable, and capable of extinguiih-
ing flame;, as thofe of water, the mineral acids, fal-am-
moniac, arfenic, &c. : while others take fire on the
flighteft approach of a flaming fubftance; fuch as ether,
fpirit of wine, &c. Thefe laft mentioned fubftances
alfo exhibit a remarkable phenomenon; namely, that
they cannot be made to flame without the approach of
fome fubftance aftually in flames beforehand. Thus,
fpirit of wine poured on a red-hot iron, though inftant-
ly diffipated in vapour, will not flame ; but if a burn¬
ing candle touches its furface, the whole is fet in a flame
at once. The cafe is other wife with oils, efpecially
thofe of the grofler kind; fot their vapours will readily
be changed into flame by the mere increafe of heat,
without the approach of any flaming fubftance.
There is, however, no kind of vapour, perhaps, that
is incapable of being converted into flame, provided it is
expofed to a fufficient degree of heat. Thus the va¬
pour of water made to pafs through burning coals
produces an exceedingly ftrong and bright flame.—
It is remarkable, that this kind of vapour feems to be
more powerful than almoft any other in abforbing heat,
and detaining it in a latent ftate. Dr Black hath
fhown, that when, any quantity of aqueous vapour is
condenfed, more heat will be feparated from it than
would have been fufficient to heat an equal bulk of iron
fed-hot.—It is moft probably to this property which
all vapours have of abforbing heat, and detaining it in
a latent ftate, that we are to attribute the phenomena
of flame, and alfo the exceeding great elafticity of fteam.
It is certain, that vapours, of water at leaft, have a much
greater power of abforbing and retaining heat, than the
water from which they are raifed. In open veflels,
water cannot be heated more than 212 degfees of
Fahrenheit’s thermometer; but in Papin’s digefter,
where the vapour is forcibly confined, it has been heat*-
ed to 400 of the fame degrees; and, no doubt, might
have be;n heated a great deal more, had the veffels
been ftrong enough to bear the expanfile force of the
fteam. On opening the velfeis, however, the excefs of
heat was found to have redded entirely in the vapour ;
V L A
for the water in the veffel very foon funk down to 212<’,
while the fteam iffued forth with great violence.
From thefe experiments it appears, that the fteam of
water, after it has abforbed as much heat in a latent
ftate as it can contain, continues to abforb, or detain
among its particles, an unlimited quantity of fenfible
heat; and if the fteam could be confined till this quan¬
tity became great enough to be vifible by its emkTxon
of light, there cannot be the leaft ■ doubt that the va-
jk>ur would then be converted into flame.
In what manner the heat is detained among the par¬
ticles of fteam, is perhaps impoffible to be explained ;
but to this heat we muft undoubtedly hfcribe the vio¬
lent expanfive force of fteam of every kind. It feems
probable, that when fmoke is converted into flame, the
latent heat with which the vapour had combined, or
rather that which made an effential part of it, breaks
forth, and adds to the quantity of fenfible heat which
is already prefent. This feems probable, from the
fudden explofion with which all flames break out. If
a vefiel full of oil is fet over the fire, a fmoke or vapour
begins to arife from it; which grows gradually thicker
and thicker; and at laft begins to ftline in fome places
very near the furface of the oil, like an eleftric light,
or fulphur juft kindled. At this time the oil is very
hot, as well as the fteam which iffues from it. But this
laft is continually giving off its fenfible heat into the at*
mofphere ; fo that at the diftance of an inch or two
from the furface of the oil, the heat of the fteam will
not exceed 400 degrees of Fahrenheit, or perhaps may
not be fo much ; but if a burning candle is held in the
fteam for a moment, the whole is immediately con¬
verted into flame, with fomething like an explofion ;
after which, the oil burns quietly until it is all con-
fumed. The flame, as foon as it appears, is not only
much hotter than the fteam from whence it was pro¬
duced, but even than the oil which, lies below it.
Whence, then, has this fudden and great increafe of
heat arifen ? It could not be the fen/ible heat of the va¬
pour, for that was greatly inferior; nor could it be
communicated from the oil, for that could communi¬
cate no more than it had to itfelf. The candle, in¬
deed, would communicate a quantity of heat to the va¬
pour which touched its flame ; but it is impoffible that
this quantity ftiould extend permanently over a furface
perhaps 100 times larger than the flame of the candle,
in fuch a manner as to make every part of that furface
equally hot with the flame of the candle itfelf; for this
would be to fuppofe it to communicate too times more
heat than really was in it. The heat therefore muft
have originally refided in the vapour itfelf: and as, in
the freezing of water,'its latent heat is extricated and
becomes fenfible, and the water thereupon lofes its flui¬
dity ; fo, in the accenfion of vapour, the latent heat
breaks forth with a bright flalh, and the vapour is then
totally decompofed, and converted into foot, allies, or
water, according to the different nature of the fub¬
ftances which produce it, or according to the intenfity
of the heat.—Several other hypothefes have been in¬
vented to folve the phenomena of burning and flaming
bodies ; for an account of which, fee the articles Igni¬
tion, Phlogiston, &c.
Flames are of different colours, according to the fub¬
ftances from which they are produced. Thus, the
N h 2 flame
FLA [ 284 ] FLA
flame of fijlpbur and fpirit of wine is Uue ; the flame
of nitre and zinc, of a bright white ; that of copper, of
a greenifh blue, &c.—Thefe varieties afford an oppor¬
tunity of making a number of agreeable reprefentations
in fire-works, which could not be done if the flame
produced from every different fubftance was of the
fame colour. See Pyrotechnics.
FLAM-EN, in Roman antiquity, the name of an
order of priefts, inflituted by Romulus or Numa j au¬
thors not being agreed on this head.
They were originally only three, viz. the Flamen
Dialis, Flamen Marhalis, and Flamen Quirlnalis. The
Flamen Dialis was facred to Jupiter, and perfon of
the higheft confequence and authority in the ftate.
He difcharged feveral religious duties which properly
t>elonged to the kings, and was honoured with many
eminent privileges beyond all other officers, but was
obliged to obferve feveral fuperftitious reftraints. The
Flamen Martialis was facred to Mars, and was ordain¬
ed to infped the rites of that god. The Flamen
Quirinalis was facred to, and fuperintended thfe rites
of, Quirinus Romulus. The Flamines lafl mentioned,
though of high authority, were much inferior to the
Flamen Dialis. All three were chofen by the people,
and confecrated by the Pontifex Maximus. — In latter
times feveral priefts of the fame order and name were
added to them, but inferior in power. The whole
number at laft amounted to 15 : the three firft of
whom were fenators, and called Flamines majores ; the
other 12, taken from among the people, being deno¬
minated Flamines minores.—Some authors tell us the
Romans had a Flamen for every deity they worfhip-
ped. The greater Flamines wore the robe edged with
purple, like the great magiftrates; had an ivory chair,
and a feat in the fenate. They wore a little band of
thread about their heads, whence their name is faid to
be derived, Sluafi Filamines.—Wife of the Flamen
I>ialis was called Flaminica, and wore a flame colour¬
ed habit, on which waS painted a thunder-bolt, and
above her head-drefs fhe had green oak boughs, to
indicate that fhe belonged to Jupiter the thunderer, to
whom the oak was facred. The Flamines wore^ each
of them a hat or cap called Flammcum or Jlpex.
FLAMINGO, in ornithology. See Phoenicop-
TERUS.
FLAMINIUS, or Flamlninus, (T. Q^) a cele¬
brated Roman raifed to the confulfhip in the year of
Rome 554, though under the age of 30 He was trained
in the art of war againft Hannibal ; and he fhowed himfelf
capable in every refpect to difcharge with honour the
great office with which he was entrufted. He was fent
at the head of (he Roman troops againft Philip king of
Macedonia, and in his expedition he met with uncom¬
mon fuccefs. The Greeks gradually declared themfelves
his firmeft fupporters; and he totally defeated Philip on
the confines of Epirus, and made all Locris, Phocis,
and Theffaly, tributary to the Roman power. He
granted peace to the conquered monarch, and proclaim¬
ed all Greece free and independent at the Illhmian
games. i'his celebrated aftion procured the name of
Patrons of Greece to the Romans, and infenfibly paved
their way to univerfal dominion. Flaminius behaved
amonjr them with the greateft policy ; by his ready
compliance to their national cuiloms and prejudices, he
gained uncommon popularity, and received the name of
father and deliverer of Greece. He was afterwards Flajnniius
fent ambaffador to king Prufias, who had given refuge II
to Hannibal; and there his prudence and artifice haftened
out of the world a man who had long been the terror v
of the Romans. Flaminius was found dead in his bed,
after a life fpent in the greatefl glory, in which he had
imitated with,fuccefs the virtues of his model Scipio.
Flaminius, or FlaminiF, (Mark Anthony), one
of the heft Latin poets in the 16th century, of Imo-
la in Italy, fon and grandfon of very learned men.
The pope had chofen him fecretary to the council in
*545 5 t*111 he refufed that employment, becaufe, fa¬
vouring the new opinions, he would not employ his
pen in an affembly where he knew |hefe opinions were
to be condemned.— He paraphrafed 30 of the pfalmsin
Latin verfe, and alfo wrote notes on the pfalms; and
fome letters and poems which are efteemed. He died
at Rome in 1550.
FLAMSTED, a town of Hertfordlhire in Eng¬
land, 5 miles from St Alban’s and Dunftable, Hands on
the river Verlam, and was of old called Verlamftede.
The- land hereabouts is a clay. fo thickly mixed with
flints, that, after a fhower, nothing appears but a heap
of (tones; and yet it bears very good corn even in dry
fummers. This fertility is imputed to a warmth in
the flint, which preferves it from cold in the winter ;
and to its clolenefs, which keeps it from the fcorching
rays of the fun in the fummer. Edward VI. when an
infant, was brought hither for his health ; and, it is
faid, the bedftead he lay on, which is curioufly wrought,
is Hill preferved in the manor houfe juft by.
ELAMSTEED (John), an eminent Englifh aftro-
nomer in the 13th century, born at Derby in 1646.
He had early read a great deal of civil and ecclefiafti-
cal hiftory; but happening to fee John de Sacrobofco’s
book de Sphtera, this gave him a turn for aftronomy,
which ftudy he afterwards profecuted with great vi¬
gour. His father,, finding him in correfpondence with
feveral learned men, advifed him to go to London,
that he might be perfonally acquainted with them. In
1674, he wrote an ephemeris, in which he (bowed the
falfity of aftrology ; and gave a table of the moon’s
riling and fetting, carefully calculated, together with
the eclipfes and appulfes of the moon and planets to
fixed ftars. This fell into the hands of Sir Jonas More;
for whom, at hisrequeft, he made a table of the moon’s
true fouthings. In 1674, Jonas having informed
him, that a true account of the tides would be highly
acceptable to his majefty, he compofed a fmall ephe¬
meris for the king’s ufe : and when Sir Jonas (bowed
the king and duke of York our author’s telefcopes and
micrometer, and recommended him ftrongly, he pro¬
cured him a warrant to be king’s aftronomer, with the
falary of L. 10c per annum; on which occaljon he
was ordained. In 1675, ^ foundation of the royal
obfervatory at Greenwich was laid, and during the
building he lodged at Greenwich ; his quadrant and
telefcopes being kept in the queen’s houfe there. His
Doctrine of the Sphere was publiftted in 1681, in a
pofthumous work of Sir Jonas More, intitled, A new
Syjlem of the Mathematics. In 1684, he was prefent-
ed to the living of Burftow in Surry, which he enjoy¬
ed till he died in 1719. His Hijloria caleflis Britanni-
ca was publifhed at London in 1725, in 3 vols. Mr
Flamfteed likewife compofed the Britilh Catalogue of
the ■? f
FLA [ 285 ] FLA
Flanders, the fixed flars, which contains twice the number that the coorp, the air of which was at 450 of Fahrenheit,
llanel. are jn the catalogue of Hevelius ; to each of which he At the end of this fpace they were weighed, and then '
w-y annexed its longitude, latitude, right afcenfion, anddi- removed into a damp cellar, and placed on a table in
fiance from the pole, together with the variation of the middle of the vault, where the air was at the tem-
right afcenfion and declination, while the longitude in- perature of 450, and which by the hygrometer feemed
creafes a degree. This catalogue, together with moft to be fully faturated with moifiure. In this lituation
of his obfervations, were printed on a tine paper and they were fuffered to remain three days and three
charafter, at the expence of the late prince George of nights; the vault being all the time hung round with
Denmark. wet linen cloths, to render the air as completely damp
FLANDERS, a province of the Netherlands, as poflible. At the end of three days they were weigh-
bounded by the German fea and the United Provin- ed, and the weights at the different times were found
n the north, by the province of Brabant on the as in the following table.
eaft, by Hainault and Artois on the fouth, and by
another part of Artois and the German fea on the
well; being about 60 miles long, and 50 broad, and
divided between the Auftrians, the French, and the Sheeps wool
Dutch. Beaver’s fur
Flanders is a perfe<ftly champaign country, with not The fur of a Ruffian hare
a rifing ground or hill in it, and watered with many Eeder down
Weight af
ter .being
dried in th
Weight af- Weight af-
■ - coming ter remairi-
of the ing 7 2h. iit
cold r<
Silk
Lint
~ Raw fingle thread
l Ravellings of white 7
taffety 5
C Fine lint
1084
1072
1065
1067
X057
i°54
1046
1044
i°43
tooo
1163
II2J
I I 15
HO/
IIOJ,
I089
IOOO
fine rivers and canals. Its chief commodities are fine
lace, linen, and tapeftry.
In this country fome important arts were invent¬
ed and improved. Weaving in general was greatly
improved, and that of figures of all forts in linen
were invented ; alio the art of dyeing cloths and fluffs,
and of oil-colours; the curing of herrings, &c. The ma- Cotton wool
nufadures of this country are not now in the flourifhing Ravellings of filver lace
ftate they were formerly ; yet filk, cotton, and wool- On thefe experiments our author obferves, that*though
len Huffs, brocades, cambists, tapeftry, lace, and linen, linen, from the apparent eafe with which it receives
are ftill manufadured here in great quantities. This dampnefs from the atmofphere, feems to have a much,
province had counts of its own from the ninth century greater attradion for water than any other ; yet it
to the year 1369, when it went by marriage to the would appear from what is related above, that thofe
dukes of Burgundy; and afterwards from them, by bodies which receive water in its unelaftic form with
marriage alfo, to the houfe of Auftria. France, in 1667, the greateft eafe, or are moft cafily wet, are not thofe
feized the fouthern part; and the States-General ob- which in all cafes attrad the moifture of the atmo-
tained the northern, partly by the treaty of Munfter, fphere with the greateft avidity. “ Perhaps (fays he),
and partly by the barrier-treaty of 4715. the apparent dampnefs of linen to the touch, arifes
For a more particular hiftory of Flanders, with a more from the eafe with which that fubftance parts
continuation down to the prefent times, fee the article with the water it contains, than from the quantity of
Netherlands. . . , water it adually holds : in the fame manner as a body
FLANEL, or Flannel, a kind of flight, loofe, appears hot to the touch, in confequence of its parting
woollen Huff, compofed of a woof and warp, and wove freely with its heat; while another body, which is real-
on a loom with two treddles, after the manner of bays. iy at the fame temperature, but which with-hoids its heat
Dr Black affigns as a reafon why flanel and other with greater obftinacy, affeds the fenfe of feeling much
fubftances of the kind keep our bodies warm, that they lefs violently. It iswell known that woollen clothes, fuch.
compofe arare and fpongymafs, the fibres of which touch as Hands, &c. worn next the fkin, greatly promote infen-
each other fo flightly, that the heat moves (lowly thro’ fible perfpiration. May not this arife principally from
the interftices, which being filled only with air, and the ftrong attradion which fubfifts between wool and
that in a ftagnant ftate, give little affiftance in conduc- the watery vapour which is continually iffuing from the
ting the heat. Sir Benjamin Thomfon has inquired human body ? That it does not depend entirely on the
farther into the matter, and finds that there is a rela- warmth of that covering, is clear ; for the fame degree
tion betwixt the power which the fubftances ufually of warmth produced by wearing more clothing of a
worn as clothing have of abforbing moifture, and that different kind, does not produce the fame effed. The
of keeping our bodies warm. Having provided a quan- perfpiration of the human body being abforbed by a co-
tity of each of thefe fubftances mentioned below, he vering of flanel, it is immediately diftributed through
expofed them, fpread out upon clean China plates, for the whole thicknefs of that fubftance, and by that
the fpace of 24 hours, to the warm and dry air of a means expofed, by a very large furface, to be carried off
room which had been heated by a German flove forfe- by the atmofphere ; and thelofs of this watery vapour,
wral months, and during the laft fix hours had raifed which the flanel fuftains on the one fide by evaporation,
the thermometer to 83° of Fahrenheit; after which he being immediately reftored from the other, in confe-
weighed equal quantities of the different fubftances with quence of the ftrong attra&ion between the fl-anel and
a very accurate balance. They were then fpread out this vapour, the pores of the fkin are difincumbered,
upon a China plate, and removed into a very large un- and they are continually furrounded by a dry and falu-
iahabited room upon the fecond floor, where they were brious atmofphere.”
- <xpofcd 48 hours upou a table placed ia the middle of Our author expreffes his furprife, that the cuftom of
wearing
FLA
Fkuik wearing fianel next the Hein fliould not have prevailed
J] more univerfalljr. He is confident it would prevent a
Flatman. _ number of difeafes ; and he thinks there is no greater
. v ' luxury than the comfortable fenfation which arifes from
wearing it, efpecially after one is a little accuftomed to
** it. “It is a miftaken notion.(fays he), that it is too
warm a clothing for fummer. I have worn it in
the hotteft climates, and at all feafons of the year ;
and never found the leaft inconvenience from it. It
is the warm bath of a perfpiration confined by a linen
fhirt, wet with fweat, which renders the fummer heats
of fouthern climates fo infupportable ; but flanel pro¬
motes perfpiration, and favours its evaporation ; and
evaporation, as is well known, produces pofitive cold.
It has been obferved that new flanel, after fome time
■wearing, acquires the property of fliining in the dark,
but lofes it on being wafhed. Philof.Tranf- n^Sj. $ 7.
FLANK, or Flanc, in the manege, is applied to
the fides of a horfe’s buttocks, &c.. In a firidt
fenfe, the flanks of a horfe are the extremes of the
belly, where the ribs are wanting, and are below the
loins.
The flanks of a horfe (houtd be full, and at the top
of each a feather. The diftance between the laft rib
, and haunch-bone, Ewhich is properly the flank, Ihould
be ihort, which they term well coupled, fuch horfes be¬
ing molt hardy, and fit to endure labour.
A horfe is faid to have no Hank if the laft of the
fhort ribs be at a confiderable diltance from the haunch-
bone ; as alfo when his ribs are too much ftraightened
in their compafs.
Flank, in war, is ufed by way of analogy for the
fide of a battalion, army, &c. in contradillinciion to
the front and rear.
To attack the enemy in flank, is to difcover and fire up-
< on them on one fide. See File.
Flank, in fortification, is a line drawn from the
: extremity of the face towards the infide of the work.
Or, flank is that part of a ballion which reaches
from the curtain to the face, and defends the oppofite
face, the flank, and the curtain. See Fortification.
FLAT, in fea-language, denotes a level ground ly¬
ing at a fmall depth under the furface of the fea, and
is alfo called a Jhoal or Jhalloyo.
Flat-bottomed Boats are fuch as are made to fwim in
fhallow water, and to carry a great number of troops,
aitillery, ammunition, &c. They are conllrufted with a
12 poUnder, bow- chafe, and an 18 pounder, Item-chafe;
their keel is from 90 to 100 feet, and from 12 to 24
feet beam: they have one matt, a large fquare main
fail, and a jib-fail; are rowed by 18 or 20 oars, and
can carry 400 men each. The gun takes up one bow,
and a bridge the other, over which the troops are to
march. Thofe that carry horfes have the fore-part of
the boat made to open when the men are to mount and
ride over a bridge.
FLATMAN (Thomas), an Englilh poet of fome
repute, born at London about the year 1633. He
ftudied at the Inner-Temple, and became a barrifter,
but it does not appear that he ever pradtifed ; for ha¬
ving a turn for the fine arts, he gave a loofe to his in¬
clination that way, and acquired reputation, both as
a poet and a painter. He publiflied, in 1682, a
third edition of his poems and fongs, dedicated to
the duke of Ormond, with a print of himfelf as a
FLA
frontifpiece : he' alfo publifhed a fatirical romance in Flat*
profe, on Richard Cromwell, foon after the reftoration; fl
which took greatly at that turn of affairs. He died Fiax-
about 1688. —-v—
FLATS, in mufic. See Interval.
FLATUS, flatulence, in medicine; vapours ge¬
nerated in the ftomach and inteftines, chiefly occafion-
ed by a weaknefs of thefe parts. Theyoccation diften-
fions,. uneafy fenfation, and ficknefs, and often a con-~
fiderable degree of pain. See (the /«hbc fubjoined to)
Medicine.
FLAVEL (John), an eminent nonconformift mi-
nifter, was educated at Univerfity-college, in Oxford ;
and became miniiter of Deptfoyd, and afterwards of
Dartmouth in Devonfhire, where he refided the great-
eft part of his life, and was admired for his preaching.
Though he was generally refpected at Dartmouth
yet, in 1685, feveral of the aldermen of that town, at¬
tended by the rabble, carried about a ridiculous effigy
of him, to which were affixed the Bill of Exclufion
and the Covenant. Upon this occafion, he thought
it prudent to withdraw from the town ; not knowing
what treatment he might meet with from a riotous
mob, headed by magiftrates who were themfelves
among the loweft of mankind. Part of his Diary,
printed with his Remains, mutt give the reader a high
idea of his piety. He died in 1691, aged 61; and af¬
ter his death, his works, which confitted of many pie¬
ces of pra&ical divinity, were printed in two volumes
folio. Among thefe, the moft famous are his “ Navi¬
gation Spiritualized, or a New Compafs for Seamen,
confifting of 32 points of pleafant obfervations and fe-
rious refle&ions,” of which there have been feveral
editions in 8vo; and his “ Hufbandry Spiritualized,
&c. with occafional meditations upon beafts, birds,
trees, flowers, rivers, and feveral other objects,” of
which alfo there have been many editions in oftavo.
FLAX, in botany. See LinuSi.
The following particulars with regard to the manner
of railing flax, has been for fome years paft warmly re¬
commended by the truftees for fifheries, manufaftures,
and improvements in Scotland.,
Of the choice of the Soil, and preparing the Ground for
Flax. Afkilful flax-raifer always prefers a free open
deep loam, and all grounds that produced the preced¬
ing year a good crop of turnip, cabbage, potatoes,
barley, or broad clover; or have been formerly laid
down rich, and kept for fome years in pafture.
A clay foil, the fecond or third Crop after being-
limed, will anfwer well for flax ; provided, if the
ground be ftill ftiff, that it be brought to a proper
mould, by tilling after harveft, to expofe it to the win¬
ter frafts.
All new grounds produce a ftrongcrop of flax, and
pretty free of weeds. When a great many mole-heaps
appear upon new ground, it anfwers the better for flax
after one tilling.
Flax-feed ought never to be fown on grounds that
are either too wet or dry ; but on fuch as retain a na¬
tural moifture: and fuch grounds as are inclined to
weeds ought to be avoided, unlefs prepared by a careful
fummer-fallow.
If the lint-feed be fown early, and the flax not al¬
lowed to Hand for feed, a crop of turnip may be got
after the flax that very year ; the fecond year a crop-
3 of
[ 286 1
FLA;' [ j37 ]
of bear or barley may be taken ; and tbe third year,
grafs-feeds are fometimes fown along with the hntfeed.
This-is the method moftly practifed in and about the
counties of Lincoln and Somerfet, where great quanti¬
ties of flax and hemp are every year raifed, and-where
thefe crops have long been capital articles. There, old
ploughed grounds are never fown with lintfeed, unlefs
the foil be very rich and clean. A certain worm, called
in Scotland the coup-worm, abounds in new-broke up
grounds, which greatly hurts every crop but flax. In
fmall inclofures furrounded with trees or-high hedges,
the flax, for want of free air, is fubjeft to fall before
it be ripe, and the droppings of rain and dew from
•the trees prevent the flax within the reach of the trees
from growing to any perfection.
Of preceding crops, potatoes and hemp are the heft
-preparation for flax. In the fens of Lincoln, upon
proper ground of old tillage, they fow hemp, dung¬
ing well the firft year; the.fecond year hemp without
dung; the third year, flax without dung; and that fame
year, a crop of turnip eat on the ground by (heep ; the
fourth year, hemp with a large coat of dung; and fo
on for ever.
If the ground be free and open, it fliould be but once
ploughed; and that as lhallow as poffible, not deeper
than z|- inches. It fliould be laid flat, reduced to a fine
garden mould by-much harrowing, and all {tones and
fads fliould be carried off.
Except a little pigeon’s dung for cold or four
ground, no other dung Ihould be ufed preparatory for
flax ; becaufe it produces too many weeds, and throws
up the flax thin and poor upon the ftalk.
Before flowing, the bulky clods ftibuld be broken, or
carried off the ground ; and {tones, quickenings, and
every other thing that may hinder the growth of the
flax, fliould be removed.
Of the choice of Lintfeed. The brighter in colour,
and heavier the feed is, fo much the better; that
which when bruifed appears of a light or yellowifli
green, and frelh in the heart, oily and not dry, and
fmells and taftes fweet, and not fufty, may be depend¬
ed upon.
Dutch feed of the preceding year’s growth, for the
moft part, anfwers heft; but it feldom fucceeds if kept
another year. It ripens fooner than any other foreign
feed. Philadelphia-feed produces fine lint and few
bolls, becaufe fown thick,, and anfwers bell in wet
cold foils. Riga-feed produces coarfer lint, and the
greateft quantity of feed. Scots-feed, when well win-
ned and kept, and changed from one kind of foil to ano¬
ther, fometimes anfwers pretty well; but fliauld be
fown thick, as many of its grains are bad, and fail. It
fprings well, and its flax is fooner ripe than any other;
but its produce afterwards, is generally inferior to that
from foreign feed.
A kind has been lately imported, called memmel-feed;
which lookswell, is {hort and plump, but feldom grows
above eight inches, and on that account ought not to
be fown.
Of Sowing Lintfeed. > The quantity of lintfeed fown
{hould be proportioned to the condition of the foil; for
if the ground be in good heart, and the feed fown
thick, the crgp will be in danger of falling before it is
ready for pulling. From xi to 12 pecks Linlithgow
ineafure oLDutchor Riga feed, is generally fufficient
FLA
for one Scots acre; and about 10 pecks of Philadel¬
phia feed, which, being the fmalleit grained, goes far-
theft. Riga lintfeed, and the next year’s produce of
it, is preferred in Lincolnfliire.
The time for flowing lintfeed is from the middle of
March to the end of April, as the ground and feafon
anfwers; but the earlier the feed is fown, the lefs the
crop interferes with-the corn-harveft.
Late fown lintfeed may grow long, but the flax up¬
on the {talk ,will be thin, and poor..
After flowing, the ground ought to be-harrowed till
the feed is well covered, arff}- then (fluppofing the foil,
as before mentioned,,; to be free and reduced to a fine
mould) it ought to be rolled.
When a farmer flows a large quantity of lintfeed, he
may find it proper, to fow a part earlier and part la¬
ter, that in the future operations of weeding, pulling,
watering, and grading, the work may be the eafier and
more conveniently gone about.
It ought always to be flown on a dry bed.
Of Weeding Flax. It oughtto be weeded when the
crop is about four inches- long. If longer deferred,
the weeders will fo much break and crook, .the {talks,
that they will never perhaps recover their ftraightnefs
again ; and when the flax grows crooked, it is more li¬
able to be hurt in the rippling and fwingling.
Qbicken-grafs {hould not be taken up ; for, being
ftrongly rooted, the pulling of it always loofens a deal
of the lint.
If there is an appearance- of a fettled drought, it is
better, to defer the weeding, than-by that operation to
cxpofe the tender roots of the flax to the drought.
How foon the weeds are got oyt, they ought to be
carried off the field, inftead of being laid in the fur¬
rows, where they often take root again, and at any
rate obfttuft. the growth-of the flax.in the furrows.
Of Pulling FLAXi W hen the crop grows -fo {hort
and branchy, as to appear more valuable-for feed than
flax, it ought not to be pulled before it be thoroughly
ripe ; but if it grows long and not branchy, the feed
{hould be difregarded, and all the attention given to
the flax. In the laft cafe it ought to be pulled after
the bloom has fallen, when the ftalk begins to turn
yellow, and before the. leaves fall, and the bolls turn
hard and {harp-pointed.
When the ftalk is fmall, and carries few bolls, the
flax is fine ; but the ftalk of coarfe flax is grofs, rank,
branchy, and carries many bolls.
When the flax has fallen, and lies; fuch as lies ought
to be immediately pulled, whether.it has grown enough
or not, as otherwife it will rot altogether.
When parts of the fame field grow unequally, fo
that fpme parts are ready for pulling before other
parts ; only what is ready Iho'uld be pulled, and the .
reft fliould he fuffered to ftand till ready.
The flax-raifer ought to be at pains to pull, and
keep by itfelf, each different kind of lint which he finds
in his field ; what is both long-and -fine, by itfelf 5
what is both long and coarfe, by itfelf; what is both
ftiort and fine, by itfelf; what is both ftsort and coarfe,
by itfelf; and in like manner every other kind by it¬
felf that is of the fame.fize and quality. If the diffe¬
rent kinds be not thus kept feparate, the flax muft be
much damaged in the watering and the other fucceed-
ing operations,.'
What
rijn.
FLA [ 288 ] FLA
What is commonly called under growl}} may be he-
gktled as ufelefs.
Few perfons that have feen pulled flax, are ignorant
of the method of laying it in handfuls acrofs each ‘
ther; which gives the flax fufficient air, and keeps the
handfuls feparate and ready for the rippler.
Of Stacking up Flax during the Winter, and Winning
the Seed. If the flax be more valuable than the fe-ed,
it ought by no means to be {lacked up ; for its own
naturaljuice afiifts it greatly in the watering; whereas,
if kept long unwatered, it lofes that juice, and the
harle adheres fo much to the boon, that it requires
longer time to water, and even the quality of the flax
becomes thereby harfher and coarfer. Befides, the flax
flacked up over year, is in great danger from vermin
and other accidents ; the water in fpring is not fo
foft and warm as in harveft ; and near a year is there¬
by loft; of the ufe of the lint: but if the flax be fo ftiort
and branchy as to appear moft valuable for feed, it
ought, after pulling, to be {looked and dried upon the
field, as is done with corn ; then {lacked up for win¬
ter, rippled in fpring; and after {heeling, the feed
fhonld be well cleaned from bad feeds, &c.
Of Rippling Flax. After pulling, if the flax is to
be regarded more than the feed, it ftiould be allowed
to lie fome hours upon the ground to dry a little, and
fo gain fome firmnefs, to prevent the {kin or harle,
which is the flax, from rubbing off in the rippling; an
operation which, ought by no means to be negledted,
as the bolls, if put into the water along with the flax,
breed vermin there, and otherwife fpoil the water. The
bolls alfo prove very inconvenient in the grafting and
breaking.
In Lincolnftiire and Ireland, they think that rip¬
pling hurts the flax ; and therefore, in place of rip¬
pling, they ftrike the bolls againft a ftone.
The handfuls for rippling ftiould not be great, as
that endangers the lint in the rippling comb.
After rippling, the flax-raifer will perceive, that he
is able to aflbrt each fize and quality of the flax by it-
felf more exadlly than he could before.
Of Watering Flax. A running ftream waftes the
lint, makes it white, and frequently carries it away.
Lochs, by the great quantity and motion of the wa¬
ter, alfo wafte and whiten the flax, though not fo much
as running ftreams. Both rivers and lochs water the
flax quicker than canals.
But all flax ought to be watered in canals, which
ftiould be digged in clay ground if pofiible, as that
foil retains the water bell : but if a firm retentive foil
cannot be got, the bottom or fides of the canal, or
both the bottom and fides, may be lined with clay; or
inttead of lining the fides with clay, which might
fkll down, a ditch may be dug without the canal, and
filled with clay, which will prevent both extraneous
water from entering, and the water within from run¬
ning off.
A canal of 40 feet long, fix broad, and four deep,
will generally water the growth of an acre of flax.
It ought to be filled with frefti foft water from a
river or brook, if pofiible two or three weeks before
the flax is put in, and expofed all that time to the heat
of the fun. The greater way the river or brook has
run, the fofter, and therefore the better,'will the water
be. Springs, or fhort-runs from hills, are too cold,
N° 128. 3
unlefs the water is allowed to {land long in the canal.
Water from coal or iron is very bad for flax.- A little
of the powder of galls thrown into a glafs of water,
will immediately difcover if it comes from minerals of
that kind, by turning it into a dark colour, more or
lefs tinged in proportion to the quantity of vitriol it
contains.
The canal ought not to be under {hade; which, be¬
fides keeping the fun from foftening the water, might
make part of the canal cooler than other parts, and fo
water the flax unequally.
The flax-raifer will obferve, when the water is
brought to a proper heat, that fmall plants will be
rifing quickly in it, numbers of fmall infe&s and rep*
tiles will be generating there, and bubbles of air ri¬
fing on the furface. If no fuch figns appear, the
water muft not be warm enough, or is otherwife unfit
for flax.
Mofs-holes, when neither too deep nor too {hallow',
frequently anfwer well for watering flax, when the wa¬
ter is proper, as before defcribed.
The proper feafon for watering flax is from the end
of July to the end of Auguft.
The advantage of watering flax as foon as poffible
after pulling, has been already mentioned.
The flax being forted after rippling,, as before-men¬
tioned, fliould next be put in beets, never larger than
a man can grafp with both his hands, and tied very
flack with a band of a few {talks. Dried ruflies an¬
fwer exceedingly well for binding flax, as they do not
rot in the water, and may be dried and kept for ufe
again.
The beets fliould be put into the canals flope-ways,
or half Handing upon end, the root-end uppermoft.
Upon the crop-ends, when uppermoft, there frequent¬
ly breeds a deal of vermin, deftrudlive of the flax,
which is effectually prevented by putting the crop-end
down moft .
The whole flax in the canal ought to be carefully
covered from the fun with divots ; the graffy fide of
which ftiould be next the flax, to keep it clean. If it
is not thus covered, the fun will difcolour the flax,
though quite covered with water. If the divots are
not weighty enough to keep the flax entirely under wa¬
ter, a few Hones may be laid above them. But the flax
fliould not be preffed to the bottom.
When the flax is fufiiciently watered, it feels foft to
the gripe, and the harle parts eafily with the boon or
Jhow, which laft is then become brittle, and looks whi-
tifli. When thefe figns are found, the flax fliould be
taken out of the water, beet after beet; each gently
rinfed in the water, to cleanfe it of the naftinefs which
has gathered about it in the canal; and as the lint is
then very tender, and the beet Hackly tied, it muft be
carefully and gently handled.
Great care ought to be taken that no part be over¬
done ; and as the coarfeft waters fooneft, if different
kinds be mixed together, a part will be rotted, when
the reft is not fufficiently watered.
When lint taken out of the canal is not found fuffi¬
ciently watered, it may be laid in a heap for 12, 18,
or 24 hours, which will have an effeft like more water¬
ing ; but this operation is nice, and may prove dange¬
rous in unfliilful hands.
After the flax is taken out of the canal; freflr lint
fliould
FLA
Flax, fhouid not be put a fecond time into it, until the former
"~y—water be run off, and the canal cleaned, and fupplied
with frefli water.
Of Graffing Flax. Short heath is the belt field for
graffing flax ; as, when wet, it fallens to the heath,
and is thereby prevented from being blown away by
the wind. The heath alfo keeps it a little above the
-earth, and fo expofes it the more equally to the wea¬
ther. When fuch heath is not to be got, links or
clean old lea-ground is the next beft. Long-grafs
grounds Ihould be avoided, as the grafs growing thro’
the lint frequently fpots, tenders, or rots it ; and
grounds expofed to violent winds Ihould alfo be a-
voided.
The flax, when taken out of the water, mull be
fpread very thin upon the ground ; and being then
-very tender, it mull be gently handled. The thinner
it is fpread the better, as it is then the more equally
expofed to the weather. But it ought never to be
■fpread dining a heavy Ihower, as that would walh and
welle the harle too much, which is then exceffively
tender, but foon after becomes firm enough to bear the
rains, which, with the open air and funlhine, cleans,
foftens, and purifies the harle to the degree wanted, and
makes it bliller from the boon. In Ihort, after the
flax has got a little firmnefs by being a few hours
fpread in dry weather, the more rain and funlhine it
gets the better.
If there be little danger of high winds carrying off
the flax, it will be much the better of being [turned
about once a-week. If it is not to be turned, it ought
to be very thin fpread. The fpreading of flax and
hemp requires a deal of ground, and enriches it
greatly.
FLA
The flvilful flax-raifer fpreads his firll row of flax FI**.
at the end of the field oppofite to the point from’"’"’'V-”
whence the mod violent wind commonly comes, pla¬
cing the root-ends foremoll; he makes the root-ends
of every other row over lap the crop-ends of the former
row three or four inches, and binds down the lad row
with a rope; by which means the wind does not eafiiy
get below the lint to blow it away: and as the crop-
ends are feldom fo fully watered as the root-ends, the
aforefaid overlapping has an effeft like giving the crop-
ends more watering. Experience only can fully teach
a perfon the figns of flax being fufficiently grafled: then
it is of a clearer colour than formerly ; the harle is bli-
flered up, and eafiiy parts with the boon, which is then
become very brittle. The whole Ihould be fufficiently
gralfed before any of it is lifted ; for if a part be lifted
fooner than the red, that which remains is in great
danger from the winds.
A dry day ought to be chofen for taking up the
flax ; and if there is no appearance of high wind, it
Ihould be loofed from the heath or grafs, and lefirloofe
for fome hours, to make it thoroughly dry.
Asa great quantity of flax can fcarcely be all equal¬
ly watered and grafled, and as the different qualities
will bed appear at lifting the flax off the grafs; there¬
fore at that time each different kind ftiould be gather¬
ed together, and kept by itfelf; that is, all of the
fame colour, length, and quality.
The fmaller the beets lint is made up in, the better
for drying, and the more convenient for dacking, hou-
fing, &c. and in making up thefe beets, as in every
other operation upon flax, it is of great confequence
that the lint be laid together as it grew, the root-ends
together, and the crop-ends together.
[ 2S9 ]
Follows an ejlimate of the Expence, Produce, and Profit of a Scots Acre of Flax,—fuppojing the feafon favourable,
that no accidental Ioffes happen, and that the farmer is neither unjhilful nor negligent.
Ground-rent, labouring the ground, and leading the flax
Lintfeed from L. 2. to L.4. jVr hoglhead, the medium
3 s. 4 d. per peck — — —
Clodding and fowing —— — —
Weeding — — — —
Pulling, rippling, putting in, and covering in the
water — — —
Taking out of the water, graffing, and dacking
breaking and fcutching, at 2 s. per done —
Total expence
Produce at ios. /erdone — —*
Lintfeed fold for oil at 1 s. per peck — —
The chaff of the bolls is well worth the expence of
drying the feed; as it is good food, when boiled
and mixed with beer, for horfes.
Total produce
A medium crop.
L. 2 10 o
1 16 8
for 11 pecks.
020
012 o
o 14 o
080
300
for 30 dones.
L. 9 2 8
L, 15 o o
for 30 dones.
0x6 o
A great crop.
L. 3 10 o
1 to o
for 9 pecks.
020
080
o 15 o
012 o
400
for 40 dones.
L. 10 17 o
L. 20 o o
for 40 dones.
Ol8 o
L. 20 18 o
An extra, crop.
L. 5 o o
x 6 $
for 8 pecks.
020
nothing.
10 o
0180
600
for 60 dones.
L. 14 6 8
L. 30 o o
for 60 dones.
i c o
L. 31
o
Balance for profit
L. 6 14 4
L. 10 1
oL. 16 13 4
O o
There
Vox.. VII. Part I.
FLA
There is nothing ftated here as expence of the canal
in which the flax is watered ; becaufe that varies much
according to the convetiiences people have for making
it; and a canal once made requires for after years only
to be repaired and cleanfed.
It is a certain fa&, that the greater the crop is, the
better is the quality of the fame kind of flax.
The advantage of having both a crop of flax and a
crop of turnip the fame year—or of fowing grafs-feeds
along with the lintfeed-^-and of reducing the ground
to a fine garden mould, free of weeds, ought to be at¬
tended to.
. For Cambric and fine Lawn. The ground mull be
a rich light foil, rather fandy, but cannot be too rich.
It ought to be ploughed in September, or the be¬
ginning of Oftober, firft putting a little hot rotten
dung upon it. In January it ought to have a fecond
ploughing, after a hard frott ; and when you intend,
to fow it, plough it a third time, or rather hoe it, re¬
ducing the clods very fine ; but make no furrows: the
land muft be made level like a garden ; but never work
the land when wet.
The feed fhould be fown the beginning of April,
and about double the quantity that is generally fown
by our farmers ; if the land be very rich, it will require
rather more than double.
As foon as fown (if the weather be dry) it will be
neceflary to roll the ground.
The lint muft, be weeded very clean when about three
inches high; diredtly after which you muft fet forked
flicks, of about one-and half inch thick (which ought
to be prepared before), every four or five feet, accord¬
ing to the length of the poles you are to lay upon
them ; they fhould be well fixed in the ground, the
forked part to receive the poles about fix or feven
inches above the lint; each row of poles fhould be two,
three, or four feet afunder, according to the length of
the brufhwood you are to lay upon them.
The poles ought to be from 10 to 15 feet long,
and ftrong enough to fupport the brufh acrofs the
poles; take the longeft brufhwood you can get, the
more branchy the better, very thick, filling up the va¬
cancies with fmaller brufh, and any of the branches
that rife higher than 18 or 20 inches ought to be lopt
off to make the brufh lie as level as pofiible : any fort
of brufh will do except oak, as that tinges the lint.
Your lint muft be pulled as foon as the feed is fu'.ly
formed, which is a few days after it is out of the bloom,
before the lint turn yellow.
It muft be pulled above the brufhwood, and every
handful laid upon it as foon as poffible : if it is fine
weather, leave it four or five hours in that manner; then
carry it to a fcreen near a barn, to put it under cover
in cafe of rain ; there it muft be fpread four or five
days, and always put in the barn at night, or when
it appears to rain : the bundles muft be opened in the
barn, or made hollow, to prevent it from heating.
Thefe operations muft be performed until the lint is
perfe&ly dry, and' out of danger of heating; taking
care all the time to keep the roots as even.as pofiible,
and if poffible keep it from rain or wet: if you cannot
prevent it from being wet, it will be better to leave it
®n the grafs till dry; becaufe when once wet, the put¬
ting it under cover before dry will make it turn black;
a thifig which muft be prevented at all events. ,
FLA
If any of the lint upon the border, or through the
piece of ground, be coarfer than another, it muft be
feparated from the reft.
The utmoft care muft be taken to preferve the lint
entire or unbroken; for this reafon they beat off the
feed with a round meil or bittle.
The moft proper ground is fummer fallow, or after
potatoes or lea; if poffible near a wood, to prevent the
expence of carrying brufh.
As foon as the feed is off, if you intend to water it
that feafon, it muft be tied in bundles about as large as
you can grafp with your two hands.
The water proper for it, is a very fmall rivulet or
foft fpring free of any metallic ore ; taking care that
no flood or foul water enters your pit; which muft be
at leaft five feet deep, about nine or ten broad at the
top, and feven or eight at the bottom; the length
will depend on the quantity of flax you have to wa¬
ter. A very fmall ftripe of water, when clear, fitould
always be running in and off from your pit when the
lint is in it.
The pit ought to be made three or four months be¬
fore it be ufed.
You muft drive poles about four inches thick, with
a hook inclining downwards, in this form 7, all along
the fides of the pit, above five feet afunder. The hooks
muft be level with, or rather under, the furface of the
water. A long pole, the whole length of the pit, muft
be fixed into thefe hooks On each fide; and crofs poles
put under that, to keep the lint under water ; but the
crofs poles are not ufed till the lint is put in. You
muft order it fo, that all the lint fhould be three or
four inches under water. You next bring your lint to
the fides of the pit; then put your fheaves head to
head, caufing each to overlap the other about one third,
and take as many of thefe as make a bundle of two or
two and a half feet broad, laying the one above the
other till it is about four or four and a half feet high;
then you tie them together in the middle, and at each
root-end: after this, you wrap your bundle in ftraw,
and lay it in the water, putting the thin or broad fide
undermoft, taking care that none of your lint touch the
earth; after it is fully preffed under water, put in your
crofs poles to keep it under. The bundles ought to
lie in the pit a foot feparate from each other. This-
renders it eafy to take out; for, if the bundles en»
tangle, they will be too heavy to raife.
The time of watering depends fo much upon thev
weather, and foftnefs or hardnefs of the water, that it
is impoffible to fix any certain time. This muft be left
to the fkill of the farmer. If the flax be intended for
fpinning yarn foft and fit for cambric, it ought to be
fpread upon fhort grafs for four or five days before you
put it into the water; but if for lawns, lac^, or thread,
it is beft to dry it outright. In either cafe, avoid as
much as poffible to let it get rain; as much rain blanches
and walhes out the oil, which is neceffary to prefer.ve
the ftrength.
The great property of this flax is to be fine and
long. Thick fowing raifes all plants fine and Header;
and when the ground is very rich, it forces them to
a great length. Pulling, green prevents that coarfo-
hardnefs which flax has when let Hand till it be full
ripe, and gives it the fine filky property. The bru/h-
wood, when the flax fprings up, catches it by the mid-
[ 290 ]
FLA [ 291 ] FLA
die, prevents it from lying down and rotting; infallible
confequences of fowing thick upon rich ground. ,It
likewife keeps it ftraight, moiil, and foft at the roots;
and by keeping it warm, and (haded from the fun,
greatly promotes its length. The keeping it from
rain, heating, taking proper care of your water, pre-
ferves the colour, and prevents thofe bars in cloth fo
much complained of by bleachers.
FiAx-Dreffing. For many ages it was the practice
to feparate the boon or core from the flax, which is the
bark of the plant, by the following Ample hand me¬
thods. Firft, for breaking the boon, the (talks in fmall
parcels were beat with a mallet; or, more dexteroufly,
the break (Plate CXCIV. fig. 1. and 2.) was ufedthus:
The flax being held in the left-hand acrofs the three
under-teeth or fwords of the break (^, fig. 1. and a,
fig. 2.), the upper-teeth (B, fig. 1. and b, fig. 2.) were
with the right-hand quickly and often forced down
upon the flax, which was artfully drifted and turned
with the left hand. Next, for clearing the flax of the
broken boon : the workman with his left-hand held
the flax over the Jlock (fig. 3. and 4.), while with his
right-hand he (truck or threflred the flax with the
fcutcher (fig. 5.)
Thefe methods of breaking and fcutching the flax
being flow and very laborious, a water-mill was invent¬
ed in Scotland about 40 years ago; which, with fome
late improvements, makes great difpatch, and in (kil-
ful and careful hands gives fatisfadtion. It has been
generally conftrudted to break the boon by three dent¬
ed rollers, placed one above the other. The middle
one of which, being forced quickly round, takes the
other two along with it, and one end of the handfuls of
the flax being by the workmen diredted in between
the upper and middle rollers, the flax is immediately
draw n in by the rollers; a curved board or plate of
tin behind the rollers diredts the flax to return again
between the middle and undermoft roikys;—and thus
the operation is repeated until the boon be fufficiently
broke. Great weights of timber or (tone at the ends
of levers, prefs the upper and under rollers towards
the middle one.
The fcutching is next carried on by the mill in the
following manne r: Four arms, fomething like the
hand-fcutchers before defcribed, projedt from a per¬
pendicular axle ; a box around the axle inclofes thefe
projedting fcutchers; and this box is divided among
the workmen, each having fufificient room to (land and
handle his flax, which, through flits in the upper part
and fides of the box, they hold in to the ftroke of the
fcutchers ; which, moving round horizontally, (trike
the flax acrofs or at right angles, and fo threfli out
or clear it of the boon.
The breaking of the flax by rollers is fcarcely fub-
jedt ro any objedtion, but that it is dangerous to work¬
men not fufficiently on their guard, who fometimes
allow the rollers to take hold of their fingers, and
thereby their whole arm is inftantly drawn in : thus
many have loft their arms. To avoid this danger, a
break, upon the general principles of the hand-break
before defcribed, has been lately adapted to water-
machinery, and ufed in place of rollers. The hori-
xontal ftroke of the fcutchers was long thought too
fevere, and wafteful of the flax ^ but very careful ex¬
periments have difcovered that the wafte complained
of muft be charged to the unflcilfulnefs or negligence
of the workmen, as in good hands the mill carries
away nothing but what, if not fo fcutched off, muff
be taken off in the heckling with more lofs both of
time and flax. But to obviate this objedtion of the
violence of the horizontal fcutchers, an imitation of
hand-fctitching has lately been applied to water. The
fcutchers then projedt from an horizontal axle, and
move like the arms of a check reel, ftriking the flax
neither acrofs nor perpendicularly down, but (loping
in upon the parcel exadtly as the flax is (truck by the
hand-fcutcher. This (loping ftroke is got by raifing
the fcutching-ftock fome inches higher than the centre
of the axle; and by raifing or lowering the (lock, over
w'hich the flax is held, or fcrewing it nearer to or far¬
ther from the fcutchers, the workman can temper or
humour the ftroke almoft as he pleafes.
A lint-mill, with horizontal fcutchers upon a per¬
pendicular axle, requires a houfe of two (lories, the
rollers or break being placed in the ground ftory, and
the fcutchers in the loft above ; but a mill with verti¬
cal fcutchers on an horizontal axle, requires but one
ground ftory for all the machinery.
Another method of breaking and fcutching flax,
more expeditious than the old hand-methods, and
more gentle than water-mills, has alfo been lately in¬
vented in Scotland. It is much like the break and
fcutcher giving the (loping ftroke laft defcribed, moved
by the foot. The treadle is remarkably long, and
the fcutchers are fixed upon the rim of a fly-wheel.
The foot-break is alfo affifted in its motion by a fly.
Thefe foot-machines are very ufeful where there are no
water-mills, but they are far inferior to the mills in
point of expedition.
The next operation that flax undergoes after fcutch¬
ing is heckling. The heckle (fig. 6.) is firmly fixed
to a bench before the workman, who (trikes the flax
upon the teeth of the heckle, and draws it through the
teeth. To perfons unacquainted with that kind of
work this may feem a very fimple operation ; but, in
fa£t, it requires as much practice to acquire the (light
of heckling well, and without wafting the flax, as any
other operation in the whole manufacture of linen.
They ufe coarfer and wider teethed heckles, or finer,
according to the quality of the flax; generally putting
the flax through two heckles, a coarfer one firft, and
next a fine one.
Flax for cambric and fine lawn, thread, and lace,
is dreffed in a manner fomewhat different. It is not
(kutched fo thoroughly as common flax; which from
the (kutch proceeds to the heckle, and from that to
the (pinner: whereas, this tine flax, after a rough
(kutching, is fcraped and cleanfed with a blunt knife
upon the workman’s knee covered with his leather-
apron; from the knife it proceeds to the fpinner, who,
with abruflr made for the purpofe, ftraights and dreffes
each parcel juft before (he begins to fpin it.
The following obfervations, firft publiftied in the
Gentleman’s Magazine for June 1787, feem worthy of
very particular attention, and may not therefore be
improperly fubjoined as a fupplement to the prefent
article.
O o 2
Of
rhs.
FLA [ 292 ] FLA
Of the watering of Flax by a new method, fo as to Jhorten
labour, to add probably to the Jlrength of the flax, and to
give it a much finer colour, which would render the ope¬
ration of bleaching fdfer and lefs tedious.
“ Though the following reflections have for their
objeft an improvement in the very eflential article of
watering of flax, yet I muft advertife the reader, that
they are only theory, and muft. depend entirely for
their truth and juftification upon future experiments,
Ikilfully and judicioufly made. Should repeated trials
prove the advantage of the new method propofed, we_
may venture to affirm, that it would be an improve¬
ment that would increafe the national income in the
agricultural branch many thoufand pounds annually,
would add greatly to the perfeftion of the linen manu-
fadture, and over and above would fupprefs a very dif-
agreeable nuifance, which the prefent method of wa¬
tering flax occafions during fome part of the fummer
in every flax-growing country.
“ The intention of watering flax is, in my opinion,
to make the boon more brittle or friable, and, by foak-
ing, to diffolve that gluey kind of fap that makes
the bark of plants and trees adhere in a fmall degree
to the woody part. The bark of flax is called the
hark; and when feparated from the ufelefs woody part,
the boon, this harle itfelf is called flax. To effedt this
feparation eafily, the pradtice has long prevailed, of
foaking the flax in water to a certain degree of fer¬
mentation, and afterwards drying it. For this foak¬
ing fome prefer rivulets that have a fmall current, and
others ftagnant water in ponds and lakes. In both
methods the water adts as in all other cafes of infufion
and maceration ; after two or three weeks it extradts
a great many juices of a very ftrong quality, which in
ponds give the water an inky tinge and offenfive fmell;
and in rivulets mix in the ftream and kill the fifti.
Nay, if this maceration be too long continued, the
extradted and fermented fap will completely kill the
flax itfelf. For if, inftead of two or three weeks, the
new flax were to lie foaking in the water four or five
months, I prefume it would be good for nothing but
to be thrown upon the dunghill; both harle and boon
would in time be completely rotted ; yet the harle or
flax, when entirely freed from this fap, and manufac¬
tured into linen, or into ropes, might lie many months
under water without being much damaged ; as linen,
k may be wafhed and fteeped in fcalding water twenty
times without lofing much of its ftrength ; and as pa¬
per, it acquires a kind of incorruptibility.
“ It appears then effential to the right management
qf new flax, to get rid of this pernicious vegetative
fap* and to macerate the boon; but from the com¬
plaints made againft both the methods of watering now
in ufe, there is reafon to think that there is ftill great
room for improvement in that article. In rivulets, the
vegetative fap,,as it is diffolved, is carried off by the
current, to the deftru&ion of the fifh. This prevents
the flax from being ftained ; but the operation is te¬
dious, and not complete, from the uncertainty of
knowing when it is juft enough, and not too much, or
perhaps from negledl. In ponds, the inky tinge of
the water often lerves as a kind of dye to the flax,
which imbibes it fo ftrongly, that double the labour
in bleaching will hardly bring the linen made of fuch
flax to an equality in whkenefs with linen made of
flax untihged. This feems to be equally unwife as
though we were to dye cotton black firft, in order to
whiten it afterwards. Thefe ponds, befides, become
a great nuifance to the neighbourhood ; the impreg¬
nated water is often of fuch a pernicious quality, that
cattle, however thirfty, will not drink of it ; and the
effluvia of it may perhaps be nearly as infeftious as it
is offenfive. If this effluvia is really attended with any
contagious effects in our cojd climate, a thing worth
the enquiring into, how rpuch more pernicious muft
its effefts have been in the hot climate of Egypt, a
country early noted for its great cultivation of flax?
“ I have often thought that the procefs of watering
might be greatly improved find fhortened by plunging
the new flax, after it is rippled, into fcalding water ;
which, in regard to extrafting the vegetative fap, would
do in five minutes more than cold water would do in
a fortnight, or perhaps more than cold water could do
at all, in refpett to the clearing the plant of fap.
Rough almonds, when thrown into fcalding water, are
blanched in an inftant; but perhaps a fortnight’s ma¬
cerating thofe almonds in cold water would not make
them part fo eafily with their {kins, which are the fame
to them as the harle is to the flax. Were tea leaves
to be infufed in cold water a fortnight, perhaps the
tea produced by that infufion would not be fo good to-
the tafte, nor fo ftrongly tinged to the eye, as what is
effedted by fcalding water in five minutes, By the:
fame analogy, I think, flax or any fmall twig would
be made to part with its bark much eafier and quicker
by being dipped in boiling water than by being fteep¬
ed in cold water.
“ This reflettion opens a door for a great variety
of new experiments in regard to flax. I would there¬
fore recommend to gentlemen cultivators and farmers,
to make repeated trials upon this new fyftem, which
would foon afeertain whether it ought to be adopted
in pradfice or S-ejedted. One thing, I think, we may
be certain of, that if the Egyptians watered their flax
in our common manner, they undoubtedly watered it
in very warm water, from the great heat of their cli¬
mate, which would probably make them negledt to
think of water heated by any other means than that
of the fun. A good general pradtice can only be efta-
bliftied upon repeated trials. Though one experiment
may fail, another with a little variation may fucceed ;
and the importance of the objedt defined to be obtain¬
ed will juftify a good degree of perfeverance in the
profecution of the means. In this view, as the Chi-
nefe thread is faid to be very ftrong, it would be worth
while to be acquainted with the pradtice of that diftant
nation, in regard to the rearing and manufadturing of
flax, as well as with the methods ufed by the Flemings
and the Dutch.
“ Boiling water perhaps might at once clear the
new flax from many impurities, which when not re¬
moved till it be fpun into yarn, are then removed with
difficulty, and with lofs of fubftance to the yarn. Why
ftiould not the longitudinal fibres of the flax, before
they be fpun into yarn, be made not only as fine but
as clean as poffible ? Upon the new fyftem propofed,
the adt of bleaching would begin immediately after the
rippling of the flax; and a little done then, might per¬
haps fave much of what is generally done after the
fpinning and weaving. To fpin dirty flax with a view
F 1> _A O S .
Plate CXCBr.
F I> >V X .
FLA
Flax, of cleaning it afterwards, appears to be the fame im-
“'Y——'propriety as though we were to referve part of the
drefiing given to leather till after it is made into a
glove.
“ Should the plunging of the flax into the boiling
water not fuffice to make the boon brittle enough,
as I am inclined to think it would not, then the com¬
mon watering might be added ; but in that cafe pro¬
bably half the time ufually given to this watering would
fuffice, and the flax might then be laid in clear rivu¬
lets, without any apprehenfion of its infetting the wa¬
ter and poifoning the fifh, or of being difcoloured it-
felf; for the boiling water into which it had been pre-
vioufly put, would have extradted all the poifonous
vegetative fap, which I prefume is what chiefly difco-
lours the flax or kills the fifti.
“ On the fuppofition, that the ufe of boiling water
in the preparation of flax may be found to be advan¬
tageous and profitable, I can recolledl at prefent but
one ohjedtion againft its being generally adopted.
Every flax grower, it may be faid, could riot be ex-
pefted to have conveniences for boiling water fuffi-
eient for the purpofe; the confumption of water
would be great; and fame additional expence would
be incurred. In anfwer to this, I ihall obferve, that
I prefume any additional expence would be more than
reimburfed by the better marketable price of the flax;
for other wife any new improvement, if it will not quit
coft, muft be dropt, were it even the fearching after
gold. In a large cauldron a great deal of flax might
be dipt in the fame water, and the confumption per¬
haps would not be more than a quart to each fheaf.
Even a large houfehold pot would be capable of con¬
taining one Iheaf after another ; and 1 believe the
whole objedtion would be obviated, were the pradtice
to prevail with us, as in Flanders and Holland, that
the flax-grower and the flax-drefler fhould be two di-
ftindf profeffions.
“ I fliall conclude with recommending to thofe who
are inclined to make experiments, not to be difeou-
raged by the failure of one or two trials.—Perhaps the
flax, inftead of being juit plunged into the fealding
water, ought to be kept in it five minutes, perhaps a
quarter of an hour, perhaps a whole hour. Should five
minutes, or a quarter of an hour, or an hour, not be
fufficient to make the boon and harle eafily feparate,
it might perhaps be found expedient to boil the flax
for more than an hour; and fuch boiling when in this
ftate might in return fave feveral hours boiling in the
article of bleaching. It is not, I think, at all probable
that the boiling of the flax with the boon in it would
prejudice the harle; for in the courfe of its future ex-
ifience, it is made to be expofed 20 or 40 times to
this boiling trial; and if not detrimental in the one
cafe, it is to be prefumed it would not be detrimental
in the other. Perhaps, after the boiling, it would be
proper to pile up the flax in one heap for a whole day,
or for half a day, to occafion fome fermentatioiv; or
perhaps, immediately after the boiling, it might be
proper to wafli it with cold water. The great object,
when the flax is pulled, is to get the harle from the
boon with as little lofs and damage as poffible; and if
this is accomplifhed in a more complete manner than
ufual, confideiable labour and expence will be faved in
FLA
the future manufacturing of the flax. On this ac- Has
count I think much more would be gained than loll, c}[;er’
were the two or three laft inches of the roots of the ec 'c‘ ‘
Hems to be chopped off, or dipt off, previous to the
flax being either watered or boiled. When the flax is
watered, care fhould be taken not to fpread it out to
dry, when there is a hazard of its being expofed in its
wet ftate to froft.”
Flax made to refemlk Cotton. In the Swedifh Tranf-
adions for the year 1747, a method is given of pre¬
paring flax in fuch a manner as to referable cotton in
whitenefs and foftnefs, as well as in coherence. For
this purpofe, a little fea-water is to be put into an
iron pot or an untinned copper-kettle, and a mixture
of equal parts of birch-afhes and quicklime ftrewed
upon it: A fmall bundle of flax is to be opened and
fpread upon the furface, and covered with more of the
mixture, and the ftratiftcation continued till the veffel
is fufficiently filled. The whole is then to be boiled
v/ith fea-water for ten hours, frefh quantities of water
being occafionaUy fupplied in proportion to the evapo¬
ration, that the matter may never become dry. The
boded flax is to be immediately wafhed in the fea
by a little at a time, in a bafket, with a fmooth flick
at firft while hot; and when grown cold enough to
be borne by the hands, it muft. be well rubbed,
wafhed with foap, laid to bleach, and turned and
watered every day. Repetitions of the wafhing with
foap expedite the bleaching; after which the flax is
to be beat, and again well wafhed;. when dry, it
is to be worked and carded in the fame manner as com¬
mon cotton, and prefled betwixt two boards for 48
hours. It is now fully prepared and fit for ufe. It
lofes in this procefs near one-half its weight, which is
abundantly compenfated by the improvement made in
its quality.
The filamentous parts of different vegetables have
been employed in different countries for the fame me¬
chanic ufes as hemp and flax among us. See Fila¬
ment.
Earth-FiAX. See Amianthus.
New-Zealand Flax-Plant. See Phormium.
Toad-FiAX. SeeLiNARiA.
FLEA, in zoology. See Pulex.
Fi.EA-Bane^ in botany. See Conyz A.
Flea-Bitten, that colour of a horfe which is white
or grey, fpotted all over with dark reddifh'fpots.
FLEAM, in furgery and farriery, an inftrument
for letting blood of a man or horfe. A cafe of fleams,,
as it is called by farriers, comprehends fix forts of in-
ftruments ; two hooked ones, called drawers, and ufed
for cleaning wounds ; a pen-knife ; a fharp-pointed
lancet for making incifions; and two fleams, one fharp
and the other broad-pointed. Thefe laft are fomewhat
like the point of a lancet, fixed in a flat handle, and no
longer than is juft neceffary to open the vein.
FLECHIER (Efprit), bifiiop of Nifmes, one of the
moft celebrated preachers of his age, and the puhliflier
of many panegyrics and funeral orations, was born at
Perne in Avignon in 1632. He was nominated to
the biftiopric of Lavaur in 1685, and tranflated to
Nifmes in 1687. At this latter place he founded an
academy, and took the prefidentflnp upon himfelf: his
own palace was indeed a kind of academy, where he
applied-
[ 293 1
F L E [ 294 ] F L E
applied himfelf to train up orators and writers, who
might ferve the church, and do honour to the nation.
He publilhed, befides his panegyrics and funeral ora¬
tions, 1. An Hiftory of the Emperor Theodofius, that
of Cardinal Ximenes, and that of Cardinal Commendon.
2. Several Sermons. 3. Mifcellaneous Works. 4. Let¬
ters, &c. He died in 1710.
FLECKNOE (Richard), an Englilh poet in the
reign of Charles II. more remarkable for Mr Dryden’s
fatire on him than for any works of his own. He is
faid to have been originally a jefuit, and to have had
good Englifh connexions in the Catholic interell.
When Dryden loft the place of poet-laureat on the re¬
volution, its being conferred on Flecknoe, for whom
he had a fettled averfion, gave occafion to his poem
intitled Mac Flecknoe; one of the belt written fatires in
our language, and from which Pope feems to have ta¬
ken the hint for his Dunciad. Flecknoe wrote fome
plays; but could never get more than one of them ac¬
ted, and that was damned.
FLEECE, the covering of wool (horn off the bodies
of ftieep. See Wool.
Golden Fleece*. See Argonauts, and Golden
Fleece.
FLEET, commonly implies a company of ftiips of
war, belonging to any prince or ftate : but fometimes
it denotes any number of trading (hips employed in a
particular branch of commerce.
The admirals of his Britannic majefty’s fleet are di¬
vided into three fquadrons, vi%. the red, the white, and
the blue. When any of thefe officers are invefted with
the command of a fquadron or detachment of men of
war, the particular (hips are diftinguiflred by the colours
of their refpeXive fquadron : that is to fay, the ftiips
of the red fquadron wear an enfign whofe union is dif-
played on a red field ; the enfigns of the white fqua¬
dron have a white field; and thofe of the blue fqua¬
dron a blue field; the union being common to all threei
The fliips of war, therefore, are occafionally annexed
to any of the three fquadrons, or fhifted from one to
another.
Of whatfoever number a fleet of fliips of war is com-
pofed, it is ufually divided into three fquadrons"; and
thefe, if numerous, are again feparated into divifions.
The admiral^ or principal officer, commands the
centre; the vice-admiral, or fecond in command, fuper-
intends the van-guard ; and the operations of the rear
are directed by the rear-admiral, or the officer next in
fank. See the article Division.
The difpofition of a fleet, while proceeding on a
voyage will in fome meafure depend on particular cir-
cumitances; as the difficulty of the navigation, the
neceffity of difpatch, according to the urgency or im¬
portance of the expedition, or the expectation of an
enemy in the paffage. The moft convenient order is
probabiy to range it into three lines or columns, each
of which is parallel to a line clofe-hauled according to
the tack on which the line of battle is defigned to be
formed This arrangement is more ufeful than any,
becaufe it contains the advantages of every other form,
without their inconveniences. The fleet being thus
more iiicloled will more readily obferve the fignals, and
with greater facility form itfelf into the line of battle;
4
a circuniftance which fhould be kept in view in every Fiect
order of failing. See Naval Tactics. Il
Fleet, is alfo a noted prifon in London, where per-
fons are committed for contempt of the king and
his laws, particularly of his courts of juftice : or for
debt, where any perfon will not or is unable to pay
his creditors.
There are large rules and a warden belonging to the
fleet prifon; which had its name from the float or fleet
of the river or ditch, on the fide whereof it ftands.
FLEETWOOD (William), a very learned Engliffi
biftiop in the beginning of the 18th century, of an an¬
cient family in Lancaffiire. He diftinguilhed himfelf
during king William’s reign, by his Infcriptionum An¬
tiquarian Sylloge, by feveral fermons he preached on
public occafions, and by his Effay on Miracles. He
was defigned by king William to a canonry of Wind-
for. The grant did not pafs the feals before the king’s
death; but the queen gave it him, and he was inftalled
in 1702. In 1703, he took a refolution to retire ; and
in 1707, publifhed, without his name, his Chronicon
Pretiofum. In 1708, he was nominated by the queen
to the fee of St Afaph. The change of the queen’s
miniftrygave him much regret. In 1715, he publifh¬
ed a pamphlet intitled “ The 13 th chapter of the Ro¬
mans vindicated from the abufive fenfes put upon it.”
In 1714 he was tranflated to the bilhopric of Ely; and
died in 1723, aged 67. He publifhed feveral other
fermons and traXs, and was a man of great learning
and exemplary piety.
FLEMINGIANS, or Flandrians, in ecclefiafti-
cal hiftory, a feX of rigid anabaptifts, who acquired
this name in the 16th century, becaufe moft of them
were natives of Flanders, by way of diftinXion from
the Waterlandians. In confequence of fome dif-
fenfions among the Flemingians relating to the treat¬
ment of excommunicated perfons, they were divided
into two feXs, diftinguilhed by the appellations of
Flandrians and Friejlanders, who differed from each
other in their manners and difeipline. Many of thefe
in procefs of time came over to the moderate commu¬
nity of the Waterlandians, and thofe who remained
feparate are ftill known by the name of the Old Fle¬
mingians or Flandrians ; but they are comparatively
few in number. Thefe maintain the opinion of Men-
no with refpeX to the incarnation of Chrift; alleging,
that his body was produced by the creating power of the
Holy Ghoft, and not derived from his mother Mary.
FLEMISH, or the Flemish tongue, is that
which we otherwife call Low Dutch, to diftinguifh it
from the German, whereof it is a corruption and a
kind of dialeX. See German.
It differs from the Walloon, which is a corruption
of the French language. The Flemilh is ufed through
all the provinces of the Netherlands.
Flemish-Bricks, a neat, ftrong, yellow kind of bricks,
brought from Flanders, and commonly ufed in paving
yards, ftables, &c. being preferable for Inch purpofes to
the common bricks. See the article Bricks.
FTESH, in anatomy, a compound fubftance, con-
fifting of the various fofter folids of the animal body,
and fo denominated in contradiftinXion to bones. See
Anaotmy, pajfim.
Flesh
F L E [ 295 ] F L E
Fleflj Flesh is alfo ufed, in theology, in fpeaking of the
|) myfteries of the incarnation and eucharilt. “ The
Fletcher. Word was made JleJh” Verlum caro fu3um eji.
~ v—~ The Romanics hold, that the bread in the facra-
ment of the fupper is turned into the real flelh of Jefus
Chrifl. See Transubstantiation.
Flesh is fometimes alfo ufed by botanifts for the
foft pulpy fubftance of any fruit, inclofed between the
outer rind or Ikin and the feeds or ftone; or for that
part of a root, fruit, &c, fit to be eaten.
FiESH-Colour. See Carnation.
FLETA, the name given to an unknown writer who
lived about the end of the reign of Edward II. and
beginning of Edward III. and who being a prifoner
in the Fleet, wrote there an excellent treatife on the
common jaw of England.
FLETCHER. See Beaumont and Fletcher.
Fletcher (Andrew) of Salton, a celebrated Scots
patriot and political writer, was defcended from an
ancient family who trace their origin to one of the
followers of William the Conqueror. He was the fon
of Sir Robert Fletcher of Salton and Innerpeffer, and
born in the year 1650. The tuition of our author was
committed by his father, on his death-bed, to Mr (af¬
terwards Bilhop) Burnet, then his parifh minifter ;
by whofe care lie received a pious, learned, and polite
education. Endowed with uncommon genius, and
poffeffed of virtues and abilities peculiarly fuited to the
times in which he lived, Mr Fletcher quickly fhone
forth the ornament of his country, and the champion
of. its freedom. Having in tne ct.urfe of his clafiical
- fludies and hiftorical reading been imprefied with an
enthufiaflic adm.ration both of ancient and modern
republics, he had early contradfed an ardent love of
liberty, and an averfion to arbitrary rule. Hence his
fpirit. the more readily took alarm at certain mea-
fures in the reign of Charles II. Being knight of
the fhire for Lothian to that parliament where the
duke of York was commiffioner, he openly oppofed
the defigns of that prince and the bill of acctflion.
He had a fiiare w'ith lord vifcount Stair in framing the
teft-adl, by which the duke of York complained that
he loft ^Scotland. On thefe accounts»he became pecitr
liarly obnoxious to the duke ; and was at lalt obliged
to free to Holland, to avoid the fatal confequences of
profecutions which on vaiious pretences were commen¬
ced again ft him. Being cited before the privy-council
and jufticiary courts, and not appearing, he w'as decla¬
red traitor, and his eflate confiscated.
In Holland .he and Mr Baillie of Jervifwood were
the only perfons whom the earl of Argyle confuited
concerning the defigns which were then in agitation.
In 1681. they came over to England, in order to con¬
cert matters with their party in that country ; and;
rvere the only two who were intrufted fo far as to be
admitted to the fecrets of lord Ruffell’s council of fix..
Mr Hetcher managed his part of the negociation.with
fo much addrtfs, that adminiflration could find no
pretext for feizing him : nor could they fix upon him
thofe articles on account of which Mr Baillie was-con¬
demned ; to whofe, honour let it be remembered, that
although offered a pardon on condition of his accufing
his friend, he periifted in rejecting the propofal with
indignation.
Mr Fletcher having joined the duke cf Monmouth
upon his landing, received a principal command under Fletcher,
him. But the duke was deprived of his fervices on —
the following occafion, as related by Sir John Dal- Memoirs of
rymple. Being fent upon an expedition, and not Great Bri~
efteeming “ times of danger to be times of ceremony,^" W/re“'
he had feized for his own riding the horfe of a coun- ** *
try gentleman [the mayor of Lynne] which flood
ready equipt for its matter. The matter, hearing this,
ran in a paffion to Fletcher, gave him opprobrious
language, fhook his cane, and attempted to ftrike.
Fletcher, though rigid in the duties of morality, yet
having been accuftomed to foreign fervices both by fea
find land, in which he had acquired high ideas of the
honour of a foldier and a gentleman, and of the af¬
front of a cane, pulled out his piftol. and fhot him dead
on the fpot. The adlion was unpopular in countries
where fuch refinements were not underttood A cla¬
mour was raifed againft it among the people of the
country : in a body they waited upon the duke with
their complaints; and he was forced to defire the only
foldier, and almott the only man of parts, in his army,
to abandon him. With Fletcher all Monmouth’s
chance of fuccefs in war left him ” But, in a manufeript
memoir belonging to the family, we have the follow¬
ing notice concerning Mr Fletcher’s connedlion with
Monmouth, in which his ieparation from that prince
is very differently accounted for : “ To lord Mariichal
Mr Fletcher explained the motives which induced him .
firft to join, and afterwards abandon, the duke of Mon¬
mouth. The former he aferibed to the duke’s mani-
fette in Scotland relating to religion, and in England
to liberty. For the latter he accounted by the difguft
produced in his own mind and that of his affociates,
when the duke declared himfelf king, and broke faith
with all who embarked with him on his principles.
Fie complained heavily of the account commonly given,
of the death of the mayor of Lynne ; and mentfoned
to lord Marifchal, in proof of the contrary, that he
did not leave the duke till he came to Taunton, where
he was proclaimed king, feveral weeks after the death
of the mayor of Eynne.”
Seeing all the efforts of himfelf and his friends in
favour of liberty fruftrated at Taunton, he endeavoured
to fecure his own perfonal freedom by taking his paf-
fage in, the firft ttiip bound to a foreign country. It
was his misfortune to land in . Spain ; where he was
immediately arretted, catt into prilon, and guarded by
three different bands of foldiers, till a.vefTtl fhould be
prepared to carry him a victim in chains to the court
of London. But on the morning before the fhip.could
fail, whilft he. looked penfive through the bars that fe- the family of
cured the window, of his room, he was hailed by a vener- Salton. MS, „
able perfonage who made figns to fpeak with him. The
prifon-doors he found open; and whilft his friendly con-
dudlor waved to him to follow him, he paffed through
three different guards of .foldiers all faft afleep. With¬
out being permitted, to offer his thanks to his deliverer,
he found himfelf obliged to profecute with all fpeed
the journey, in which he was directed by a perfon con¬
cerning whom he could never collect any information;
and in dilguife he proceeded in fafety through Spain..
He felt a peculiar pleafure in relating to his friends
inftances of the care of Providence which he had-expe-
rieneed during his, exile ; and entertained them often,,
with.narratives of this kind, which-he always mingled.
with..
F L E I 296 ] F L E
!icr. wtth religious refleftions, Of thefe, anotlier may be
here mentioned. Happening in the evening to pafs
the fkirt of a wood at a few miles diitance from a city
where he intended to lodge, he came to a place where
two roads met. After he had entered upon the road
on the right, he was accofted by a female of a refpec-
table figure, who warned him to turn back, and take
the road on the left; for that in the other there was
danger which he could not efcape if he continued to
proceed. His friendly monitor fuddenly retired into
the wood, out of which Ihe had iffued no lefs unexpec¬
tedly. Having arrived at the city, the inhabitants were
foon after alarmed by an account of the robbery and
murder of feveral travellers who that evening had fallen
into the hands of a banditti upon the very way in
which he had intended to travel. From thefe and other
inftances of prefervation from dangers, the devotion of
his mind, habituated from his infancy to an intercourfe
with heaven, led him to conclude that he was in a pe¬
culiar manner the care of Providence, and that in cri¬
tical cafes .his underftanding received its dire&ion from
a fupernatural impulfe.
During his exile, he maintained a frequent and ex-
tenlive correfpondence with the friends of liberty at
home ; and he partly employed himftlf in making a
curious collection of books, which compofe the bell
private library in Scotland. But his genius alfo
prompted him to engage in more active employments.
He repaired to Hungary, and ferved feveral campaigns
as a volunteer under the duke of Lorrain with great
reputation. At length, underftanding that the great
defign then projecting in Holland, and upon the iffue
of which he confidered the liberties of Britain to be
fufpended, had attained a conftderable degree of ma¬
turity, he haftened thither; where his counfels and ad-
drefs were of eminent fervice. He came over with
king William ; and in zeal, activity, penetration, and
political Ikill, proved inferior to none of the leaders in
the Revolution.
Such, however, was his magnanimity, that from a
furvty of King William’s papers it appears, that while
others laboured to turn this g'rand event to the emo¬
lument of themfelves and the aggrandifement of their
family, Mr Fletcher allied nothing. His eftate had
been forfeited, and his houfe abandoned to military
difcretion ; his fortune was greatly {battered, and his
family reduced to circumftances of diftrefs. Nothing
was given him in recompence of all his fufferings. On
the contrary, he, together with the duke of Hamilton,
was diftinguilhed by marks of royal and minifteriai
diflike. Still, whatever private refentment he might
entertain, it appeared that his ruling principle was the
good of his country ; and that to this grand objeft of
his heart he was willing to facrifice all perfonal confi-
deratiohs. For when, in 1692, the abdicated king
meditated an invafion, Mr Fletcher addrefled a letter
(preferved in Sir John Dalrymple’s Colleftion) to the
duke of Hamilton, in which every argument is em¬
ployed with Ikill and energy to engage his Grace to
forget his injuries, and in the prefent crifis to employ
the extenfive influence and authority he then poflefled
in the caufe of freedom and of his country. This
letter produced its full effeft ; and the duke returned
to his duty, from which he had in part begun to
deviate.
N° 128.
To follow our author through all the mazes of his
political life fubfequent to the Revolution, is beyond
our purpofe, and would exceed our limit's. One or
two circumftances more ftiall therefore fuktiee. Being
ele&ed a member for the parliament 1683, he Ihowed
an uniform zeal for the intereft of his country. The
thought of England’s domineering over Scotland was
what his generous foul could not endure. The indig¬
nities and oppreffion which Scotland lay under galled
him to the heart ; fo that in*his learned and elaborate
difcourfes, he expofed them with undaunted courage
and pathetical eloquence.—In that great event, the
Union, he performed effential fervice. He got the
ail of fecurity palled, which aeclared that the two
crowns Ihould not pafs to the fame head till Scotland
was fecured in her liberties civil and religious. There¬
fore lord Godolphin was forced into the Union, to avoid
a civil war after the queen’s demife. Although Mr
Fletcher difapproved of fome of the articles, and in¬
deed of the whole frame of the Union ; yet, as the aft
of fecurity was his own work, he had all the merit of
that important tranfaction.
We mull not omit mentioning, that in the ardor of
his political career Mr Fletcher forgot noftthe interefta
of the place that gave him birth. He efteemed the
education of youth one of the nobleft obje&s of go¬
vernment. On this fubjedt he wrote a treatife, ftill
extant, moft charafteriftic of himfelf; and he eftablilh-
ed at Salton a foundation for the fame purpofe, of
great utility v/hile it lafted.
This great man died at London in 1716, aged 66.
His remains were conveyed to Scotland, and depofited
in the family vault at Salton.
That Mr Fletcher received neither honours nor e-
moluraents from king William, may perhaps be in part
attributed to himfdf; a circumftance, however, which
mutt add greatly to the luftre of his charadler. His
uncomplying virtue, and the fternnefs of his principles,
were ill calculated to conciliate courtly favour. He
was fo zealous an aflertor of the liberties of the people,
that he was- too jealous of the growing power of all
princes ; in whom he thought ambition fo natural, that
he was not for trufting the belt of kings with the
power which ill ones might make ufe of agaxnft their
fubje&s: he was. of opinion that all princes were made
by, and for the benefit of, the people ; and that they
Ihould have no power but that of doing good. This,
which made him oppofe king Charles and invade king
James, led him alfo to oppofe the giving fo much power
to king William, whom he would never ferve after his
eftablilhment. So we are told by the author of Short
Political Characters, a MS. in the library of the late
T. Rawlinfon, Efq.—Mr Lockhart, in his Memoirs,
p. 72. expreffes a belief that his averfion to the Eng-
lilh and to the Union was fo great, that, in revenge to
them, he was inclined to fide with the abdicated fa¬
mily : “ But (adds he) as that was a fubjeCt not fit to
be entered upon with him, this is only a conjefture
from fome inuendos I have heard him make: but fo
far is certain, he liked, commended, and converfed
with high-flying Tories, more than any other fet of
men; acknowledging them to be the bell country¬
men, and of moft honour, integrity, and ingenuity.”
It feems difficult to reconcile this with Mr Fletcher’s
avowed principles and the general tenor of his con-
6 duet.
F L E [ 297 3 F L I
Tlctclier, duft. May we fuppofe, that chagrin, if not pt the Elizabeth. He was very zealous in fupprefiing mafs- Hevillea
■Iktewood- negle£3; or the ill treatment which he had himfelf re- houfes, and committing Popifh priells: but once ruih-
*'■ v ceived from government fince the Revolution, yet at ing in upon mafs at the Portuguefe ambaflador’s houfe,. ‘f * ‘
the public meafures relating to his native country, he was committed to the Fleet for breach of privilege, J
might have occafioned him to relent in his fentiments but foon releafed. Mr Wood fays, “ He was a learned
with regard to the exiled family !—In the family-me- man, and a good antiquary, but of a marvellous mer-
moirs already quoted, we are informed. That “ Lord ry and pleafant conceit.” He was a good popular
Marifchal held Mr Fletcher’s charafter in high admi- fpeaker, and wrote well upon fubjefts pf government,
ration and that, “ when governor of Neufchatel,’ His principal works are, 1. Annalium tarn regum Ed-
where Rouffeau refided about the year 1766, he pre- ivardi V. Rlchardi III. iff Henrici VII. quam Henri-
vailed with this very extraordinary genius to write the ci VIII. 2. A Table of the Reports of Edmund Plow-
life of a man whofe charafter and aftions he wiftied to den. 3. The Office of a Juftice of Peace. He died
have tranfmitted to pofterity with advantage. For about the year 1593.
this purpofe, his lordfhip applied to an honourable re- FLEVILLEA, in botany: A genus of the hexan-
lation of Mr Fletcher’s for materials, which by him dria order, belonging to the dioecia clafs of plants,
were tranfmitted to lord Marifchal: but the defign The male calyx and corolla are quinquefid ; the fta-
failed through Roufleau’s defultory and capricious dif- mina five ; the neftarium five converging filaments,
pofition.” This anecdote mull appear incompatible The female calyx is quinquefid; there are three ftyli;
with the known loyalty and attachments of the Earl fruit an hard trilocular barky apple.
Marifchal, unlefs we fuppofe him to have been privy FLEURI (Claude), one of the beft French critics
to fome fuch fentiments of Mr Fletcher as thofe al- and hiftorians of his age, was born at Paris in 1640.
luded to by Mr Lockhart: for how could we fuppofe He applied himfelf to the law, was made advocate for
him anxious to promote a compofition, in which the the parliament of Paris, and attended the bar nine
talk would be to celebrate principles diametrically op- years ; he then entered into orders, and was made pre-
pofite to his own, and to applaud a&ions fubverfive of ceptor to the princes of Conti. In 1689, the king
that royal family in whofe caufe he had ventured his made him fub-preceptor to the dukes of Burgundy,
life, and forfeited his fortune, and foregone his conn- Anjou, and Berry ; and in 1706, when the education
try !—But however thefe circumltances may be recon- of thefe young princes was completed, the king gave
ciled,—as the integrity, difintereftednefs, and public him the priory of Argenteville belonging to the Bene-
fpirit of Mr Fletcher, have been univerfally acknow- di&ines in the diocefe of Paris. In 17x6, he was
ledged, there is reafon to believe, that all his fenti- chofen counfellor to Louis XV. and died in 1723. He
merits and adtions were founded in honour, and that was the author of a great number of efteemed French
he never once purfued a meafure further than he judged works ; the principal of which are, 1. An ecclefiallical
it to be for the intereft of his country. hiftory, in 20 volumes, the laft of which ends with the
Mr Fletcher was mailer of theEnglilh, Latin, Greek, year 1414. 2. The manners of the Ifraelites and Chri-
Frcnch, and Italian languages; and well verfed in ttians. 3. Intlitutions of ecclefiaftical law. 4. An
hiftory, the civil law, and all kinds of learning. In hiftorical catechifm. 5. On the choice and method
his travels, he had not only acquired confiderable of ftudy. 6. The duties of mailers and fervants, &c.
knowledge in the art of war, but alfo became verfant Fleurx (Andrew Hercules de), bilhop of Frejus*
in the refpedlive interefts of the feveral princes and preceptor to Louis XV. grand almoner to the queen.
Hates of Europe. In private life, he was affable to his cardinal and minifter of Hate, was born in 1653, and
friends, and free from all manner of vice. He had a died in 1743. was an able negociator ; and di-
penetrating, clear, and lively, apprehenfion; but is faid ftinguilhed himfelf during his miniftry by his probity,
to have been too much wedded to opinions, and im- his zeal for the happinefs of his country, and his pa-
patient of contradidfion.—He poffeffed an uncommon cific difpofition.
elevation of mind, accompanied with a warmth of tern- FLEXIBLE, in phyfics, a term applied to bodies
per, which would fuffer him to brook from no rank capable of being bent or diverted from their natural
among men, nor in any place, an indignity. Of this figure or diredlion.
he exhibited a Angular proof in the Scots parliament. FLEXOR, in anatomy, a name applied to feveral
The earl of Stair, fecretary of Hate and minifter for mufcles, which are fo called from their office, which is
.Scotland, having in the heat of debate ufed an impro- to bend the parts to which they belong; in oppofition
per expreffion againft Mr Fletcher, he feized him by to the extenfors, which open or ftretch them. See A-
his robe, and infifted upon public and immediate fa- natomy, Table of the Mufcles.
tisfadtion. His Lordftiip was obliged inftantly to beg FLIGHT, the adl of a bird in flying; or theman-
his pardon in prefence of parliament. ner, duration, &c. thereof.
Mr Fletcher was by far the fineft fpeaker in the Almoft every kind of bird has its particular flight;
parliament of Scotland: the earl of Stair alone ri- the eagle’s flight is the higheft ; the flight of the
vailed him. The latter was famed for a fplendid, the fparrow-hawk and vulture is noble, and fit for high
former for a clofe and nervous, eloquence. He formed enterprize and combat. The flight of Tome birds
his ftyle on the models of antiquity; and the fmall vo- is low, weak, and tranfient; the flight of the partridge
' lume of his works, Sir John Dalrymple obferves, tho’ and pheafant is but of ftrort continuance; that of the
imperfedtly collected, is one of the very few claffical dove is laboured ; that of the fparrow undulatory, &c.
compofitions in the Englifh language. The augurs pretended to foretel future events from
FLETEWOOD (William), an eminent Englith the flight of birds. See Augury.
lawyer and recorder of London, in the reign of queen Flight. In melting the lead-ore in the works at
Vot. V1L Part I. P p Mendip,
F L I r 298 ] F L O
Mendip, there is a fubltance which flie* away in the
fmoke, which they call the flight. They find it fweet-
ifh upon their lips, if their faces happen to be in the
■way of the fmoke, which they avoid as much as pof-
fible. This, falling on the grafs, kills cattle that feed
thereon ; and, being gathered, and carried home, kills
rats and mice in their houfes t that which falls on the
fand, they gather, and melt upon a flag-heat th into
fltot and fheet-lead.
FLINT, in patural hiftory, a kind of femitranfpa-
rent or quite opaque ftones; generally of a roundifli
form, and covered with white cruft; of a fmooth, uni¬
form, (hining texture; fo hard, that they will ftrike fire
with fteel; calcinable by fire, after which they become
white, friable, and, according to Henckel, heavier
than before, and folufcle by acids; vitrifiable only by
the very violent heat of the largeft fpeculums, fuch as
that of Villette, and not even by the focus of one of
Tfchirnhaufen’s letifes, according to an experiment of
Neumann. They are found generally in beds of chalk
and of fand ; but never forming entire ftrata of rock
as jafper does. By long expofure to air and the fun,
they feem to decay, to lofe their luftre, their firmnefs
of texture, and to be changed to a white calcareous
earth or chalk. Hence they are almoft always found
covered with a white chalky cruft. They are alfo con¬
vertible into a calcareous earth by fufion, or vitrirication
with fo much fixed alkali that they {hall refolve into a
liquid mafs called the liquamen or oil of flints, and by
precipitation from the fixed alkali by means of acids,
idee Chemistry, n0 1069.
This genus of ftones, or filiceous earths, Cronftedt
confiders as of an intermediate nature between the
quartz and jafper; both of which it fo nearly refembles,
that it is difficult to diftinguiflt them. Our author
chara&erifes it in the following manner : 1. It is more
uniformly folid and not fo much cracked in the mafs
as quartz, but more pellucid than the jafper. 2. It
beats the air better than the jafper, but worfe than the
quartz. 3. For the purpofe of glafs-making it is bet¬
ter than jafper, but not quite fo good as quartz.
4. Whenever it has had an opportunity of (hooting in¬
to cryftals, thofe of quartz are always found in it; as
if the quartz made one of its conftituent parts, and
had been fqueezed out of it. This may be feen in
every hollow flint and its clefts, which are always filled
up with quartz. 5. It often (hows moft evident marks
of having been originally in a foft and (limy tough
ftate like jelly.—To thefe properties the following are
added by other authors. 7. When broken, it is fcaly,
generally unequal, and cracks into thin lamellae. 8. In
a calcining heat it becomes opaque, white, and milky.
Breaking of Flints. The art of cutting, or rather
breaking, flint ftones into uniform figures, is by fome
fuppofed to be one of the arts now loft. That it was
known formerly, appears from the ancient Bridewell
at Norwich, from the 'gate of the Auguftin friars at
Canterbury, that of St John’s Abbey at Colehefter,
and the gate near Whitehall, Weftminfter. But that
the art is not loft, and that the French know it, appears
from the platform on the top of the royal obfervatory
at Paris; which, inftead of being leaded, is paved with
flint cut or broken into regular figures. But we know
aot that this art hath been any where deferibed.
Flints, in the glafs trade. The way of preparing
flints for the niceft operations in the glafs-trade is this. Flint
Choofe the hardeft flints, fuch as are black and will 1)
refill the file, and will grow white when calcined in Float
the fire. Cleanfe thefe of the white cruft that adheres *
to them, then calcine them in a ftrong fire, and throw
them while red-hot into cold water ; vvafh off the aflies
that may adhere to them, and powder them in an iron
mortar, and fift them through a very fine fieve ; pour
upon this powder fome weak aquafortis, or the phlegm
of aquafortis, to diffolve and take up any particles of
iron it may kav£ got from the mortar ; ftir this mix¬
ture feveral times, then let it reft, and in the morning
pour off the liquor, and wafli the powder feveral times
with hot water, and afterwards dry at for ufe. You
will thus have a powder for making the pureft glafs as
perfectly fine and fauhlefs as if'you had ufed rock-
cryftal itfelf.
The waffling off theTerrugineous particles with aqua¬
fortis is not neceffary when the glafs intended to be
made is to be tinged with iron afterwards ; but when
meant to be a pure white, this is the method that will
fee u re fuccefs.
' Flint, the chieftown of Flintfnire, in North Wales.
It is commodioufly feated on the river Dee ; and is
but a fmall place, though it fends one member to par¬
liament. It was formerly noted for its caftle, where
Richard II. took (belter on his arrival from Ireland ;
but having quitted it, he was taken prifoner by the
duke of Lancafter. The caftle now is in a ruinous
condition. This caftle (lands clofe to the fea on a
rock, which in various parts forms feveral feet of its
foundation. It covers about three quarters of an acre.
The affixes are dill held in the town. It is 195 miles
north-weft of London.
FLINTSHIRE, a county of Wales, bounded on
the north-eaft and call by an arm of the fea, which is
properly the mouth of the river Dee ; on the north-weft
by the Iriffi Sea ; and on the fouth fouth-weft and weft
by Denbighfliire. It is the lead of all the counties in
Wales, being but 33 miles in length and 9 in breadth.
It is divided into five hundreds ; in which are two
market-towns and 28 pariflies, with 32,400 inhabi¬
tants. The greateft part of this county lies in the
diocefe of St Afaph, and the reft belongs to that of
Chefter. It fends two members to parliament, one
for the county and one for Flint; and pays one part
of the land-tax. The air is cold, but healthful. It is
full of hills, intermixed with a few valleys, which are
very fruitful, producing fome wheat and plenty of rye.
The cows, though fmall, yield a great quantity of
milk in proportion to their fize, and are excellent beef.
The mountains are well fto ed with lead, coal, and
mill-ftones. This county alfo produces good butter,
cheefe, and hooey ; of which laft the natives make me-
theglin, a wholefome liquor much ufed in thefe parts.
FLIP, a fort of Tailors drink, made of malt liquor,
brandy, and fugar, mixed.
FLOAT, a certain quantity of timber bound to¬
gether with rafters athwart, and put into a river to be.
conveyed down the dream ; and even fometimes to
carry burdens down a river with the ftream.
Float-Boards, thofe boards fixed to water-wheels^
of under ffiot-mills, ferving to receive the impulfe of
the ftream, whereby the wheel is carried round. See
the articles Wheel and Mill.
It
FLO [ 299 1 F L O
Floats It is no advantage to have too great a number of
|| float-boards ; becaufe, when they are ail (truck by the
Floor- water in the beft manner that it can be brought to
come againft them, the fum of all the impulfes will be
but equal to the impulfe made againft one float-board
at right angles, by all the water coming out of the
penftock through the opening, fo as to take place on
the float-board. The beft rule in this cafe is, to have
juft fo many, that each of them may come out of the
water as foon as poffible, after it has received and a£t-
ed with its full impulfe. As to the length of the float-
board, it may be regulated according to the breadth
of the mill. See the article Mill.
Floats fur Ffhing. See Fishing-Floats.
FLOATAGES, all things floating on the furfacq
of the fea or any water : a word much ufed in the
cornmifiions of water-bailiffs.
Floating-Bridge. See Bridge.
Flock-Paper. See Paper.
FLOOD, a deluge or inundation of waters. See
Deluge.
Flood is alfo ufed in fpeaking of the tide. When
the water is at loweft, it is called flood; when riling,
young, or old flood ; when at higheft, high flood; when
beginning to fail, ebb-water.
Flood-mark, the mark which the fea makes on the
(hore at flowing water and the hightft tide : it is al¬
fo called high-water mark.
FLOOK of an anchor. See Anchor.
FLOORING, among miners, a term ufed to ex-
prefs a peculiarity in the load of a mine. The load
or quantity of ore is frequently intercepted in its courfe
by the croffing of a vein of earth or ftone, or fome dif¬
ferent metallic fubftance ; in which, cafe the load is
moved to one fide, and this tranfient part of the land
is called a Jlooking.
FLOOR, in building, the underfide of a room, or
that part we walk on.
Floors are of feveral forts ; fome of earth, fome of
brick, others of ftone, others of boards, &c.
For brick and ftone Floors, fee Pavement.
For boarded Floors, it is obfervable, that the car¬
penters never floor their rooms with boards till the
carcafe is fet up, and alfo inclofed with walls, left the
weather ftiould injure the flooring. Yet they general¬
ly rough-plane their boards for the flooring before
they begin any thing elfe about the building, that they
may fet them by to dry and feafon, which is done in
the moft careful manner. The beft wood for flooring
is the fine yellow deal well feafoned, which, when well
laid, will keep its colour for a long while ; whereas the
white fort becomes black by often wafhing, and looks
very bad. The joints of the boards are commonly
made plain, fo as to touch each other only ; but, when
the ftuff is mot quite dry, and the boards fliriuk, the
water runs through them whenever the floor is waih-
ed, and injures the ceiling underneath. Bor this rea-
fon they aie made with feather edges, fo as to cover
each other about half an inch, and fometimes they are
made with grooves' and tenons; and fometimes the
joints are made with dove-tails ; in which cafe the
lower edge is nailed down and the next drove into it,
fo that the nails are concealed. The manner of mea-
furing floors is by fquares of 10 feet on each fide, fo
that taking the length and breadth and multiplying
them together and cutting off two decimals, the coft- Floor,
tent of a floor in fquare will be given. Thus 18 by Flora.
16 gives 288 or 2 fquares and 88 decimal parts. y—
Earthen-Floors, are commonly made of loam, and
fometimes, efpecially to make malt on, of lime, and
brookfand, and gun-dull, or anvil-duft from the forge.
Ox-blood and fine clay, tempered together, Sir
Hugh Piat fays, make the fined floor in the world.
The manner of making earthen floors for plain
country habitations is as follows: Take two thirds of
lime, and one of coal-aflies well fifted, with a fmall
quantity of loam clay; mix the whole together, and
temper it well with water, making it up ipto a heap :
let it lie a week or ten days and then temper it over
again. After this, heap it up for three or four days,
and repeat the tempering very high, till it become
fmooth, yielding, tough, and gluey. The ground be¬
ing then levelled, lay the floor therewith about 2^ or
3 inches thick, making it fmooth with a trowel: the
hotter the feafon is, the better ; and when it is tho¬
roughly dried, it will make the. beft floor for houfes,
efpecially malt-houfes.
If any one would have their floors look better, let
them take lime made of rag-ftones, well tempered with
whites of eggs, covering the floor about half an inch
thick with it, before the under flooring is too dry. If
this be well done, and thoroughly dried, it will look
when rubbed with a little oil as tranfparent as metal
or glafs. In elegant houfes, floors of this nature are
made of ftucco, or of platter of Paris beaten and fift¬
ed, and mixed with other ingredients.
Floor of a Jhip, ftri&ly taken, is only fo much of
her bottom as (he refts on when aground.
Such fhips as have long, and withal broad floors, lie
on the ground with moft fecurity, and are not apt to
heel, or tilt on one fide; whereas others, which are
narrow in the floor, or, in the fea-phrafe, cranked by
the ground, cannot be grounded without danger of be¬
ing overturned.
FiooR-Timbers, in a fhip, are thofe parts of a (hip’s
timbers which are placed immediately acrofs the keel,
and upon which the bottom of the (hip is framed; to
thefe the upper parts of the timbers are united, being
only a continuation of floor-timbers upwards.
FLORA, the reputed goodtfs of flowers, was, ac¬
cording to Laftantius, only a lady of pleafure, who
having gained large fums of money by proftituting
herfelf, made the Roman people her heir, on condition
that certain games called Floralia might be annually
celebrated on her birth-day. Some time afterwards,
however, fuch a foundation appearing unworthy the
majefty of the Roman people, the fenate, to ennoble
the ceremony, converted Flora into a goddefs, whom
they fuppofed to prefide over flowers ; and fo made it
a part of religion to render her propitious, that it
might be well with their gardens, vineyards, &c. But
Voffius (de Idolol. lib. i. c. 12.) can by no means al¬
low the goddefs Flora to have been the courtezan a-
bove mentioned : he will rather have her a Sabine
deity, and thinks her worftiip might have commenced
under Romulus. His reafon is, that Varro, in his
fourth book of the Latin tongue, ranks Floia among
the deities to whom Tatius king of the Sabines of
fered up vows before he joined battle with the Ro¬
mans. Add, that from another paffage in Varro it
P p 2 appears,
FLO [ 300 ] FLO'
Florales appears, that there were priefts of Flora, with facri-
ii fices, &c. as early as the times of Romulus and Numa.
Florence. rfhe goddefs Flora was, according to the poets, the
v~~’ wife of Zephyrus. Her image in the temple of Caftor
and Pollux was drelfed in a clofe habit, and ftie held
in her hands the flowers of peafe and beans : but the
modern poets and painters have been more lavifh in
fetting off her charms, eonlidering that no parts of na¬
ture offered fuch innocent and exquiflte entertainment
to the fight and fmell, as the beautiful variety which
adorns, and the odour which embalms, the floral crea¬
tion.
FLORALES ludi, or Floral Games, in anti¬
quity, were games held in honour of Flora, the god¬
defs of flowers.—They were celebrated with fliameful
debaucheries. The moft licentious difcourfes were not
enough, but the courtefans were called together by
the found of a trumpet, made their appearance na¬
ked, and entertained the people with indecent fhows
and poftures: the comedians appeared after the fame
manner on the ftage. Val. Maximus relates, that Cato
being once prefent in the theatre on this occafion,
the people were afhamed to aflc for fuch immodeft re-
prefentations in his prefence ; till Cato, apprifed of
the refervednefs and refpeft with which he infpired
them, withdrew, that the people might not be difap-
pointed of their accuftomed diverfion. There were fe-
veral other forts of fhows exhibited on this occafion ;
and, if we may believe Suetonius in Galba, c. vi. and
Vopifcus in Carims, thefe princes prefented elephants
dancing on ropes on thefe occafions.
The ludi florales, according to Pliny, lib. xviii. c.
29. were inftitutedby order of an oracle of the Sibyls,
on the 28th of April; not in the year of Rome
idxvi. as we commonly read it in the ancient editions
of that author ; nor in ioxiv. as F. Hardouin has
correfted it, but, as Vofiius reads it, in 515. Though
they were not regularly held every year till after 580.
They were chiefly held in the night-time, in the Pa¬
trician-ftreet : fome will have it there was a circus for
the purpofe on the hill called Hortulorum.
FLORALIA, in antiquity, a general name for the
feafts, games, and other ceremonies, held in honour of
the goddefs Flora. See Flora and Florales Ludi.
FLORENCE, the capital of the duchy ofTufcany,
and one of the finelt cities in Italy. It is furrounded
on all fides but one with high hills, which rife infen-
fibly, and at laft join with the lofty mountains called
the Apennines. Towards Pifa, there is a vaft plain of
40 miles in length ; which is fo filled with villages and
pleafure-houfes, that they feem to be a continuation of
the fuburbs of the city. Independent of the churches
and palaces of Florence, molt of which are very
magnificent, the architecture of the houfes in general
is in a good tafte ; and the ftreets are remarkably clean,
and paved with large broad Hones chifeled fo as to
prevent the horfes from Aiding. The city is divided
into two unequal parts by the river Arno, over which
there are no lefs than four bridges in fight of each
other. That called the Ponte della Trinita, which is un¬
commonly elegant, is built entirely of white marble,
and ornamented with four beautiful ftatues reprefent-
ing the Seafons. The quays, the buildings on each
fide, and the bridges, render that part of Florence
through which the river runs by far the finell, Eve¬
ry corner of this beautiful city is full of wonders in Florence;
the arts of painting, ftatuary, and architecture. The  v  
ftreets, fquares, and fronts of the palaces are adorned
with a great number of ftatues; fome of them by the
beft modern mailers, Michael Angelo, Bandinelli, Do¬
natello, Giovanni di Bologna, Benvenuto Cellini, and
others. Some of the Florentine merchants formerly
were men of vaft wealth, and lived in a moft magni¬
ficent manner. One of them, about the middle of the
fifteenth century, built that noble fabric, which, from
the name of its founder, is ftill called the Palazzo Pitti.
The man was ruined by the prodigious expence of this
building, which was immediately purchafed by the
Medici family, and has continue^ ever fince to be the
rtfidence of the fovereigns. The gardens belonging
to this palace are on the declivity of an eminence. On
the fummit there is a kind of fort, called Belvedere.
From this, and from fome of the higher walks, you-
have a complete view of the city of Florence, and the
beauteous vale of Arno, in the middle of which it
Hands. This palace has been enlarged fince it wa*
purchafed from the ruined family of Pitti. The fur¬
niture is rich and curious, particularly fome tables of
Florentine work, which are much admired. The
moft precious ornaments, however, are the paintings.
The walls of what is called the Imperial Chamber, are
painted in frefco, by various painters; the fubjedls are
allegorical, and in honour of Lorenzo of Medicis di-
ftinguilhed by the name of the Magnificent. The fa¬
mous gallery attracts every ftranger. One of the moft
interefting parts of it,, in the eyes of many, is the fe-
ries of Roman emperors, from Julius Caefar to Gal-
lienus, with a confiderable number of their empreftes,.
arranged oppofite to them. This feries is almoft com¬
plete ; but wherever the buft of an emperor is wanting,
the place is filled up by that of fome other diftinguilh-
ed Roman. The celebrated Venus of Medici, which,
take it all in all, is thought to be the ftandard of tafte
in female beauty and proportion. Hands in a room cal¬
led the Tribunal. The infcription on its bafe men¬
tions its being made by Cleomenes an Athenian, the
fon of Apollodorus. It is of white marble, and fur-
rounded by other mafter-pieces of fculpture, fome of
which are faid to be the works of Praxiteles and other
Greek mailers. In the fame room are many valuable
curiofities, befides a colle&ion of admirable pictures
by the beft mailers. There are various other rooms,
whofe contents are indicated by the names they bear ;
as, the Cabinet of Arts, of Aftronomy, of Natural
Hillory, of Medals, of Porcelain, of Antiquities ; the
Saloon of the Hermaphrodite, fo called from a ftatue
which divides the admiration of the amateurs with,
that in the Borghefe village at Rome, though the ex¬
cellence of the execution is difgraced by the vilenefs
of the fubjeft; and the Gallery of Portraits, which con¬
tains the portraits of the moft eminent painters (all ex¬
ecuted by themfelves) who have flourilhed in Europe
during the three laft centuries. Our limits will not
admit of a detail of the hundredth part of the curio¬
fities and buildings of Florence. We mull not how¬
ever omit mentioning the chapel of St Lorenzo, as
being perhaps the fineft and moft expenfive habitation
that ever was reared for the dead ; it is encrufted with
precious Hones, and adorned by the workmanlhip of
the beft modern fculptors. Mr Addifon remarked.
FLO [ 301 ] FLO
^Florence, that this chapel advanced fo very flowly, that it is not
  impoffible but the family of Medicis may be extindl
before their burial-place is fmilhed. This has a&ually
taken place : the Medici family is extinft, and the
chapel remains Hill unfiniflied.
Florence is a place of fome ftrength, and contains
an archbilhop’s fee and an univerfity. The number of
inhabitants is calculated at 80,000. They boaft of
the improvements they have made in the Italian tongue,
by means of their Academia della Crufca ; and feveral
other academies are noweftablilhed at Florence. Though
the Florentines affedt great ftate, yet their nobility and
gentry drive a retail trade in wine, which they fell from
their cellar-windows, and fometimes they even hang out
a broken flalk, as a iign where it may be bought. They
deal, befides wine and fruits, in gold and filver fluffs.
The Jews are ncft held in that degree of odium, orfub-
jefted to the fame humiliating diflinftions here, as in
moft other cities of Europe ; and it is faid that fome
of the richeft merchants are of that religion.
As to the manners and amufements of the inhabi¬
tants, Dr Moore informs us, that “ befides the con-
veffanionis which they have here, as in other towns of
Italy, a number of the nobility meet every day at a
houfe called the Cafino. This fociety is pretty much
on the fame footing with the clubs in London. The
members are ele&ed by ballot. They meet at no par¬
ticular hour, but go at any time that is convenient.
They play at billiards, cards, and other games, or con¬
tinue converfing the whole evening, as they think pro¬
per. They are ferved with, tea, coffee, lemonade, ices,
or what other refrefhments they choofe ; and each perfon
pays for what he calls for. There is one material dif¬
ference between this and the Englifh clubs, that wo¬
men as well as men are members. The company of
both fexes behave with more franknefs and familiarity
to ftrangers, as well as to each other, than is cuftomary
in public affemblies in other parts of Italy. The opera
is a place where the people of quality pay and receive
vifits, and converfe as freely as at the Cafino above
mentioned. This occaflons a continual paffing and re¬
pairing to and from the boxes, except in thofe where
there is a party of cards formed 'r it is then looked on
as a piece of ill manners to difturb the players. From
this it may be gueffed, that here, as in fome other
towns in Italy, little attention is paid to the mufic by
the company in the boxes, except at a new opera, or
during fome favourite air. But the dancers command
a general attention 1 as foon as they begin, converfa-
tion ceafes; even the card-players lay down their cards,
and fix their eyes on the ballette. Yet the excellence of
Italian dancing feems to confift in feats of ftrength,
and a kind of jerking agility, more than in graceful
movement. There is a continual conteft among the
performers, who fhall fpring higheft. You fee here
none of the fprightly alluring gaiety of the French
comic dancers, nor of the graceful attitudes and fmooth
flowing motions of the performers in the ferious opera
at Paris. It is furprifing, that a people of fuch tafle
and fenfibility as the Italians, fhould prefer a parcel of
athletic jumpers to elegant dancers. On the evenings
on which there is no opera, it is ufual for the genteel
company to drive to a public walk immediately without
the city, where they remain till it begins to grow
dufkifh.” E. Long. 12. 24. N. Lat. 43.34.
5
Florence, an ancient piece of Englifh gold-coin. Florentsa
Every pound-weight of ftandard-gold was to be coined H
into 50 Florences to be current at fix fhiilings each ; Florida,
all which made in tale 15 pounds; or into a propor- —v——
tionate number of half-Florences or quarter-pieces, by
indenture of the mint: 18 Edw. III.
FLORENTIA (anc. geog.),, a town of Etruria,
on the Arnus ; of great note in- Sylla’s wars. Now
called Floren%a or Firenza by the Italians ; Florence
in Englifh. E. Long. 1 (. Lat 43. 30.
FLORENTINE marble. See Citadanesca.
FLOREbCEN 1IA (fromJloreJco, “ to flourifh or
bloom”) ; the aft of flowering, which Linnseus and
the fexualifts compare to the aft of generation in ani¬
mals ; as the ripening of the fruit in their opinion re-
fembles the birth. See Flower.
FLORID style, is that too much enriched with*
figures and flowers of rhetoric.
FLORIDA, the molt foutherly province of the
Britifh empire in America before the lafl war, bound¬
ed on the fouth by the Gulf of Mexico, on the north,
by the Apalachian mountains, on the eaft by the pro¬
vince of Georgia, and on the weft by the river Miflif-
fippi. It was firft difeovered, in 1497, by Sebaltian
Cabot, a Venetian, then in the Englifh fervice ; whence
a right to the country was claimed by the kings of
England ; and this province, as well as Georgia, were
included in the charter granted by Charles II. to Ca¬
rolina. In 1512, however, Florida was more fully
difeovered by Ponce de Leon, an able Spanifh naviga¬
tor, but who undertook his voyage from the moft ab-
furd motives that can be well imagined.—The Indians
of the Caribbee iflands had among them a tradition,,
that fomewhere on the continent there was a fountain
whofe waters had the property of reftoring youth to all
old men who tafted them. The romantic imaginations,
of the Spaniards were delighted with this idea. Many
embarked in voyages to find out this imaginary foun¬
tain, who were never afterwards heard of. Their fu--
perftitious countrymen never imagined that thefe peo¬
ple had perifhed. They concluded that they did not
return, only becaufe they had drunk of the immorta¬
lizing liquor, and had difeovered a fpot fo delightful,
that they did not choofe to leave it Ponce de Leon
fet out with this extravagant view as well as others, and
fully perfuaded of the exiftence of a third world, the
conqueft of which was to immortalize his name. In
the attempt to difeover this country, he redifeovered
Florida; but returned to the place from whence he came,
vifibly more advanced in years than when he fet out.—
For fome time this country was neglefted by the Spa¬
niards, and fome Frenchmen fettled in it. But the
new colony being neglefted by the miniftry, and
Philip II. of Spain having accuftomed himfelf to think
that he was the foie proprietor of America, fitted out
a fleet at Cadiz to deftroy them. His orders were exe¬
cuted with barbarity. The French entrenchments were
forced, and moft of the people killed. The prifoners
were hanged on trees; with this infeription, Not as
Frenchmen, but as Heretics.”
This cruelty was foon after revenged by Dominic de-
Gourgues, a fkilful and intrepid feaman of Gafcony,
an enemy to the Spaniards, and paffionately fond of
hazardous expeditions and of glory. He fold his eftate;
built fome Ihips; and with a feleft band of adventurers
FLO C 302 ] FLO
Florile- like himfelf, embarked for Florida. He drove the
Eium Spaniards from ail their pofts with incredible valour
.11. . and a&ivity 5 defeated them in every rencounter; and,
Fl'innntn. way 0j- retaliation, hung, the prifoners on trees,
1 wjtt, this infcription, “ Not as Spaniards, but as
A^^a^^Ins.,, This expedition was attended with no
ether confequences: Gourgues blew up the forts he
had taken, and returned home, where no notice was
taken of him. It was conquered in 1539, by the
Spaniards under Ferdinand de Soto, not >vithout a
great deal of bloodfhed ; as the natives were very war¬
like, and made a vigorous refinance. The fettlement,
however, was not fully eftablilhed till the year 1665 ;
when the town of St Augulline, the capital of the
colony while it remained in the hands of the Spaniards,
was founded. In 1586, this place was taken and
pillaged by Sir Francis Drake. It met with the fame
fate in 1665, being taken and plundered by Captain
Davis and a body of buccaneers. In 1702, an at¬
tempt was made upon it by Colonel More, governor
of’ Carolina. He fet out with 500 Englifh- and 700
Indians; and having reached St Auguitine, he be-
fieyed it for three months ; at the expiration of which,
the Spaniards having fent fome Ihips to the relief of
the place, he was obliged to retire. In *740, ano¬
ther attempt was made by General Oglethorpe : but
he being outwitted by the Spanifh governor, was forced
to raife the liege with 1. fs; and Florida continued in
the hands of the Spaniards till the year 1763, when
it was ceded by treaty to Great Britain.—During the
laft ,war it was again reduced by his Catholic majefty,
and was guaranteed to the crown of Spain at the peace.
FLORILEGIUM, Florilegf, a name the La¬
tins have given to what the Greeks call an.
thalogy; viz. a collection of choice pieces, containing
the tineft and brighteft things in their kind.
Florilege is alfo particularly ufed for a kind of
breviary, in the Eallern church, compiled by Arcadius,
• for the conveniency of the Greek priefts and monks,
who cannot carry with them, in their travels and pil¬
grimages, all the volumes wherein their office is dif-
perfed. The florilegium contains the general rubrics,
pfalter, canticles, the horologium, and the office of
the feria:, &c.
FLORIN, is fometimes ufed for a coin, and fome-
times for a money of account.
Florin, as a coin, is of different values, according
to the different metals and different countries where it
is ftruck. The gold florins are moll of them of a very
coarfe alloy, fome of them not exceeding thirteen or
fourteen carats, and none of them feventeen and a
half. See Money- Table.
Florin, as a money of account, is ufed by the Italian,
Dutch, and German merchants and bankers, but ad¬
mits of different divifions in different places. Ibid.
FLORINIANI, or Floriani, a fed of heretics,
of the fecond century, denominated from its author
Florinus, or Florianus, a prieft of the Roman church,
•depofed along with Blaltus for his errors. Florinus had
been a difeiple of St Polycarp, along with Irenaeus.
He made God the author of evil; or rather afferted,
that the things forbidden by God are not evil, but of
-his own appointing. In which he followed the errors
of Valentinus, and j lined himfelf with the Carpocra-
tians. They had alfo other names given them. Plii-
lallrius fays, they were the fame with the Carpophoriant. Florh
He adds, that they were alio called foldiers, miiites, quia H
de militarilus fuerunt. St Irenxus calls them Gncjiics ; Flota.
St Epiphanius, Phibionites; and Theodoret, Borborites, '* f
on account of the impurities of their lives. Others
call them Zaccheans ; others Cocldians, &c. though for
what particular real’ons, it is not eafy to fay, nor per¬
haps would it be worth while to inquire.
FLORIS (Francis), an eminent hiltorical painter,
was born at Antwerp in 1520. He followed the pro-r
feffion of a flatuary till he was twenty years of age ;
when preferring painting, he entered the fchool -of
Lambert Lombard, whofe manner he imitated very
perfectly. He afterwards went to Italy, and completed
his ttudies from the moft eminent mailers. The great
progrefs he made in hillorical painting, at his return
procured him much employment ; and his countrymen
complimented him with the flattering appellation of
the Flemijh Raphael. He got much mcney, and might
have rendered bis acquaintance more worthy of the at¬
tention of the great, had he not debated himfeif by
frequent drunkennefs. He died 1570, aged 50.
FLORIST, a perfon curious or lit died in flowers';
their kinds, names, charafters, culture, &c. It is al¬
fo applied to an author who writes what is called the
flora of any particular place, that is, a catalogue of
the plants and trees which are found fpontaneoufly
growing there.
FLORUS (Lucius Annxus), a Latin hiftorian, of
the fame family with Seneca and Lucan. He flou-
riflied in the reigns of Tujan and Adrian; and wrote
an Abridgment of the Roman Hiitory, of which there
have been many editions. It is compofed in a florid
and poetical llyle ; and is rather a panegyric on many
of the great aftions of the Romans, than a faithful
and correct recital of their hiilory. He alfo wrote
poetry, and entered the lilts againil the emperor Adri¬
an, who fativically reproached him with frequenting
taverns and places of diffipation.
FLORY, Flowry, or Fleury, in heraldry, a crofs
that Fas the flowers at the end circumflex and turning
down ; differing from the potence, in as much as the
latter ftretches out more like that which is called patee.
FLOS, Flower, in botany. See Flower.
Famineus Flos, a flower which is furnifhed with the
pointal or female organs of generation, but wants the
flamina or male organ. Female flowers may be produ¬
ced apart from the male, either on the fame root or on
diltintt plants. Birch and mulberry are examples of
the firil cafe ; willow and poplar of the fecond.
Mafculus Flos, a male flower. By this name Lin¬
naeus and the fexualifts diftinguilh a flower which con¬
tains the ftasien, reckoned by the fexualifts the male
organ of geneiation ; but not the ftigma or female or¬
gan. All the plants of the clafs dicecia of Linnaeu*
have male and female flowers upon different roots : thofe
of the clafs monoecia bear flowers of different fexes on
the fame root. The plants, therefore, of the former
are only male and female : thofe of the latter are an¬
drogynous; that is, contain a mixture of both male
and female flowers.
Flos, in chemiftry, the moft; fubtile part of bodies
feparated from the more grofs parts by fublimation in
a dry form.
FLOTA, or Flotta, j?£c/ ; a name the Spaniard*
give
FLO [ 303 ] FLO
Flotfon give particularly to the fliips which they fend annually
!i from Cadiz to the port of Vera Cruz, to fetch thence
Flo',r' the merchandizes gathered in Mexico for .Spain. It
' v confitts of the captains, admiral, and patach, or pin¬
nace, which go on the king’s account; and about 16
{hips, from 400 to 1OOO tons, belonging to particular
perfons. They fet out from Cadiz about the month
of Auguft, and are 18 or 20 months before they re¬
turn. Thofe fent to fetch the commodities prepared
in Peru are called galleons.
The name flotilla is given to a number of (hips, which
get before the reft in their return, and give informa¬
tion of the departure and cargo of the flota and gal¬
leons.
FLOTSON, or Flotsom, goods that by {hip-
wreck are loft, and floating upon the fea; which,
with jetfon and lagan, are generally given to the lord
admiral: but this is the cafe only where the owners
of fuch goods are not known. And here it is to be
obferved, that jetfon fignifies any thing that is caft
out of a (hip when in danger, and afterwards is beat
on the fhore by the water, notwithftanding which the
{hip perifhes. Lagan is where heavy goods are thrown
overboard, before the wreck of the (hip, and fink to
the bottom of the fea.
FLOUNDER, Fluke, or But, in ichthyology.
See Pleurovectes.
Flounders may be fifhed for all day long, either in
a fwift ftream, or in the ftill deep water ; but beft in
the ftream, in the months of April, May, June, and
July : the moft proper baits are all forts of worms,
w'afps, and gentles.
FLOUR, the meal of wheat-corn, finely ground
and fifted. See Meal.
The grain itfdf is not only fubjed to be eaten by
infedts in that Hate ; but, when ground into flour, it
gives birth to another race of deftroyers, who eat it
unmercifully, and increafe fo fail in it, that it is not
long before they wholly deftroy the fubftance. The
fineft flour is mbft liable\o breed thefe, efpecially when
Itale or ill prepared. In this cafe, if it be examined
in a good light, it will be obferved to be in continual
motion, and -on a nicer infpeftion there will be found
in it a great number of little animals of the colour of
the flour, and very nimble. If a little of this flour
is laid on the plate of the double microfcope, the in-
feds are very diftin&ly feen in great numbers, very
briflc and lively, continually crawling over one ar.o-
thers backs, and playing a thoufand antic tricks to¬
gether ; whether in diverfion, or in fearch of food, is
not eafy to be determined. Thefe animals are of an
oblong and {lender form; their heads are furniftied
with a kind of trunk or hollow tube, by means of
which they take in their food, and their body is com-
pofed of feveral rings. They do vaft mifchief among
magazines of flour laid up for armies and other pub¬
lic ufes. When they have once taken pofleflion of a
parcel of this valuable commodity, it is impofiible to-
drive them out; and they increafe fo fall, that the
only method of preventing the total lofs of the parcel
is to make it up into bread as foon as can be done.
The way to prevent their breeding in the flour is to
preferve it from damp : nothing gets more jnjury by
being put up in damp than flour ; and yet nothing is
more frequently put up fo. It fhould be always care¬
fully and thoroughly dried before it is-put up ; and Uower.
the barrels alfo dried into which it is to be put ; then, —-v—"
if they are placed in a room tolerably warm and dry,
they will keep it well. Too dry a place never does
flour any hurt, though one too moift almoft always
fpoik it.
Flour, when carefully analyfed, is found to be com-
pofed of three very different fubftances. The firft and
moft abundant is pure flarch, or white fecute, info-
luble in cold but foluble in hot water, and of the
nature of mucous fubrtances ; which, when diffolved,
form water-glues. The fecond is the gluten, moft of
whofe properties have been defcribed under the article
Bread. The third is of a mild nature, perfectly
foluble in cold water, of the nature of faccharine ex¬
tractive mucous matters- It is fufceptible of the fpi-
rituous fermentation, and is found but in fmall quantity
in the flour of wheat. See Bread, Gluten, Starch,
and Sugar-
FLOWER, Flos, among botanifts and gardeners,
the moft beautiful part of trees and plants, containing
the organs or parts of fructification. See Botany,
p. 427—429, and explanation of Plate CIII. in p. 439,
col. i. See alfo p. 441, col. 1.
Flowers, defigned for medicinal ufe, fhould be pluck¬
ed when they are moderately blown, and on a clear
day before noon : for conferves, rofes muft be taken in
the bud.
Flowers, in antiquity. We find flowers in great
requeft at the entertainments of the ancients, being pro¬
vided by the mailer of the feail, and brought in before
the fecond courfe ; or, as fome are of opinion, at the
beginning of the entertainment. They not only a-
dorned their heads, necks, and breads, with flowers,
but often beftrewed the beds whereon they lay, and all
parts of the room with them. But the head was chief¬
ly regarded. See Garland.
Flowers were likewife ufed in the bedecking, of
tombs. See Burial.
Eternal Flower. See Xeranthemum.
Everlafling Flower. See Gnaphalium.
FlowER-Fence. See Poinciana.
Suh-Flower. See Helianthus.
Sultan-pLowER. See Cyan us.
Trumpet-Flower. See Bignonia.
Wind-Flower- See Anemone.
FiowER-de-lis, or Flower-de-luce, in heraldry, a bear¬
ing reprefenting the lily, called the queen of flowers, and-
the true hieroglyphic of royal majefty ; but of late it
is become more common, being borne in fome coats
one, in others three, in others five, and in fomefe-
mee or fpiead all over the efcutcheon in great numbers.
The arms of France are, three fiower-de-lis or, in a
field azure.
Flower-de-Luce. See Iris.
Flowers, in heraldry. They are much ufed m;
coats of arms; and in general fignify hope, or de¬
note human frailty and momentaiy profperity.
Flowers, in chemiftry. By this name are general¬
ly underftood bodies reduced into very fine parts, ei¬
ther fpontaneoufly, or by fome operation of art; but
the term is chiefly applied to volatile folid fubllances,
reduced into very fine parts, or into a kind of meal by
fubbrnation.— Some flowers are nothing elfe than the
bodies themfelves, which are fublimed entire, without
FLO [ 3°4 J FLO
Flowers, fuffentig any alteration or decompofnion ; and other
v flowers are fome of the conftituent parts of the body
fubje&ed to fublimation.
Colours of Flow As. See the article Colour (of
Plants).
Colours extradedfrom Floiters. See Colour-Making,
n° 40.
Preferring of Floiters. The method of preferving
flowers in their natural beauty through the whole year
has been much fought after by many people. Some
have attempted it by gathering them when dry and not
too much opened, and burying them in dry fand ; but
this, though it preferves their figure well, takes off
from the li.velinefs of their colour. Muntingius pre¬
fers the following method to all others. Gather ro-
fes, or other flowers, when they are not yet thorough¬
ly open, in the middle of a dry day- put them into a
good earthen vefiel glazed within; fill the veflel up to
the top with them ; and when full fprinkle them over
■with fome good French wine, with a little fait in it;
then fet them by in a cellar, tying down the mouth
of the pot- After this they may be taken out at plea-
fure; and, on fetting them in the fun, or within
reach of the fire, they will open as if growing natural¬
ly ; and not only the colour, but the iinell alfo will be
preferved.
The flowers of plants are by much the moft difficult
parts of them to preferve in any tolerable degree of
perfe&ion ; of which we have in (lances in all the col-
leftions of dried plants, or horti fed. In thefe the
leaves, ftalks, roots, and feeds of the plants appear
very well preferved ; the ftrong texture of thefe parts
making them always retain their natural form, and
the colours in many fpecies naturally remaining. Bat
where thefe fade, the plant is little the worfe for ufe as
to the knowing the fpecies by it. But it is very much
otherwife in regard to flowers: thefe are naturally by
much the moft beautiful parts of the plants to which
they belong ; but they are fo much injured in the com¬
mon way of drying, that they not only lofe, but change
their colours one into another, by which means they
give a handle to many errors ; and they ufually alfo
wither up, fo as to lofe their very form and natural
ftiape. The primrofe and cowflip kinds are very emi¬
nent inftances of the change of colours in the flowers
of dried fpecimens : for thofe of this clafs of plants ea-
fily dry in their natural (hape ; but they lofe their yel¬
low, and, inftead of it, acquire a fine green colour,
much fuperior to that of the leaves in their moft per¬
fect ftate. The flowers of all the violet kind lofe
their beautiful blue, and become of a dead white : fo
that in dried fpecimens there is no difference between
the blue-flowered violet and the white-flowered kinds.
Sir Robert Southwell has communicated to the world
a method of drying plants, by which this defefit is
propofed to be in a great meafure remedied, and all
flowers preferved in their natural lhape, and. many in
their natural colours.—For this purpofe two plates of
iron are to be prepared of the fize of a large half-iheet
of paper, or larger, for particular occafions: thefe
plates muft be made fo thick as not to be apt to bend;
and there muft be a hole made near every corner
for the receiving a ferew to fallen them clofe together.
When thefe plates are prepared, lay in readinefs feve-
ral ftieets of paper, and then gather the plants with
N°128.
their flowers when they are quite perfedl. Let this be Fl -wer*.
always done in the middle of a dry day ; and then lay  » 'J
the plant and its flower on one of the (heets of paper
doubled in half, fpreading out all the leaves and petals
as nicely as poflible. If the ftalk is thick, it muft be
pared or cut in half, fo that it may lie flat; and if it
is woody, it may be peeled, and only the bark left.
When the plant is thus expanded, lay round about it
fome loofe leaves and petals of the flower, which may
ferve to complete any part that is deficient. When all
is thus prepared, lay feveral (heets of paper over the
plant, and as many under it; then put the whole be¬
tween the iv>n plates, laying the papers fmoothly on
one, and laying the other evenly over them : ferew
them clofe, and put them into an oven after the bread
is drawn, and let them lie there two hours. After
that, make a mixture of equal parts of aquafortis and
common brandy ; (hake thefe well together, and when
the flowers are taken out of the preffure of the plates,
rub them lightly over with a camel’s-hair pencil dipped
in this liquor; then lay them upon fre(h brown paper,
and covering them with fome other (heets, prefs them
between this and other papers with a handkerchief till
the wet of thefe liquors is dried wholly away. When
the plant is thus far prepared, take the bulk of a nut¬
meg of gum-dragon; put this into a pint of fair wa¬
ter cold, and let it (land 24 hours ; it will in this time
be wholly diflblved : then dip a fine hair-pencil in this
liquor, and with it daub over the back fides of the
leaves, and lay them carefully down on a half-flieet of
white paper fairly expanded, and prefs them down
with fome more papers over thefe. When the gum-
water is fixed, let the preffure and papers be removed,
and the whole work is finilhed. The leaves retain their
verdure in this cafe, and the flowers ufually keep
their natural colours. Some care, however, muft be
taken, that the heat of the oven be not too great.
When the flowers are thick and bulky, fome art may
be ufed to pare off their backs, and difpofe the pe¬
tals in a due order; and after this, if any of them
are wanting, their places may be fupplied with fome
of the fupernumerary ones dried on purpofe ; and if
any of them are only faded, it will be prudent to take
them away, and lay down others in their dead: the
leaves may be alio difpofed and mended in the fame
manner.
Another method of preferving both flowers and fruit
found throughout the whole year is alfo given by the
fame author. Take faltpetre one pound; armenian
bole, two pounds; clean common fand, three pounds.
Mix all well together ; then gather fruit of any kind
that is not fully ripe, with the ftalk to each; put thefe
in, one by one, into a wide-mouthed glafs, laying
them in good order. Tie over the top with an oil¬
cloth, and carry them into a dry cellar, and fet the
whole upon a bed of the prepared matter of four inches
thick in a box. Fill up the remainder of the box with
the fame preparation ; and let it be four inches thick
all over the top of the glafs, and all round its fides.
Flowers are to be preferved in the fame fort of glaffes,
and in the fame manner; and they may be taken up
after a whole year as plump and fair as when they were
buried.
Flowers (artificial) of the Chinefe. See Tong-
tsao.
Flowers,
FLO [ 3°J ] FLO
Flowers, Flowers, in chemiftry, are the fined and mod is feen all the while, and they are managed better as to Covering-.
Flowering, fubtle parts of dry bodies, raifed by fire, into the veffel’s the fupply of water.
v.—y- head and aludels ; and adhering to them in form of a "
fine powder or dud. Such are the flowers of fulphur,
benjamin, &c.
Flowers, in the animal economy, denote womens
monthly purgations or menfes.—Nicod derives the
word in this fehfe from jluere, q. d. jluovs. Others
will have the name occafioned hence, that women do
By repeated-experiments in this way on dried bulbs,
and on thofe taken frefli out of^the ground, the former
have been found to fucceed the bed. For thofe taken
frefh out of the ground being full of moidure, will not
fo foon, upon changing their element, be nourifhed
fully by a new ©ne ; and the fibres which they had
druck in the ground, always rot when put into the
not conceive till they have had their flowers; fo that water, and new ones mud be formed in their places ;
thefe are a fort of forerunners of their fruit. fo that it requires more time for them to come to flow-
Flowers, in rhetoric, are figures or ornaments of ering. The bulbs themfelves will not rot in this man-
difeourfe, by the Latins called flofculi. ner ; but they will never be fo drong as thofe which
FLOWERING of Bulbous Plants. 'Thefe plants were put into the water dry, which gradually fill
will grow and flower in water alone, without any earth, themfelves with moidure from it, and regularly plump
and make ,3 very elegant ’appearance. We daily fee up. The bed method of managing the whole pro-
this pradtifed in Angle roots ; but there is a method of cefs is this : Place the bulbs at fird only on the
doing it with feveral roots in the fame veffel. Take
common fmall garden-pot; dop the hole at the bot¬
tom with a cork, and lute in the cork with putty, that
no water can get through ; then fit a board to the top
of the pot, and bore fix or feven holes in it at equal
didances, to place the bulbs in ; and as many fmaller
ones near them to receive dicks, which will ferve to
furface of the water; for thus they will '{trike out
their fibres mod drongly. When they have dood
thus fix weeks, pour in the water fo high as to cover
them entirely, and keep them thus till they have done
flowering.
Sometimes the roots will become mouldy in feveral
parts while they dand above the water, and the clean-
tie up the flowers. Then fill up the pot with water to ing them of it is to no purpofe ; for it will eat and
the board ; and place tulips, jonquils, narciflus’s, and fpread the farther, and frequently eat through two or
the like plants in the root upon the holes, fo that the three of their coats. In this cafe they mud be imme-
bottom of the roots may touch the water: thus will diately covered with water; when the mould will be
they all flower early in the feafon, and be much more flopped, and the roots become found, and flovver as
beautiful than any pot of gathered flowers, and will well as thofe which never had any fuch didemper. If
lad many weeks in their full perfection. After the the roots are fuffered to remain in water all the year.
feafon of flowering is
, the roots will gradually they will not decay; but will flower again at their
fir rink through the holes of the board, and get loofe in- proper feafon, and that as vigoroufly as thofe which
to the water : but, indead of being fpoiled there, they have been taken out and dried. The old fibres of
will foon increafe in fize ; fo that they cannot return
through the holes, and will produce feveral ofif-fets. It
is natural to try from this the confequence of keeping
the roots under water during the whole time of their
blowing ; and in this way they have been found to fuc¬
ceed very well, and flower even flronger and more
beautifully than when in the ground. They may thus,
alfo, with proper care in the degree of heat in the
room, be kept flowering from before Chridmas till
March or April. It is not eafy, in this lad manner,
to manage the keeping the boards under water, for
thofe roots never rot' till they are ready to pufli forth
new ones. It is found by experience, that the hya¬
cinth, and many other plants, grow to a greater de¬
gree of perfe&ion when thus in water than when in
the ground. There is a peculiar fpecies of hyacinth
called Keyfer’s jewel; this never, or very rarely, pro¬
duces feed-veflels in the common way of flowering in
the ground ; but it will often produce fome pods when
blown in water.
Mr Millar has intimated, in the Philofophical Tranf-
aftions, that bulbs fet in glafles grow weaker, and
which reafon, it is better to procure fome flreet-lead of flrould be renewed every other year : but it is found,
about four pounds to the foot, and cut this to the fize that, when managed in this manner, and kept under
of the mouth of the pot. In this there fliould be bo¬
red holes for the bulbs, and other holes for the dicks:
and, in order to keep the dicks quite firm, it is pro¬
per to have another plate of lead draped to the bottom
of the pot, with holes in it; anfwering to thofe of the
water, at the time of taking them up, they are ,
large, and fome of them larger, than when planted {
and if thefe be dried at a proper feafon, they will flow¬
er, year after year, as well as frefli ones.
Ranunculus and anemone roots have been found to
upper plate made for the dicks. The dicks will by Ihoot up their flalks very well in this way; but the
this means be always kept perfeclly deady ; and the flowers are ufually bladed, which feems to arife from
roots, being kept under water by the upper plate of want of free air. Pinks will flower very well in this
lead, will flower in the mod vigorous and beautiful manner; auriculas alfo may, with care, be brought to
manner imaginable. —Some have thought of adding to flower, but not firongly. Rofes, jefiamines,‘and honey-
the virtues of the water by putting in nitre in fmall fuckles, may alfo be made to flower this way, and will
quantities, and others have added earth and fand at the thrive and fend out fuckers ; the bed pieces to plant,
Bottom ; but it has always been found to fucceed bet- are fuckers cut off about three inches under ground,
ter without any addition. ~:‘x—^ r:' 
l>may be more agreeable to fome to ufe glafs-jar
in this lad method with the leads, inflead of earthen 0 „ .
pots. The bulbs fucceed full as well as thefe ; and laid by to dry for a month till it is an abfolute flun,
there is this advantage, that the progrefs of the roots as foon as it is put in this manner into water, it be-
Vol. VII. Parti. Qjj gins
without any fibres. The fucculent plants may alfo be
raifed this way ; for indance, the opuntia or Indian
fig. If a fragment of a leaf of this plant be Cut, and
FLO [3°6] FLU
Flowering. £ms to plump up, and foon fends out fibrous roots, be carefully cleaned from any foulnefies at the bot- Flowering
and produces new leaves as quickly as it would do in
the ground.
This is the more Angular in thefe fort of plants,
becaufe in their natural ftate in the ground, they
cknnot bear much water. This method of growing
in water is not peculiar to the bulbous-rooted ones,
but others may even be raifed from feed by it. A
bean or pea, fet in this manner, will grow up to its
proper llandard, and will flower and produce pods
which will ripen their feed. The fmaller feeds may be
alfo raifed in this manner, by the help of wool to, fup-
port them.
No vegetable tranfplanted out of the earth into wa¬
ter will thrive kindly; but any plant, whether raifed
from the root or feed in water, may be tranfplanted to
the earth, and will fucceed very well. It may be pof-
fible, therefore, from this method of raifing plants in
water, to come at a better way than is ufually pra&i-
fed of raifing fome roots in the earth which are fub-
jeA to rot there ; fuch as anemonies, ranunculus’s,
and hyacinths. A bulb dropped by chance upon the
ground, will ftrike out both ftronger and more nume¬
rous fibres than thofe which are planted in the ufual
way in the ground. On this principle, it may be
proper to take out the earth of the bed where the
bulbs are to Hand at the time of planting them, to
fuch a depth as they are to be placed under it when
fet for flowering. The bulbs are then to be fet in their
places, on the furface of this low ground ; and to
Hand there till they have fhot out their fibres and their
head : then the earth is to be added over them by de¬
grees, till they are covered as high above the head as
they are in the ufual mariner of planting them : thus
they would be preferred from the danger of rotting ;
and their fibres would be much llronger, and' confe-
quently they would draw more nourifhment, and
flower better, than in the common way. The com¬
mon method of planting thefe roots renders them li¬
able to be deftroyed by either extreme of a wet or a
dry feafon. In the firft cafe, they immediately rot by
the abundant moifture they receive ; and, in the fe-
cpnd, they become dry as a flick, and mouldy; fo that
they are infallibly rotted by the firft rain that falls af¬
terwards.
The directions neceflary to the fuccefs of the bulbs
planted in water are thefe. When the leaden falfe
Bottoms are fixed down tight within two or three
inches of the bottom of the veflel (which is only de-
figned to hold the flicks fteady which are to fupport
the leaves and ftalks), then lay on the lead upon which
the bulbs are to reft, placing the notched part oppo-
fite to that in the falfe bottom, as near as the flicks,
when placed, will fuffer it; then place the bulbs one
in each hole, and fill up with water to the upper lead.
The bottom of the bulb will then touch the water;
and as the water diminifhes in quantity, keep it fup-
pKed with more up to the fame height for a month or
fix weeks; in which time the bulbs will have fhort
ftrong fibres. Then fill up the water about half an
inch above the furface of the lead; and, by degrees, as
the fibres ftrengthen, and the plume {hoots from the
head, keep the water higher and higher, till at
length the whole bulb is covered. The water is to be
kept at this ftandard till the feafon for drying them re¬
turns—At the time of planting the bulbs, they muft
tom, by fcraping them with the point of a knife till . •!,
the found part of the bulb appears ; clear them like- ut
wife from any loofe {kins, and even take off their brown
fl<in till they appear white ; otherwife this brown {kin
will tinge the water, and the growth will not fucceed
fo well.
The not«hes in the fide of each lead are intended to
give eafy paffage to the water, that, if there Ihould be
any foulnefs or fediment in it, on {baking it a little it
may all run through, and frelh water be put in its
place. But this fhifting the water need not be done
more than once or twice in a winter, as there may be
occafion from the foulnefs ; and when this is done*
the fides of the veffel (hould be cleaned with a pain¬
ter’s brufh, and rinfed out again, and the bulbs them-
felves waftied, by pouring water on them at a little di-
ftance.
At any time when the outer {kins of the bulbs dry,
they are to be peeled off, that they may not occafion
foulnefs in the water ; and if any dull or foul matter
be at any time obferved fwimming on the furface, the
method is to fill up the pot or veflel to the rim, and
let it run over: this will carry off that light foulnefs,
and the water may afterwards be poured away to the
proper ftandard.
Bulbs of equal bignefs Ihould be planted together in
the fame pot, that they may all have the fame benefit
of the water. Narciffus’s and hyacinths do well toge¬
ther; as .alfo tulips and jonquils, and crocufe? and
fnow-drops.
FLUDD (Robert), a famous philofopher, born in
1574. He was fellow of the college of phyficians in
London, and became a mo ft voluminous writer: he
doated greatly on the wonders of chemiftry ; was a
zealous brother of the Roiicrucian order ; and his
books, which are moftly in Latin, are as dark and my-
fterious in their language as in their matter. He died
in 1637.
FLUID, an appellation given to all bodies whofe *
particles eafily yield to the leaft partial preflure, or.
force impreffed. For the
Laws and Properties of Fluids. See Hydrosta¬
tics.
There are various kinds of animalcules to be dif-
cerned in different fluids by the microfcope. Of many
remarkable kinds of thefe, a defcription is given under
the article Animalcule. All of thefe little creatures
are eafily deftroyed by feparating them from their na¬
tural element. Naturalifts have even fallen upon ihorter
methods. A needle-point, dipped in fpirit of vitriol,
and then immerfed into a drop of pepper-water, rea¬
dily kills all the animalcules ; which, though before
friflcing about with great livelinefs and aftivity, no
fooner come within the influence of the acid particles,
than they fpread themfelves, and tumble down to all
appearance dead. The like may be done by a folution
of fait; only with this difference, that, by the latter
application, they feem to grow vertiginous, turning
round and round till they fall down. Tin&ure of
fait of tartar, ufed in the fame manner, kills them ftill
more readily; yet not fo, but there will be apparent
marks of their being firft lick and convulfed. Inks de-
ftroy them'as faft as fpirit of vitriol, and human blood
produces the fame effeft. Urine, fack, and fugar, all
dellroy them, though notfo faft; foslides, that there is
fome-
*
FLU [ 3°7 1 FLU
-Fluid- fpTne dlverfity in their figures and appearances, as they
receive their deaths from this poifon or that. The
oint of a pin dipped in fpittle, prefently killed all the
inds of animalcules in puddle-water, as Mr Harris
fuppofes it will other animalcules of this kind.
All who are acquainted with microfcopic obferva-
-tions, know very well, that in winter, in which the
beft glafies can difcover no particle of animated mat¬
ter, after a few grains of pepper, or a fragment of a
plant of almoftany kind, has been fome time in it, ani¬
mals full of life and motion are produced ; and thofe
in fuch numbers, as to equal the fluid itfelf in quanti¬
ty.—When we fee a numerous brood of young fifties
in a pond, we make no doubt of their having owed
their origin to the fpawn, that is, to the eggs of the
parents of the fame fpecies. What are we then to
think of thefe ? If we will confider the progrefs of na¬
ture in the infedt tribes in general, and efpecially in
fuch of them as are moft analogous to thefe, we fhall
find it lefs difficult to give an account of their origin
than might have been imagined.
A fmall quantity of water taken from any ditch in
the fummer-months, is found to be full of little worms,
feeming in nothing fo much as in fize to differ from
the microfcopic animalcules. Nay, water, without
thefe, expofed in open veflels to the heat of the wea¬
ther, will be always found to abound with multitudes
of them, vifible to the naked eye, and full of life and
motion, Thefe we know, by their future changes,,
m e the fly-worms of the different fpecies of gnats, and
multitudes of other fly-fpecies; and we can eafily de¬
termine, that they have owed their origin only to the
eggs of the parent-fly there depofited. Nay, a clofer
obfervation will at any time give ocular proof of this ;
as the flies may be feen laying their eggs there, and
the eggs may be fallowed through all their changes to
the fly again. Why then are we to doubt butt that the
air abounds with other flies and animalcules as minute
as the worms in thofe fluids ; and that thefe laft are on¬
ly the fly-worms of the former, which, after a proper
time fpent in that flute, will fuffer changes like thofe
of the larger kinds, and become flies like thofe to
whofe eggs they owed their origin ? Vid. Reaumur.
Hijl. Infed. vol. iv. p. 431.
The differently medicated liquors made by infufions
of different plants, afford a proper matter for the
worms of different fpecies of thefe fmall flies: and there
is no reafon to doubt, but that among thefe fome are
viviparous, others oviparous ; and to this may be, in a
great meafure, owing the different time taken up for
the production of thefe infects in different fluids.
Thofe which are a proper matter for the worms of the
viviparous fly, may be fooneft found full of them ; as,
probably, the liquor is no fooner in a ftate to afford
them proper nourifhment, than their parents place
them there : whereas thofe produced from the eggs of
the little oviparous flies, muft, after the liquor is in a
proper ftate, and they are depofited in it in the form
of eggs, have a proper time to be hatched, before they
can appear alive.
It is eafy to prove, that the animals we find in thefe
vegetable infufions were brought thither from elfe-
where. It is not lefs eafy to prove, that they could
not be in the matter infufed any more than in the wa¬
ter in which it is infufed.
Notwithftanding theffabulous accounts of falaman- Fluid,
ders, it is now well known, that no animal, large or
fmall, can bear the force of fire for any confiderable
time ; and, by parity of reafon, we are not to believe,
that any infedt, or embryo infeft, in any ftate, can
bear the heat of boiling water for many minutes. To
proceed to inquiries on this foundation : If feveral
tubes filled with water, with a fmall quantity of vege¬
table matter, fuch as pepper, oak-bark, truffles, &c.
in which, after a time, infedts will be difcovered by
the microfcope; and other like tubes be filled with
Ample water boiled, with water and pepper boiled to¬
gether, and with water with the two other ingredients,
all feparately boiled in it; when all thefe liquors come
to a proper time for the obfervation of the microfcope,
all, as well thofe which have been boiled as thofe
which have not, will be found equally to abound with
infedts; and thofe of the fame kind, in infufions of the
fame kind, whether boiled or not boiled. Thofe in the
infufions which had fuftained a heat capable of deftroy-
ing animal-life, muft therefore not have fubfifted either
in the water or in the matters put into it, but muft
have been brought thither after the boiling ; and it
feems by no way fo probably, as by means of fome
little winged inhabitants of the air depofiting their eggs
dr worms in thefe fluids.
On this it is natural to alk, how it comes to pafs,
that while we fee myriads of the progeny of thefe
winged infedts in water, we never fee themfelves? The
anfwer is equally eafy, viz. becaufe we can always
place a drop of this water immediately before the fo¬
cus of the microfcope, and keep it there while we are
at leifure to examine its contents ; but that is not the
cafe with regard to the air inhabited by the parent
flies of thefe worms, which is an immenfe extent in
proportion to the water proper for nourifliing thefe
worms; and, confequently, while the latter are clu-
ftered together in heaps, the former may be difperfed
and fcattered. Nor do we want inftances of this, even
in infedts of a larger kind. In many of our gardens,
we frequently find veflels of water filled with worms
of the gnat kind, as plentifully, in proportion to their
fize, as thofe of other fluids are with animalcules.
Every cubic inch of water in thefe veflels contains
many hundreds of animals; yet we fee many cubic
inches of air in the garden not affording one of the pa¬
rent flies.
But neither are we pofitively to declare that the pa¬
rent flies of thefe animalcules are in ,all ftates wholly
invifible to us ; if not fingly to be feen, there are fome .
ftrong reafons to imagine that they may in great clu¬
tters. Every one has feen in a clear day, when look¬
ing ftedfaftly at the fky, that the air is in many places
difturbed by motions and convolutions in certain fpots.
Thefe cannot be the effedts of imagination, or of
faults in our eyes, becaufe they appear the fame to all;
and if we confider what would be the cafe to an eye
formed in fuch a manner as to fee nothing fmaller than
an ox, on viewing the air on a marfti fully peopled
with gnats, we muft be fenfible, that the clouds of
thefe infedts, though to us diftindtly enough vifible,
would appear to fuch an eye merely as the moving
parcels of air in the former inftance do to us: and
furely it is thence no rafti conclufion to infer, that the
cafe may be the fame, and that myriads of flying in-
Q_q 2 fedts.
FLU [3°8] FLU
FluM, fe&s, too fmall to be fingly the obje&s of our view,
Fluidity. yet are t0 us w[iat the clouds of gnats would be in the
v» former cafe.
Nervous Fluid. See Anatomy, p. 761. col. 2.
Elajlic Fluids. See Aerology, Air, Fixed Air,
Gas, Vapour, &c.
FLUIDITY, is by Sir Ifaac Newton defined to
be, that property of bodies by which they yield to
any force impreffed, and which have their parts very
eafily moved among one another.
To this definition fome have added, that the parts
of a fluid are in a continual motion. This opinion is
fupported by the folution of falts, and the formation of
tinctures. If a fmall bit of faffron is thrown into a
phial full of water, ^ yellow tinfture will foon be
communicated to the water to a confiderable height,
though the phial is allowed to remain at reft; which
indicates a motion in thofe parts of the fluid which
touch the faffron, by which its colouring matter is
carried up.
With regard to water, this can fcarce be denied;
the conftant exhalations from its furface Ihow, that
there muft be a perpetual motion in its parts from the
afcent of the fteam through it. In mercury, where in-
fenfible evaporation does not take place, it might be
doubted; and accordingly the Newtonian philofophers
in general have been of opinion, that there are fame
fubftances effentially fluid, from the fpherical figure of
their conftituent particles. The congelation of mer-
• See Cowg*-cury, however, by an extreme degree of cold *, de-
fatioii. monftrates that fluidity is not effentially inherent in
mercury more than in other bodies.
That fluids have vacuities in their fubftance is evi¬
dent, becaufe they may be made to diffolve certain bo¬
dies without fenfibly increafing their bulk. For ex¬
ample, water will diffolve a certain quantity of fait ;
after which it will receive a little fugar, and after that
a little alum, without increafing its firft dimenfions.
Here we can fcarce fuppofe any thing elfe than that
the faline particles were interpofed between thofe of
the fluid ; and as, by the mixture of fait and water, a
confiderable degree of cold is produced, we may thence
eafily fee why the fluid receives thefe fubftances with¬
out any increafe of bulk. All fubftances are expand¬
ed by heat, and reduced into lefs dimenfions by cold ;
therefore, if any fubftance is added to a fluid, which
tends to make it cold, the expanfion by the bulk of
the fubftance added, will not be fo much perceived as
if this effeft had not happened ; and if the quantity
added be fmall, the fluid will contradt as much, per¬
haps more,from the cold produced by the mixture, than
it will be expanded from the bulk of the fait. This
alfo may let Us know with what thefe interftices be¬
tween the particles of the fluid were filled up; namely,
the element of fire or-heat. The farine particles, up¬
on their folution in the fluid, have occupied thefe fpa-
ces ; and now the liquor, being deprived of a quantity
of this element equal in bulk to the fait added, feels
fenfibly colder.
As, therefore, there is fcarce any body to be found,
but what may become foKd by a fufficient degree of
cold, and none but what a certain degree of heat will
render fluid ; the opinion naturally arifes, that fire is
the caufe of fluidity in all bodies, and that this ele¬
ment is the only effentially fluid fubftance in nature.
3
Hence we may conclude, that thofe fubftances which Fluidity
we call jluids are not effentially fo, but only affume that 11
appearance in confequence of an intimate union with Flumirerg.
the element of fire ; juft as gums affume a fluid appear- * f
ance on being diffolved in fpirit of wine, or falts in
water.
Upon thefe principles Dr Black mentions fluidity
as an effeift of heat *. The different degrees of heat * See
which are required to bring different bodies into
ftate of fluidity, he fuppofes to depend on fome Par-
ticulars in the mixture and compofition of the bodies
themfelves: which becomes extremely probable, from
confidering that we change the natural ftate of bo¬
dies in this refpe6t, by certain mixtures ; thus, if two
metals are compounded, the mixture is ufually more fu-
fible than either of them feparately. See Chemistry,
n° 542-
It is certain, however, that water becomes warmer
by being converted into ice f; which may feem con-’f See Conge*
tradidtory to this opinion. To this, however, the Doc- lalton‘
tor replies, that fluidity does not confift in the degree
of fenlible heat contained in bodies, which will affedt
the hand or a thermometer; but in a certain quantity
which remains in a latent ftate This opinion he { See Eva-
fupports from the great length of time required to melt 'porati.n.
ice; and to afcertain the degree of heat requifite to
keep water in a fluid ftate, he put five ounces of wa¬
ter into a Florence flafk, and converted it into ice by
means of a freezing mixture put round the flaflt. Into
another flalk of the fame kind he put an equal quanti¬
ty of water cooled down nearly to the freezing point,
by mixing it with fnow, and then pouring it off. In
this he placed a very delicate thermometer; and found,
that it acquired heat from the air of the room in
which it was placed : feven degrees of heat were gain¬
ed the firft half hour. The ice being expofed to the
fame degree of heat, namely, the air of a large room
without fire, it cannot be doubted that it received heat
from the air as fail as the water which, was not fro¬
zen : but, to prevent all poflibility of deception, he put
his hand under the flaflt containing the ice, and found
a ftream of cold air very fenfibly defcending from it,
even at a confiderable diftance from the flalk ; which
undeniably proved, that the ice was all that time ab-
forbing heat from the air. Neverthclefs, it was not
till 11 hours that the ice was half-melted, though in
that time it had abforbed fo much heat as ought to
have raifed the thermometer to 140°; and even after
it was melted, the temperature of the water was found
fcarce above the freezing point: fo that, as the heat
which entered could not be found in the melted ice,,
he concluded that it remained concealed in the water,
as an effential ingredient of its compofition. See Con¬
gelation.
FLUKE, or Flounder, in ichthyology. See
Pleuronectes.
FLuxE-Worm. See Fasciola.
Fluke of an Anchor, that part of it which faftens in
the ground. See Anchor.
FLUMMERY, a wholefome fort of jelly made of
oat-meal.
The manner of preparing it is as follows. Put three
large handfuls of finely ground oat-meal to fteep, for
24 hours, in two quarts of fair water: then pour off
the clear water, and put two quarts of frelh water to
it^
FLU [ 3°9 l FLU
Fluor, it • {train it through a fine hair-fieve, putting in two
“■“V' fpoonfuls of orange-flower water and a fpoonfal of fu-
gar: boil it till it is as thick as a hafty-pudding, ftir-
ring it continually while it is boiling, that it may be
very fmooth.
FLUOR, in phyfics, a fluid ; or, more properly,
the date of a body that was before hard or folid, but
is now reduced by fufion or fire into a ftate of fluidity.
Fluor Add. See Chemistry-/«^mc.
Fluor Albus. See Medicine-Zw^.
FiuoR-Spar, or Blue'John, called alfo fluxing fpars,
vitrefcent or glafs fpars, are a genus of foffils compofed
of calcareous earth united with an acid of a peculiar
kind, of which an account is given under Chemistrv ;
fee that article, per Index at Fluor add.
They are little harder than common calcareous fpars,
and do not ftrike fire with fteel ; nor do they effervefce
with acids either before or after calcination. When
expofed to a ftrong fire, they crack and fplit in pieces,
but do not melt without a violent heat. Engenftroom
informs us, that all of them which he tried melted
pretty eafily before the blow-pipe ; but he was obliged
to take great care to prevent them from flying away
before they were thoroughly heated. Their fpecific
gravity is from 3144 to 3175- Notwithftanding the
difficulty with which they are fufed by themfelves,
however, they melt very readily in conjun&ion with
other earths ; running into a corrofive glafs which dif-
folves the ftrongeft crucibles, unlefs fome quartz or
fire-clay be mixed in their compofition. When gradu¬
ally heated, they give a phofphorefcent light ; but lofe
this property when made red-hot. Thofe which are
coloured, particularly the green ones, give the ftrong¬
eft light. They melt eafily with borax, and next to
that with the microcofmic fait, neither of them ma¬
king any effervefcence. They diflblve in acids when
boiling, particularly aqua-regia ; and the folutions are
precipitated by an alkali even though cold, but not fo
completely. M. Magellan informs us, that he has fre¬
quently diflblved them in boiling vitriolic acid in order
to get that of fluor in an aerial ftate. There are three
fpecies.
1. The indurated fluor is folid, and of an indeter¬
minate figure, of a dull texture, femitranfparent, and
full of cracks in the rock. It is of a white colour.
2. Sparry fluor. This has nearly the figure of fpar ;
though, on clofe obfervation, it is found lefs regular;
nothing but itsgloffy furface giving it the refemblance
of fpar. It is found of various colours, viz. white, blue,
green, pale-green, violet, and yellow.
3. The cry (1 alii zed fl'uor is of four kinds. 1. Ha¬
ving an irregular figure, of a white, blue, or red co¬
lour. 2. Cryftallized in cubes, of a yellow or violet
colour. 3. Of a polygonal fpherieal figure, white or
blue coloured. 4. Of an oftoedral figure, clear and
eolourlefs.
The principal ufe of fluors is for fmelting ores, where
they aft as very powerful fluxes, and on this account are
much valued. They are found in various countries, par¬
ticularly Sweden, and fome other northern countries of
Europe. From this quality of melting eafily in combina¬
tion with other earthy matters, they have got the name of
fluors. “The refemblance between the coioured fluors and
the compofitions made of coloured glafs (fays Cronftedt),
has perhaps contributed not only to the fluor* being
reckoned of the fame value with the coloured quartz
cryftals, by fuch colleftors as only mind colour and
figure, but to their alfo obtaining a rank among the ,
precious ftones in the apothecaries and druggifts {hops.”
M. Fabroni obferves, that this combination of calca¬
reous earth with the fparry acid is almoft always tranf-
parent: it often cryftallizes in regular cubes, fometimes
Angle from one line to two inches in diameter, and
fometimes of an indeterminate figure. They are fome¬
times of a blue colour; others are purple like ame-
thyfts ; fome are of a brown colour, others opaque.
M. Magellan fays, that fluors in general have this fin-
gular property, that on being melted by the flame of
the blow pipe, together with gypfum, the'lead refult-
ing from both is all formed with facets on the outfide ;
but if melted with terra ponderofa,. its furface is quite,
round or fpherieal.
M. Margraaf has made experiments in order to dif-
cover the nature of thefe ftones. He afeertained the
above-mentioned diftinftiona between them and the
gypfeous fpars ; and therefore infers, that they are not
compounded of vitriolic acid with calcareous earth. He
obferved lingular appearances on mixing them with vi¬
triolic and other acids, and fubjefting the mixtures to
diftillation.
Eight ounces of the powder of a green fluor being
mixed with an equal weight of pure oil of vitriol, and
diftilled together with a graduated heat, yielded, after
the watery part of the acid had palled, a fine white
fublimate, which arofe and adhered to the neck of the
retort, and even palled into the receiver. The fir It
parts of this fublimate which arofe appeared like but¬
ter of antimony ; and, like this butter, they melted by
the heat of a live coal brought near the neck of the re¬
tort : but the parts which arofe towards the end of the
operation, with the greateft degree of heat, could not
be melted by th^t heat- The retort being broken, a re-
fiduum was found weighing 12 oz. Hence 4 oz. of oil
of vitriol remained united with the fpar. The bottom of
the retort was obferved to be pierced with holes. Laft-
ly, the liquor which had palled into the receiver and
the white fublimate, had very fenfibly a fulphureous
fmell. The fublimate, triturated a long time in a mor¬
tar with hot diftilled water, diflblved, and palled thro*
a filter. Ta the filtrated liquor fome fixed alkali
being added, a precipitate was formed ; which being
well walhed and dried,'was readily melted by fire into
a mafs refembling porcelain. The fame excellent and
accurate chemift produced the fame eftefts upon this
ftone, by fubftituting, inftead of the vitriolic acid, the
nitrous, marine, phofphoric, or the concentrated ace¬
tous acids.
Fluor Albus or Uterinus, in medicine, a kind of flux
incident to women, popularly called the whites. See
Medici ne-Z/zZ?;*:.
FLUSHING, an handfome, ftrong, and confider-
able town of the United Provinces, in Zealand, and in
the illand of Walcheren, with a very good harbour,
and a great foreign trade. It was put into the hands
of queen Elizabeth for a pledge of their fidelity, and
as a fecurity for the money Ihe advanced. It is one of
the three places which Charles V. advifed Philip II.
to preferve with care. E. Long. 3. 32. N. Lat. 51. 26.
FLUTE, an inftrument of mufic, the fimpleft of
all thdfe of the wind kind. It is played.on by blowing
its.
FI ua«
. II 1
Flute.
T L U [ 310 ] FLU
TIute. Jt with the mouth ; and the tones oruotes are changed German FivTfi, is an inftru'ment entirely different Flut*
» by flopping and opening the holes difpofed for that from the common flute. It is not, like that, put into II
purpofe along its fide. the mouth to be played; but the ead is ftopt with a Fiux'
This is a very ancient inftrument. It was at firft call- tompion or plug, and the lower lip is applied to a r^°
ed the flute a bee, from bee an old Gaulilh word figni- hole about two inches and a half or three inches di-
fying the beak of a bird or fowl, but more efpecially of ftant from the end. This inftrument is ufually about
a cock ; the term Jlute a bee mull therefore lignify the a foot and a half long ; rather bigger at the upper end
beaked flute; which appears very proper, on comparing than the lower; and perforated with holes, belides that
it with the traverfe or German flute. The word flute for the mouth, the loweft of which is flopped and open-
is derived fromfluta, the Latin for a lamprey or fmall ed by the little flnger’s preffing on a brafs or fome-
eel taken in the Sicilian feas, having feven holes im- times a filver key, like thofe in hautboys, balloons, &c.
mediately below the gills on each fide, the precife num- Its found is exceeding fweet and agreeable ; and ferves
ber of thofe in the front of the flute. as a treble in a concert.
By Merfennns this inftrument is called the^a/a </«/- Flu-te, or Fluyt, is a kind of long veflel, with
ch, feu Anglica; the loweft; note, according to him, flat- ribs or floor-timbers, round behind, and fwell-
for the treble flute, \s C fa ut, and the compafs of the ed in the middle ; ferving chiefly tor the carrying of
inftrument 15 notes. There is, however, a flute known provifions in fleets or fquadrons of fnips ; though it is
by the name of the concert flute, the loweft note of often ufed in merchandize. The word flute, taken for
which is F. Indeed, ever fince the introduftion of the a fort of boat or veflel, is derived, according to Borel,
flute into concerts, the loweft note of the inftrument, from the ancient flotte, a ftttle boat. In the verbal
of what fize foever it is, has been called F ; when in procefs of the miracles of St Catherine of Sweden, in
truth its pitch is determinable only by its corre- the 12th century, we read Unus equum fuum una cum
fpondence in refpeft of acutenefs or gravity with one mercibus magnl ponderis introduxit fuper inflrumentum de
or other of the chords in the fcala maxima or great lignis fabricatum, vulgariter dictum fluta. Upon which
fyftem. the Bollandilts obferve, that in fome copies it is read
Befides the true concert-flute, others of a lefs fize flotta, an inftrument called by the Latins ratis; and
were foon introduced into concerts of violins; in which that the word flutta or flotta arofe from flatten or viol ten,
cafe the method was to write the flute-part in a key “ to float.”
correfpondent to its pitch. This practice was introdu- Flutes, or Flutings, in architecture, are perpen-
ced in 1710 by one Woodcock, a celebrated performer dicular channels or cavities cut along the fhaft of a co¬
on this inftrument, and William Babell organift of the lumn or pilafter. They are fuppofed to have been firft
church of All-hallows, Bread Street, London. They introduced in imitation of the plaits of womens’ robes ;
failed, however, in procuring for the flute a reception and are therefore called by the Latinsflriges and ruga.
Into concerts of various inftruments; for which reafon, The French call them cannelures, as being excavations;
one Thomas Stanefby, a very curious maker of flutes and we, flutes or flutings, as bearing fome refemblance
and other inftruments of the like kind, about the year to the mufical inftrument fo called. They are chiefly
1732, adverting to the fcale of Merfennus, in which affected in the Ionic order, in which they had their
the loweft note was 0, invented what he called the neau firft rife ; though they are alfo ufed in all the richer
fyflem; in which, by making the flute of inch a fize orders, as the Corinthian and Compofite ; but rarely
as to be a fifth above concert pitch, the loweft note be- in the Doric, and fcarce ever in the Tufcan.
came C folfa ut. By this contrivance the neceffity of FLUX, in medicine, an extraordinary iffue or evacu-
tranfpofing the flute-part was taken away ; for a flute ation of fome humour. Fluxes are various and vari-
of this fize. adjufted to the fyftem above mentioned, be- oufly denominated according to their feats or the hu-
came an octave to the violip. To further this in- mours thus voided ; as a flux of the belly, uterine flux,
vention of Staneiby, one Lewis Merci, an excellent hepatic flux, falival flux, &c. The flux of the belly
performer on the flute, publilhed, about the year 1735, is of four kinds, which have each their refpeftive de-
.fix folos for this inftrument, three of which are faid to nominations, viz. the lientery, or fluxus lientericus ; the
be accommodated to Mr Stanefby’s new fyftem ; but codiac, or fluxus chylofus; the diarrhaa ; and the dyfen-
the German flute was now become a favourite inftru- tery, or bloody flux ;—all which are properly treated of
ment, and Stanefby’s ingenuity failed of its effedt.— in Medicine.
One great objection indeed lies againft this inftrument, Flux, in hydrography, a regular periodical motion
which, however, equally affefts all perforated pipes; of the fea, happening twice in 24 hours ; wherein
-namely, that they are never perfedtly in tune, or can- the water is raifed and driven violently againft the fhores.
not be made to play all their notes with equal exaft- The flux or flow is one of the motions of the tide ;
nefs. The utmoft that the makers of them can do is the other, whereby the water finks and retires, is called
to tune them to fome one key ; as the hautboy to C, the reflux or ebb. There is alfo a kind of reft or cef-
the German flute to D, and the Englifh flute to F; and fation of about half an hour between the flux and re-
to effeft this truly is a matter of no fmall difficulty, flux ; during which time the water is at its greateft
The Englifh flutes made by the younger Stanefby height, called high-water. The flux is made by the
came the neareft of any to perfection ; but thofe of motion of the water of the fea from the equator to-
Breffan, though excellent in their tone, are all too wards the poles ; which, in its progrefs, ftriking againft
flat in the upper oftave. For thefe reafons fome are the coafts in its way, and meeting with oppofition from
induced to think, that the utmoft degree of proficien- them, fwells, and w here it can find paffage, as in flats,
cyon any of thofe inttruments is not worth the labour rivers, &c. rifes up and runs into the land. This mo-
of attaining it. tion fallows, in fome meafure, the courfe of the moon ;
FLU
Flux, as it lofes or comes later every day by about three quar-
ters of an hour, or more precifely, by 48 minutes;
and by fo much is the motion of the moon flower than
that of the fun. It is always higheft and greatefl: in
full moons, particularly thofe of the equinoxes. In
fome parts, as at Mount St Michael, it rifes 80 or go
feet, though in the open fea it never rifes above a foot
or two ; and in fome places, as about the Morea, there
is no flux at all. It runs up fome rivers above 120
miles. Up the river Thames it only'goes 80, viz. near
to Kingfton in Surry. Above London bridge the wa¬
ter flows four hours and ebbs eight; and below the
bridge, flows five hours and ebbs feven.
Flux, in metallurgy, is fometimes ufed fynonymoufly
with fufion. For inftance, an ore, or other matter, is
faid to be in liquid flux, when it is completely fufed.
But the word Jlux is generally ufed to fignify cer¬
tain faline matters, which facilitates the fufion of ores,
and other matters which are difficultly fufible in ef-
fays and reductions of ores. Fixed alkalis, nitre, bo¬
rax, tartar, and common fait, are the faline matters
of which fluxes are generally compofed. But the word
Jlux is more particularly applied to mixtures of different
proportions of only nitre and tartar ; and thefe fluxes
are called by particular names, according to the pro¬
portions of thefe ingredients, as in the following ar¬
ticles.
White Flux, is made with equal parts of nitre and
of tartar detonated together, by which they are alka-
lifed. The refiduum of this detonation is an alkali
oompofed of the alkalis of the nitre and of the tartar,
both which are abfolutely of the fame nature. As the
proportion of nitre in this mixture is more than is fuf-
ficient to confume entirely all the inflammable matter
of the tartar, the alkali remaining after the detonation
is perfectly white, and is therefore called white Jlux;
and as this alkali is made very quickly, it is alfo called
extemporaneous alkali. When a fmall quantity only of
white flux is made, as a few ounces for inllance, fome
nitre always remains undecompofed, and a little of the
inflammable principle of the tartar, which gives a red
or even a black colour to fome part of the flux : but
this does not happen when a large quantity of white
flux is made ; becaufe then the heat is much greater.
This fraall quantity of undecompofed nitre and tartar
FLUX
FLU
which remains in white flux is not hurtful in moft of Fhof*
the metallic fufions in which tlr's flux is employed: but 'r~“
if the flux be required perfectly pure, it might eafily
be difengaged from thofe extraneous matters by a long
and ftrong calcination, without fufion.
Crude Flux. By crude flux is meant the mixture of
nitre and tartar in any proportions, without detonation.
Thus the mixture of equal parts of the two falls ufed
in the preparation of the white flux, or the mixture of
one part of nitre and two parts of tartar for the pre¬
paration of the black flux, are each of them a crude
flux before detonation. It has alfo been called white
Jlux, from its' colour : but this might occafion it to
be confounded with, the white flux above' defcribed.
The name, therefore, of crude flux is more convenient.
Crude flux is detonated and alkalifed during the
reduCtions and fufions in which it is employed; and is
then changed into white or black flux, according to
the proportions of which it is compofed. . This de¬
tonation produces good effeCts in thefe fufions and re¬
ductions, if the fwelling and extravafation of the de¬
tonating matters be guarded againft. Accordingly,
crude flux may be employed fuccefsfully in many ope¬
rations ; as, for inilance, in the ordinary operation fot\
procuring the regulus of antimony.
Black Flux. Black flux is produced from the mix¬
ture of two parts of tartar and one part of nitre deto¬
nated together. As the quantity of nitre which enters
into the compofition of this flux is not fuffieient to con-
fume all the inflammable matter of the tartar, the al¬
kali which remains after the detonation contains much
black matter, of the nature of coal, , and is therefore
called Hack Jlux.
This flux is defignedly fo prepared, that it lhall con¬
tain a certain quantity of inflammable matter; for it
is thereby capable, not only of facilitating the fufion of
metallic earths like the white flux, but alfo of reviving
thefe metals by its phlogifton. From this property
it is alfo called reducing Jlux; the black flux, there¬
fore, or crude flux made with fuch proportions of the
ingredients as to be convertible into black flux, ought
always to be ufed when metallic matters are at once
to be fufed and reduced, or even when deftrudtive
m.etals are to be fufed, as thefe require a continual,
fupply of phlogifton to prevent their calcination.
I O N S;
1 3>> 1
AMeth-od of calculation which greatly facilitates
computations in the higher parts of mathema¬
tics. Sir Ifaac Newton and Mr Leibnitz contended
for the honour of inventing it. It is probable they
had both made progrefs in the fame difcovery, un¬
known to each other, before there was any publication
on the fubjedt.
In this branch of mathematics, magnitudes of every
kind are fuppofed generated by motion ; a line by the
motion of a point, a furface by the motion of a line,
and a folid by the motion of a furface. And fome part
of a figure is fuppofed generated by-an uniform luo^.
tion ; in confequence of which, the other parts may
increafe uniformly or with an accelerated or retarded
motion, or may decreafe in. any of thefe ways; and
the computations are made by tracing the comparative
velocities with which the parts flow.
Fig. 1. If the parallelogram A BCD be generated Plate
by an uniform motion of the line AB toward CD while
it moves from FE towards fe, while the line BF re¬
ceives the increment Yf, and the figure will be increafed
by the parallelogram Fe ; the line FE in this cafe un¬
dergoes no variation.
The fluxion of any magnitude at any point is the
increment that it would receive in any given time, fup-
pofing it to increafe uniformly from that point; and
as the meafures will be the fame, whatever the time
be, we are at liberty to fuppofe it lefs than any affign-.
ed- time.
The firft letters in the alphabet are ufed to repre-.
lent.
312
FLUXIONS.
fent invariable quantities ; the letters x, y, z, variable
quantities; and the fame letters with points over them
jf, z, reprefent their fluxions.
Therefore if ABrr.r, and BF~x; Yf, the fluxion of
BF. will be =x, and Ye, the fluxion of AF, =ax.
If the rectangle be fuppofed generated by the uni¬
form motion of FG towards CD, at the fame time that
HG moves uniformly towards AD, the point G keeping
always on the diagonal^ the lines FG, HG will flow
uniformly ; for while B/"receives the increment Yf, and
HB the increment HK, FG will receive the incre¬
ment hg, and HG the increment hg, and they will re¬
ceive equal increments in equal fucceflive times. But
the parallelogram will flow with an accelerated motion;
for while F flows to /, and H to K, it is increafed by
the gnomon KG/"; but while F and H flow through
the equal fpacesfm KL, it is increafed by the gnomon
l,gm greater than KG/-; confequently when fluxions
of the fides of a parallelogram are uniform, the fluxion
of the parallelogram increafes continually.
The fluxion of the parallelogram BHGF is the two
parallelograms KG and Gf; for though the parameter
receives an increment of the gnomon KG/”, while its
fides flow to / and K, the part gG is owing to the ad¬
ditional velocity wherewith the parallelogram flows du¬
ring that time; and therefore is no part of the meafure
of the fluxion, which muft be computed by fuppofing
the parameter to flow uniformly as it did at the begin¬
ning, without any acceleration.
Therefore if the fides of a parallelogram be x and y,
their fluxions will be x y ; and the fluxion of the paral¬
lelogram xy-f-yx ; and if x~y, that is, if the figure be
a fquare, the fluxion of xz will be 2xx.
Fig. 2. Let the triangle ABC be defcribed by the
uniform motion of DE from A towards B, the point
E moving in the line DF, fo as always to touch the
lines AC, CB ; while D moves from A to F, DE is
uniformly increafed, and the increafe of the triangle is
uniformly accelerated. When DE is in the pofition
FC, it is a maximum. As D moves from F to B, the
line FC decreafes, and the triangle increafes, but with
a motion uniformly retarded.
Fig. 3. If the femicircle AFB be generated by the
uniform motion of CD from A towards B, while C
moves from A to G, the line CD will increafe, but
with a retarded motion; the circumference alfo increafes
with a retarded motion, and the circular fpace in¬
creafes with an accelerated motion, but not uniformly,
the degrees of acceleration growing lefs as CD ap¬
proaches to the pofition GF. When C moves from
G to B, it decreafes with a motion continually accele¬
rated, the circumference increafes with a motion con¬
tinually accelerated, and the area increafes with a mo¬
tion continually retarded, and more quickly retarded
as CD approaches to B.
The fluxion of a quantity which decreafes is to be
confidered as negative.
When a quantity does not flow uniformly, its fluxion
may be reprefented by a variable quantity, or a line of
a variable length ; the fluxion of fuch a line is called
the fecond fluxion of the quantity whofe fluxion that line
is: and if it be variable, a third fluxion may be dedu¬
ced from it, and higher orders from thefe in the fame
N°iz8.
manner: the fecond fluxion is reprefented by two points,
as x.
The increment a quantity receives by flowing fof
any given time, contains meafures of all the different
orders of fluxions ; for if it increafes uniformly, the
whole increment is the firft fluxion ; and it has no fe¬
cond fluxion. If it increafes with a motion uniformly-
accelerated, the part of the increment occafioned by
the firft motion meafures the firft fluxion, and the part
occafioned by the acceleration meafures the fecond
fluxion. If the motion be not only accelerated, but
the degree of acceleration continually increafed, the
two firft fluxions are meafured as l^efore ; and the part
of the increment occafioned by the additional degree of
acceleration meafures the third ; and fo on. Thefe
meafures require to be cdrredled, and are only mention¬
ed here to illuftrate the fubjeft.
DIRECT METHOD.
Any flowing quantity being given, to find its fluxion.
Rule I. To find the fluxion of any power of a
quantity, multiply the fluxion of the root by the ex¬
ponent of the power, and the produdf by a power of
the fame root lefs by unity than the given exponent.
The fluxion of x3 is 3x*x, of x" bx” lx; for the
root of x” is x, whofe fluxion isx ; which multiplied by
the exponent n, and by a power of x lefs by unity than
n, gives the above fluxion.
If x receive the increment x, it becomes x+x; raife
both to the power of n, and x" becomes x*-\-nxn *x-{-
 Lx"—&c. ; but all the parts of the incre-
2
ment, except the firft term, are owing to the accelera¬
ted increafe of x",and form meafures of the higher flux¬
ions. The firft term only meafures the firft fluxion ; the
  -r  t
fluxion of n^z'jisl-XzzzX^-H^ljforputx^’-fz5,
we have x=2za; ; and the fluxion of x*, which is equal
to the propofed fluent, is |-x2x ; for which fubftituting
the values of a and x, we have the above fluxion.
Rule II. To find the fluxion of the produft of fe-
veral variable quantities multiplied together, multiply
the fluxion of each by the produft of the reft of the
quantities, and the fum of the products thus arifing will
be the fluxion fought.
Thus the fluxion of xy, is xy-frjyx ; that of xyz, is
xyz-fxzy+yzx ; and that of xyzu, is xyzu-Yxyuzfxzuy
Jf-yzux.
Rule III. To find the fluxion of a fra&ion—From
the fluxion of the numerator multiplied by the deno¬
minator, fubtradt the fluxion of the denominator mul¬
tiplied by the numerator, and divide the remainder by
the fquare of the denominator.
Thus, the fluxion of— is^-—^-; that of-JL—, is
  y y x+y
xX-4-xy—x-fyXx __yx— xy
x+yjz*
Rule
FLUXIONS.
Rule IV. In complex cafes, let the particulars be
collected from the fimple rules, and combined together.
The fluxion of —is —  ; for
a a
the fluxion of x* is 2xx, and ofy* is 2yy, by Rule I.
and therefore the fluxion of x*y* (by Rule II.) 2x*yy-\-
2y*xx ; from which multiplied by a, (by Rule III.) and
fubtrafting from it the fluxion of the denominator a,
multiplied by the numerator, and dividing the whole
by the fquare of the denominator, gives the above
fluxion.
Rule V. The fecond fluxion is derived from the
firft, in the fame manner as the firft from the flowing
quantity.
Thus the fluxion ofx3, $x*x; its fecond, 6x*,+3*:1a;
(by Rule II.) ; and fo on : but if x be invariable, x=o,
and the fecond fluxion of x3=:6xxx.
Prob. i. To determine maxima and minima.
When a quantity increafes, its fluxion is pofitive ;
when it decreafes, it is negative ; therefore when it is
juft betwixt increafxng and decreafing, its fluxion is
Rule. Find the fluxion, make it ==t>, whence an
'equation will refult that will give an anfwer to the que-
ftion.
Examp. To determine the dimenfions of a cylindric
meafure ABCD, (fig. 4.) open at the top, which fhall
contain a given quantity (of liquor, grain, &c.) under
the leall internal fuperficies poffible.
Let the diameter AB=a:, and the altitude AD=y ;
moreover, let / (3,14159, &c.) denote the periphery
of the circle whofe diameter is unity, and let c be the
given content of the cylinder. Then it will be
1 (/«) the circumference of the bafe ; which,
multiplied by the altitude y, gives pxy for the concave
fuperficies of the cylinder. In like manner, the area
of the bafe, by multiplying the fame expreflion into £
of the diameter xf will be found ; which drawn
4
into the altitude y, gives^p for the folid content of
the cylinder ; which being made the concave fur-
face pxy will be found = —, hnd confequently the
whole furface : Whereof the fluxion, which
js i being put =0, we fhall get —8eXpx3—o-,
xl 2
and therefore ^ /c< further, becaufe
y P
and px^y — ^c, it follows, that x~zy ; whence y is alfo
known, and from which it appears that the diameter
©f the bafe mud be juft double of the altitude.
Fig. 7. To find the longeft and fhorteft ordinates of
ahy curve, DEF, whofe equation or the relation which
£he ordinates bear to the abfciflas is known.
Make AC the abfciffa x, and CE the ordinate ~y;
lake a value y in terms of x, and find its fluxion; which
Vot.VII.'Part 1.
making —o, an equation will refult whofe roots give
the value of x when y is a maximum or a minimum.
# To determine when it is a maximum and when a mi¬
nimum, take the value of y, when x is a little more than
the root of the equation fo found, and it may be per¬
ceived whether it increafes or decreafes.
If the equation has an even number of equal roots,
y will be neither a maximum nor minimum when its
fluxion is=o.
Prob. II. To draw a tangent to any curve.
Fig. 5. When the abfciflaCS of a curve moves uni¬
formly from A to B, the motion of the curve will be
retarded if it be concave, and accelerated if convex to¬
wards AB ; for a ftraight line TC is defcribed by an
uniform motion, and the fluxion of the curve at any
point is the fame as the fluxion of the tangent, becaufe
it would defcribe the tangent if it continued to move
equally from that point. Now if Sr or Ce be the fluxion
of the bafe, Cd will be the fluxion of the tangent, and
de of the ordinate. And becaufe the triangles TSC,
Ced, are equiangular, de : ce ::CS : ST, wherefore.
Rule. Find a fourth proportional to the fluxion of
the ordinate valued in terms of the abfcifla, the fluxion
of the abfcifla, and the ordinate, and it determines the
line ST, which is called the femi-tangent, and TC joined
is a tangent to the curve.
Examp. To draw a right line CT, (fig. 6.) to touch
a given circle BCA in a point C.
Let CS be perpendicular to the diameter AB, and
put A.f$—a, BS=rx,and SC=y: then, by the property of
the circle, y* (CS’) =BSxAS (i=xXa—x) —ax—xli
whereof the fluxion being taken, in order to determine
the ratio of x andy, we get2yy=ax—2xx; confequently
T"— a~2x~i£^c ’ whlch mult,P1>ed by y, gives^r
J s y
= ?a_~=the fubtangent ST. Whence(O being fup-
pofed the centre) we have OS (l-a—x)-. CS (y) :: CS
(y): ST ; which we alfo know from other principles.
Prob. III. To determine points of contrary flexure in
curves.
Fig. 7. Suppofing C to move uniformly from A to
B, the curve DEF will be convex towards AB when
the celerity of E increafes, and concave when it de¬
creafes ; therefore at the point where it ceafes to be
convex and begins to be concave, or the oppofite way,
the celerity of E will be uniform, that is, CE will have
no fecond fluxion. Therefore,
Rule. Find the fecond fluxion of the ordinate in
terms of the abfcifla, and make it =0; and from the
equation that arifes you get a value of the abfcifla,
which determines the point of contrary flexure.
Ex. Let the nature of the curve ARS be defined by
the equation ay—a'xd-f-xx, (the abfcifla AF and the
ordinate FG being, as ufual, reprefented by x and y
refpeftively). Theny, exprefiing the celerity of the
point r, in the line FH, will be equal to—:
Whofe fluxion, or that of 4 a'x T+2* (becaufe a
R r and
3r3
3*4
FLUX
~T%-a: From which the pofuion of the point G is
given.
Prob. IV. To f nd the radii of curvature.
The curvature of a circle is uniform in every point,
that of every other curve continually varying : and it
is meafured at any point by that of a circle whofe ra¬
dius is of fuch a length as to coincide with it in cur¬
vature in that point.
All curves that have the fame tangent have the fame
firft fluxion, becaufe the fluxion of a curve and its tan¬
gent are the fame. If it moved uniformly on from
the point of contaft, it would defcribe the tangent.
And the deflexion from the tangent is owing to the
acceleration or retardation of its motion, which is mea¬
fured by its fecond fluxion : and confequently two
curves which have not only the fame tangent, but the
fame curvature at the point of contaft, will have both
their firft and fecond fluxions equal. It is eafily pro¬
ven from thence, that the radius of curvature is
rz t“, x, jy, and z reprefent the abfciifa, ordinate,
— xy
and curve refpeftively.
Examp. Let the given curve be the common para¬
bola, whofe equation isy—a^x* : Then will
A- ‘ . i •  ; __
- — x , and (making* conftant) y——^X.^a%x1x T
2 XT
-(wL-v/-?’
/ *3 WflHrH <
the radius of curvature \—.Xy/ 2/fa— "
the vertex, where x—c, will be ~^a.
and
Which at
IONS.
Hence (by the fame rule) the
Fluent of jx’x will be =x3;
8*3
That of 8x*x = ;
3
X-6
That of 2xsx — —;
3
That of
Sometimes the fluent fo found requires to be cor*
refted. The fluxion of x is x, and the fluxion of
is alfo x; becaufe a is invariable, and has therefore no
fluxion.
Now when the fluent of x is required, it muft be
determined, from the nature of the problem,, whether
any invariable part, as a, mud be added to the variable
part x.
When fluents cannot be exa&ly found, they can be
approximated by infinite feries.
Ex. Let it be required to approximate the fluent of
a‘—X”x . . .
~=^rr: m an infinite feries.
'4—* It 
The value of  —> exprefled in a feries, is ~ 4-
    V 1       Vv.4 l -C    P 
2c3 2ac- ^8rs qac3 8a3cA i6ac
11
i 6rt"V ~\6asc X*6 ^c' Which value being there¬
fore multiplied by xMx, and the fluent taken (by the
common method) we get =—4- —   r..x-— 1
   S k+iXc 2c3 2uc «+3 +
3 a 1 1 x”-*-5
8r5 qar3 8a3c X»-f 5“^
5 a 3 1 1 *"+7
UkT~ 16ac5 ~ T6^?~ X ^+7 + &i;*
INVERSE METHOD.
From a given fluxion to fnd a fuent.
This is done by tracing back the fteps of the direft
method. The fluxion of x is x ; and therefore the flu¬
ent of x is x : but as there is no direft method of find¬
ing fluents, this branch of the art is imperfeft. We
can affign the fluxion of every fluent; but we cannot
affign the fluent of a fluxion, unlefs it be fuch a one
as may be produced by feme rule in the direft method
from a known fluent.
General Rule, pivide by the fluxion of the root,
add unity to the exponent of the power, and divide by
tire exponent fo increafed.
For,'dividing the fluxion «x—n,x by x (the fluxion
of the root x) it becomes nx”—1; and, adding 1 to the
exponent («—1), we have kx”v which, divided by
gives x”, the true fluent of nxn—'sc. 4
Pros. i. To fnd the area of any curve.
Rule. Multiply the ordinate by the fluxion of the
abfeifla, and the produft gives the fluxion of the figure,
whofe fluent is the area of the figure.
Examp. i. Fig. 8. Let the curve ARMH, whofe
area you will find, be the common parabola. Let u
reprefent the area, and u its fluxion.
In which cafe the relation of AB (x)and BR(y)be-
ing expreifedbyy" — ax (where a is the parameter) we
thence gety = a~xT; and therefore z/= RwiHB (= jx):
zz.aAsfx,: whence arr^-Xa1*3 =:fa^x1 Xx=yj’x (be¬
caufe nLA =y) =ryXABxBR : hence a parabola is
of a reftangle of the fame bafe and altitude.
Examp. 2. Let thepropofed curve CSDR (fig-9.)
be of fuch a nature, that (fuppofing AB unity) the fum
of the areas CSTBC and CDGBC anfwering to any
two propofed abfeiffas AT and AG, ftiall be equal to
the area CRNBC, whofe correfponding abfeifla AN is
equal
FLUXIONS.
equal to ATX AG, the product o fthe meafures of the
two former abfciffas.
Firft, in order to determine the equation of the curve
(which muft be known before the area can be found), let
the ordinates GD and NR move parallel to themfeives
towards HF ; and then having put GD=j, NR=2,
AT=fl, AG=j, and AN=«, the fluxion of the area
CDGB will be rcprefented by ys, and that of the area
CRNB by zu: which two expreflions muft, by the
nature of the problem, be equal to each other; becaufe
the latter area CRNB exceeds the former CDGB by
the area CSTB, which is here confidered as a conftant
quantity : and it is evident, that two expreflions, that
differ only by a conftant quantity, muff always have
equal fluxions.
Since, therefore,yj is^z//, and u—as, by hypothefis,
it follows, that u=as, and that the firft equation (by
fubftituting for w) will become jj-rnzzr, or y — az, or
laftly ys = zas, that is, GDxAG = NRXAN : there¬
fore, GD : NR :: AN : AG; whence it appears, that
every ordinate of the curve is reciprocally as its corre-
fponding abfciffa.
Now, to find the area of the curve fo determined,
put AB—1, BC—and BG=.v.* then, fince AG (i+x)
: AB (1) : : BC (6) : GD (y) we have ^=7^,
• • lx ...
confequently « ( =yx)=z — iXx—xx -j-x*x—
n3x-j-xx4—&c. Whence, B G D C, the area itfelf
x* x3 x4 xs
will be —IXx——4-——— + —» &c. which was
2 3 4 5
to be found.
Hence it appears, that as thefe areas have the fame
properties as logarithms, this feries gives an eafy me¬
thod of computing logarithms; and the fluent may be
found by means of a table of logarithms, without the
trouble of an infinite feries: and every fluxion whofe
fluent agrees with any known logarithmic expreflion,
may be found the fame way. Hence the fluents of
fluxions of the following forms are deduced.
The fluent of
-~hyp. log. of x-\-*/xzz±za* >
of -~7==^rr=~hyp.log.aX.x4-<v/a^x-j-x*;
V ZtfX+XX
of ^ hyp. log. of 2±2,
7-hyp- log-
a — a,/a^z+zx7'
a + A/a'z+zx*
Pros. 2. To determine the length of curves.
Fig. 5. Becaufe Cde is a right-angle triangle, Cd4
nCe!,4-f/e*; wherefore the fluxions of the abfcifla and
ordinate being taken in the fame terms and fquared,
their fum gives the fquare of the fluxion of the curve ;
whofe root being extra&ed, and the fluent taken, gives
the length of the curve.
Examp. To find the length of a circle from its tan¬
gent. Make the radius AO (fig. 5.) ~a, the tangent
of AC=/, and its fecant sr, the curve 2=2, and its
fluxion =2; becaufe the triangles OTC, O C S,
are fimilar, O T : O C :: O C :: O S ; whence O S
= —, and SA=a =: a — == ; whofe
s s yV-j-r*
fluxion is 7--^ . 11 ; and becaufe the triangles OTC,
dCe are fimilar, TC (~t) : TO ( = ya*4-rs) :: Ce
(a2tt V alt
■=—) : CJ=— fluxion of the curve.
a'+t^T'1 a+t
Now by converting this into aft infinite feries we have the
fluxion of the cuive =:t——LL, See. and con-
,3 tS /7 #9
fequently 2 = — -—1 —-f , &c. = A R.
_ 5fl4 7«6 9«8
Where, if (for example’s fake) AR be fuppofed an arch
of 30 degrees, and AO (to render the operation more
eafy) be put =_unity, we ihall have/ezyG-ez .5773502
(becaufe OVi = M (±) :: OA (1) : AT (/)=yi)
Whence,
t3 (=/X^=/Xf) = .1924500
ts 0641500
*7 = .0213833
t9 (z=.t',Xti=.^Sj — .oo,]i2']7
t" [ = t9Xt2-~j=z.002^59
t'3 ^/-‘X/1^) = -0007919
^=/,3X/’=—j = .0002639
&c.
And therefore AR = -5773502—ll?34700^
.0641500 .0213833 .0091277 .00237
7 +’ 9 — 11 ^
5
.0007919
r3
.0000097
> .0002639 t .0000879 .0000293
*5 +' 17 ~ ^9 "F
,000003 2
2I ~ ^ = -523598? : for the length of
an arch of 30 degrees, which multiplied by 6 gives
3-I4I_592+ f°r the length of the femi-periphery of
the circle whofe radius is unity.
Other feries may be deduced from the verfed fine
and fecant; and thefe are of ufe for finding fluents
which cannot be exprefled in finite terms.
V' 2«W—
Var-
W4/W*—
Verfed fine
Right fine
Tangent
Secant
Rr 2
is —, and
Radius Unity.
Pro®.
FLUX
Pros. 3. To find the contents of a folid.
Let the furface of the generating plane be multi¬
plied by the fpace it pafles through in any time, the
produft will give a folid which is the fluxion of the fo¬
lid required : the furface muft therefore be computed
in terms of x, which reprefents the line or axis on
which it moves, and by its motion on which the fluxion
is to be meafured, and the fluent found will give the
contents of the folid.
Examp. Let it be propofed to find the content of
a cone ABC, fig. 10.
Put the given altitude (AD) of the cone =a, and
the femidiameter (BD) of its bafe —b, the folid
its fluxion rrj, and the area of a circle, whofe radius
is unity, =/: then the diftance ( AF) of the circle
EG, from the vertex A, being denoted by jv, we
have, by fimilar triangles, as a EF (y)
= —. Whence in this cafe, s (zzpy*x) — ^~.x .
pPx*
and confequently r=. 5- ; which, when *=:«(=AD)
. pbz(i
gives-y (= /> X BDa Xy AD) for the content of
the whole cone ABC: which appears*ffom hence to be
juft y of a cylinder of the fame bafe and altitude.
Prob. 4. To compute the furface of any folid body.
The fluxion of the furface of the folid is equal to
the periphery of the furface, by whofe motion the fo-
I O N S.
lid i^ generated, multiplied by its velocity on the edge
of the folid, and the computation is made as in the
foregoing.
Examp. Let it be propofed to determine the convex
fuperficies of a cone ABC, fig. 11.
Then, the femidiameter of the bafe (BD or CD)
being put —b, the flanting line or hypothenufe AC =c,'
and FH (parallel to DC) —y, AG = z, the furface
— w, its fluxion =w, and p=: the periphery of a
circle whofe diameter is unity, we ftrall, from the fimi-
larity of the triangles ADC and Hmh, have b :.c ::y
(mh : x (HZ>) —-y- whence w [2py%)—J£^-\ and
Pcy%
confequently w =—^—. This, when y — l, becomes
=^=/>XDCxAC= the convex fuperficies of the
whole cone ABC : which therefore is equal to a rec¬
tangle under half the circumference of the bafe and the
flanting line.
The method of fluxions is alfo applied to find the
centres of gravities, and ofcillation of different bodies;
to determine the paths defcribed by projectiles and bo¬
dies afted on by central forces, with the laws of cen¬
tripetal force in different curves, the retardates given
to motions performed in refilling medii, the attradlions.
of bodies under different forms, the direftion of wind
which has the greateft effefit on an engine, and to folve
many other curious and ufeful problems.
FLY
FLY
FLY, in zoology, a large order of infe&s, the di-
ftinguifhing charafteriftie of which is, that their wings
are tranfparent. By this they are diftinguifhed from
beetles, butterflies, grafshoppers, &c.
Flies are fubdivided into thofe which have four, and
thofe which have two wings.
Of thofe with four wings there are feveral genera
or kinds ; as the ant, apis, ichneumon, &c. See A-
pis, Formica, &c.
Of thofe with two wings, there are likewife feveral
kinds, as the gad-fly, gnat, &c. See GAD-Fly, &c.
Thofe who dfefire a more particular account of the
anatomy, generation, ftrufture, and manifold fubdi-
vifions of flies, may confult Reaumer’s Hiftory of In¬
fers, tom. 4. See alfo Entomology.
Houfe-Fir. SccMusca.
Pefiilential Per. See Ethiopia, n0n.
Fly, in mechanics, a crofs with leaden weights at
its ends; or rather, a heavy wheel at right angles, to
the axis of a windlafs, jack, or the like; by means
of which, the force of the power, whatever it is, is
not only preferved, but equally diftributed in all parts
of the revolution of the machine. See Mechanics.
Flies for Fijhing. See FisniNO-Fly.
Vegetable Fix, a very curious natural production
chiefly found in the Weft Indies. “ Excepting that:
it has no wings, it refembles the drone both in fize
and colour more than any other Britifh infeCt. In the
month of May it buries itfelf in the earth, and be¬
gins to vegetate. By the latter end of'July, the tree
is arrived at its full growth, and refembles a coral Fly.
branch ; and is about three inches high, and bears * J
feveral little pods, which dropping off become worms,
and from thence flies, .like the Britifh caterpillar.”
Such was the account originally given-of this ex- pm prarp
traordinary production. But feveral boxes of thefe for 1763.
flies having been fent to Dr Hill for examination, his
report was this: “ There is in Martinique a fungus of
the clavaria kind, different in fpecies from thofe hitherto
known. It produces foboles from its fides ; I call it
therefore clavaria fobolifera. It grows on putrid ani¬
mal bodies, as our fungus ex pede equino from the dead
horfe’s hoof. The cicada is common in Martinique,
and in its nympha ftate, in which the old authors call
it tettigometra: it buries itfelf under dead leaves to
wait its change ; and when the feafon is unfavourable,,
many perifh. The feeds of the clavaria find a proper
bed on this dead infeft, and grow The tettigometra
is among the cicadae in the Britifh mufeum ; the cla¬
varia is juft now known. This is the faft, and all the.
fad; though the untaught inhabitants fuppofe a fly
to vegetate, and though-there is a Spanifh drawing-of
the plants growing into a trifoliate tree, and it has.
been figured with the creature flying with this tree
upon its back.”
The ingenious Mr Edwards has taken.notice of this
extraordinary produ&ion in his Gleanings of Natural.
Hiftory, from which the figures on Plate CXCVI. are
taken.
Fir-Boat, or Flight, a large flat-bottomed Dutch.
4. veffelj
T O 1T^1) E RY.
FLY [ 31
veffel, whofe burden is generally from" 600 to 1200
tons. It is diftinguifhed by a ftern remarkably high,
refembling a Gothic turret, and by very broad but¬
tocks below.
Fir-Catcher, in zoology. See MusciCAPA.
Fir Trap, in botany, a newly difcovered fenfitive
plant. See Dionjea Mufcipula.
Fir-Free, in natural hillory, a name given by the
common people of America to a tree, whofe leaves,
they fay, at a certain time of the year produce jlies.
On examining thefe leaves about the middle of fum-
mer, the time at which the flies ufe to be produced,
there are found on them a fort of bags of a tough
matter, of about the fize of a filbert, and of a dufky
greenilh colour. On opening one of thefe bags with
a knife, there is ufually found a Angle full-grown fly,
of the gnat kind, and a number of fmall worms, which
in a day or two more have wings and flee away in
the form of their parent. The tree is of the mul¬
berry kind, and its leaves are ufually very largely
flocked with thefe infeft-bags; and the generality of
them are found to contain the infefts in their worm-
ftate; when they become winged, they foon make their
way out. The bags begin to appear when the leaves
are young, and afterwards grow with them; but they
never rumple the leaf or injure its fliape. They are
of the kind of leaf-galls, and partake in all refpe6is,
except fize, of a fpecies we have frequent on the large
maple, or, as it is called, the fycamore.
FLYERS, in architecture, fuch flairs as go ftralght,
and do not wind round, nor have the Reps made ta¬
pering ; but the fore and back part of each flair
and the ends refpeftively parallel to one another:
So that if one flight do not carry you to your de-
figned height, there is a broad half fpace and then,
you fly again, with fteps every where of the fame
breadth and length as before.
Flyers, the performers in a celebrated exhibition a-
mong the Mexicans, which was made on certain great
fdiivals,and is thus defcribed by Clavigero in his Hiftory
of that people. “ They fought in the woods for an ex¬
tremely lofty tree,which, after ftrippingitofitsbranches
and bark, they brought to the city, and fixed.in the cen¬
tre of fome large fquare. They cafed the point of the
tree in a wooden cylinder,, which, on account of fome
refemblance in its ftiape, the Spaniards called a mortar-
From this cylinder hung four ftrong ropes, which
ftived to fupport a fquare frame. In the fpace be¬
tween the cylinder and the frame, they fixed four other
thick ropes, which they twifted as many times round
the tree as there were revolutions to be made by the
flyers. Thefe ropes were drawn through four holes,
made in the middle of the four planks. of which the
frame-confifted. The four principal flyers, difguifed
like eagles, herons, and other birds, mounted the tree
with great.agility, by means of .a rope which was laced
about it from the ground up to the frame; from the
frame they mounted one at a time fuccefiively upon
the cylinder, and after having danced there a little,.
they tied themfelves round with the ends of the ropes,
which were drawn through the holes of the frame, and
launching with a fpring from it, began their flight
with their wings expanded. The aftion of their bodies
put the frame and the cylinder in motion ; the frame
7 1 FLY
by its revolutions gradually untwifted the cords by
which the flyers fwung ; fo that as the ropes length¬
ened, they made fo much the greater circles in their
flight. Whilft thefe four were flying, a fifth danced
upon the cylinder, beating a little drum, or waving a
flag, without the fmalleft apprehenfion of the danger
he was in of being precipitated from fuch a height.
The others who were upon the frame (there having
been 10 or 12 perfons generally who mounted), as foon
as they faw the flyers in their laft revolution, precipi¬
tated themfelves by the fame ropes, in order to reach
the ground at the fame time amidft the acclamations
of the populace. Thofe who precipitated themfelves
in this manner by the ropes, that they might make a
ftill greater difplay of their agility, frequently palled
from one rope to another, at that part where, on ac¬
count of the little diflance between them, it was pof-
fible for them to do fo. The moft efiential point of
this performance confifted in proportioning fo juilly
the height of the tree with the length of the ropes,
that the flyers Ihould reach the ground with 13 revo¬
lutions, to reprefent by fuch number their century of
52 years, compofed in the manner we have already men¬
tioned. This celebrated diveriion is ftill in ufe in that
kingdom ; but no particular attention is paid to the
number of the revolutions or the flyers ; as the frame
is commonly fexagonal or oft agonal, and the flyers -
6 or 8 in number. In fome places they put a rail
round the frame, to prevent accidents which were
frequent after the conqueft; as the Indians became
much given to drinking, and ufed to mount the tree
when intoxicated with wine or brandy, and wefe un¬
able to keep their flation on, fo great a height, which
was ufually 60 feet.” See Plate CXCVI.
FLYING, the progreffive motion of a bird, or other
winged animal, in the air.
The. parts of birds chiefly concerned in flying are'
the wings and tail: by the firft, the bird fuitains and :
wafts himfelf along; and by the fecond, he is aflift-
ed in afcending and defcending, to keep his body
poifed and upright, and to obviate the vacillations
thereof.
It is by the largenefs and ftrength of the pecloral
mufcles, that birds are fo well difpofed for quick,
ftrong, and continued flying, Thefe mufcles, which
in men are fcarce a 70th part of the mufcles of the
body in birds, exceed and outweigh all the other muf¬
cles taken together;,upon which Mr Willoughby makes
this. refleftion, that if it be poffible for man to fly, ,
his wings mull be fo contrived and adapted, that he.
may make ufe of his, legs, and not his arms, in ma-
naging them.
The.tail,Meffrs Willoughby; Ray, and many others,,
imagine to be principally employed in fleering and:
turning the. body in the air, as a. rudder : but Borelli.
has put it .beyond all doubt, that-this is the leaft ufe of
it, which is chiefly to affift the bird in its afcent and .
defcent in the air, and to. obviate the vacillations of the
body and wings: for, as to turning to this or that fide,,
it is performed by the wings and inclination of the
body, and but very little by the help of the tail. The.
flying of a bird, in. effeft, is quite a different thing
from the rowing of a veffel. Birds do not vibrate their,
wings towards the tail, as oars .are ftruck towards the:
ftern,.
Flying;
FLY [ 318 ] FOE
ftern, but waft them downwards ; nor does the tail of
the bird cut the air at right angles, as the rudder does
the water ; but is difpofed horizontally, and preferves
the fame filiation what way fo'ever the bird turn's.
In tffedl, as a veflel is turned about on its centre of
gravity to the right, by a briik application of the oars
to the left; fo a bird, in beating the air with its right
wing alone, towards the tail, will turn its fore-part to
the left. Thus pigeons changing their courfe to the
left, would labour it with their right wing, keeping
the other almoft at reft. Birds of a long neck alter
their courfe by the inclination of their head and neck ;
which altering the courfe of gravity, the bird will pro¬
ceed in a new direflion.
The manner of Flying is thus: The bird firft bends
his legs, and fprings with a violent leap from the
ground ; then opens and expands the joints of his
w ings, fo as to make a right line peipendicular to the
fides of his body: thus the wings, with all the feathers
therein, conftitute one continued lamina. Being now
raifed a little above the horizon, and vibrating the
wings with great forte and velocity perpendicularly
againft the fubjedb air, that fluid refifts thofe fuccef-
fions, both from its natural inadlivity and elaftjcity, by
means of which the whole body of the bird is pro¬
truded. The refiftance the air makes to the with-
drawing of the wings, and confequerjjjy the progrefs
of the bird, will be fo much the greater, as the waft
or ftroke of the fan of the wing is longer : but as the
force of the wing is- continually diminifhed by this re-
iiftance, when the two forces continue to be in equi¬
libria, the bird will remain fufpended in the fame place;
for the bird only afeends fo long as the arch of air
the wing deferibes makes a refiftance equal to .’he ex-
cefs of the fpecific gravity of the bird above the air.
If the air, therefore, be fo rare as to give way with the
fame velocity as it is ftruck withal, there will be no re-
iiftance, and confequently the bird x:an never mount.
Birds never fly upwards in a perpendicular line, but
always in a parabola. In a diredt afeent, the natural
and artificial tendency would oppofe and deftroy each
other, fo that the progrefs would be very flow. In a
diredt defeent they would aid one another, fo that the
fall would be too precipitate.
Artificial Flying, that attempted by men, by the
afliftance of mechanics.
The art of flying has been attempted by feveral per-
fens in all ages. The Leucadians, out of fuperftition,
are reported to have had a cuftom of precipitating a
man from a high cliff into the fea, firft fixing feathers,
varioufly expanded, round his body, in order to break
the fall.
Friar Bacon, who lived near 500 years ago, not only
affirms the a# of flying poffible, but affures us, that
he himfelf knew how to make an engine wherein a man
fitting might be able to convey himfelf through the
air like a bird; and further adds, that there was then
one who had tried it with fuccefs. The fecret con-
lifted in a couple of large thin hollow copper-globes,
exhaufted of air ; which being much lighter than air,
would fuftain a chair whereon a perfon might fit. Fa.
Francifco Lana, in his Prodrome, propofes the fame
thing, as his own thought. He computes, that a round
veffel .of plate-brafs, 14 feet in diameter, weighing
three ounces the fquare foot, will only weigh 1848 Flying
ounces; whereas a quantity of air of the fame bulk II ?
will weigh 2 155-f-d ounces; fo that the globe will not oe“u?* .
only be fuftained in the air, but will carry with it a
weight of 373jd ounces; and by increafing the bulk of
the globe, without increafing'the thicknefs of the me¬
tal, he adds, a veffel might be made to carry a much
greater weight.—But the fallacy is obvious : a globe
of the dimenfions he deferibes, Dr Hook Ihows, would
not fuftain the preffure of the air, but be cruftted in¬
wards. Befides, in whatever ratio the bulk of the globe
were increafed, in the fame muft the thicknefs of the
metal, and confequently the weight be increafed: fo
that there would be no advantage in fuch augmen¬
tation. See Aerostation. 7
The fame author deferibes ah engine for flying, in¬
vented by the Sieur Befnier, a fmith of Sable, in the
county of Main. Fid. Philofoph. Collect. N°i.
The philofophers of king Charles thefecond’s reign
were mightily-bufied abtfut this art. The famous bi-
flrop Wilkins was fo confident of fuccefs in it, that he
fays, he does not queftion but in future ages it will
be as ufual to hear a man call for his wings, when he is
going a journey, as it is now to call for his boots.
Flying-Bridge. See Bridge.
FLYiNG-Fifh, a name given by the Englifh writers
to feveral fpecies of fifti, which by means of their long
fins, have a method of keeping themfelves out of water
a confiderable time. See Exocoetus.
Flying-Pinion, is part of a clock, having a fly or
fan whereby to gather air, and fo bridle the rapidity
of the clock’s motion, when the weight defeends in the
ftriking part.
FO, or Foe ; an idol of the Chinefe. He was
originally worfhipped in the Indies, and tranfported
from thence into China, together with the fables with
which the Indian books were filled. He is faid to have
performed moft wonderful things, which the Chinefe have
deferibed in feveral volumes, and reprefented by cuts.
SeB of Fo. See China, n° 103.
Fo-Kien. See Fokien.
FOAL, or Colt and Filly-, the young of thehorfe
kind. The word colt, among dealers, is underftood of
the male, as filly is of the female. See Colt.
FOCUS, in geometry and conic fedtions, is applied
to certain points in the parabola, ellipfis, and hyper¬
bola, where the rays refle&ed from all parts of thefe
curves concur and meet. See Conic SeBions.
Focus, in optics; a point in which any number of
rays, after being refledted or refra&ed, meet.
FODDER, any kind of meat for horfes or other
cattle. In fome places, hay and ftraw, mingled toge¬
ther, is peculiarly denominated fodder.
Fodder, in the civil law, is ufed for a prerogative
that the prince has, to be provided of corn and other
meats for his horfes, by the fubje&s, in his warlike
expeditions.
Fodder, in mining, a meafure containing 22 hun¬
dred and an half weight, though in London but 20
hundred weight.
FOENUGREEK, in botany. See Trigonella.
FOENUS nauticum. Where money was lent to
a merchant, to be employed in a beneficial trade with
condition to be repaid, with extraordinary intereft, in
cafe
t
FOE [ ,
Foefius cafe fuch voyage was fafely performed, the agreement
'I was fometimes called farms nauticum, fometimes ufura
F')g maritima. But as this gave an opening for ufurious
" ' and gaming contracts, 19 Geo. II. c. 37. ena&s, that
all money lent on bottomry, or at refpondentia, on vef-
fels bound to or from the Eaft Indies, (hall be exprefs-
ly lent only upon the Ihip or merchandife : the lender
to have the benefit of falvage, &c. Blachjl. Com. II.
459. Mol. de Jur. Mar. 361.
FOESIUS (Anulius), a very learned and celebra¬
ted phyfician of the faculty of Paris, born at Mentz in
1528. He tranflated into Latin the whole works of
Hippocrates, judicioufly corredling the Greek text as
he went along; and compofed a kind of dictionary to
him, intitled, Oeconemia Hippocratis. He tranflated,
btfide, the Commentaries of Galeh upon the fecond
book of Hippocrates; and was the author of fome
other works. After praCtifing phyfic a long time with
great fuccefs and reputation, at Lorrain'and other
places, he died in 1596.
FOETOR, in medicine, {linking, or fetid effluvia
arifing from the body or any part thereof.
FOETUS, the young of all viviparous animals
vvhilll in the womb, and of oviparous animals before
being hatched: the name is transferred by botanifts to
the embryos of vegetables.
Stridlly, the name is applied to the young after it
is perfedly formed; till which time it is more properly
called Embryo. See Anatomy, n° 109,'no.
In the human foetus are feveral peculiarities not to be
found in the adult ; fome of them are as follows.
1. The arteries of the navel-firing, which are conti¬
nuations of the hypograftics, are, after the birth,
fhriveiled up, and form the ligamenta umbilic. infer.
2. The veins of the navel-firing are formed by the
union of all the venous branches in the placenta, and
pafiing into the abdomen become the falciform ligament
of the liver. 3. The lungs, before being inflated with
air, are compadl and heavy, but after one infpiratiou
they become light, and as it were fpongy : and it may
be noted here, that the notion of the lungs finking in
water before the child breathes, and of their fwimmrng
after the reception of air, are no certain proofs that the
child had or had not breathed, much lefs that it was
murdered: for the uninftated lungs become fpecifically
lighter than water as fcon as any degree of putrefadlion
takes place in them ; and this foon happens after the
death of the child: befides, where the utmofi care hath
been taken to preferve the child, it hath breathed once
or twice, and then died. 6. The thymus gland is very
large in the foetus, but dwindles away in proportion as
years advance. 7. The foramen ovale in the heart of
a foetus, is generally clofed in an adult.
FOG, or Mist, a meteor, confifting of grofs va¬
pours, floating near the furface of the earth.
Mifts, according to lord Bacon, are imperfeft con-
derifations of the air, confifting of a large proportion
of the air, and a fmall one of the aqueous vapour: and
thefe happen in the winter, about the change of the
weather from frofi to thaw, or from thaw to frofi; but
in the fummer, and in the fpring, from the expanfion
of the dew.
If the vapours, which are raifed plentifully from the
earth and waters, either by the folar or fubterraneous
6
119] F O 1
heat, do at their firfi entrance into the atmofphere
meet with cold enough to condenfe them to a confidcr-
abie degree, their fpecific gravity is by that means
increafed, and fo they will be flopped from afeending;
and either return back in form of dew or of drizzling
rain, or remain fufpended fome time in the form of a
fog. Vapours may be feen on the high grounds as
well as the low, but more efpecially about marftiy pla¬
ces. They are eafily difiipated by the wind, as alfo
by the heat of the fun. They continue longeft in the
loweft grounds, becaufe thefe places contain moft moi-
fture, and are leaft expofed to the a&ion of the wind.
Hence we may eafily conceive, that fogs are only
low clouds, or clouds in the loweft region of the air ;
as clouds are no other than fogs raifed oh high. See
Cloud.
When fogs ftink, then the vapours are mixed with
fulphureous exhalations, which fmell fo. Obje&s view^
ed through fogs appear larger and more remote than
through the common air. Mr Boyle obferves, that
upon the coaft of Coromandel, and moft maritime
parts of the Eaft Indies, there are, notwithftanding the
heat of the climate, annual fogs fo thick, as to occafion,
people of other nations who refide there, and even the
more tender fort of the natives, to keep their houfes
clofe fhut up.
Fogs are commonly pretty ftrongly electrified, as ap¬
pears from Mr Cavallo’s obfervations upon them. See
Electricity, n° 76.
FOG AGE, in the foreft-law, is rank grafs pot eaten
up in fumprer.
FOGIJETA (Oberto or Hubert), a Genoefe
pried, and one of the moft learned writers of the i6th
century. He had a fliare in the difturbances that were
raifed at Genoa, for which-he was baniflred; and died
at Rome in 1581, aged 63. He wrote a hiftory of
Genoa in Italian, which is highly efteemed; and many*
works in Latin.
FOGO, cr Fuego. See Fuego.
FOHI. See Fe; and China, n° 7.
FOIBLE, a French term, frequently ufed alfo in our*
language. It literally fignifies weak; and in that fenfe
is applied to the body of animals and the parts there¬
of, as foible reins, foible fight, &c. being derived from
the ItalianjfeWe, of the LatinJlebilis, to be “ lament¬
ed, pitied.”
But it is chiefly ufed with us fubftantively, to denote
a deleft or flaw in a perfon or thing. Thus we fay.
Every perfon has his foible; and the great fecret foil-,
fifts in hiding it artfully: Princes are gained by flattery,
that istheir foible: The foible of young people is plea-
fure ; the foible of old men is avarice ; the foible of
the great and learned1 is vanity ; the foible of women
and girls, coquetry, or an affeftation of having gallants:
You flioiild know the forte and the foible of a man
before you employ him : We fhould not let people
perceive that we know their foible.
FOIL, in fencing, denotes a blunt fword, or one
that has a button at the end covered with leather, ufed
in learning the art of fencing.
Foil, among glafs-grinders, a (beet of tr:, with
quickfilver, or the like, laid on the backfide of a looking-
glafs, to make it refleft. See Foliating.
Foil, among jewellers, a thin leaf of metal placed
under
F O L [ 320 ] F O L
Fo’’1 under a precious ftone, in order to make it look tranf-
Folard Parent> an(i give ^ an agreeable different colour, either
deep or pale : thus, if you want a ftone to be of a pale
colour, put a foil of that colour under it; or if you
would have it deep, lay a dark one under it.
Thefe foils are made either of copper, gold, or gold
and fxlver together. The copper foils are commonly
known by the name of Nuremberg or German foils ;
and are prepared as follows: Procure the thinneft cop¬
per-plates you can get: beat thefe plates gently upon
a well-polifhed anvil, with a polifhed hammer, as thin
as poffible ; and placing them between two iron-plates
as thin as writing paper, heat them in the fire ; then
boil the foil in a pipkin, with equal quantities of tartar
and fait, conftantly ftirring them till by boiling they
become white; after which, taking them out and dry¬
ing them, give them another hammering, till they are
made fit for your purpofe: however, care muft: be taken
not to give the foils to much heat, for fear of melting;
nor muff they be too long boiled, for fear of attracting
too much-fait.
The manner of polifhing thefe foils is as follows :
Take a plate of the bell copper, one foot long and
about five or fix inches wide, polifhed to the greateft
perfection ; bend this to a long convex, faften it upon
a half roll, and fix it to a bench or table ; then take
fome chalk, wafhed as clean as poflible, and filtred
through a fine linen cloth, till it be as fine as you can
make it; and having laid fomie thereof on the roll, and
wetted the copper all over, lay your foils on it, and
with a polifhing {tone and the chalk polifh your foils
till they are as bright as a looking-glafs; after which
they muft be dried, and laid up fecure from dull.
FOKIEN, a province of China in Afia, commo-
dioufly fituated for navigation and commerce, part of
it bordering on the fea, in which they catch large
quantities of fifh, which they fend failed to other parts
of the empire. Its fhores are very uneven, by reafon
of the number and variety of its bays ; and there are
many forts built thereon to guard thecoaft. The air is
hot, but pure and wholefome.
The mountains are almoft every where difpofed into
a kind of amphitheatres, by the labour of the inhabi¬
tants, with terraces placed one above another. The
fields are watered with rivers and fprings, which iffue
out of the mountains, and which the hufbandmen
conduCt in fuch a manner as to overflow the fields of
rice when they pleafe, b( caufe it tiirives beft in watery
ground. They make ufe of pipes of bamboe for this
purpofe.
They have all commodities in common with the reft
of China ; but more particularly mufk, precious ftones,
quickfiiver, filk, hempen-cloth, callico, iron, and all
forts of utenfils wrought to the greateft perfection.
From other count! ies they have cloves, cinnamon, pep¬
per, fandal-woed, amber, coral, and many other things.
The capital city is Foutcheou Fou ; or, as others
would have it written, Fucherofu. But as forFokien,
which moft geographers make the capital, Grofier in¬
forms us there is no fuch place.
FOL 1 RD (Charles), an eminent Frenchman, fa¬
mous for his flcill and knowledge in the art military,
was born at iyignon in 669, of a noble family, but
not a rich one. He difcovered an early turn for the
N° 128.
fciences, and a ftrong paffion for arms; which laft was Folard.
fo inflamed by reading Csefar’s Commentaries, that Ire  V“"
enlifted at 16 years of age. His father got him off,
and (hut him in a monaftery : but he made his efcape
in about two years after, and entered himfelf a fecond
time in quality of cadet. His inclination for military
affairs, and the great pains he took to accomplifh him¬
felf in that way, recommended him to notice; and he
was admitted into the friendftiip of the firft-rate offi¬
cers. M. de Vendome, who commanded in Italy in
1720, made him his aid-de-camp, having conceived the
higheft regard for him ; and foon after fent him with
part of his forces into Lombardy. He was entirely
trufted by the commander of that army ; and no mea-
fures were concerted, or fteps taken, without confult-
ing him. By purfuing his plans, many places were
taken, and advantages gained; and fuch, in fhort, were
his fervices, that he had a penfion of 400 livres fettled
upon him, and was honoured with the crofs of St
Lewis. He diftinguiflred himfelf greatly, Auguft 15.
1705, at the battle of Caffano ; where he received a
wound upon his left hand, which deprived him of the
ufe of it ever after. It was at this-battle that he con¬
ceived the firft idea of that fyftem of columns, which
he afterwards prefixed to his Commentaries upon Poly¬
bius. The duke of Odeans fending de Vendome again
into Italy in 1706, Folard had orders to throw himfelf
into Modena to defend it againft Eugene : where, tho*
he acquitted himfelf with his ufual flcill, he was very
near being affafiinated. The defcription which he has
given of the conduft and chara&er of the governor of
this town, may be found in his Treatife of the De¬
fence of Places, and deferves to be read. He received
a dangerous wound on the thigh at the battle of Mal-
plaquet, and was fome time after made prifoner by
prince Eugene. Being exchanged in 1711, he was
made governor of Bourbourg. In 1714 he went to
Malta, to affift in defending that ifland againft the
Turks. Upon his return to France, he embarked for
Sweden, having a palfionate defire to fee Charles XII.
He acquired the efteem and confidence of that famous
general, who fent him to France to negociate the re-
eftabliflrment of James II. upon the throne of Eng¬
land ; but that proje& being dropped, he returned to
Sweden, followed Charles XII. in his expedition to
Norway, and ferved under him at the fiege of Frede-
rickihall, where that prince was killed, Dec. 11. 1718.
Folard then returned to France; and made his laft
campaign in 1719, under the duke of Berwick, in qua¬
lity of colonel. From that time he applied himfelf in-
tenfely to the ftudy of the art military as far as it
could be ftudied at home ; and built his theories upon
the foundation of his experience and obfervations on
fa&s. He contra&ed an intimacy with count Saxe,
who, as he then declared, would one day prove a very
great generaL He was chofen a fellow of the Royal
Society at London in 1749 ; and, in 17J1, made a
journey to Avignon, where he died in 1752, aged 83
years. He was the author of feveral works, the prin¬
cipal of which are, 1. Commentaries upon Polybius,
in fix volumes, 410. 2. A Book of new DifcoverieS
in War. 3. A Treatife concerning the Defence of
Places, &c. in French. Thofe who would know more
of this eminent foldier, may confult a French piece, in-
titled.
V O L
Folc-lanJs titled, Memoires pours fervir a l’Hijlolre de M. de Che-
|| valier de Folard. Ratijbone, 1753, 12 mo.
Folen^io. FOLC-LAND3, (Sax.) copy-hold lands fo called in
' 1 the time of the Saxons, as charter-lands were called
boc-lands, Kitch. 174. Falkland was terra vulgi or
popularis i the land of the vulgar people, who had no
certain eftate therein, but held the fame, under the
[ 321 ]
F O L
mies ; and, reaching England, to macaroni clubs;
till, in the end, every thing inlipid, contemptible, and
ridiculous, in the character, drefs, or behaviour, of
both men and women, is now fummed up in the de-
fpicable appellation of a macaroni. Folengio died m
15+4-
FOLIA, among botanifts, particularly fignify the
rents and fervices accuftomed or agreed, at the will leaves of plants; thofe of flowers being exprefled by
only of their lord the thane ; and it was therefore not the word petals. See Leaf.
put in writing, but accounted pradium rujlicum et igno- FOLIAGE, a clutter or aflemblage of flowers,
bile. Spelm. of Feuds, c. 5. leaves, branches, &c.
FOLCMOTE, or Folkmote, (Sum. Folcgemot, Foliage, is particularly ufed for the reprefentations
i. e. conventus populi), is compounded of folk, populus, of fuch flowers, leaves, branches, rinds, &c. whether
and mote, ox gemote, convenire; and fignified originally, natural or artificial, as are ufed for enrichments on ca¬
ns Somner in his Saxon Didtionary informs us, a ge- pitals, friezes, pediments, &c.
neral aflembly of the people, to confider of and order
rtiatters of the commonwealth. And Sir Henry Spel-
man fays, the folcmote was a fort of annual parliament,
or convention of the bifhops, thanes, aldermen, and
freemen, upon every May-day yearly ; where the lay-
and to preferve the laws of the kingdom; and then
confulted of the common fafety. But Dr Brady infers
from the laws of the Saxon kings of England, that it
was an inferior court, held before the king’s reeve or
fleward, every month, to do folk right, or compofe
fmaller differences, from whence there lay appeal to the
ment within the faid city; and this word is ftill in ufe
among the Londoners, and denotes celebrem ex tota ci-
vitate conventum. Slow’s Survey. According to Ken-
net, the folcmote was a common-council of all the inha-
king’s nomination, anno 1315, 3 Edw. 1. After which
the city folkmote was fwallowed up in a fele& commit¬
tee or common-council, and the country folkmote in the
fheriff’s tourn and affifes.
paper-funnel, which put into the hole of the globe, as
the glafs as you can, fo that the amalgam, when
you pour it in, may not fplafh, and caufe the glafs to be
full of fpots; pour it in gently, and move it about, fo
The word folkmote was alfo ufed for any kind of po- that the amalgam may touch every where : if you find
pular or public meeting ; as of all the tenants at the the amalgam begin to be curdly and fixed, then hold it
court-leet, or court-baron, in which fignification it was of over a gentle fire, and it will eafily flow again; and if
a lefs extent. Paroch. Antiq.
FOLENGIO (Theophilus), of Mantua, known al¬
fo by the title of Merlin Coccaye, an Italian poet, re¬
markable for giving to a poem a name which has been
adopted ever fince for all trifling performances of the
fame fpecies, confifting of buffoonry, puns, anagrams,
wit without wifdom, and humour without good-fenfe.
His poem was called The Macaroni, from an Italian
you find the amalgam too thin, add a little more lead,
tin, and bifmuth to it- The finer and clearer your
globe is, the better will the looking-glafs be.
Dr Shaw obferves, that this operation has confider-
able advantages, as being performable in the cold ; and
that it is not attended with the danger of poifonous
fumes from arfenic, or other unwholefome matters, u-
fually employed for this purpofe: belides, how far it
cake of the fame name, which is fweet to the talie, but is applicable to the more commodious foliating of the
has not the lead alimentary virtue, on the contrary common looking-glafles, and other fpeculums, he
palls the appetite and cloys the ftomach. Thefe idle
poems, however, became the reigning tafte in Italy
and in France : they gave birth to macaroni acade-
Vol. VII. Part I.
thinks, may deferve to be confidered.
FOLIO, in merchants books, denotes a page, or
rather both the right and left hand pages, thefe being
S f ex-
Ff>li»
I
FoK-r.
FOLIATING e/- Looking-glasses, the fpread-
ing the plates over, after they are poliflied, with quick-
filver, &c. in order to refledt the image. It is per¬
formed thus : A thin blotting paper is fpread on the
table, and fprinkled with fine chalk ; and then a fine
men were fworn to defend one another and the king, lamina or leaf of tin, called foil, is laid over the pa-
—a l:—a— . —a -1— per . Up0n this is poured mercury, which is to be dif-
tributed equally over the leaf with a hare’s-foot or
cotton : over this is laid a clean paper, and over that
the glafs-plate, which is prelfed down with the right-
hand, and the paper drawn gently out with the left:
this being done, the plate is covered with a thicker
fuperior courts; G/ofs. p. 48. Squire feems to think paper, and loaded with a greater weight, that the fu-
the folcmote not diftindt from the fhiremote, or common perfluous mercury may be driven out and the tin ad-
general meeting of the county. See his Angl. Sax. Gov. here more clofely to the glafs. When it is dried, the
155. n. weight is removed, and the looking-glafs is complete.
Manwood mentions folcmote as a court holden in Some add an ounce of marcafite, melted by the fire;
London, wherein all the folk and people of the city did and, left; the mercury Ihould evaporate in fmoke, they
complain of the mayor and aldermen, for mifgovern- pour it into cold water; and when cooled, fqueeze
through a cloth, or through leather.
Some add a quarter of an ounce of tin and Lad to
the marcafite, that the glafs may dry the fooner.
Foliating of Globe Looking-glajfes, is done as fol-
bitants of a city, town, or borough, convened often lows : Take five ounces of quickfilver and one ounce
by found of bell, to the Mote Hall, or Houfe; or it was of bifmuth ; of lead and tin, half an ounce each : firlt
applied to a larger congrefs of all the freemen within a put the lead and tin into fufion, then put in the bif-
county, called the fFire-mote, where formerly all knights muth ; and when you perceive that in fufion too, let
and military tenants did fealty to the king, and elefted it Hand till it is almoft cold, and pour the quickfilver
the annual flienff on the ill of Oftober; till this popu- into it: after this, take the glafs-globe, which muflj
lar eleftion,to avoid tumults and riots, devolved to the be very clean, and the infide free from dull: make :
Folio
F O L [ 322 ] F O
expreffcd by the fame. figure, and correfponding to
each other. See Book-keeping.
Folio, among printers and bookfellers, the largeft
form of books, when each fheet is fo printed that it
may be bound up in two leaves only.
FOLIS. See Follis.
FOLIUM, or Leaf, in botany. See Leaf.
FOLKES (Martin), an Engliflr antiquary, mathe¬
matician, and philofqpher, was born at Weftminfter
about 1690 ; and was greatly diltinguifhed as a mem¬
ber of the Royal Society in London, and of the Aca-
demy of Sciences at Paris. He was admitted into the
former at 24 years of age ; made one of their council
two yeans after ; named by Sir Ifaac Newton himfelf
as vice-prefident ; and, after Sir Hans Sloane, became
prefident. There are numerous Memoirs of his in the
Philofophical Tranfa&ions. Coins, ancient and mo¬
dern, were a great objefl; with him : and his laft pro¬
duction was a book upon the Engliih Silver Coin, from
the conquelt to his own times. He died at London
in 1754. Dr Birch had drawn up materials for a life of
Mr Folkes, which are preferved at large in the Anec¬
dotes of Bowyer, p. 562. et feq.
FOLKESTONE, a town of Kent, between Do¬
ver and Hythe, 72 miles from London, appears to
have been a very ancient place, from the Roman
coins and Britiih bricks often found in it. Stilling-
fleet and Tanner take it for the Lapis Tituli of Nen¬
nius. It was burnt by Flarl Godwin, and by the
French in the reign of Edward III. It had five
churches, now reduced to one. It is a member of the
town and port of Dover ; and has a weekly market
and an annual fair. It is chiefly noted for the multi¬
tude of fifliing-boats that belong to its harbour, which
are employed in the feafon in catching mackerel for
London ; to which they are carried by the mackerel-
boats of London and Barking. About Michaelmas,
the Folkeftone-barks, with others from Suficx, go a-
way to the Suffolk and Norfolk coafls, to catch her-,
rings for the merchants of Yarmouth and Leoftoff.—
Folkeftone gives title of Vifcount to William Flenry
Bouverie, whofe grandfather, Jacob, wasfo created in
1747. It has been obferved of fome hills in this neigh¬
bourhood, that they have vifibly funk and grown lower
within memory.
FOLKLAND, and Folkmo.te. SeeFoLCLAND;
FOLLICULUS, (from follis, “ a bag,”) a fpe-
eies of feed-vefiel firft mentioned by Linmsus in his
Delineatio planta,, generally confiding of one valve,
which opens from bottom to top on one fide, and has
no future for fadening or attaching the feeds within it.
FOLLICULI are likewil’e defined by the fame au¬
thor to be fmall glandular veffels didended with air,
which appear on the furface of fome plants; as at the
root of water-milfoil, and on the leaves of aldrovanda.
In the former, the veffels in quedion are roundifh, and
furnifhed with an appearance like two horns ; in the
latter, pot-fhaped, and femicircular.
FOLLIS, or Folis, anciently fignified a little bag
or purfe ; whence it came to be ufed for a fum of
money, and very different fums were called by that
name : thus the fcholiad on the Bafilics, mentions a fol¬
lis of copper which was worth but the 24th part of the
miliarenfis; the gloffae nomicae, quoted by Gronovius
and others, one of 125 miliarenfis, and another of 250
denarii, which was the ancient federtium ; and three Folly
diflerent fums of eight, four, and two pound of gold, II
were each called fullis. According- to the account 0fFoI1g~yang»
the fcholiad, the ounce of filver, which contained 5 v
miliarenfis of 60 in the pound, was worth 120 follis
of copper. The gloffographer, defcribing a follis of
250 denarii, fays it was equal to 312 pounds 6 ounces
of copper ; and as the denarius of that age was the
8th part of an ounce, an ounce of filver mull have been
worth 120 ounces of copper ; and therefore the fdio-
liad’s foliis was an ounce of copper, and equal to the
gloffographer’s nummus. But as Condantine’s copper
money weighed a quarter of a Roman ounce, the fcho-
liad’s follis and the gloffographer’s nummus contained
four of them, as the ancient nummus contained four
affes.
FOLLY, according to Mr Locke, confids in the
drawing of falfe conclufions from jud principles; by
which it is didinguilhed from madnefs, which draws
jud conclufions from falfe principles.
But this feems too confined a definition ; folly, in
its mod general acceptation, denoting a weaknefs of
intelled or apprehenfion, or fome partial abfurdity in
fentiment or conduft.
FOMAHANT, in adronomy, a dar of the firfl; *
magnitude in the condellation Aquarius.
FOMENTATION, in medicine, is a fluid exter¬
nally applied, ufually as warm as the patient can bear
it, and in the following manner. Two flanel cloths
are dipped into the heated liquor; one of which is
wrung as dry as the neceffary fpeed will admit,, then
immediately applied to the part afferffed ; it lies on un¬
til the heat begins to go off, and the other is in readi-
nefs to apply at the indant in which the fird is remo¬
ved : thus thefe flanels are alternately applied, fo as.
to keep the affe&ed part condantly fupplied with them
warm. This is continued 15 or 20 minutes, and re¬
peated two or three times a-day-.
Every intention of relaxing and Toothing by fomen¬
tations may be anfwered as well by warm water a-
lone as when the whole tribe of emollients are boiled,
in it; but when difeutients or antifeptics are required,
fuch ingredients mud be called in as are adapted to
that end.
The degree of heat fliould never exceed that of pro¬
ducing a pleafing fenfation ; great heat produces ef¬
fects very oppofite to that intended by the ufe of fo¬
mentations.
FONG-yang, a city of China, in the province of
KlANG-jVhw. It is fituated on a mountain, which
hangs over the yellow river, and inclofes with its walls
fereral fertile little hills. Its jurifdi&ion is very ex-
tenfive : for it comprehends 18 cities; 5 of which are
of the fecond, and 13 of the third clafs. As this was
the birth-place of the emperor Hong-vou, chief of the
preceding dynady, this prince formed a defign of ren¬
dering it a famous and magnificent city, in order to
make it the feat of empire. After having expelled the
wedern Tartars, who had taken poffefiion of China,
he transferred his court hither, and named the city
Fong-yang ; that is to fay, “ The Place-of the Eagle’s
Splendor.” His intention, as we have faid, was to
beautify and enlarge it; but the inequality of the ground,,
the fcarcity of frefli water, and above all the vicinity
of his father’s tomb, made him change his defign. By
PON [ 323 1 F O N
Fong-yang the unanimous advice of his principal officers, this
ll. prince eftabliffied his court at Nan-king, a more beau-
■ Qntaine’ tiful and commodious place. When he had formed this
refolution, a flop was put to the intended works: the
imperial palace which was to have been inclofed by a
triple wall, the walls of the city to which a circumfe¬
rence of nine leagues were affigned, and the canals that
were begun, all were abandoned ; and nothing was fi-
. nifiied but three monuments, which ftill remain. The
extent and magnificence of thefe fufficiently fliow
what the beauty of this city would have been, had the
emperor purfued his original defign. The firft is the
tomb of the .father of Hong-vou, to decorate which no
expence was fpared ; it is called Hoan-lin, or the Royal
‘Tomb. The fecond is a tower built in the middle of
the city, which is of an oblong form, and 100 feet
high. The third is a magnificent temple erefted to
the god Fo. At firft it was only a pagod, to which
Hong-vou retired after having loft his parents, and
where he was admitted as an inferior domeftic; but,
having foori become weary of this kind of life, he en-
lifted with the chief of a band of banditti, who had re¬
volted from the Tartars. As he was bold and enter-
prifing, the general made choice of him for his fon-in-
law ; foon after, he was declared his fucceffor by the
unanimous voice of the troops. The new chief, feeing-
himfelf at the head of a large party, had the prefump-
tion to carry his views to the throne. The Tartars, in¬
formed of the progrefs of his arms, fent a numerous ar¬
my iqto the field : but he furprifed and attacked them
with fo much impetuofity, that they were obliged to
fly; and, though they feverul times returned to the
charge, they were ftill defeated, and at length driven
entirely out of China. As foon as he mounted the
throne, he caufed the fuperb temple which we have
mentioned, to be raifed out of gratitude to the Bon¬
zes, who had received him in his diftrefs, and affigned
them a revenue fufficient for the maintenance of 300
perfons, under a chief of their own fe<ft, whom he
conftituted a mandarin, with pouter of governing them,
independent of the officers of the city. This pagod
was fupported as long as the preceding dynafty lafted ;
but that of the eaftern Tartars, w hich fucceeded, fuf-
fered it to fall to ruin,
Fong- Chom, the name of a ridiculous fuperftition a-
mong the Chinefe. See China, n° 105.
FONT, among ecclefiaftical writers, a large bafon,
in which water is kept for the baptizing of infants or
other perfons.
Font, in the art of printing, denotes a complete
aflbrtment of letters, accents, &c. ufed in printing.
See Fount.
FONTAINE (John), the celebrated French poet,
and one of the firft rate geniufes of his age, w'as born
at Chateau Thierri in Champaigne, the 8th of July
1.621, of a good extradtion. At the age of 19 he en¬
tered amongft the Oratorians, but quitted that order
18 months after. He was 22 years of age before he
knew his own talents for poetry ; but hearing an ode
of Malherbe read, upon the affaffination of Henry IV.
he was fo taken with admiration of it, that the poeti¬
cal fire, which had before lain dormant w'ithin him,
feemed to be enkindled from that of the other great
poet. He applied himfelf to read, to meditate, to re¬
peat, in fine, to imitate, the works of Malherbe. The
firft effays of his pen he confined to one of his rela- Fontaine,
tions, who made him read the beft Latin authors, Ho- '
race, Virgil,' Terence, Quintilian, &c. and then the
beft compofitions in French and Italian. He applied
himfelf likewife to the ftudy of the Greek author s, par¬
ticularly Plato and Plutarch. Some time afterwards
his parents made him marry a daughter of a lieutenant-
general, a relation of the great Racine. This young
lady, befides her very great beauty, was remarkable
for the delicacy of her wit, and Fontaine never com-
pofed any work without confulting her. But as her
temper was none of the beft, to avoid diflenfion, he fe-
parated himfelf from her company as often as he well
could. The famous duchefs of Bouillon, niece to car¬
dinal Mazarine, being exiled to Chateau Thierri, took
particular notice of Fontaine. Upon her recal, he fol¬
lowed her to Paris; where, by the intereft of one of
his relations, he got a penfion fettled upon him. He
met with great friends and protectors amongft the moft
diftinguilhed perfons of the court, but madam de la Sa-
bliere was the moft particular. She took him to live
at her houfe; and it was then that Fontaine, divefted
of domeftic concerns, led a life conformable to his
difpofition, and cultivated an acquaintance with all the
great men of the age. It was his cuftom, after he w>as
fixed at Paris, to go every year, during the month of
September, to his native place of Chateau-Thierri, and
pay a vilit to his wife, carrying with him Racine, Def-
preaux, Chapelle, or fome other celebrated writers.
When he has fometimes gone thither alone by himfelf,
he has come away without remembering even to call
upon her; but feldom omitted felling fome part of his
lands, by which means he fquandered away a confider-
able fortune. After the death of madame de la Sa-
bliere, he was invited into England, particularly by
madame Mazarin, and by St Evremond, who promi-
fed him all the fweets and comforts of life; but the
difficulty of learning the Englilh language, and the
liberality of the duke of Burgundy, prevented his
voyage.
About the end of the year 1692 he fell dangeroufly
ill; and, as is cuftomary upon thefe occafions in the
Romiffi church, he made a general confeffion of his
whole life to P. Poguet, an oratorian; and, before he
received the facrament, he fent for the gentlemen of
the French academy, and in their prefence declared
his fincere compurnftion for having compofed his Tales;
a work he could not reflect upon without the greateft
repentance and deteftation; promifing, that if it fhould
pleafe God to reftore his health, he would employ his
talents only in writing upon matters of morality or
piety. He furvived this illnefs two y,ears, living in
the moft exemplary and edifying manner, and died the
13th of March 1695, being 74 years of age. When
they ftripped his body, they found next his ikin a hair-
ftiirt; which gave room for the following expreffioa
of the younger Racine:
Et V Auteur de 'Jaconde eji 'arms d' un Cilice.
Fontaine’s character is remarkable for a fimplicity,
candour, and probity, feldom to be met with. He
was of an obliging difpofition; cultivating a real friend-
ffiip with his brother poets and authors ; and, what is
very rare, beloved and c deemed by them all. His
converfation was neither gay nor brilliant, efpecially
when he was not among his intimate friends. One
S f 2 day
F O N C 3H I F O N
Fontaine, day being invited to dinner at a farmer-general’s, he
Fontain- eat a great deal, but did not fpeak. Riling up from
, eau , table very early, under pretext of going to the aca¬
demy, one of the company reprefented to him that it
was not yet a proper time : “ Well (fays he), if it is
rot, I will ftay a little longer.” He had one fon by his
wife in the year 1660. At the age of 14, he put him
into the hands of M. de Harley, the firft prefident, re¬
commending to him his education and fortune. It is
laid, that having been a long time without feeing him,
he happened to meet him one day vifiting, without re-
collefting tym again, and mentioned to the company
that he thought that young man had a good deal of
wit and underftanding. When they told him it was
his own fon, heanfwered in the moll tranquil manner,
“ Ha! truly I am glad on’t.” An indifference, or
rather an abfence of mind, influenced his whole con-
dud., and tendered him often infenfible to the incle¬
mency of the weather. Madame de Bouillon going
one morning to Verfailles, faw him, abltraded in
thought, fitting in an arbour; returning at night, flie
found him in the fame place, and in the fame attitude,
although it was very cold and had rained almolt the
whole day. He carried this fimplicity fo far, that he
was fcarce fen Able of the bad effeds fome of his wri¬
tings might occaflon^particularly his tales. In a great
ficknefs, his confeff r exhorting him to prayer and alms-
deeds : “ As for alms-deeds (replied Fontaine), I am
not able, having nothing to give ; but they are about
publilhing a new edition of my Tales, and the bookfeller
owes me a hundred copies; you lhall have them to
fell, and dittribute theii amount amongft the poor.”
Another time P. Poguet exhorting him to repent of
his faults, “ If he has committed any (cried the nurfe),
I am fure it is more from ignorance than malice, for
he has as much flmplicity as an infant.” One time
having compofed a tale, wherein he made a profane
application of thole words of the Gofpel, “ Lord, five
talents thou didft deliver to me,” he dedicated it, by
a moft ingenious prologue, to the celebrated Arnauld,
telling him, it was to fhow to pollerity the great efteem
he had for the learned dodor. He was not fenfible of
the indecency of the dedication, and the profane ap¬
plication of the text, till Boileau and Racine repre¬
fented it to him. He addreffed another, by a dedica¬
tion in the fame manner to the archbilhop of Paris.
His Fables are an immortal work, exceeding every
thing in that kind, both ancient and modern, in the
opinion of the learned. People of tafte, the oftener
they read them, will And continually new beauties and
charms, not to be met with elfewhere. The defcen-
dants of this great poet are exempted in France from
all taxes and impoAtions, a privilege which the inten-
dants of Soiffons to this day think it an honour to con¬
firm to them.
FONTAINBLEAU, a town in the Ifle of France,
and in the Gatinois, remarkable for its Ane palace,
which has been the place where the kings of France
ufed to lodge when they went a-hunting- It was firft
Smbelliftied by Francis I. and all the fucceffive kings
feave added fomething thereto; infomuch that it may
now be called the fineft pleafure-houfe in the world. It
ftand8 in the midft of a foreft, confiding of 26,424 ar-
pents of land, each containing 100 fquare perches, and
eaeb perch 18 feet. E. Long. 2. 33. N. Lat. 49. 22-
FONTAINES (Peter Francis), a French critic, Fontaines
was born of a good family at Rouen in 1685. At 15, fi
he entered into the fociety of the Jefuits; and at 30, Fontaiabia.
quitted it, for the fake of returning to the world. He ~' r"-*
was a prieft, and had a cure in Normandy; but left it,
and was, as a man of wit and letters, fome time with
the cardinal d’Auvergne. Having excited fome at¬
tention at Paris by certain critical productions, the
Abbe Bignon in 1724 committed to him the Journal
des Sgavans. He acquitted himfelf well in this depart¬
ment, and was peaceably enjoying the applaufes of the
public, when his enemies, whom by critical ftriftures
in his Journal he had made fuch, formed an accufation-
againft him of a moft abominable crime, and procured
him to be imprifoned. By the credit of powerful
friends, he was fet at liberty in 15 days: the magiftrate
of the police took upon himfelf the trouble of jultifying
him in a letter to the Abbe Bignon; and this letter ha¬
ving been read amidft his fellow-labourers in the Journal,
he was unanimoufly re-eftablifhed in his former credit.
This happened in 1725. But with whatever repute
he might acquit himfelf in this Journal, frequent dif-
gufts made him frequently abandon it. He laboured
mean while in fome new periodical works, from which
he derived his greateft fame. In 1731, he began one
under the title of NowveUjJle du ParnaJJe, ou Reflexions
fur les Outrages nouveaux: but only proceeded to two
volumes; the work having been fuppreffed by autho¬
rity, from the inceffant complaints of authors ridiculed
therein. About three years after, in 1735, he ob¬
tained a new privilege for a periodical produclion, in-
titled, Obfervations fur les Ecrits Moderr.es ; which, af¬
ter continuing to 33 volumes, was fuppreffed again
in 1743. Yet the year following, 1744, he publifhed
another weekly paper, called, Judgment fur les Ouvrages
nouveaux, and proceeded to 11 volumes : the two laft
being done by other hands. In 1745, he was attacked
with a diforder in the breaft, which ended in a drop-
fy that proved fatal in five weeks. “ He was (fays
M. Freron) born a fentimental perfon ; a philofopher
in conduCt as well as in principle ; exempt from ambi¬
tion ; and of a noble firm fpirit, which would not fub-
mit to fue for preferments or titles. In common con-
verfationjie appeared only a common man ; but when
fubje6ls of literature, or any thing out of the ordinary
way, were agitated, he difeovered great force of ima¬
gination and wit.” Befides the periodiccl works men¬
tioned above, he was the author of many others: hisr
biographer gives us no lefs than 17 articles ; many of
them critical, fome hiftorical, and fome tranflations
from Englifli writers, chiefly from Pope, Swift, Field¬
ing, &c. The Abbe de la Porte, publiihed, in 1757,,
L’Efprit de VAble des Fontaines, in 4 vols i2mo ; pre¬
fixed to which is the Life of Fontaines, a catalogue of
his works, and another catalogue of writings againit
him.
FONTANELLA, in, anatomy, imports the qua¬
drangular aperture found betwixt the os frontis and
offa fincipitis, in children juft born; which is alfo call¬
ed fans pidfatilis.
FONT ARAB I A,-a fea-port town of Spain in Bif-
cay, and in the territory of Guipufcoa, feated on a
penhifula on the fea-ftiore, and on the river Bidaffoa.
It is fmall, but well fortified both by nature and art ;
and has a good harbour, though dry at lev/-water. It
is
F O N C 325 J F O O
PonTPsy is built in the form of an amphitheatre, on the decli-
tl vity of an hill, and furrounded on the land fide by the
Fonte- hjgh J>yrenean mountains. It is a very important
. vrau ' place, being accounted the key of Spain on that fide.
W Long. 1.43. N. Lat. 43. 23.
FONTENAY, (John Baptifi Blainde), a very fa¬
mous painter of fruit and flowers, was born at Caen in
1654. Louis XIV. gave him a penfion, and an a-
partment in the galleries of the Louvre ; and he was
nominated counfellor of the Academy of Painting.
His fruit and flowers have all the freftmefs and beauty
of nature ; the very dew feems to trickle down their
ftalks, with all the luftre and tranfparency of the dia¬
mond, while the infedts upon them feem perfeftly alive
and animated. This ingenious painter died at Paris
in 1715.
FON FENELLE, ( Bernard de ), a celebrated French
author, was born in 1657, and died in 1756, when
he was near xoo years old. He difcharged the trull
of perpetual fecretary to the Academy of Sciences a-
bove 40 years with univerfal applaufe; and his Hiltory
of the Academy of Sciences throws a great light upon
their memoirs, which are very obfcure. The eloges
which he pronounced on the deceafed members of the
academy, have this peculiar merit, that they excite a
refpedl for the fciences as well as for the author. In
his poetical performances, and the Dialogues of the
Dead, the fpirit of Voiture was difcernible, though
move extended and more philofophical. His Plurality
of Worlds, is a work lingular in its kind : the defign
of which was to prefent that part of philofophy to
view in a gay and pleafing drcfs. In his more advan¬
ced years, he publilhed comedies, which, though they
Ihowed the elegance of Fontenelle, were little fitted for
the ftage; and An Apology for Des Cartes’s Vortices.
M. de Voltaire, who declares him to have been the
molt univerfal genius the age of Louis XIV. produced,
fays, “ We mull excufe his comedies, on account of
his great age ; and his Cartefian opinions, as they
were thofe of his youth, when they were univerfaliy
received all over Europe.”
FONTENOY, a town or village of the Auftrian
Netherlands, in the province of Hainault, and on the
borders of Flanders ; remarkable for a battle fought
there between the allies and the French on the firft of
May 1745. The French were commanded by Maref-
chal Saxe, and the allies by the Duke of Cumber¬
land. The latter behaved with great bravery; but
through the fuperiority of the numbers of the French
army, and likewife the fuperior generahhip of their
commander, the allies were defeated with great {laugh¬
ter. The Britifh troops behaved with altonidling in¬
trepidity, as their enemies themfelves owned. It is
even faid, that the battle was loll through the cowar¬
dice of the Dutch, who failed in their attack on the
village of Fontenoy, on which the event of the day
depended. E. Long. 2. 20. N. Lat. 50. 35.
Fontesoy, a village of France, in the duchy of Bur¬
gundy, remarkable for a bloody battle fought there in
841, between the Germans and the French, in which
were killed above 100,000 men ; and the Germans
were defeated. E. Long. 3. 48. N. Lat. 47. 28.
FONTEVRAUD, or Frontevaux (Order of), in
ecdefiallical hiftory, a religious order inllituted by Ro¬
bert d’Arbriffel, about the latter end of the 1 nh cen¬
tury, and taken under the prote&ion of the holy fee Fonticului
by pope Pafcal II. in 1106, confirmed by a bull in II
1113, and in veiled by his fucceflbrs with very extraor- Foix^ c
dinary privileges. The chief of this order is a female, ^
who is appointed to infpeA both the monks and nuns.
The order is divided into four provinces, which are
thofe of France, Aquitaine, Auvergne, and Bretagne,
in each of which they have feveral priories.
FONTICULUS, or Fontanella, in furgery, an
iflue, feton, or fmall ulcer, made in various parts of
the body, in order to eliminate the latent corruption
out of it.
FONTINALIA, or Fontanalia, in antiquity, a
religious feaft held among the Romans in honour of the
deities who prefided over fountains or fprings. Varnt
obferves, that it was the cuftom to viiit the wells on
thofe days, and to call crowns into fountains. Scaii-
ger, in his conjeclures on Varro, takes this not to be
a feaft of fountains in general, as Feftus infinuates,
but of the fountain which had a temple at Rome, near
the Porta Capena, called alfo Porta Fontinalu : he adds,
that it is of this fountain Cicero ipeaks in his fecond
book De leg'll. The fontinalia were held on the 13th
of Oilober.
FONTINALIS, water-moss, in botany : A ge¬
nus of the natural order of mufci, belonging to the
cryptogamia clafs of plants. The anthera is hooded ;
the calyptra, or covering of the anthera, fefiile, inclo-
fed in a perichaetium or empalement of leaflets different
from thofe of the rell of the plant. There are four
fpecies, all of them natives of Britain. They grow
on the brinks of rivulets, and on the trunks of trees.
The moll remarkable is the antipyretica, with purple
ftalks. The Scandinavians line the infides of iheir
chimneys with this mofs, to defend them againft the
fire ; for, contrary to the nature of all other mofs,
this is fcarcely capable of burning.
FOOD, in the moll extenfive fignification of the
word, implies whatever aliments are taken into the
body, whether folid or fluid ; but, in common lan¬
guage, it is generally tiled to lignify only the folid part
of our aliment.
We are told, that in the firft; ages men lived upon
acorns, berries, and fuch fruits as the earth fpontane-
oufly produces ; then they proceeded to eat the flelh
of wild animals taken in hunting: But their numbere
decreafing and mankind multiplying, neceflity taught
them the art of cultivating the ground, to (ow corn,
&c. By and by they began to aflign to each other, by
general confent, portions of land to produce them their
fnpply of vegetables; after this, reafon fuggefted the
expedient of domefticating certain animals, both to af-
fill tl\em in their labours and fupply them with food.
Hogs were the firft; animals of the domeftic kind that
appeared upon their tables ; they held it to be ungrate¬
ful to devour the beafts that afiifted them in their la¬
bours.—When they began to make a free ufe of do¬
mestic animals, they roafted them only ; boiling was a
refinement in cookery which for ages they were ftran-
gers to ; and fifh living in an element men were unufed
to, were not eaten tiil they grew lomewhat civilized.
Menelaus complains, in the Odyfi'ey, that they had
been conftrained to feed upon them.
The moil remarkable diflinfLion of foods, in a me¬
dical view, is into tbofe which are already afiimilated
into
Food.
Cullen on
the Mat.
Med. I ft
•edit.
F 0 0 [ 326 ] FOG
into the animal nature, and fuch as are not. Of the
firft kind are animal fubftances in general; which if
not entirely fimilar, are nearly fo, to our nature. The
fecond comprehends vegetables, which are much more
difficultly affimilated. But as the nouriffiment of all
animals, even thofe which live on other animals, can
be traced originally to the vegetable kingdom, it is
plain, that the principle of all nourifhment is in vege¬
tables.
Though there is perhaps no vegetable which does
not afford nouriffiment to fome fpecies of animals or
other ; yet, with regard to mankind, a very confider-
able diftindtion is to be made. Thofe vegetables which
are of a mild, bland, agreeable tafte, are proper nou-
riffiment; while thofe of an acrid, bitter, and naufeous
nature, are improper. We ufe, indeed, feveral acrid
fubllances as food; but the mild, the bland, and agree¬
able, are in the largeft proportion in almoft every ve¬
getable. Such as are very acrid, and at the fame time
of an aromatic nature, are not ufed as food, but as
fpices or condiments, which anfwer the purpofes of
medicine rather than any thing elfe. Sometimes, in¬
deed, acrid and bitter vegetables feem to be admitted
as food. Thus celeri and endive are ufed in common
food, though both are fubftances of conliderable acri¬
mony ; but it muft be obferved, that, when we ufe
them, they are previouffy blanched, which almoft to¬
tally deftroys their acrimony. Or if we employ other
acrid fubftances, we generally, in a great meafure, de¬
prive them of their acrimony by boiling. In different
countries the fame plants grow with different degrees
of acrimony. Thus, garlic here feldom enters our
food ; but in the fouthern countries, where the plants
grow more mild, they are frequently ufed for that pur-
pofe. The plant which furniffies caffada, being very
acrimonious, and even poifonous, in its recent Hate, af¬
fords an inftance of the neceffity of preparing acrid
fubftances even in the hot countries : and there are
other plants, fuch as arum-root, which are fo exceed¬
ingly acrimonious in their natural ftate, that they can¬
not be fwallowed with fafety ; yet, when deprived of
that acrimony, will afford good nouriffiment.
The moft remarkable properties of different vege¬
table fubftances as food, are taken notice of under their
different names; here we ffiall only compare vegetable
foods in general with thofe of the animal kind.
I. In the Stomach, they differ remarkably, in that
the vegetables always Jiave a tendency to acidity, while
animal food of all kinds tend rather to alkalefcency and
putrefadlion. Some animal foods, indeed, turn mani-
feftly acid before they putrify ; and it has been affert-
ed, that fome degree of acefcency takes place in every
kind of animal food before digeftion. This acefcency
of animal food, however, never comes to any morbid
degree, but the difeafe is always on the fide of putre-
fcency. The acefcency of vegetables is more frequent,
and ought to be more attended to, than the alkale¬
fcency of animal [food ; which laft, even in weak llo-
machs, is feldom felt 5 while acefcency greatly affects
both the ftomach and fyftem.
With regard to their difference of folution :—Hea-
vinefs, as it is called, is feldom felt from vegetables,
except from tough farinaceous pafte, or the moft vifeid
fubftances; while the heavinefs of animal food is more
frequently noticed*, efpecially when in any great quan¬
tity. Difficulty of folution docs not depend fo much
on firmnefs of texture (as a man, from fiffi of all kinds,
is more oppreffed than from firmer fubftances) as on
vifeidity ; and hence it is more frequent in animal food,
efpecially in the younger animals.
With regard to mixture:—There is no inftance of
difficult mixture in vegetables, except in vegetable oils ;
while animal foods, from both vifeidity and oilinefs,
efpecially the fatter meats, are refra&ory in this re-
fpedt. Perhaps the difference of animal and vegetable
foods might be referred to this head of mixture. For
vegetableffood continues long in the ftomach, giving
little ftimulus : Now the fyftem is affe&ed in propor¬
tion to the extent of this flimulmfc which is incompa¬
rably greater from the animal vifeid oily food, than
from the vegetable, firmer, and more aqueous. How¬
ever, there are certain applications to the ftomach,
which have a tendency to bring on the cold fit of fe¬
ver, independent of ftimulus, merely by their refrige¬
ration : and this oftener arifes from vegetables ; as we
fee, in thofe hot countries where intermittents prevail,
they are oftener induced from a furfeit of vegetable
than of animal food. A proof of this is, that when
one is recovering of an intermittent, there is nothing
more apt to caufe a relapfe than cold food, efpecially if
taken on thofe days when the fit ffiould return, and
particularly acefcent, fermentable vegetables, as fa-
lad, melons, cucumbers, &c. acido-dukes, &c. which,
according to Dr Cullen, are the moft frequent caufes
of epidemics ; therefore, when an intermitteut is to be
avoided, we ftnm vegetable diet, and give animal foods,
although their ftimulus be greater.
II. In the Inteflines. When the putrefcency of animal
food has gone too far, it produces an aftive ftimulus,
caufing diarrhoea, dyfentery, &c. But thefe effedts are
but rare : whereas from vegetable food and its acid,
which, united with the bile, proves a pretty ftrong
ftimulus, they more frequently occur; but, luckily,
are of lefs confequence, if the refrigeration is not
very great. In the autumnal feafon, when there is a
tendency to dyfentery, if it is obferved that eating of
fruits brings it on, it is rather to be aferibed to their
cooling than ftimulating the inteftines.
As to Jlool—Wherever neither putrefa&ion nor aci¬
dity has gone a great length, animal food keeps the
belly more regular. Vegetable food gives a greater
proportion of feculent matter, and, when exficcated by
the ftomach and inteftines, is more apt to ftagnate, and
produce flow-belly and coftivenefs, than animal ftimu¬
lating food ; which, before it comes to the great guts,
where ftoppage is made, has attained a putrefactive
tendency, and gives a proper ftimulus : and thus thofe
who are coftive from the ufe of vegetables, when they
have recourfe to animal food are in this refpedt better.
III. In the llood-'vejfels. They both give a blood of
the fame kind, bat of different quality. Animal food
gives it in greater quantity, being in great part, as the
expreffion is, convertible in fuccum et fanguineum, and of
eafy digeftion ; whereas vegetable is more watery,
and contains a portion of"unconquerable faline matter,
which caufes it to be thrown out of the body by fome
excretion. Animal food affords a more denfe ftimula¬
ting elallic blood than vegetable ; ftretching and cau¬
fing a greater refiftance in the folids, and again exci¬
ting their ftronger a&ion. It has been fuppofed, that
acefcency
F O O [ 327 ] F O O
rood, acefcency of vegetable food is carried into the blood-
veflels, and there exerts its effe&s; but the tendency
of animal fluids is fo ftrong to alkalefcency, that the
exiftence of an acid acrimony in the blood feems very
improbable. Animal food alone will foon produce
an alkalefcent acrimony; and if a perfon who lives
entirely on vegetables were to take no food for a few
days, his acrimony would be alkalefcent.
IV. We are next to take notice of the quantity of
nutriment thefe different foods afford. Nutriment is
of two kinds; the firft repairs the wafte of the folid
fibres ; the other fupplies certain fluids, the chief of
which is oil. Now, as animal food is eafier converted,
and alfo longer retained in'the fyitem, and as it con¬
tains a greater proportion of oil, it will afford both
kinds of nutriment more copioufly than vegetables.
V. Laftly, sh to the different degrees of perfpirabi¬
lity of thefe foods. This is not yet properly determined.
Sanftorius conftantly fpeaks of mutton as the moft
perfpirable of all food, and of vegetables as checking
perfpiration. This is a confequence of the different
ftimulus thofe foods give to the ftomach, fo that per-
fons who live on vegetables have not their perfpiration
fo fuddenly excited. In time of digeftion, perfpira¬
tion is flopped from whatever food, much more fo from
cooling vegetables. Another ireafon why vegetables
are lefs perfpirable is, becaufe their aqueo-faline juices
determine them to go off by urine, while the more per-
fedtly mixed animal food is more equally diffufed over
the fyftem, and fo goes off by perfpiration, Hence
San&orius’s accounts may be underflood; for vege¬
table aliment is not longer retained in the body, but
moftly takes the courfe of the kidneys. Both are
equally perfpirable in this refpedt, viz. that a per¬
fon living on either, returns once a-day to his ufual
weight ; and if we eonfider the little nourifliment of
vegetables, and the great tendency of animal food to
corpulency, we muff allow that vegetable is more
quickly perfpired than animal food.
As to the queftion. Whether man was originally de-
figned for animal or vegetable food, fee the article
Carnivorous.
With regard to the effedls of thefe foods on men, it
muff be obferved, that there are no perfons who live
entirely on vegetables. The Pythagoreans themfelves
eat milk; and thofe who do fo moftly,• as thefe Py¬
thagoreans, are weakly, fickly, and meagre, labour¬
ing under a conftant diarrhcea and feveral other dif-
eafes. None of the hardy, rebuff, live on thefe ; but
chiefly fuch as gain a livelihood by the exertion of their
mental faculties, as (in the Eaft Indies) factors and
brokers; and this method of life is now confined to
the hot climates, where vegetable diet, without incon¬
venience, may be carried to great excefs. Though it
be granted, therefore, that man is intended to live nn
thefe different foods promifcuoufly, yet the vegetable
fhould be in very great proportion, Thus the Lap¬
landers are faid to live entirely on animal food : but
this is contradidted by the befl accounts ; for Linnasus
fays, that befides milk, w’hich they take four, to ob¬
viate the bad effe&s of animal food, they ufe alfo calla,
menyanthes, and many other plants, copioufly. So
there is no inflance of any nation living entirely either
on vegetable or animal food, though there are indeed
fome who live particularly on one or other in the great-
5.
eft proportion. In the cold countries, e. ^ the inha- Food,
bitants live chiefly on animal food, on account of the TV““
rigour of the feafon, their fmaller perfpiration, and little
tendency to putrefadlion.
Of more importance, however, is the following than
the former queftion, viz. In what proportion animal and
vegetable food ought to be mixed ?
1. Animal food ceitainly gives moll ftrength to
the fyftera. It is a known aphorifm of Sanftorius,
that pondus addit robur ; which may be explained from
the impletion of the blood-veffels, and giving a proper
degree of tenfion for the performance of flrong ofcil-
lations. Now animal food not only goes a greater
way in fupplying fluid, but alfo gives the fluid more
denfe and elaftic. The art of giving the utmoft flrength
to the fyftem is befl underflood by thofe who breed
fighting cocks. . Thefe people raife the cocks to a cer¬
tain weight, which muff bear a certain proportion to
the other parts of the fyflem, and which at the fame
time is fo nicely proportioned, as that, on lofing a few
ounces of it, their flrength is very confiderably im¬
paired. Dr Robinfon of Dublin has pbferved, that
the force and weight of the fyftem'ought to be deter¬
mined by the largenefs of the heart, and its proportion:
to the fyflem : for a large heart will give large blood-
veffels, while at the fame time the vifeera are lefs, par¬
ticularly the liver; which la ft being increafed in fize,.
a greater quantity of fluid is determined into the cel¬
lular texture, and lefs into the fanguineous fyftem.
Hence we fee how animal food gives ftrength, by fill¬
ing the fanguiferous veffels. What pains we now be¬
llow on cocks, the ancients did bn the Athlete, by
proper nourifhment bringing them to a great degree of
ftrength and agility. It is faid that men were at firfl
fed on figs, a proof of which we have from their nu¬
tritious quality : however, in this refpedt they were
foon found to fall far Ihort of animal food ; and thus
we fee, that men, in fome meafure, will work in pro¬
portion to the quality of their food. The Englifh la¬
bour more than the Scots ; and wherever men &are ex-
pofed to hard labour, their food fhould be animal. A-
nimal food, although it gives ftrength, yet loads the
body; and Hippocrates long ago obferved, that the
athletic habit, by a fmall increafe, was expofed to the
greatefl hazards. Hence it is, only proper for bodily
labours, and entirely improper for mental exercifes;
for whoever would keep his mind acute and penetra¬
ting, will exceed rather on the fide of vegetable food.
Even the body is oppreffed with animal food ; a full
meal always produces dulnefs, lazinefs, and.yawning ;
and hence the feeding of gamefters, whofe mind mult
be ready to take advantage, is always performed by
avoiding a large quantity of animal food. Farther,
with regard to the ftrength of the body, animal food
in the firfl ftage of life is hardly neceffary to give
flrength : in manhood, when we are expofed to adlive
feenes, it is more allowable ; and even in the decline
of life, Come proportion of it is neceffary to keep the
body in vigour. There are fome difeafes which come
on in the decay of life, at lealt are aggravated by it;
among thefe the moft remarkable is the gout. Th;s,,
when it is in the fyftem, and does not appear with in¬
flammation in the extremities, has pernicious effedts
there, attacking-the lungs, ftomach, head, &c. Now
to determine this to the extremities, a large proportion
oi
F O O [ 328 ] F O O
of animal food is neceflary, efpecially as the perfon is
commonly incapable of much exercife.
Animal food, although it gives ftrength, is yet of
many hazards to the fyftem, as it produces plethora and
all its confequences. As a ftimulus to the ftomach and
to the whole fyftem, it excites fever, urges the circu¬
lation, and promotes the perfpiration. The fyftem,
however, by the repetition of thefe ftimuli, is foon worn
out ; and a man who has early ufed the athletic diet,
is either early carried off by inflammatory difeafes, or,
if he takes exercife fufhcient to render that diet falutary,
fuch an accumulation is made of putrefcent fluids, as in
his after-life lays a foundation for the moft inveterate
chronic diftempers. Therefore it is to be queftioned,
whether we fhould defire this high degree of bodily
ftrength, with all the inconveniences and dangers at¬
tending it. Thofe who are chiefly employed in mental
refearches, and not expofed to too much bodily labour,
fhould always avoid an excefs of animal food. There
is a difeafe which feems to require animal food, viz.
the hyfteric or hypochondriac ; and which appears to
be very much a-kin to the gout, affe&ing the alimen¬
tary. canal. All people affe&ed with this difeafe are
much difpofed to acefcency ; which fometimes goes fo
far, that no other vegetable but bread can be taken in,
without occafioning the worft confequences. Here then
we are obliged to prefcribe an animal diet, even to thofe
of very weak organs; for it generally obviates the fymp-
toms. However, feveral inftances of fcurvy in excefs
have been produced by a long-continued ufe of this
diet, which it is always unlucky to be obliged to pre-
fct ibe ; and when it is abfolutely neceffary to prefcribe,
it fhould be joined with as much of the vegetable as
poffible, and when a cure is performed we fhould gra¬
dually recur to that again.
2. Next, let us confider the vegetable diet. The chief
inconveniency of this is difficulty of affimilation ; which,
however, in the vigorous and exercifed, will not be li¬
able to occur. In warm climates, the affimilation of
vegetable aliment is more eafy, fo that there it may be
more ufed, and when joined to exercife gives a pretty
tolerable degree of ftrength and vigour ; and though
the general rule be in favour of animal diet, for giving
ftrength, yet there are many inftances of its being
remarkably produced from vegetable. Vegetable diet
has this advantage, that it whets the appetite, and that
we can hardly fuffer from a full meal of it. Befides
the diforders it is liable to produce in the prima v'ue,
and its falling fhort to give ftrength, there feem to be
no bad confequences it can produce in the blood-vef-
fels ; for there is no inftance where its peculiar acri¬
mony was ever carried there, and it is certainly lefs
putrifiable than animal food ; nor, without the utmoft
indolence, and a ffiarp appetite, does it give plethora,
or any of its confequences : fo that, we cannot here but
conclude, that a large proportion of vegetable food is
ufeful for the generality of mankind.
There is no error in this country more dangerous,
or more common, than the negleft of bread : for it is
the lafeft of vegetable aliment, and the beft corre&or
of animal food ; and, by a large proportion of this
alone, its bad confequences, when ufed in a hypochon¬
driac Hate, have been obviated. The French appa¬
rently have as much animal food on their tables as the
Britons; and yet, by a greater ufe of bread and the
N° f 29. 1
dried acid fruits, its bad effefts are prevented ; and
therefore bread ffiould be particularly ufed by the
Engliffi, as they are fo voracious of animal food. Ve¬
getable food is not only neceffary to fecure health, but
long life : and, as we have faid, in infancy and youth
we fliould be confined to it moftly ; in manhood, and
decay of life, ufe animal food ; and, near the end, ve¬
getable again.
There is another queftion much agitated, viz. What
are the effe3s of variety in food? Is it neceffary and al¬
lowable, or univerfally hurtful ? Variety of a certain
kind feems neceffary ; as vegetable and animal foods
have their mutual advantages, tending to correct each
other. Another variety, which is Tery proper, is that
of liquid and folid food, which ftiould be fo managed
as to temper each other; and liquid food, efpecially of
the vegetable kind, is too ready to pafs off before it is
properly affimilated, while folid food makes a long flay.
But this does not properly belong to the queftion,
whether variety of the fame kind is neceffary or pro¬
per, as in animal-foods, beef, fifti, fowl, &c. It doth
not appear that there is any inconvenience arifing from
this mixture or difficulty of affimilation, provided a
moderate quantity be taken. When any inconvenience
does arife, it probably proceeds from this, that one of
the particular fubftances in the mixture, when taken
by itfelf, would produce the fame effects ; and, indeed,
it would appear, that this effeft is not heightened by
the mixture, but properly tbviated by it. There are
few exceptions to this, if any, e. g. taking a large pro¬
portion of acefcent fubftances with milk. The cold-
nefs, &c. acidity, flatulency, &c. may appear; and it
is poffible that the coagulum, from the acefcency of
the vegetables, being fomewhat ftronger induced, may
give occafion to too long retention in the ftomach, and
to acidity in too great degree. Again, the mixture of
fifh and milk often occafions inconveniences. The
theory of this is difficult, though, from univerfal con-
fent, it mull certainly be juft. Can we fuppofe that
fiffi gives occafion to filch a coagulum as runnet ? If
it does fo, it may produce bad effefts. Befides, fifties
approach fomewhat to vegetables, in giving little fti¬
mulus ; and are accufed of the fame bad effedls as
thefe, viz. bringing on the cold fit of fever.
Thus much may be faid for variety. But it alfo
has its difadvantages, provoking to gluttony ;. this,
and the art of cookery, making men take in mori than
they properly can digeft : and hence, perhaps, very
juftly, phyficians have univerfally almoft preferred fim-
plicity of diet; for, in fpite of rules, man’s eating will
only be meafured by his appetite, and fatiety is fooner
produced by one than by many fubftances. But this
is fo far from being an argument againft variety, that
it is one for it, as the only way of avoiding a full meal
of animal-food, and its bad effedls, is by prefenting a
quantity of vegetables. Another mean of preventing
the bad effe&s of animal-food, is to take a large pro¬
portion of liquid ; and hence the bad effects of ani¬
mal-food are lefs felt in Scotland, on account of their
drinking much with it, and ufing broths, which are at
once excellent corre&ors of animal-food and preven¬
tives of gluttony.
With regard to the differences between animai,
toons, properly fo called, the firft regards their folubi-
lity,
F O O L 329 ] F O 0
Food. Iity, depending on a lax or firm texture of their diffe-
rent kinds.
I. Solubility of animal food feems to deferve lefs
attention than is commonly imagined ; for there are
many inftances of perfons of a weak ftomach incapable
of breaking down the texture of vegetables, or even of
diflblving a light pudding, to whom hung beef, or a
piece of ham, was very grateful and eaiily digefted.
None of the theories given for the folution of animal-
food in the human ftomach feem to have explained
that procefs fufficiently. Long ago has been difcarded
the fuppofitionof an adtive corrofive menftruum there;
and alfo the dodtrine of trituration, for which, indeed,
there feems no mechanifm in the human body; and,
till lately, phyficians Commonly agreed with Boerhaave
in fuppofing nothing more to be neceffary than a wa¬
tery menftruum, moderate heat, and frequent agita¬
tion. Thiswill account for folution in fome cafes, but
not entirely. Let us'try to imitate it out of the body
with the fame circumftances, and in ten times the time
in which the food is diffolved in the ftomach we (hall
not be able to bring about the fame changes. Take
the coagulated white of an egg, which almoft every
body can eafily digeft, and yet no artifice fhall be able
to difiblve it. Hence, then, we are led to feek another
caufe for folution, viz. fermentation; a notion, indeed,
formerly embraced, but, on the introdudlion of me¬
chanical philofophy, induftrioufly banifhed, with every
other fuppofition of that procefs taking place at all in
-the animal economy.
- Many of the ancients imagined this fermentation to
be putrefadfive. But this we deny, as an acid is pro¬
duced ; though hence the fermentation might be rec¬
koned the vinous, which, however, feems always to be
morbid. Neither, indeed, is the fermentation purely
acetous, but modified by putrefcence ; for Pringle has
obferved, that animal-matters raife and even expede
the acetous procefs. The fermentation, then, in the
ftomach is of a mixed nature, between the acetous and
putrefaftive, mutually modifying each other; though,
indeed, in the inteftines, fomewhat of the putrefaftive
feems to take place, as may be obferved from the
ftate of the feces broke down, and from the little dif-
pofition of fuch fubftances to be fo, which are not
liable to the putrefactive procefs, as the firmer parts of
vegetables, &c. Upon this view folution feems to be
extremely eafy, and thofe fubftances to be moft eafily
broke down which are moft fubjeCt to putrefaCfion.
See Anatomy, p° 104. and Gastric Juice.
But folution alfo depends on other circumftances,•
and hence requires a more particular regard.
I. There is a difference of folubility with refpeCl to
the manducation of animal-food, for which bread is ex¬
tremely neceffary, in order to keep the more flippery
•Seethe parts in the mouth till they be properly comminuted*.
I article From want of proper manducation perfons are fubjeft
I Jlrtad. tQ eruQ-at:;ons .. an(j jjjjg more frequently from the
firm vegetable foods, as apples, almonds, &c. than from
the animal, though, indeed, even from animal food,
very tendinous, or fwallowed in-unbroken maffes, fuch
fometimes occur. Manducation is fb much conneCfed
with folution, that fome, from-imperfeCtly performing
that, are obliged to belch up their food, remanducate
-it, and iw.allow it again before the ftomach can dif-
folve it, or proper nourifhment be extracted. Another
Vol. VII. Part I.
roof of our regard to folubility, is our rejecting th« Feni.
rmer parts of animal-food, as bull-beef, and generally
carnivorous animals.
2. Its effeCts with regard to folubility' feem alfo to
be the foundation of our choice between fat and lean,
young and old meats. In the lean, although perhaps
a fingle fibre might be fufficiently tender, yet thefe,
when collected in fafciculi, are very firm and compaCt,
and of difficult folution ; whereas in the fat there is a
greater number of veffels, a greater quantity of juice,
more interpofition of cellular fubftance, and confe-
quently more folubility. Again, in young animals,
there is probably the fame number of fibres as in the
older, but thefe more connected : whereas, in the
older, the growth depending on the feparation of
thefe, and the increafe of veffels and cellular fubftance,
the texture is lefs firm and more foluble ; which qua¬
lities, with regard to the ftomach, are at that time
too increafed, by the increafed alkalefcency of the ani¬
mal. To this alfo may be referred our choice of ca-
ftrated animals, viz. on account of their difpofition to
fatten after the operation.
3. It is with a view to the folubility, that we make
a choice between meats recently killed, and thofe
which have been kept for fome time. As foon as
meat is killed, the putrefaCxive procefs begins; which
commonly we allow to proceed for a little, as that
procefs is the moft effe&ual breaker down of animal
matters, and a great affiftance to folution. The length
of time during which meat ought to be kept, is pro¬
portioned to the meat’s tendency to undergo the pu¬
trid fermentation, and the degree of thofe circum¬
ftances which favour it: Thus, in the torrid zone,
where meat cannot be kept above four or five hours,
it is ufed much more recent than in thefe northern
climates.
4. Boiled or roafled meats create a difference of fo¬
lution. By boiling we extradt the juices interpofed
between the fibres, approximate them more to each
other, and render them of more difficult folubility;
which is increafed too by the extra&ion of the juices,
which are much more alkalefcent than the fibres: but
when we want to avoid Vhe'ftimulus of alkalefcent
food, and the quick folution, as in fome cafes of dif-
eafe, the roafted is not to be chofen. Of roafted meat
it may be alked, which are more proper, thofe which
are moft or leaft roafted ? That which is leaft done is
certainly the moft foluble : even raw meats are more
foluble than dreffed, as Dr Cullen was informed by a
perfon who from neceffity was obliged, for fome time,
to eat fuch. But at the fame time that meats little
done are very foluble, they are very alkalefcent; fo
that, wherever we want to avoid alkalefcency in the
frima via, the moft roafted meats fhould be chofen.
Thofe who throw away the broths of boiled meat do
very improperly; for, befides their fupplying a fluid,
from their greater alkalefcency they increafe the folu¬
bility of the meat. Here we (hall obferve, that pure
blood has been thought infoluble. Undoubtedly it is
very nutritious ; and though out of the body, like the
white of eggs, it feems very infoluble, yet, like that
too, in the body it is commonly eafily digefted. Mo-
fes very properly forbad it the Ifraelites, as in wanh
countries it is highly alkalefcent ; and even here,
when it was ufed in great quantity, the feurvy was
T t more
F O O [33
more frequent : but to a moderate ufe of it, in thefe
climates, no fuch objection takes place.
5. Solubility is varied from another fource, u/z. vif-
cidity of the juice of aliment. Young animals, then,
appear more foluble than old, not only,on account of
the companion and firmnefs of texture in the latter,
but alfo their greater vifcidity of juice. And nothing
is more common, than to be longer oppreffed from a
full meal of veal, than from the fame quantity of beef,
&c. Upon account, too, of their greater vifcidity of
juice, are the tendinous and ligamentous parts of ani¬
mals longer retained than the purely mufcular, as well
as on account of their firmnefs of texture. Even fifties,
whofe mufcular parts are exceedingly tender, are, on
account of their gluey vifcofity, longer of folution in
the ftomach. And eggs, too, which are exceedingly
nourifliing, have the fame effeft, and cannot be taken
in great quantity : For the ftomach is peculiarly fen-
fible to gelatinous fubftances; and by this means has
nature perhaps taught us, as it were by a fort of in-
ftindl, to limit ourfelves in the quantity of fuch nutri¬
tive fubftances.
6. With regard to folution, we muft take in the oils
of animal food; which, when tolerably pure, are the
leaft putrefcent part of it, and, by diminiftiing the co-
hefion of the fibres, render them more folufcle. On
this laft account is the lean of fat meat more eafily dif-
folved thsm other lean. But when the meat is expo-
fed to much heat, this oil is feparated, leaving the fo-
lid parts lefs eafily foluble, and becoming itfelf empy-
reumatic, rancefcent, and of difficult mixture in the
ftomach. Fried meats, from the reafons now given, and
baked meats, for the fame, as well as for the tenacity
of the pafte, are preparations which diminilh the folu-
bility of the food. From what has been faid, the pre¬
paration of food by fattening it, and keeping it for
fome time after killed, although it may adminifter to
gluttony, will yet, it muft be confefled, increafe the
folution of the food.
II. The fecond difference of animal-food is .with re¬
gard to Alkalescence.
Of this we have taken.a little notice already under
the head of Solubility.
x. From their too great alkalefcency wt commonly
avoid the carnivorous animals, and the ferny and
choofe rather the granivorous. Some birds, indeed,
• which live on infects, are admitted into, our food;
but no man, without naufea, can live upon thefe alone
for any length of time. Fifties, too, are an exception
to this rule, living almoft univerfally on each other.
But in thefe the alkalefcency does not proceed fo far ;
whether from the vifcidity of their juice, their want of
heat, or fame peculiarity in their economy, is not eafy
to determine.
2. Alkalefcency is determined by difference of age.
The older animals are always more alkalefcent than the
young, from their continual progrefs to putrefaQion.
Homberg always found, in his endeavours to extraft
an acid from human blood, that more was obtained
from the young than from the old animals.
3. A third circumftance which varies the alkalefcen¬
cy of the food, is the wildnefs ontamenefs of the ani¬
mal ; and this again feems to depend on its exercife.
Dr Cullen knew a gentleman who was fond of cats for
food: but he always ufed to feed them on vegetable
o 1 F O 6
food, and kept them from exercife; and in the fame
manner did the Romans rear up their rats, when in¬
tended for food. In the fame way the fleffi of the
partridge and the hen feems to be much the fame;
only, from its being more on the wing, the one is more
alkalefcent than the other. Again, tame animals are
commonly ufed without their blood; whereas the wild
are commonly killed in their blood, and upon that ac¬
count, as well as their greater exercife, are more alka¬
lefcent.
4. The alkalefcency offood may. be determined front'
the quantity of volatile fait it affords. The older the.
meat is, it is found to give the greater, proportion of
volatile fait.
5. The alkalefcency of aliment ’may alfo, in fome
meafure, be determined from its colour, the younger,
animals being whiter and lefs alkalefcent. We alfo
take a mark, from the colour of the gravy poured out,
according to the rddfiefs of . the juices judging of the
animal’s alkalefcency.
6. The relifh of, food is found to depend much on its-
alkalefcency, as does alfo the ftimulus it gives and the
fever it produces in the fyftem. Thefe effefts are alfo
complicated with the vifcidity of the food, by which
means it is longer detained in the ftomach, and the want
of alkalefcency fnpplied.
Having mentioned animal food as differing in fohx-
hility and alkalefeency, which often go together in the
lame ftibjedt, we come to the third difference, mix. '
III. Quantity of Nutriment. Which is either ab-
folute or relativeahfohite with refpeft to the' quanti¬
ty it really contains, fufficient powers.being given to
extract it; relative, with refpeft .to the affimilatory
powers of: thofe who ufe it. The abfolute nutriment
is of fome confequence ; but the relative, in the robuft
and healthy, and except in cafes of extraordinary
weaknefs, may, without much inconvenience, be dif-^
regarded. In another cafe is the quantity of nourifti-
ment' relative, vi%. with regard to its perfpirabilityy
foi; if the food is foon carried off by the excretions, it
is the fame thing as if it contained a lefs proportion of
nouriftxment. For, giving more fluid, that which is-
longer retained affords molt; and, for the repair of the
folids, that retention alfo is ol advantage. Now, gela¬
tinous fubftances are long retained; amd befides, are
themfelves animal fubftances diffolved:. fo that, both ,
abfolutely and relatively, fuch fubftances are nutri¬
tious. Of this kind .are eggs, {hell-fifti, &c. In a-:
dults, though it is difputed whether their folids need
any repair, yet, at any rate, at this period, fluid is
more required; for this pupofe the alkalefcent foods
are moil proper, being moll eafily diffolved. They are,
at the fame time, the molt perfpirable ; on one hand
that alkalefcency leading to difeafe, while on the other
their perfpirability obviates it. Adults, therefore, as
writers juftly obferve, are better nourilhed on the al¬
kalefcent ; the young and growing, on gelatinous
foods. All this leads to a comparifon of young and
old meats; the fifft being more gelatinous, and the laft
.more alkalefcent. This, however, by experience, is
not yet properly afcertained. Mr Geoffroy is the on¬
ly perfon who has been taken up with the analyfis of
foods. See MemoiresdePAcademic, 1’an. 1731 & 1732.
His attempt was certainly laudable, and in fome re-
fpefts ufefully performed j but, in general, his experi-
' menta
F O O [ 33* . 1 F O O
Food, mints were not fufficicntly repeated, nor are indeed articles made ufe of as food by the a’ncients bv f
“ fuficiently accurate. lie has not been on his guard
againft the various circumftances which affedt meats; the
cow-kind liking a moift fucculent herbage, which is not
to be got in warm climates; while the fheepare fond of
a dry food, and thrive beft there. Again, fome of his
experiments feem contradiftory. He fays, that veal
gives more folution than beef, while lamb gives lefs
than mutton, which is much to be doubted. If both
he and Sanctorius had examined Englifh beef, the re-
fult probably would have been very different as to its
perfpirability, &c. Befides, Mr Geoffroy has only
analyfed beef and veal when raw; has made no proper
circumftantial comparifons between quadrupeds and
birds ; and has examined thefe laft along with their
bones, and not their mufcles, ^ec. by themfelves, as
he ought to have done, &c. If a fet of experiments
of this kind were properly and accurately performed,
they might be of great ufe; but, at prefent, for the
purpofe of determining our prefent fubjedt, we muft
have recourfe to our alkalefcency, folubility, &c.
IV. The fourth difference of animal foods is, The
Nature of the Fluids they afford. The whole of this
will be underftood from what has been faid on alkalef¬
cency; the fluid'produced being more or lefs denfe
and flimulating, in proportion as that prevails.
V. The fifth difference of animal-foods is with re-
fpedl to their
Perspirability. The fum of what can be faid on
this matter is this, that fuch foods as promote an ac¬
cumulation of fluid in our veffels, and difpofe to ple¬
thora, are the leafl perfpirable, and commonly give
moft ftrength ; that the more alkalefcent foods are the
moft perfpirable, though the vifeid and lefs alkalefcent
may attain the fame property by long retention in the
fyftem. The authors on perfpirability have determi¬
ned the perfpiration of foods as imperfedtly as Mr Geof¬
froy has done the folubility, and in a few cafes only.
We muft not lay hold on what Sandtorius has faid on
the perfpirability of mutton, becaufe he has not exa¬
mined in the fame way other meats in their perfedt
ftate; far lefs on what Keil fays of oyfters, as he him-
felf was a valetudinarian, and confequently an unfit fub-
jedt for fuch experiments, and probably of a peculiar
-temperament.
As ’to the effedts of Foot) on the Mind, we have
already hinted at them above. It is plain, that deli¬
cacy of feeling, livelinefs of imagination, quicknefs of
apgrehenfion, and acutenefs of judgment, more fre¬
quently accompany a weak ftate of the body. True it
is, indeed, that the fame ftate is liable to timidity,
fludluation, and doubt; while the ftrong have that
fteadinefs of judgment, and firmnefs of purpofe, which
are proper for the higher and more adtive feenes of
life. The moft valuable ftate of the mind, however,
appears to refide in fomewhat lefs firnmefs and vigour
of body. Vegetable aliment, as never over-diftending
the vefiels or loading the fyftem, never interrupts the
flronger motions of the mind ; while the heat, fulnefs,
and weight, of animal food, are an enemy to its vigo¬
rous efforts. Temperance, then, does not fomuchcon-
fift in the quantity, for that always will be regulated
by our appetite, as in the quality, to’z. a large propor¬
tion of vegetable aliment.
A confiderable change has now taken place in the
tuting, inftead of what were then ufed, particularly of f
the vegetable kind, a number of more bland, agreeable, Foo!,u-
and nutritive juices.' The acorns and nuts of the pri-
mitive times have given way to a variety of fweeter fa¬
rinaceous feeds and roots. To the, malvaceous tribe of
plants fo much ufed by the Greeks and Romans, hath
fucceeded, the more grateful fpinach ; and to the blite,
the garden orach. The rough borage is fupplanted by
the acefcent forrel; and afparagus has baniftied a num¬
ber of roots recorded by the Roman writers under the
name of bulbs ; but Linnaeus is of opinion, that the
parfnip has undefervedly ufurped the place of the fkirret.
The bean of the ancients, improperly fp called, being
the roots as well as other parts of the nymph,ea nclumbo,
or Indian water-lily, is fuperfeded by the kidney-bean.
The garden rocket, eaten with and as an antidote a-
gainft the chilling qualities of the lettuce, is banilhed
by the more agreeable crefs and tarragon ; the apium
by the meliorated celery ; the pompion, and others of
the cucurbitaceous tribe, by the melon ; and the fu-
mach berries, by the fragrant nutmeg. The filphium,
or fuccus Cyrenaicus, which the Romans p-jrchafed
from Perfia and India at a great price, and is thought
by fome to have been the afafetida of the prefent time,
is no longer ufed in preference to the alliaceous tribe.
To turn from the vegetable to fome of the animal
fubftitutes, we may mention the carp among fifties as
having excluded a great number held in high eftima-
tion among the Romans. The change of oil for but¬
ter ; of honey for fugar ; of mulfa, or liquors made of
wine, water, and honey, for the wines of mode™
times; and that of the ancient zythus for the prefent
improved malt liquors ; not to mention alfo the callida
of the Roman taverns, analogous to our tea and coffee.
Food of Plants. See Agriculture, n° r—6. and
Plants ; alfo the article Composts.
FOOL, according to Mr Locke, is a perfon who
makes falfe conclufions from right principles ; whereas
a madman, on the contrary, draws right conclufions
from wrong principles. See Folly.
FooL-Sionesy in botany. See Orchis.
FOQSHT, an ifland in the Red Sea ; fituated, ac¬
cording to the obfervations of Mr Bruce, in N. Lat.
}5° 59' 43 '• *1 deferibed by him as about five miles
in length from north to fouth, though only nine in
circumference. It is low and fandy in the fouthern
part, but the north rifes in a black hill of inconfider-
able height. It is covered with a kind of bent-grafs,
which never arrives at any great length by reafon of
want of rain and the conftant browzing of the goats.
There are great appearances of the black hill having
once been a volcano; and near the noith cape the
ground founds hollow like the Solfaterra in Italy.
There are a vaft number of beautiful fifti met with up¬
on the coafts, but few fit for eating; and our traveller
obferved, that the moft; beautiful were the moft noxious
when eaten; none, indeed, being falutary food except¬
ing thofe which refembled the fifti of the northern feas.
There are many beautiful fhell-fifti, as the concha ve¬
neris, of feveral colours and lizes ; fea-urchins, &c.
Spunges are likewife found all along the coaft. There
are alfo pearls, but neither large nor of a good water ;
in confequence of which they fell at no great price.
Thev are produced by a fpecies of bivalve fliells. Se-
T t z veral
F O O 1 332 ] F O O
Foot- veral large fliells, from the fifh named lijfer, are met
with upon Hones of ten or twelve tons weight along
the coaft. They are turned upon their faces and funk
into the Hones, as into a paHe, the Hone being raifed
all about them in fuch a manner as to cover the edge
of the (hell; “ a proof (fays Mr Bruce) that this Hone
muH fome time lately have been.foft or liquefied : for
had it been long ago, the fun and air would have worn
the furface of the (hell; but it feems perfectly entire,
and is fet in that hard brown rock as the Hone of a
ring is in a golden chafing.”—The water in this ifland
is very good.
The inhabitants of Foofiit are poor fifiiermen of a
fwarthy colour ; going naked, excepting only a rag
about their waifi. They have no bread but what they
procure in exchange for the fi(h they catch. What
they barter in this manner is caled feajan. But befides
this they catch another fpecies, which is flat, with a
long tail, and the (kin made ufe of for (hagreen, of
which the handles of knives and fwords are made.
There is a fmall town on the ifland, confifling of about
30 huts, built with faggots of bent grafs or fpartum,
Supported by a few Hicks, and thatched with grafs of
the fame kind of which they are built.
FOOT, a part of the body of moH animals whereon
the Hand, walk, &c. See Anatomy, n^ 63,
Foot, in the Latin and Greek poetry, a metre or
meafure, compofed of a certain number of long and
fliort fyllables.
Thefe feet are commonly reckoned 28: of which fome
are fimple, as confiHing of two or three fyllables, and
therefore called dl/fyllabic or trifyliable feet; others are
compound, confiHing of four fyllables, and are there¬
fore called tetrafyllabic feet.
The difiyllabic feet are four in number, viz. the pyr-
ihichius, fpondeus, iambus, and trocheus. See Pyr-
rhichius, &c.
The trifyllabic feet are eight in number, viz. the
daefylus, anapaeflus, tribrachys, moloffus, amphibra¬
chys, amphimacer, bacchius, and antibacchiits. See
Dactyl, &c.
The tetrafyllabic are in number 16, viz. the pro-
cleufmaticus, difpondeus, choriambus, antifpaflus, dii¬
ambus, dichoreus, ionicus a majore, ionicus a minore,
epicritus primus, epitritus fecundus, epitritus tertius,
epitritus quartus, paeon primus, paeon fecundus, paeon
tertius, and paeon quartus. See Procleusmaticus,
fee.
Foot is alfo a long meafure confiHing of 12 inches.
Geometricians divide the foot into to digits, and the
digit into 10 lines..
Foov-Halty the name of a particular diforder inci¬
dent to (heep. It takes its fource from an infeft,
which, when it comes to a certain maturity, refembles
a worm of two, three, or four inches in length. The
firfi appearance of the malady is, when the (heep gives
figns of being lame, which increafes to fo high a degree
as to prevent grazing; when, what wdth want of fuf-
ficient food and pain, the poor animal fuffers greatly,
and lingers till it dies a natural death, if not properly
attended to, by extra&ing the infedt or worm ; the
fooner the better, as it is very eafily performed.
As foon as the lamenefs is perceived, let the foot
that is lame be examined between the dofe of the
claws, and it will be found that in the (kin where the Foot
clofe feparates is a fmall hole (not natural), through Foi,t‘
which the infedt, when yet fmall, gets its entrance,
and by degrees has worked itftlf upwards along the
leg, between the outward (kin and bone, and obtains
its largefi magnitude. Proportionally it finds its nou-
riflnnent, and is left undiflurbed. This worm muH be
extradted by moving, the claws backward and forward
in contrary diredtions; and it will not be long before
the under part of the worm makes its appearance at
the above mentioned fmall hole, and continuing the
fame operation of moving the claws, the whole worm
will work itfelf oi’|; which is better than when at its
firfi appearance it fhould be drawnmut with danger of
breaking off, and part of it flrould remain in the
fheep’s leg, and by its rotting there may^be hurt¬
ful. This eafy and fimple operation will be found ef-
fedtual without any other kind of application whatever,
nature herfelf curing the channel which the worm had
made along the leg.
It is obferved, this malady is in fome years more
prevalent than in others, particularly in wet feafons
than in drier; more obferved to begin in fpring and
autumn than in fummer and winter; notwithfianding,
what with fnow, &c. (heep fuffer more by the wet in
winter than in any of the other feafons (pofiibly it is
not then the feafon for this fort of infedf). In high
healthy grounds, the (heep are lefs liable to it than in
low marihy and meadow grounds: from all which cir-
cumfiances it may be fuppofed, that this infedl, in its
firff Hate, has for its molt natural element either the
earth, water, or air ; and only gets accidentally be¬
tween the clofe of the claws of the (heep, and
finds there what is fufficient for its nouriihmcnt and
fecurity.
Foot Square, is the fame meafure both in breadth
and length, containing 144 fquare or fuperficial inches.
Cubic or Solid Foot, is the fame meafure in all the
three dimenfions, length, breadth, and depth or thick-
nefs, containing 1728 cubic inches.
Foot of a Horfe, in the manege, the extremity of
the leg, from the coronet to the lower part of the hoof.
FooT-Level, among artificers, an inffurument that
ferves as a foot-rule, a fquare, and a level. See Level,.
Rule, and Square.
FOOTE (Samuel, Efq;), the modern Ariffopha-
nes, was born at Truro, in Cornwall; and was defeended
from a very ancient family. His father was member
of parliament for Tiverton, in Devonftiire; and enjoyed
the poH of commiffioner of the prize office and fine-
contraft. His mother was heirefs of the Dinely and
Goodere families. In confequence of a fatal mifun-
derfianding between her two brothers, Sir John Dinely
Goodere, Bart, and Samuel Goodere, Efq; captain of
his majefly’s (hip the Ruby, which ended in the death
of both, a confiderable part of the Goodere effate*
which was better than 50001. per annum, defeended to
Mr Foote.
He was educated at WorceHer college, Oxford,
which owed its foundation to Sir Thomas Cookes
Winford, Bart, a fecond coufin of our author’s. On
leaving the univerfity, he commenced ffudenPof law in
the Temple ; but as the drynefs of this Hudy did not,
Xuit the livelinefa of his genius, he fooa relinquiihed it.
V o o
Fco‘e. He married a young lady of a good family and fome
-sr—-1 fortune ; but their tempers not agreeing, a perfeft
harmony did not long fubiifl between them. He now
lanched into all the i'alhionable foibles of the age, ga¬
ming not excepted; and in a few years fpent his whole
fortune. His neceffities led him to the itage, and he
made his firlt appearance in the chara&er of Othello.
He next performed Fondlewife with much more ap-
plaufe ; and this, indeed, was ever after one of his ca¬
pital parts. He attempted Lord Foppington likewife,
but prudently gave it up. But as Mr Foote was never
a capital adfor in the plays of others, his falary was
very unequal to his gay and extravagant turn ; and he
contracted debts which forced him to take refuge with¬
in the verge of the court. On this occafion, he relie¬
ved his necdfities by the following ftratagem. Sir
Fr—s D—1—1 had long been his intimate friend, and
had dilfipated his fortune by fmiilar extravagance.
Lady N-lf-u —1-t, who was likewife an intimate ac¬
quaintance of Foote’s, and who was exceeding rich,
was fortunately at chat time bent upon a matrimonial
fcheme. Foote ftrongly recommended to her to con-
fult upon this momentous affair the conjurer in the Old
Bailey, whom he reprefented as a man of furprifing
fkill and penetration. He employed an acquaintance
of his own to perfonate the conjurer; who depidVed
Sir Fr—s D—1—1 at full length; defcribed the time
when, the place where, and the drefs in which fhe
wrould fee him. The lady was fo ftruck with the coin¬
cidence of every circumftance, that fhe married D—1—1
in a few days. For this fervice Sir Francis fettled an
annuity upon Foote ; and this enabled him once more
to emerge from obfcurity.
In 1747 he opened the little theatre in the Hay-
market, taking upon himfelf the double charadler of
author and performer; and appeared in a dramatic piece
of his own compoling, called the Diverfions of the
Morning. This piece confifted of nothing more than
the exhibition of feveral characters well known in real
life ; whofe manner of converfation and expreffion this
author very happily hit off in the diction of his drama,
and ftill more happily reprefented on the ftage, by an
exaft and moft amazing imitation, not only of the man¬
ner and tone of voice, but even of the very perfons, of
thofe whom he intended to take off. In this perform¬
ance, a certain phyfician, Dr L—n, well known for
the oddity and fingularity of his appearance and con¬
verfation, and the celebrated Chevalier Taylor, who
was at that time in the height of his popularity, were
made objedis of Foote’s ridicule; the latter, indeed,
very defervedly ; and, in the concluding part of his
fpeech, under the charaCfer of a theatrical direClor,
Mr Foote took off, with great humour and accuracy,
the feveral ftyles of aCting of every principal performer
on the Englifh ftage. This performance at firft met
with fome oppofition from the civil magiftrates of
Weftminfter, under the fan&ion of the aCt of parlia¬
ment for limiting the number of playhoufes, as well
as from the jealoufy of one of the managers of Drury-
iane playhoufe ; but the author being patronized by
many of the principal nobility, and other perfons of
diltin&ion, this oppolition was over-ruled : and having
altered the title of. his performance, Mr Foote proceed¬
ed, without further moleftation, to give Tea in a Morn¬
ing to his friends, and regrefented it through a run of.
l? o o
40 mornings to crowded and fplendid audiences.—-
The enfuing feafon he produced another piece of the
fame kind, which he called An Au8ion of Pictures. In
this performance he introduced feveral new and popu¬
lar charafters; particularly Sir Thomas de Veil, then
the afting juftice of peace for Weftminfter; Mr Cock
the celebrated auctioneer, and the equally famous ora¬
tor Henley. This piece alfo had a very great run.
—His Knights, which was the produce of the enfuing
feafon, was a performance of fomewhat more dramatic
regularity 1 but ftill, although his plot and charadters
feemed lefs immediately perfonal, it was apparent that
he kept fome particular real perfons ftrongly in his eye
in the performance; and the town took upon them-
felves to fix them where the refemblance appeared to
be the moft ftriking.—Thus Mr Foote continued from
time to time to feledh, for the entertainment of the
public, fuch charadlers, 'as well general as indivi¬
dual, as feemed moft likely to engage their attention.
His dramatic pieces, exclafive of the interlude called
Piety in Pattens, are as follow : Tafte, The Knights,
The Author, The Englifhman in Paris, The Englilh-
man returned from Paris, The Mayor of Garrat, The
Liar, The Patron, The Minor, The Orators, The
Commiffary, The Devil upon Two Scicks, The Lame
Lover, The Maid of Bath, The Nabob, The Cozeners,
The Capuchin, The Bankrupt, and an unfinilhed co¬
medy called The Slanderer.—All thefe works are only
to be ranked among the petites pieces of the theatre..
In the execution they are fomewhat loofe, negligent,
and unfinifhed ; the plots are often irregular, and the
cataftrophes not always conclufive : but, wn’th all thefe
deficiencies, they contain more ftrength of charadler,
more ftrokes of keen fatire, and more touches fof
temporary humour, than are to be found in the wri¬
tings of any other modern dramatift. Even the lam
guage fpoken by his charafters, incorrect as it may
fometimes feem, will on a clofer examination be found
entirely dramatical; as it abounds with thofe natural
minutiae of expreffion which frequently form the very
bafis of charafter, and which render it the trueft mirror
of the converfation of the times in which he wrote.
In the year 1766, being on a party of pleafure witk
the late duke of York, lord Mexborcugh, and Sir
Francis Delaval, Mr Foote had the misfortune to break
his leg, by a fall from his horfe ;. in confequence of
which, he was compelled to undergo an amputation.
This accident fo feniibly affefifed the duke, that he
made a point of obtaining for Mr Foote a-patent for
life ; whereby he was allowed to perform, at the little
theatre in the Haymarket, from the 15th of May to the
15 th of September every year.
He now became a greater favourite of the town
than ever: his very laughable pieces, with his more
laughable performance, conftantly filled his houfe ; and
his receipts were fome feafors almoft incredible. Par-
fimony was never a vice to be aferibed to Mr Foote ;
his hofpitality and generofity were ever confpicuous;.
he was vifited by the firft nobility, and he was fome¬
times honoured even by royal g.uefts.
The attack made upon his charafter by one of his
domeftics, whom he had difmiffed for mifbehaviour, is
too well known to be particularized here; Suffice it
to fay, he was honourably acquitted of that charge ;
but it is believed by fome, that the fhock which he re¬
ceived!
t 333 1
FOR f 334 1 FOR
F<we ceived from it accelerated his death 5 others pretend,
H that his literary altercation with a certainduchefs,
, ot'°es- or rather her agents, much affected him, and that from
, " that time his health declined. It is probable, however,
that his naturdl volatility of fpirits could fcarcely fail to
fupport him ag'ainft all impreffions from either of thefe
■ quarters.
Mr Foote, finding his health decline, entered into
an agreement with Mr Colman, for his patent of the
theatre ; according to whith, he was to receive from
Mr Colman X.. 1600 per annum, befides a ftipulated fum
whenever he chofe to perform. Mr Foote made his
appearance two or three times in fome of the moft ad¬
mired oharafters ; but being fuddenly affedled with
a paralytic ftroke one night v/hilft upon the flage, he
was compelled to retire. He was advifed to bathe ;
and accordingly repaired to Brightelmftone, where he
apparently recovered his former health and fpirits, sird
was what is ealled the fiddle of the company who refort-
-cd to that agreeable place of amufement. A few weeks
before his death, he returned to London; but, by the
advice of his phyficians, fet out with an intention to
fpend the winter at Paris and in the fouth of France.
He had got no farther than Dover, when he was Fud-
•denly attacked by another ftroke of the palfy, which
in a few hours terminated his exiftence. He died on
-the 21ft of Odlober 1777, in the 56th year of his age,
and was privately interred in the cloifters of Weftmin-
Aer abbey.
FOP, probably derived from the vappa of Plorace,
applied in the firft fatire of his fir ft book to the wild
and extravagant Nsevius, is ufed among us to denote a
perfon who cultivates a regard to adventitious orna¬
ment and beauty to excefs.
FORAMEN, in anatomy, a name given to feVeral
apertures or perforations in divers parts of the body ;
as, j. The external and internal foramina of the cra¬
nium or fkull. 2. The foramina in the upper and lower
jaw. 3. Foramen lachrymale. 4. Foramen membranas
tympani. ,
Foramen Ovale, an oval aperture or paffage through
the heart of a foetus, which clofes up after birth. It
arifes from the coronal vein, near the right auricle,
and pafles dire&ly into the left auricle of the heart, fer-
wing for the circulation of the blood in the foetus, till
fuch time as the infant breathes, and the lungs are o-
pen ; it being generally reckoned one of the tempo¬
rary parts of the foetus, wherein it differs from an a-
dult; although almoft all anatomifts, Mr Chefelden ex¬
cepted, affure us, that the foramen ovale has fometimes
been found in adults. See Foetus.
FORBES (Patrick), bifliop of Aberdeen, was
horn in 1654, when the affairs of the church of
Scotland were in much confufion ; to the fettlement
of which he greatly contributed. As chancellor of the
univerfity of Aberdeen, he improved that feat of learn¬
ing by repairing the fabric, augmenting the library, and
reviving the proftfforlhips. He publilhtd a Commentary
on the Revelations, at London, in 1613; and died in
1635.
Forbes (John), the fon of Patrick, ,but of much
more extenlive learning than his father, was perhaps
.excelled by none of his age, which will be allowed by
thofe who read his Hijlorical and Theological Injlitutes.
He was biftiop of Aberdeen; but was expelled by the
Covenanters, and fer'eed to fly beyond fea. He conti- Forfits,
nued in Holland tv/o years; and, upon his return, lived Forcg-
private on his eftate at Corfe, until he died in 1648.
An edition of all his works was printed in two volsfo-
-lio at Amfterdam in J703.
- Forbes (William), a learned bifhop of Edinburgh,
horn in 1585. His ill-health and the anti-epifcopal
difpofition of the Scots, confined him chiefly to a reti¬
red life : but when Charles I. in 1633, founded an e-
pifcopal church at Edinburgh, he thought none more
worthy to fill the fee than Mr Forbes; who, how¬
ever, died three months after his confecration, in
1634. Though very able and learned, he publifhed
nothing ; but wrote a treatife to pacify controver-
fies, which was printed at London 24 years after his
death.
Forbes (Duncan, Efq; of Culloden), was born in
the year 1685. In his early life, he w-as brought up
in a family remarkable for hofpitality; which, per*
haps, led him afterw-ards to a freer indulgence in focial
pleafures. His natural difpofition inclined him to the
army : but, as he faon difeovered a fuperior genius,
by the advice of his friends he applied himfelf to let¬
ters. He directed his ftudies particularly to the civil
law ; in which he made a quick progrefs, and in 1709
was admitted an advocate. From 1722 to 1737, he
reprefented in parliament the boroughs of Invernefs,
Trortrofe, Nairn, and Forres. In 1725, he was made
king’s advocate ; and Lord Prefident of the Court of
Seffion in 1737. In the troubles of 1715 and 1745
he efpoufed the royal caufe; but with fo much pru¬
dence and moderation did he conduft himfelf at this
delicate conjun&ure, that not a whifper .was at any
time heard to his prejudice. The glory he acquired in
advancing the profperity of his country, and in con¬
tributing to re-eftabli(h peace and order, was the only
reward of his fervices. He had even impaired, and al¬
moft ruined, his private fortune in the caufe of the
public ; but government did not make him the fmalleft
recompenfe. The minifter, with a meannefs for which
it is difficult to account, defired to have a ftate of his
difburfements. Pie was fo much ftiocked at the ntde-
nefs of this treatment, that he left the minifter with¬
out making any reply. Throughout the whole courfe
of his life he had a lively fenfe of religion, without the
leaft taint of faperftition ; and his charity was extend¬
ed to every fed! and denomination of religionifts indtf-
criminately. He was w'ell verfed in the Hebrew- lan¬
guage ; and wrote, in a flowing and oratorial ftyle,
concerning religion natural and revealed, fome impor¬
tant difeoveries in theology and philofophy, and con¬
cerning the fources of incredulity. 'He died in 1747,
in the 62d year of his age ; and his works have fince
been publifhed in two volumes octavo.
FORCE, in philofophy, denotes the caufe of the
chang* in the ftate of a body, when, being at reft, it
begins to move, or has a motion which is either not
uniform or not direA. While a body remains in the
fame ftate, either of reft or of uniform and reAilinear
motion, the caufe of its remaining in fuch a ftate is in
the nature of the body, and it cannot be faid that any
extrinfic force has aAed on it. This internal caufe or
principle is called inertia.
Mechanical forces may be reduced to two forts ;
one of a body at reft, the other of a body in motion.
3 The
FOR [ 335 ] FOR
The force of a body at reft, is that which we con¬
ceive to be in a body lying ftill on a table* or hanging
by a rope, or fupported by a fpring, &c. and this is
called by the names of prejfure, tenfion, force, or vis nior-
tua, folicitatio, conalus movencli, cSnamen, See. To this
clafs alfo of forces we muft refer centripetal aod centri¬
fugal forces, though they'reftde in a body in motion ;
becaufe thefe forces are homogeneous to weights, prei-
fures, or tenfrons of any kind.
The force of a body in motion is a power refiding
in that body fo long as it continues its motion; by
means of which it is able to remove obftacles lying
in its way ; to leflen, deftroy, or overcome the force
of any other moving body, which meets it in an oppo-
fite direftion ; or to furmount any dead preffure or re-
fiftance, as tenfion, gravity, fri&ion, &c. for fome
time ; but which will be leffened or deftroyed by fuch
rdiftance as leffens or deftroys the motion of the bo¬
dy. This is called moving force, vis matrix, and by
fome late writers vis viva, to diftinguifh it. from the
vis mortua fpoken of before; and by thefe appellations^
however different, the fame thing is underftood by all
mathematicians ; namely, that power of difplacing,
of withftanding oppofite moving forces, or of overco¬
ming any dead refiftance, which refides in a moving
body, and which, in whole or in part, continues to
accompany it, fo long as the body moves. See Me-
CHAN ICS.
We have feveral curious as well as ufeful obferva-
tions in Defagulier’s Experimental Philofophy, con¬
cerning the comparative forces of men and horfes, and
the belt way of applying them. A horfe draws with
the greateft advantage when the line of diredtion is le¬
vel with his breaft ; in fuch a lituation, he is able to
draw 200 lb. eight hours a-day, walking about two
miles and an half an hour. And if the fame horfe is
made to draw 2401b. he can work.but fix hours a-day,
and cannot go quite fo faft. On a carriage, indeed,
where fridtion alone is to be overcome, a middling
Korfe wall draw 1000 lb. But the bell way to try a
horfe’s force, is by making him draw up out ofawelf,
^over a Angle pulley or roller ; and in fuch a cafe, one
horfe with another will draw 200 lb. as already ob-
ferved.
Five men are found to be equal in ftrength to one
horfe, and can, with as much eafe, pulh round the ho¬
rizontal beam of a mill, in a walk 40 feet wide;
whereas three men will do it . in a walk only 19-feet
wide.
The worft way of applying the force of a horfe, is
to make him carry or draw up hill: for if the hill be
{beep, three men will do more than a horfe, each
man climbing up falter with a burden of 100 lb.
weight, than a horfe that is loaded with 300 lb. a
difference which is owing to the pofition of the parts
of the human body being better adapted to climb than
thofe of a horfe.
On the other hand, the bell way of applying the
force of a korfe, is an horizontal diredtion, wherein a
man can exert leaft force: thus a man, weighing 140 lb.
and drawing a boat along by means of a rope coming
over his Ihoulders, cannot draw above 27 lb. or exert
above one-feventh part of the force of a horfe employed
to the fame purptafe.
The very heft and moll effeftual pofture in a man,
is that of ro wing ; wherein he not only a£ls with more Force--
mufeks at once for overcoming the refiftance, than in II
any other pofition; but as he pulls backwards, the Forc‘^®'
weight of his body aflifts by way of lever. See Defa- v—-*'
guliers, Exp. Phil. vol. i. p. 241. where we have fe¬
veral other obfervations relative to force acquired by
certain pofitions of the body, from which that author
accounts for molt feats of ftrength and aftivity. See
'alfo a Memoire on this fubjed by M. de la Hire, in
Mem. Roy. Acad. Sc. 1629 ; or in Defaguliers, Exp.
&c. p. 267, &c. who has pubhlhcd a tranflation of
part of it with remarks.
Force, in law, fignifies any unlawful violence of¬
fered to things or perfons, and is divided into fimple
and compound. Simple force is what is fo committed,
that it has no other crime attending it ; as where a
perfon by force enters on another’s poffeflion, without
committing any other unlawful a£l. Compound force,
is where fome other violence is committed with fuch
an a£t whiqh of itfelf alone is criminal; as if one en¬
ters by force into another’s houfe, and there kills a per¬
fon, or raviihes a woman. There is likewife a force -
implied in law, as in every trefpafs, refeue, or diffei-
fin, and an adlual force with weapons, number of per¬
fons, &c.—Any perfon may lawfully enter a tavern,,
inn, or viftualling-houfe; fo may a landlord his te¬
nant’s houfe to view repairs, &c. But if, in thefe
cafes, the perfon that enters commits any violence or
force, the law will intend that he entered for that
purpofe.
FORCEPS, in furgery, &c. a pair of feiflars for
cutting off, or dividing, the flelhy membranous parts
of the body, as occafion requires. See Surgery.
FORCIBLE entry, is a violent and a6lual entry
into houfes or lands p and a forcible detainer, is where
one by violence with-holds the poffefiion of lands, &c.
fo that the perfon who has a right of entry is barred,
or hindered, therefrom.
j\t com monjaw, any perfon.that had a right to en¬
ter into lands, See. might retain pofleffion of it by
force. But this liberty being abufed, to the breach
of the peace, it was therefore found necelfary that the
fame fhould be reftrained: Though, at this day, he
who is wrongfully dlfpolFelTed of goods may by force
retake them. By ftatute,no perfons lhall make an en¬
try on any lands or tenements, except where it is given
by law, and in a peaceable manner, even tho’ they have
title of entry, on pain of imprifonment : and where
a forcible entry is .committed, juftices of peace are
authorized to view the place, and enquire of the force
by a jury, fummoned by the fheriff of the county; and
they may caufe the tenements, &c. to be reftored, and
imprifon the offenders till they pay a fine. Likewife a
writ of forcible entry lies, where a perfon feifed of '
freehold, is by force put out thereof.
Forcible Marriage, of a woman of eftate, is felony.
For by the ftatute 3 H. 7. c. 2. it is ena&ed, “ That
if any perfons {hall take away any woman having lands Di&.i
*r goods, or that is heir-apparent to her anceftor, by
force, and againft her will, and marry or defile her; the
takers, procurers, abettors, and receivers, of the wo¬
man taken away againft her will, and knowing the
fame, {hall be deemed principal felons; but as to pro¬
curers and acceffories, they are, before the offence be
committed, to be excluded the benefit of clergy, by
TOR r 33s ] FOR
T.re'mle, Kiiz. c. 9, The indiilment on the ftatute 3 H. 7,
t •'' is exprefsly to fet forth, that the woman taken away
^ had lands or- goods, or was heir apparent; and alfo
that flie was manied or defiled, becaufe no other cafe
is within the ftatute ; and it ought to allege that the
taking was for lucre. It is no excufe that the wo¬
man at firft was taken away with her confent: for if
fire afterwards refufe to continue with the offender,
and be forced againft her will, {he may from that time
properly be faid to be taken againft her will ; and it
is not material whether a woman fo taken away be at
laft married or defiled with her own confent or not, if
the were under force at the time ; the offender being
in both cafes equally within the words of the aft.
Thofe perfons who, after the faft, receive the of¬
fender, are but acceffories after the offence, according
to the rules of common law ; and thofe that are only
.privy to the damage, but not parties to the forcible ta¬
king away, are not within the aft, H. P. C. 119.
A man may be indifted for taking away a woman by
force in another country ; for the continuing of the
force in any country, amounts to a forcible taking
there. Ibid. Taking away any woman-child under
the age of 16 years and unmarried, out of the cuflody
and without the confent of the father or guardian, &c.
the offender fhall fuffer fine and imprifonment; and if
-the woman agrees to any contraft of matrimony with
fuch perfon, fhe fhall forfeit her eftate during life, to
the’next of kin to whom the inheritance fhould de-
fcend, &c. Stat. 4 & 5. P& M. c. 8. This is a force
againft the parents : and an information will lie for fe-
ducing a young man or woman from their parents, a-
gainft their confents, in order to marry them, &c. See
Marriage.
FORCING, in gardening, a method of producing
ripe fruits from trees before their natural feafon. The
method of doing it is this : A wall fhould be erefted
ten feet high; a border mu ft be marked out on the
fouth fide of it, of about four feet wide, and fome
flakes muft be fattened into the ground all along the
edge of the border ; thefe fhould be four inches thick.
They are intended to reft the glafs lights upon, which
are to Hope backwards to the wall, to (belter the fruit
as there fhall be occafion : and there muft be, at each
end, a door to open either way, according as the wind
blows. The frame fhould be made moveable along the
wall, that when a tree has been forced one year, the
frame may be removed to another, and fo on, that the
trees may each of them be forced only once in three
years, at v/hich rate they will laft a long time. They
muft be always well-grown trees that are chofen for
forcing ; for young ones are foon deftroyed, and the
1 fruit that is produced from them is never fo well taft-'
ed. The fruits moft proper for this management are
the avant or fmall white nutmeg, the albemarle, the
early newington, and the brown nutmeg peaches ; Mr
Fairchild’s early, and the elrugo and newington nec¬
tarines j the mafculine apricot, and the may-duke and
may cherry. For grapes, the white and black fweet-
water are the propereft; and of goofeberries the Dutch
white, the Dutch early green, and the walnut goofe-
berry; and the large Dutch white and large Dutch
red currants.
The dung, before it is put to the wall, fhould be
laid together in a heap for five or fix days, that it may
U°I39. 2
heat uniformly through 5 and when thus prepared’it Forcing,
muft be laid four feet thick at the bafe of the wall, Fordaun.
and go Hoping up till it is two feet thick at the top.
It muft be laid at leaft within three or four inches of
the top of the wall; and when it finks, as it will fink
two or three feet, more dung muft be laid on ; for
the firft heat will do little more than juft fwell the
bloffom-buds. The covering the trees with glaffes
is of great fervice; but they fhould be taken off to
admit the benefit of gentle fhowers to the trees, and
the doors at the ends fhould be either left entirely o-
pen, or one or both of them opened, and a mat hung
before them, at once to let the air circulate and keep
off the frofts.
The dung is never to be applied till towards the end
of November ; and three changes of it will be fuffi-
cient to ripen the cherries, which will be very fine in
February. As to the apricots, grapes, neftarines,
peaches, and plums, if the weather be milder, the
glaffes are to be opened to let in funfhine or gentle
fhowers.
If a row or two of fcarlet ftrawberries be planted at
the back of the frame, they will ripen in February or
the beginning of March ; the vines will bloffiom in A-
pril, and the grapes will be ripe in June.
It fhould be carefully obferved, not to place early
and late ripening fruits together, becaufe the heat ne-
ceffary to force the late ones will be of great injury to
the early ones after they have fruited.
The mafculine apricot will be ripe in the begin¬
ning of April, the early neftarines will be ripe about
the fame time, and the forward fort of plums by the
latter end of that month. Goofeberries will have fruit
fit for tarts in January or February, and will ripen in
March; and currants will have ripe fruit in April.
The trees need not be planted fo diftant at thefe
walls as at others, for they do not (hoot fo freely as in
the open air; nine feet afunder is fufficient. They
fhould be pruned about three weeks before the heat is
applied.
Forcing, in the wine trade, a term ufed by the wine-
coopers for the fining down wines, and rendering them
fit for immediate draught. The principal inconvenience
of the common way of fining down the white-wines by
ifinglafs, and the red by whites of eggs, is the flownefs
of the operation ; thefe ingredients not performing
their office in lefs than a week, or fometimes a fort¬
night, according as the weather proves favourable,
cloudy or clear, windy or calm : this appears to be
matter of conftant obfervation. But the wine-merchant
frequently requires a method that fhall, with certainty,
make the wines fit for tailing in a few hours. A me¬
thod of this kind there is, but it is kept in’ a few
hands a valuable fecret. Perhaps it depends upon a
prudent ufe of a tartarized fpirit of wine, and the
common forcing, as occafion is, along with gypfum,
as the principal; all which are to be well ftirred a-
bout in wine, for half an hour before it is fuffered to
reft.
FORDOUN (John of), the father of Scottilh hi-
ftory, flourifhed in the reign of Alexander III. to¬
wards the end of the 13th century. But of his life
there is nothing known with certainty, though there
was not a monaftery that ppffeffed not copies of his
work.' The firft five books of the hiftory which bears
for [ 337 ] FOR
Fof Jwkh tils name were written by him : the reft were fabrica-
j, . ted from materials left by him, and from new collec-
. oie,gn- tionsby different perfons. A manufcript in vellum of
this hiftorian is in the library of the univerfity of Edin¬
burgh.
FORDWICH, a town of Kent, called in the
Doomfday-Book “ the little Borough of Fordwich,”
is a member of the port of Sandwich, and was ancient¬
ly incorporated by the ftyle of the Barons of the town
of Fordwich, but more lately by the name of the mayor,
jurats, and commonalty, who enjoy the fame privileges
as the cinque-ports. This place is famous for excellent
trouts in its river Stour.
FORDYCE (David), an elegant and learned wri¬
ter of the prefent age, was profeffor of philofophy in
the Marifchal-college, Aberdeen. He was originally
defigned for the miniftty ; to prepare himfelf for which
w-as the whole aim of his ambition,, and for a courfe of
years the whole purpofe of his ftudies. How well he
w'as qualified to appear in that charafter, appears from
his “ Theodorus, a dialogue concerning the art of
preaching.” After having finilhed this work, he went
abroad on his travels, in order to obtain fre(h ftores of
knowledge : but after a fuccefsful tour through feveral
parts of Europe, he was unfortunately call away in a
ftorm on the coaft of Holland. Befides the above
work, he wrote Dialogues on Education, 8vo, and a
Treatife of Moral Philofophy publifhed in the Precep¬
tor. The third edition of his Theodorus was publifh¬
ed in London, after his untimely death, by his brother
the Rev. Mr James Fordyce, an eminent diffenting mi-
nifter, in 1755.
FORE, applied to a fhip, denotes all that part of
a fhip’s frame and machinery which lies near the Item.
Fore and aft is ufed for the whole fhip’s length, or
from end to end.
FORECASTLE of a Ship, that part where the
foremaft ftands. It is divided from the reft by a bulk¬
head.
FOREIGN, fomething extraneous, or that comes
from abroad. The word is formed from the Latin
fores, “ doorsor forts, “ out of doorsor fo¬
rum, “ market,” See.
Foreign minifter, foreign prince, foreign goods, See.
are thofe belonging to other nations. See Mini¬
ster, &c.
Foreign to the purpofe, fignifies a thing remote or
impertinent.
Foreign, in the Englifh law, is ufed in various fig-
nifications. Thus,
Foreign Attachment, is an attachment of the goods
of foreigners found within a city or liberty, for the fa-
tisfa&ion of fome citizen to whom the foreigner is in¬
debted ; or it fignifies an attachment of a foreigner’s
money in the hands of another perfon.
Foreign Kingdom, a kingdom under the dominion
of a foreign prince.
At the inftance of an ambaffador or conful, any of¬
fender againft the laws here may be fent for hither from
a foreign kingdom to which he hath fled. , And,
where a ftranger of Holland, or any foreign coun¬
try, buys goods at London, for inftance, and there
gives a note under his hand for payment, and then
goes away privately into Holland ; in that cafe, the
feller may have.a certificate frpm the lord mayor, op
Vol. VII. Part I.
the proof of the fale and delivery of fuch goods, where- Foregti
upon a procefs will be executed on the party in Hoi- II
land. Foreland.
Foreign Oppofer, or Appofer, an officer in the ex-
chequer that oppofes or makes a charge on all ftieriffs,
&c. of their green wax; that is to fay, fines, iffues,
amerciaments, recognizances, Sec.
Foreign Plea, fignifies an objedtion to the judge of
the court, by refufing him as incompetent, becaufe the
matter in queftion is not wdthin his jurifdiftion.
Foreign Seamen, ferving two years on board Bri-
tilh (hips, whether of war, trade, or privateers, du¬
ring the time of war, (hall be deemed natural-born fub-
jedts.
FOREIGNER, the natural-born fubjed to fome
foreign prince.
Foreigners, though made denizens, or naturalized,
are difabledto bear any office in government, to be of
the pi ivy-council, or members of parliament, Sec. This
is by the ads of the fettlement of the crown. Such
perfons as are not freemen of a city or corporation, are
alfo called foreigners, to diftinguifti them from the
members of the fame.
FOREJUDGER, in law, fignifies a judgment
whereby one is deprived or put by a thing in queftion.
To be forejudged the court, is where an officer or at¬
torney of any court is expelled the fame for malprac¬
tice, or for not appearing to an adion on a bill filed
againft him, Sec. And where an attorney of the com¬
mon-pleas is fued, the plaintiff’s attorney delivers the
bill to one of the criers of the court, who calls the at¬
torney defendant, and folemnly proclaims aloud, that,
if he does not appear thereto, he will be forejudged ;
likev/ife a rule is given by the fecondary for his appear¬
ance : and if the attorney appears not in four days,
then the clerk of the warrants (trikes fuch an attorney
off the roll of attorneys; after wffiich he becomes liable
to be arrefted like any other perfon: but where an at¬
torney is forejudged, he may be reftored on clearing
himfelf from his contumacy, and making fatisfadion to
the plaintiff, Sec.
FORELAND, or Foreness, in navigation, a
point of land jutting out into the fea.
North Foreland, in the ifle of Thanet, Kent, of
which it is the N. E. point, is the promontory afeer-
tained by ad of parliament to be the moft fouthern
part of the port of London, which is thereby extended
N. in a right line to the point called the Nafe on
the coaft of Effex, and forms that properly called
the Mouth of the Thames. A fea mark was ereded
here by'the Trinity-Houfe corporation at the public
expence, which is a round brick-tower, near 80 feet
high. The fea gains fo much upon the land here by
the winds at S. W. that within the memory of fome
that are living above 30 acres of land have been loft
in one place. All veffels that pafs on the fouth-fide
of this head-land are faid to enter the Channel, which
is the name for the narrow fea between England and
France ; and all the towns or harbours between Lon¬
don and this place, whether on the Kentifti or Effex
ffipre, are called members of the port of London.
South Foreland, in Kent, a head of land forming
the eaft point of the Kentifti (hore ; and called South,
in refped to its bearing from the other Foreland,
which is about fix miles to the north. Its fituation
Uu is
FOR
-locks Is of great fecurity to the Downs, the road between
II both, which would be a very dangerous road for Ihips,
re ' , did not this point break the fea off, that would other-
wife come rolling up from the weft to the Flats or
bank of fands, which for three leagues together and at
about a league or a league and a half from the fhore
run parallel with it, and are dry at low water ; fo that
thefe two capes breaking all the force of the fea on
the S. E. and S. W. make the Downs accounted a
^good road, except when the wind blows exceflive hard
from S. E. E. by N. or E. N. E. when {hips in the
Downs are driven from their anchors, and often run
a-ftiore, or are forced on the fands, or into Sandwich
bay or Ramfgate pier.
FORE-LOCKS, in the fea-language, little flat
wedges made with iron, ufed at the ends of bolts, to
keep them from flying out of their holes.
FORE MAST of a Ship, a large round piece of
timber, placed in her fore-part or fore-caftle, and car¬
rying the fore-fail and fore-top-fail yards. Its length
is ufually -j- of the main-mail, and the fore-top-gallant-
maft is 4- the length of the fore-top.
FoREMAsr-Men, are thofe on board a fliip that take
in the top-fails, fling the yards, furl the fails, bowfe,
trice, and take their turn at the helm, &c.
FOREST, in geography, a huge wood; or, a large
extent of ground covered with trees. The word is form¬
ed of the Latin forejia, which firft occurs in the capi¬
tulars of Charlemagne, and which itfelf is derived from
the German frqft, fignifying the fame thing. Spelman
derives it from the Latin forts rejlat, by reafon forefts
are out of towns. Others derive forejia from/mV, q. d.
Forejia, quoad fit tuta fiatio ferarum, as being a fafe fta-
tion or abode for wild beafts.
The Caledonian and Hercynian forefts are famous
in hiftory. The firft was a celebrated retreat of the
ancient Pi&s and Scots : The latter anciently occupied
the greateft part of Europe ; particularly Germany,
Poland, Hungary, &c. In Csefar’s time it extended
from the borders of Alfatia and Switzerland to Tran-
fylvania ; and was computed 60 days journey long, and
9 broad : fome parts or cantons thereof are ftill re¬
maining.
The ancients adored forefts, and imagined a great
part of their gods to refide therein : temples were fre¬
quently built in the thickeft forefts ; the gloom and
filence whereof naturally infpire fentiments of devo¬
tion, and turn mens thoughts within themfelves.
For the like reafon, the Druids made forefts the
place of their refidence, performed their facrifices, in-
ilrufted their youth,- and gave laws therein.
Forest, in law, is defined, by Manwood, a certain
territory of woody grounds and fruitful paftures, pri¬
vileged for wild beafts and fowls of foreft, chafe, and
warren, to reft and abide under the pfoteftion of the
king, for his princely delight; bounded with unre¬
moveable marks and meres, either known by matteF
of record or prefcription ; reple'nilhed with wild beafts
of venery or chafe, with great coverts of vert for the
faid beafts ; for prcfervation and continuance whereof,
the vert and venifon, there are certain particular laws,
privileges, and officers.
Forefts are of fuch antiquity in England, that, ex¬
cepting the New-Foreft in Hampftrire, erefted by Wil¬
liam the Conqueror, and Hampton Court, ere&ed by
FOR
Henry VIII. it is faid, that there is no record or hi-'
ftory which makes any certain mention of their erec-v
tion, though they are mentioned by feveral writers and
in feveral of our laws and ftatutes. Ancient biftorians
tell us, “ that New-foreft wasraifed by the deftrudlion
of 22 parilh-churches, and many villages, chapels, nnd
manors, for the fpace of 30 miles together, which was
attended with divers judgments on the pofterity of
William I. who eredted it: for William Rufus was
there fliot with an arrow, and before him Richard the
brother of Henry I. ; and Henry nephew to Robert,
the eldeft fon of the Conqueror, did hang by the hair
of the head in the boughs of the foreft, like unto Ab-
falom.” Blount.
Befides the New-foreft, there are 68 other forefts in
England, 13 chafes, and more than 700 parks: the
four principal forefts are New-foreft on the fea, Shire-
wood-foreft on the Tcent, Dean-foreft on the Severn,
and Windfor-foreft on the Thames.
A foreft in the hands of a fubjedl is properly the
fame thing with a Chase; being fubjeft to the common
law, and not to the foreft-laws. But a chafe differs
from a foreft, in that it is not inclofed ; and likewife,
that a man may have a chafe in another man’s ground
as well as his own ; being indeed the liberty of keep¬
ing beafts of chafe, or royal game therein, protefted
even from the owner of the land, with a power of
hunting them thereon. See Park.
The manner of ere&ing a foreft is thus: Certain com-
miffioner^ are appointed under the great feal, who view
the ground intended for a foreft, and fence it round :
this commiffion being returned into chancery, the king
caufeth it to be proclaimed throughout the county
where the land lieth, that it is a foreft; and prohibits
all perfons from hunting there, without his leave.
Though the king may eredt a foreft on his own ground,
and wafte, he may not do it on the ground of other
perfons without their confent ; and agreements with
them for that purpofe ought to be confirmed by par¬
liament.
A foreft, ftri&ly taken, cannot be in the hands of
any but the king ; for no perfon but the king has
power to grant a commiffion to be juftice in eyre of
the foreft: yet, if he grants a foreft to a fubjedl, and
that on requeft made in the chancery, that fubjedt and
his heirs {hall have juftices of the foreft, in which cafe
the fubjeft has a foreft in law.
A fecond property of a foreft is, the courts thereof.
See Forest-Courts, infra.
A third property is the officers belonging to it, as
the jufticcs, warden, verderer,forefter, agiitor, regarder,
keeper,bailiff, beadle, &c. See the articles Agistor,
Bailiff, Forester, &c.
By the laws of the foreft, the receivers of trefpaffes
in hunting, or killing of the deer, if they know them
to be the king’s property, are principal trefpaffers.
Likewife, if a trefpafs be committed in a foreft, and
the trefpaffer dies, after his death, it may be puniftied
in the life-time of the heir, contrary to common law.
Our Norman kings puniftied fuch as killed deer in any
of their forefts with great feverity ; alfo in various man¬
ners ; as by hanging, lofs of limbs, gelding, and put¬
ting out eyes. By magna charla de forefa, it is or¬
dained, that no perfon ftiall lofe life or member for kil¬
ling the king’s deer in forefts, but {hall be fined ; and
[ 338 1
FOR C 339 1 FOR
^oreft* if the offender has nothing to pay the fine, he fhall be
-V—imprifoned a year and a day, and then be delivered, if
he can give fecuiity not to offend for the future, &c.
9 Hen. III. c. l.
Before this ftatute, it was felony to hunt the king’s
deer ; and by a late ad, perfons armed and difguifed,
appearing in any fore ft, &c. if they hunt, kill, or ileal
any deer, &c. are guilty of felony. 9. Geo. I. c. 22.
He who has any licence to hunt in a foreft or chace,
&c. is to take care that he does not exceed his autho¬
rity ; otherwife he fhall be deemed a trefpaffer from the
beginning, and be punifhed for that fad, as if he had no
licence. See further, the articles Game, and Game-Law.
Beafts of the foreft are, the hart, hind, buck, doe,
boar, wolf, fox, hare, &c. The feafons for hunting
whereof are as follow, viz. that of the hart and buck
begins at the feaft of St John Baptift, and ends at
Holy-rood day ; of the hind and doe, begins at Holy-
rood, and continues till Candlemas ; of the boar, from
Chriftmas to Candlemas ; of the fox begins at Chrift-
mas, and continues till Lady-day ; of the hare at Mi¬
chaelmas, and lafts till Candlemas.
Forest-Courts, courts inftituted for the government
of the king’s forefts in different parts of the kingdom,
and for the puniihment of all injuries done to the king’s
deer or venifon, to the vert or greenfwerd, and to the
covert in which fuch deer are lodged. Thefe are the
courts of Attachments, of Regard, of Sweinmote,
and of Justice-seat. i. The court of attachments,
woodmote, or forty-days court, is to be held before the
verderors of the foreft once in every forty days ; and
is inftituted to inquire into all offenders againft vert
and venifon : Who may be attached by their bodies,
llaiHli 'f taken with the mainour (or mainceuvre, a manu) that
cement. J*s> in ^ 'vet7 °f killing venifon, or Healing wood,
or in the preparing fo to do, or by frelh and immediate
purfuit after the a& is done ; elfe they muft be attach¬
ed by their goods. And in this forty-days court the
forefters or keepers are to bring in the attachments, or
prefentments de viridi et venatiorte ; and the verderors
are to receive the fame, and to enrol them, and to
•certify them under their feals to the court of juftice-
ffeat or fweinmote : for this court can only inquire of,
but not convidl, offenders. 2. The court of regard,
or furvey of dogs, is to be holden every third year for
the lawing or expeditation of maftiffs ; which is done
by cutting off the claws of the fore-feet, to prevent
them from running after deer. No other dogs but
naaftiffs are to be thus lawed or expeditated, for none
other were permitted to be kept within the precin&s
of the foreft ; it being fuppofed that the keeping of
thefe, and thefe only, was neceffary for the defence of
a man’s houfe. 3. The court of fweinmote is to be
holden before the verderors, as judges, by the fteward
of the fweinmote, thrice in every year ; the fweins or
freeholders within the foreft compofing the jury. The
principal jurifdidion of this court is, firft, to inquire
into the opprcffions and grievances committed by the
officers of the foreft ; “ de fuper-oneratione forejlarorium,
et aliorum mimjlrorum forejia; et de eomm opprefionibus
pcpulo regis illatis f” and, fecondly, to receive and try
prefentments certified from the court of attachments
againft offences in vert and venifon. And this court
may not only inquire, but convift alfo ; which con-
*ii&ion fir all be certified to the court of juftice-feat un¬
der the feals of the jury, for this court cannot proceed * Foreft,’
to judgment. But the principal court is, 4. The court,
of juftice-feat, which is held before the chief juftice in " ''
eyre, or chief itinerant judge, capitalis jujiitiarius in iti-
nere, or his deputy ; to hear and determine all trefpaf-
fes within the foreft, and all claims of franchifes, liber¬
ties, and privileges, and all pleas and caufes whatfoever
therein arifing. It may alfo proceed to try prefent¬
ments in the inferior courts of the forefts, and to give
judgment upon conviction of the fweinmote. And
the chief juftice may therefore, after prefentment
made or indictment found, but not before, iffue his
warrant to the officers of the foreft to apprehend
the offenders. It may be held every third year ; and
40 days notice ought to be given of its fitting. This
court may fine and imprifon for offences within the
foreft, it being a court of record : and therefore a writ
of error lies from hence to the court of king’s-beuch,
to reClify and redrefs any mal-adminiftrations of juf¬
tice ; or the chief juftice in eyre may adjourn any
matte* of law into the court of king’s-bench.
Forest-Laios, are peculiar laws different from the
common law of England. Before the making of Char-
ta de Forejla, in the time of king John and his foil
Henry III. confirmed in parliament by 9 Henry III.
offences committed therein were puniihed at the plea-
fure of the king in the fevereft manner. By this char¬
ter, many forefts were difafforefted and ftripped of their
oppreffive privileges, and regulations were made for
the government of thofe that remained ; particularly,
killing the king’s deer was made no longer a capital
offence, but only puniftied by fine, imprifonment, or
abjuration of the realm: yet even in the charter there
were fome grievous articles, which the clemency of la¬
ter princes have fijice by ftatute thought fit to alter
per ajjifas forejite. And to this day, in trefpaffes rela¬
ting to the foreft, voluntas reputabilur pro fado ; fo that
if a man be taken hunting a deer, he may be arrefted
as if he had taken a deer.
FoREsr-Towns, in geography, certain towns of
Suabia in Germany, lying along the Rhine, and the
confines of Switzerland, and fubjed to the houfe of
Auftria. Their names are Rhinefield, Seckingen, Lau-
fenburg, and Waldjhut.
FORE-staff, an inftrument ufed at fea for taking
the altitudes of heayenly bodies. The fore-ftaff, called
alfo crofs-Jlajf, takes its denomination hence, that the
obferver, in ufing it, turns his face towards the objeCt;
in contradiftindion to the back-ftaff, where he turns
his back to the objeCl.
The fore or crofs ftaff, reprefented in Plate CXCV.
confifts of a ftraight fquare ftaff, A B, graduated like
a line of tangents and four croffes or vanes, F F, E E,
D D, C C, which Aide thereon. The firft and ihorteft
of thefe vanes, F F, is called the ten crofs, or vane, and
belongs to that fide of the inftrument whereon the di-
vifions begin at three degrees and end at ten. The
next longer vane, EE, is called the thirty crofs, belong¬
ing to that fide of the ftaff wherein the divifions begin
at ten degrees and end at thirty, called the thirty feale.
The next vane, D D, is called thejixty crofs, and be¬
longs to the fide where the divifions begin at twenty
degrees and end at fixty. The laft and longeft, C C,
called the ninety-crofs, belongs to the fide whereon the
divifions begin at thirty degrees and end at ninety.
U u 2 The
FOR [ 3+0 1 FOR
Fore ftaff The great ufe of this inftrument is'to take the height
Forelt'er t^le ^lln an^ ^3rs> or the diilance of two ftars : and
.~ ^ the ten, thirty, fixty, or ninety crofles, are to be ufed
according as the altitude is greater or lefs ; that is, if
the altitude be lefs than ten degrees, the ten crofs is to
be ufed ; if above ten, but leis than thirty, the thirty
oofs is to be nfed, &c. Note, For altitudes greater
than thirty degrees, this inftrument is not fo conveni¬
ent as a quadrant or femicircle.
To obferve an altitude by this injlrument.—Apply the flat
end of the ftaff to your eye, and look at the upper end of
the crofs for the centre of the fun or ftar, and at the
lower end for the horizon. If you fee the flcy inftead of
the horizon, Aide the crofs a little nearer the eye ; and if
you fee the fea inftead of the horizon, Aide the crofs
farther from the eye : and thus continue moving till
you fee exaftly the fun or liar’s centre by the top of
the crofs, and the horizon by the bottom thereof. Then
the degrees and minutes, cut by the inner edge of the
crofs upon the fide of the Half peculiar to the crofs you
ufe, give the altitude of the fun or ftar.
If it be the meridian altitude you want, continue
your obfervation as long as you find the altitude in-
creafe, ftill moving the crofs nearer to the eye. By
fubtradling the meridian altitude thus found from 90
degrees, you will have the zenith diftance. To work
accurately, an allowance muft be made for the height
of the eye above the furface of the fea, viz. for one
Englilhfoot, 1 minute ; for 5 feet, 2^ ; for 10 feet, 3^-;
for 20 feet, 5 ; for 40 feet, 7, &c. Thefe minutes
fubtradled from the altitude obferved, and added to the
zenith diftance obferved, give the true altitude and
zenith diftance.
•To obferve the dijlance of two Jlars, or the moon’s di-
Jlance from a far, by the forefaff.—Apply the inftru¬
ment to the eye, and looking to both ends of the crofs,
move it nearer or farther from the eye till you fee the
two ftars, the one on the one end and the other on the
other end of the crofs ; then the degrees and minutes
cut by the crofs on the fide proper to the vane in ufe
give the ftars diftance.
FORESTALLER, a perfon who is guilty of fore-
ftalling. See the next article.
F’ORESTALLING, in law, buying or bargain¬
ing for any corn, cattle, vi&uals, or merchandife, in
the way as they come to fairs or markets to be fold,
before they get thither, with an intent to fell the fame
again at a higher price.
The punilhment for this offence, upon convi&ion at
the quarter-feffions by two or more witnefies, is, for
the firft time, two months imprifonment and the lofs of
the goods, or the value ; for the fecond offence, the
offender ftiall be imprifoned fix months, and lofe double
the value of the goods ; for the third offence, he fliall
fuffer imprifonment during the king’s pleafure, forfeit
all his goods and chattels, and ftand on the pillory:
but the ftatute does not extend to maltfters buying
barley, or to badgers licenfed.
FORESTER, a fworn officer of the foreft, ap¬
pointed by the king’s letters-patent, to walk;the foreft
at all hours, and watch over the vert and venifon; alfo
to make attachments and true prefentmefits of all tref-
pafles committed within the foreft.
If a man comes into a foreft in the night, a forefter
cannot lawfully beat him before he makes fome refift-
# . -
ance ; but in cafe fuch a perfon refills the forefter, he Fore-
may juftify a battery. And a forefter ftiall not be que- dioughti
ftioned for killing a trefpalfer that, after the peace Forfar‘
cried to him, will not furrender himfelf, if it be not " ^
done on any former malice ; though, where trefpafl'ers
in a foreft, &c. do kill a perfon that oppofes them, it
is murder in all, becaufe they were engaged in an un¬
lawful aft, and therefore malice is implied to the per¬
fon killed.
FORETHOUGHT-felony, in Scots law, fighi-
fies premeditated murder. See Murder.
FORFAR,, a parliament-town of Scotland, and ca¬
pital of the county of that name, fituated in N. Lat.
56. 25. W. Long. 2. 32. This town, with Dundee,
Cupar, Perth, and St Andrew’s, jointly fend one mem¬
ber to the Britifti parliament. It Hands in the great
valley of Strathmore that runs from Perth north eail
to the fea, almoft in a llraight line, about 50 miles
long and betwixt four and five miles broad, bordered
on either fide by hills, riling gently on the fouth fide,
and on the north by the famous Grampians, a little
more elevated.
Though hiftory is filent as to the etymology of the
name Forfar, yet we are fure it is of very ancient
date, and that in the days of old it was the refi-
dence of royal majefty. Here Malcom Canmore,. a
wife and magnanimous prince, held his firft parliament
in 1057. ^ he ruins of his palace are ftill to be feen
on the top of an artificial mount of a circular form,
reding upon a bafe of about three acres of ground, and
rifing 50 feet high above the level of the circumambient
plain. A wall of ftone of a great thicknefs, fo ftmngly
cemented with run-lime that it is fcarce pofiible to break
the cement with the ftroke of a hammer, environed the
place ; and a moat of at lead, 20 feet broad, and in fome
parts a great deal more, and 12 feet deep, encompafted
the whole. Adjoining to this is a field of about fix acres
of ground called the Queen's Manor, furrounded in
thofe days with a large fheet of water, and accefiible
only by boats. In clearing away fome of the rubbifti
of the palace a few years ago, a tea-kettle of a coni¬
cal figure, and a bunch of barbed arrows, were found
in the ruins. A pit of about 18 feet deep, very
prettily built of hewn ftone, with a human body in a
Hate of extreme putrefaftion, was alfo difcovered.
The lake of Forfar, ftretching two miles in length
from eaft to weft, and half a mile in breadth, and co¬
vering the palace on the north, afforded not only a
plentiful fupply of water for every purpofe, but alfo
added to the ftrength of the place. This lake abounds
with trout, pike,, perch, and eel. Of late years it
has been greatly reduced by draining; to which the
immenfe quantity of fine marie at the bottom was the
principal inducement. This excellent manure is found
here in large ftrata from two to fix and eight feet deep,
and generally below mofs ten feet deep.
This lake has proved fatal to many of the human
race; but particularly and defervedly fo to the mur¬
derers of Malcom II. who having fled after perpetra¬
ting the bloody deed at the caftle of Glammis, about
five miles diftant, in the year 1036, miffed their way,
owing to a deep fall of fnow, and wandered in the
fields for fome time, till at laft they came upon the ice
on the lake, which not being firm, fuddenly gave way
under them, and they all periftied.. When the thaw
4 came
'.y
FOR [ 341 1 FOR
eame, their bodies were found ; and being difcovered to
be the murderers of the king, they were all hung on
gibbets on the (ides of the highways.
Within this lake were formerly two iflands raifed
by artj with buildings on each; to which Margaret,
:Malcom Canmore’s queen, retired after the deceafe of
her hufband. Part of the ruins of thefe edifices are
full to be feen. To this queen, tradition fays, we owe
the cuftom of the grace-drink ; (he having eftablifiied
it as a rule at her table, that whoever llaid till grace
was faid was rewarded with a bumper.
From this time we have little or no accounts of For¬
far till the middle of the 1.7th century, except an adt
paffed in the 13th parliament of James VI. 2 ill July
1593, in the following words : “ Our foveraine Lorde,
underilanding that be adle and ordinance maid aneijt
obfer.vation of the Sabbath-daie within this realme, the
mercatte-daie of the burgh of Forfare, being the head
burgh of the fchire, quhilk was Sundaie, is taken from
them ; and his hienelfe not willing that they in onie
waies fuld be prejudged hereby, therefore his hieneffe,
with advife of the ellaites of this prefent parliament,
alterisand changis their faid mercatte-daie from Sundaie
to Fridaie, and willis the famen Fridaie oukly to be
their mercatte dale to them in all times hereafter ; and
the famin to ftande with the like priviledges and free-
domes as the Sundaie did of before,” Whether this
change rook place, or how long it continued, is uncer¬
tain ; but the market-day is prefently held on Saturday,
and has been fo pad memory of man.
During the ufurpation of Oliver Cromwell, a de¬
tachment of his forces, after facktng Dundee, came
to Forfar and burnt all the public records of the place ;
and the only charter the town now has is one granted
by Charles II. after his reftoration, confirming all its
ancient rights and privileges.
As^ an evidence of the ignorance and barbarity of
the times, it appears from the records of the trials kept
in the charter cheil of Forfar, that nine perfons were
condemned and burnt here for witchcraft betwixt the
years 1650 and 1662. Thefe innocent people were
all tried by. a fpecial commillion from the lords of the
privy-council at Edinburgh ; and although the coih-
mifiion exprefsly difcharged torturing them on pnrpofe
to .extort a confelfion of-their guilt, yet, as it was
then thought meritorious to obtain confeffion of guilt
by whatever means, many inhuman cruelties were ex-
ercifed upon the unfortunate objects; particularly, an
iron boot was drawn upoti one of their legs, and a
wedge driven with great force between it and the leg.
Another inllrument, ftill carefully preferved here, was
like wife uthd, and is called the witch-bridle.. It is made
of iron, in the fliape of a dog’s collar, with two pikes
on the infide, about four inches diftant and two and a
half long. Thefe pikes were put into the mouth, and
the collar afterwards buckled llrait on the. back of the
head, to which was affixed an iron chain, whereby the
condemned perfons were led to the place of execution
called the about a quarter of a mile to the
northward of the town.
The inhabitants of Forfar are a hofpitable, free, and
generous fet of people :. they are at leall doubled in
number within thefe 30 years, being now about 3300 :
the houfes have alfo increafed more in proportion, be-
lides being valtly improved. The church here has juft
.been rebuilt on an elegant and extenfive plan calcu¬
lated to contain 2coo hearers.
Forfar Shire, a county of Scotland, of which For¬
far is the capital. Including Angus, Glenila, Glenelk,
and Glenpraffin, it extends 29 miles from eaft to weft,
and 16 where broadeft, though in fome places the
breadth does not exceed five miles. On the north it
is divided from the Brae of Mar by a ridge of the
Binchinin mountains ; it is bounded on the fouth by
the Frith of Tay and the Britifh ocean, on the eaft by
Mearns, and on the weft by Ferthftiire. Part of the
Grampian mountains runs through this county, which
is agreeably diverfified with hill and dale. It produces
lead and iron in abundance, together with quarries of
freeftpnc and Hate, with which the inhabitants drive a
confiderable traffic. The county is well watered with
lakes, rivers, rivulets, and fountains, fhaded with
large forefts, roughened with brown mountains, and
waved with green hills interfperfed with fields and
meadows, and adorned with fine feats and plantations.
Their heaths arid woods abound with hart, hind, roe¬
buck, and m@or-game ; their ftreams are flocked with
trout and falmon. Their hills are covered with flocks
of iheep, and their fields afford plentiful harvefts of
wheat and all forts of grain. The mountains to the
weft and north are inhabited by Highlanders : but the
Lowlanders poffefs the towns and champaign country,.
and are remarkable for their politenefs and hofpitality.
FORFEITURE, originally fignifies a tranfgref-
fion, or offence againft fome penal law. The word is
formed of the bafe Latin forhfaBnra : whence forfai-
tura and forfaiftura, and the French forfait. Foris-
fathira comes of forisfaiere ; which, according to Ili-
dore, fignifies to “ hurt or offend,” facere contra ra-
iionem ; and which is not improbably derived of forts
out,” and facere, “ to do,” q. d. an aflion' out of
rule, or contrary to the rules. Borel will have for¬
fait derived from the ufing of force or violence : Lo-
bineau in his gloffary will have forhfathi properly to
fignify a mulril or amend, not a forfeit; which latter
he derives from the bafe Britilh forfed, “ a penalty.”
But, with us, it is now more frequently ufed for the
effedl of fuch. tranfgreffion ; or the lofing fome right,
privilege, eftate, honour, office, or effects, in confe-
quence thereof; than for the tranfgreffion itfelf.
Forfeiture differs from conffcation, in that the for¬
mer is more general; while confifcation is particularly
applied to fuch things as become forfeited to the king’s
exchequer ; and goods confifcated are faid to be fuch
as nobody claims.
Forfeitures may be either in civil ox criminal cafes.
I. With refpedl to the firft, a man that hath an e-
ftate for life or years, may forfeit it many ways, as well;
as by treafori ot; felony ; fuch as alienation, claiming a
greater eftate than he hath, or affirming the reverfion
to be in a ftranger, &c. When a tenant in tail makes
leafes not warranted by the llatute ;, a copyholder
commits wafte, refufes to pay his rent, or do fuit of
court; and where an eftate is granted upon condition,
on non-performance thereof, &c. they will make a for¬
feiture.
Entry for a forfeiture ought to be by him who'is
next in reverfion, or remainder, after the eftate for¬
feited. As if tenaqt for life or years commits a forfei¬
ture, he who has the immediate reverfion or remainder!
ought.
FOR [ 342 1 FOR
fVfcWire. ought to tntcr ; though he has the fee, or only an e-
c“—V',~ ftate-tail.
II. Forfeiture in criminal cafes is twofold ; of real,
and perfonal eftates.
1. As to real ellates, by Attainder in Figh-trea-
fon, a man forfeits to the king all his lands and te¬
nements of inheritance, whether fee-fimple or fee-tail;
and ail his rights of entry on lands and tenements,
which he had at the time of the offence committed, or
at any time afterwards, to be for ever veiled in the
crown ; and alfo the profits of all lands-and tenements,
which he had in his own right for life or years, fo long
Tladjt. as fuch intereft fhail fubfift. This forfeiture relates
Comment, backwards to the time of thetreafon committed; fo as
to avoid all intermediate fales and incumbrances, but
-not thofe before the faft : and therefore a wife’s join¬
ture is not forfeitable for the treafon of her hufband;
becaufe fettled upon her previous to the treafon com¬
mitted. But her dower is forfeited, by the exprefs
provifion of flatute 5 and 6 Edw. VT. c. 11. And yet
the hufband fhall be tenant by the curtefy of the wife’s
lands, if the wife be attainted of treafon : for that is
•not prohibited by the flatute. But, though after at¬
tainder the forfeiture relates back to the time of the
treafon committed, yet it does not take effedl unlefs an
.attainder be had, of which it is one of the fruits; and
therefore, if a traitor dies before judgment pronounced,
-or is killed in open rebellion, or is hanged by martial
law, it works no forfeiture of his lands: for he never
was attainted of treafon. But jf the chief juftice of
the king’s bench (the fupreme Coroner of all England)
in perfon, upon the view of the body of him killed in
■open rebellion, records it and returns the record into
his own court, both lands and goods fiiall be forfeited.
The natural juftice of forfeiture or confifcation of
property, for treafon, is founded on this confideration:
That he who hath thus violated the fundamental prin¬
ciples of government, and broken his part of the ori¬
ginal contradt between king and people, hath abandon¬
ed his connedfions with fociety, and hath no longer
any right to thofe advantages wdrich before belonged
to him purely as a member of the community ; among
which facial advantages, the right of transferring or
tranfmitting property to others is one of the chief.
Such forfeitures, moreover, whereby his pofterity muft
fuffer as well as himftlf, will help to reftrain a man,
not only by the fenfe of his duty, and dread of perfonal
puniftiment, but alfo by his pafiions and natural affec¬
tions ; and will intereft every dependent and relation
he has to keep him from offending r according to that
beautiful fentiment of Cicero, “ nec vero me fufit qiumi
Jit acerbvm, parentum feeler a jiliorum panis lui: fed hoc
prteclare legilus comparatum fl, ut caritas liherorum ■ ami-
ciores parentes republics redderet.,, And therefore Au-
lus Cafcellius, a Roman lawyer in the time of the tri¬
umvirate, ufed to boaft that he had two reafons for
defpifing the power of the tyrants ; his old age and
his want of children ; for children are pledges to the
prince of the father’s obedience. Yet many nations
have thought, that this pofthumous punifhment favours
of hardftiip to the innocent; efpecially for crimes that
do not Itrike at the very root and foundation of fo¬
ciety, as treafon againft the government exprefsly does.
And therefore, although confifcations were very fre¬
quent in the times of the earlier emperors, yet Arca-
dius and Honorious, in every other inftance but that ofrorfe
treafon, thought it more juft, ibi ejfepavam, ubi et noxa "—
ejl; and ordered, that ‘1 peccata fuos teneant auQores, nec
ulterius progrediatur metus, quam reperiatur delidumand
Juftinian alfo made a law to reftrain the puniftiment of
relations ; which diredls the forfeiture to go, except in
the cafe of crimen majeflatis, to the next of kin to the
delinquent. On the other hand, the Macedonian laws
extended even the capital punilhment of treafon, not
only to the children, but to all the relations of the
delinquent: and of courfe their eftates muft be alfo
forfeited, as no man was left to inherit them. And
in Germany, by the famous golden bull (copied almoft
verbatim from Juftinian’s code), the lives of the fons
of fuch as confpire to kill an elcftbr are fpared, as it is
expreffed, by the emperor’s particular bounty. But they
are deprived of all their effects and rights of^ucceffion,
and are rendered incapable of any honour ecclefiaftical
and civil; to the end that, being always poor and ne-
ceilitous, they may for ever be accompanied by the
infamy of their father ; may languifti in continual in¬
digence; and may find (fays this mercilefs edidt) their
puniihment in living, and their relief in dying.”
In England, forfeiture of lands and tenements to
the crown for treafon is by no means derived from the
feodal policy, but was antecedent to the eftabliftiment
of that fyftem in-this ifland ; being tranfmitted from
our Saxon anceftors, and forming a part of the ancient
Scandinavian conftitution. But in certain treafens rela¬
ting to the coin (which feem rather a fpecies of the
crimen falji than the crimen lafa majejlalis), it is provi¬
ded by fome of the modern ftatutes which conftitute
the offence, that it (hall work no forfeiture of lands,
fave only for the life of the offenders ; and by all, that
it lhall not deprive the wife of her dower. And, in
order to abolifh fuch hereditary puniftiment entirely, it
was ena&ed by ftatute 7 Ann. c. 21. that, after the
deceafe of the late pretender, no attainder for treafon
ftiould extend to the difinheriting of any heir, nor to
the prejudice of any perfon, other than the traitor him-
felf. By which the law of forfeitures for high trea¬
fon would by this time have been at an end, had not a
fubfequent ftatute intervened to give them a longer du¬
ration. The hiftory of this matter is fomewhat An¬
gular, and worthy obfervation. At the time of the
union, the crime of treafon in Scotland was, by the
Scots law, in many refpects different from that of trea¬
fon in England ; and particularly in its confequence
of forfeitures of entailed eftates, which was more pe¬
culiarly Englifn: yet it feemed neceffary, that a crime
fo nearly affefting government fiiould, both in its ef-
fence and confequences, be put upon the fame footing
in both parts of the united kingdoms. In new-mo¬
delling thefe laws, the Scots nation and the Engliftr
houfe of commons ftruggled hard, partly to maintain,
and partly to acquire, a total immunity from forfeiture
and corruption of blood : which the houfe of lords as
firmly refifted. At length a compromife was agreed
to, which is eftabliftied by this ftatute, viz. that the
fame crimes, and no other, ftiould be treafon in Scot¬
land that are fo in England; and that the Englifh for¬
feitures and corruption of blood ftiould take place in'
Scotland till the death of the then pretender, and then
Ceafe throughout the whole of Great Britain: the lords
artfully propofing this temporary claufe, in hopes (it
FOR [ 343 ] FOR
Forfeiture is faid) that the prudence of fucceeding parliaments
k-'V”- would make it perpetual. This has partly been done
by the ftatute 17 Geo. II. c. 39. (made in the year
preceding the late rebellion), the operation of thefe in¬
demnifying claufes bein^ thereby ftill farther fufpend-
ed till the death of the 10ns of the pretender.
In petit treafon and felony, the offender alfo for¬
feits all his chattel interefts abfolutely, and the profits
of all freehold eftates during life; and after his death
all his lands and tenements in fee fimple (but not thofe
in tail) to the crown, for a very fhort period of time :
for the king fhall have them for a year and a day, and
may commit therein what wafte he pleafes; which is
called the king’s yen/*, day, and wajlc. Formerly the
king had only a liberty of committing wafte on the
lands of felons, by pulling down their houfes, extir¬
pating their gardens, ploughing their meadows, and
cutting down their woods. And a punifliment of a
fimilar fpirit appears to have obtained in the oriental
countries, from the decrees of Nebuchadnezzar and
Cyrus in the books of Daniel and Ezra; which, be-
fides the pain of death inflidted on the delinquents
there fpeeified, ordain, “ that their houfes fhall be
made a dunghill.” But this tending greatly to the
prejudice of the public, it was agreed in the reign of
Henry I. in England, that the king fhould have the
profits of the land for one year and a day in lieu of the
deltrudtion he was otherwife at liberty to commit:
and therefore magna eharta provides, that the king fhall
only hold fuch lands for a year and a day, and then
reftore them to the lord of the fee, without any men¬
tion made of wafte. But the ftatute 17 Edw. II. de
prerogativa regis, feems to fuppofe, that the king fhall
have his year, day, and wafte; and not the year and
day injlead of wafte : which Sir Edward Coke (and the
author of the Mirror before him) very juftly look up¬
on as an encroachment, though a very ancient one, of
the royal prerogative. This year, day, and wafte, are
now ufually compounded for; but otherwife they re¬
gularly belong to the crown ; and after their ex¬
piration the land would naturally have defcended to
the heir (as in gavelkind tenure it ftill does), did not
its feodal quality intercept fuch defcent, and give it
by way of efcheat to the lord. Thefe forfeitures for
felony do alfo arife only upon attainder; and there¬
fore a felo de fe forfeits no lands of inheritance or free¬
hold, for he never is attainted as a felon. They likewife
relate back to the time the offence was committed as
well as forfeitures for treafon, fo as to avoid all inter¬
mediate charges and conveyances. This may be hard
upon fuch as have unwarily engaged with the offender:
but the cruelty and reproach muft lie on the part, not
of the law, but of the criminal; who has thus knowingly
and diftroneftly involved others in his own calamities.
2. The forfeiture of goods and chattels accrues in
every one of the high kinds of offence; in high trea¬
fon, or mifprifon thereof, petit treafon, felonies of all
forts whether clergyable or not, felf-murder or felony
de fe, petty larceny, Handing mute, &c. For flight
alfo, on an accufation of treafon, felony, or even pe¬
tit larceny, whether the party be found guilty or ac¬
quitted, if the jury find the flight, the party ftiall for¬
feit his goods and chattels: for the very flight is an
offence, carrying with it a ftrong prefumption of guilt,
and is at leaft an endeavour to dude and ftifle the
courfeofjufticeprefcribed bythe law. But the jury very Forfeiture
feldom fi.nd the flight ; forfeiture being locked upon, ForfJu!a
fince the vaft increafe of perfonal property of late years, or -cu a-
as too large a penalty for an offence to which a man is J
prompted by the natural love of liberty.
There is a remarkable difference or two between the
forfeiture of lands and of goods and chattels. (1.)
Lands are forfeited upon attainder, and not before :
goods and chattels are forfeited by conviffion. Be-
caufe in many of the cafes where goods are forfeited,
there never is any attainder; which happens only where
judgment of death or outlawry is given: therefore, in
thofe cafes, the forfeiture muft be upon convidtion, or
not at all; and, being neceflarily upon conviction in
thofe, it is fo ordered in all other cafes, for the law
loves uniformity. (2.) The forfeiture of lands has
relation to the time the fadt was committed, fo.as to
avoid all fubfequent fales and incumbrances t but the
forfeiture of goods and chattels has no relation back¬
wards ; fo that thofe only which a man has at the
time of conviction firall be forfeited. Therefore a
traitor or felon may bona . fell any of his chattels,
real or perfonal, for the fuftenance of himfelf and fa¬
mily between the fadt and convidtion % for perfonal
property is of fo fludtuating a nature, that it paffes
through many hands in a Ihort time; and no buyer
could be fafe, if he were liable to return the goods
which he had fairly bought, provided any of the prior
vendors had committed a treafon or felony. Yet if
they be collufively nd not bona fde parted with,
merely to defraud the crown, the law' (and particu¬
larly the ftatute *3 Eliz. c. 5.) will reach them ; for
they are all the while truly and fubftantially the goods
of the offender: and as he, if acquitted, might recover
them himfelf, as not parted with for a good confider-
ation; fo, in cafe he happens to be convidted, the law
will recover them for the king.
FORFEX, in Roman antiquity, was a way of
drawing up an army in the form of a pair of ftieers.
It was intended to receive the cuneus or wedge, if the
enemy fhould make ufe of that figure. For when the
forfex opened to admit the wedge, they had an oppor¬
tunity of defeating their defign, and cutting them in.
pieces.
PORFICULA, the ear-wig, in zoology, a ge¬
nus of infedts belonging to the order of coleoptera.
The antennas are briftly; the elytra are dimidiated;
the wings are covered;'and the tail is forked. There
are two fpecies, viz,, the auricularia, or common ear¬
wig, with the tops of the elytra white; and the mi¬
nor, with teftaceous and unfpotted elytra.—This ge¬
nus of infedts is one of the beft known, the forceps
at the extremity of their abdomen forming a very
diftindtive charadter. It is this feemipg weapon that
has occafioned thofe infedts to be called furfcula in
Latin; and the formidable name of ear-wigs has been
given them in Englifh, from a notion that the infedl fre¬
quently introduces itfelf into the ears, caufinggreat pain,,
and even death. Mr Barbut, however, affures us, that
the forceps which the ear-wig carries at his tail, and
with which he feems provided for his defence, is not
fo formidable .as it at firft appears, being deftitute of
ftrength fufficient to produce the leaft fenfible impref-
fion. The larva of the ear-wig differs very little from
the perfect iafedt.
Ear-
FOR
Ear-wigs are very mifchxevous vermin in gardens,
efpecially where carnations are preferved ; for they
are fo fond of thefe flowers, that if care is not taken
to prevent them, they will entirely dellroy them, by
eating oft' the fweet part at the bottom of the petals
or leaves. To prevent which, moft people have (lands
erefted, which have a bafon of earth or lead round
each fupporter, which is conftantly kept filled with
water. Others hang the hollow claws of crabs and
lobfters upon flicks in divers parts of the garden in¬
to which thofe vermin get; and by often fearching
them, you will deftrpy them without much trouble,
which will be of great fervice to your wall-fruit, for
thefe are great deftroyers alfo of all foft fruits.
FORGE, properly fignifies a little furnace, where¬
in fmiths and other artificers of iron or fteel, See. heat
their metals red-hot, in order to foften them and ren¬
der them more malleable and manageable on the anvil.
An ordinary forge is nothing but a pair of bellows,
the nozzle of which is direfted upon a fmopth area,
on which coals are placed. The nozzle of a pair of
bellows may be alfo directed to the bottom of any fur¬
nace, to excite the combuftion of the coals placed
there, by which a kind of forge is formed. In labo¬
ratories, there is generally a fmall furnace confiding
of one cylindrical piece, open at top,,which has at its
lower fide a hole for receiving the nozzle of a double
bellows. This kind of forge-furnace is very conveni¬
ent for fufions, as the operation is quickly performed,
and with few coals. In its lower part, two inches
above the hole for receiving the nozzle of the bellows,
may be placed an iron-plate of the fame diameter, fup-
ported upon two horizontal bars, and pierced near its
circumference with four holes diametrically oppofite to
each other. By this difpofition, the wind of the bel¬
lows, pufhed forcibly under this plate, enters at thefe
four holes; and thus the heat of the fife is equally dif-
tributed, and the crucible in the furnace is equally fur-
rounded by it. This contrivance is ufed in the forge-
furnaces for melting copper, with this difference only,
that thefe furnaces are fquare, which is a matter of no
confequence.
As the wind of bellows ftrongly and rapidly excites
the a£lion of the fire, a forge is very convenient when
a great heat is to be applied quickly ; but it is not
fuitable when the heat is to be gradually increafed.
The forge, or blaft of bellows, is ufed in feveral ope¬
rations in fmall; as to fufe falts, metals* ores, See. It
is alfo much ufed in works in the great, which require
ftrongheat, without much management; and chiefly in
the fmelting of ores, and fufion of metallic matters.
Forge is alfo ufed for a large furnace, wherein iron-
ore, taken out of the mine, is melted dovfn : or it is
more properly applied to another kind of furnace,
wherein the iron-ore, melted down and feparated in a
former furnace, and then call into fows and pigs, is
heated and fufed over again, and beaten afterwards
with large hammers, and thus rendered more foft, pure,
dudlile, and fit for ufe.
Forge, in the train of artillery, is generally called
a travelling forge, and may not be improperly called a
portable fmith’s (hop: at <ihis fqrge all manner of
fmith’s work is made, and it can be ufed upon a march
as well as in camp. Formerly they were very ill con¬
trived, w:th 2 wheels only, and wooden fupporters to
N° 129.
FOR
prop the forge for working when in the park. Of late Forge
years they are made with 4 wheels, which aufwers their ^ H
purpofe much better. , °Tel)
Forge for red-hot Balls, is a place where the balls
are made red-hot before they are fired off: it is built
about, five or fix feet below the furface of the ground,
of flrong brick-work, and an iron grate, upon which
the balls are laid, with a very large fire under them.
FORGER, inlaw, onerruilty of forgery.
FORGERY (from thewrench forger, i. e. accudare,
fabricare, “ to beat on an anvil, forge, or form,”) may
be defined at common law, to be “ the fraudulent
making or alteration of a writing to the prejudice of
another man’s right:” fer whirh the offender may
fuffer fine, imprifonment, and pillory. And alfo, by
a variety of ilatutes, a more fevere puniihment is in-
flifted on the offender in many particular cafes, which
are fo multiplied of late as ahnoft to become general.
We fhall mention the principal inftances.
By ftatute 5 Eliz. c. 14. to forge or make, or know¬
ingly to publiih or give in evidence, any forged deed,
court-roll, or will, with intent to affedl the right of real
property, either freehold or copyhold, is puniftied by
a forfeiture to the party grieved of double cofts and
damages ; by Handing in the pillory, and having both
.his ears cut off, and his noftrils flit, and feared ; by
forfeiture to the crown of the profits of his lands, and
by perpetual imprifonment. For any forgery relating
to a term of years or annuity, bond, obligation, ac¬
quittance, releafe, or difeharge of any debt or demand
of any perfonal chattels, the fame forfeiture is gived to
theqxarty grieved; and on the offender is inflidfed the
pillory, lofs of one of his ears, and half a year’s im¬
prifonment: the fecond offence, in both cafes, being
felony without benefit of clergy.
Befides this general aft, a multitude of others, fince
the revolution (when paper-credit was firft eftabliftred),
have inflifted capital puniihment on the forging, al¬
tering, or uttering as true when forged, of any bank
bills or notes, or other fecurities; of bills of credit
iffued from the exchequer; of fouth-fea bonds, &c.;
of lottery tickets or orders; of army or navy deben¬
tures 5 of Eaft India bonds ; of writings under feal of
the London or royal-exchange affurance ; of the hand
of the receiver of the pre-fines, or of the accountant-
general and certain other officers of the court of chan¬
cery; of a letter of attorney or other power to receive
or transfer ftock or annuities ; and on the perfonating
a proprietor thereof, to receive or transfer fuch annui¬
ties, ftock, or dividends : alfo on the perfonating, or
procuring to be perfonated, any feaman or other per-
fon, intitled to wages or other naval ermaluments, or
any of his perfonal reprefentatives; and the taking, or
procuring rPHie^taken, any falfe oath in order to ob¬
tain a probate or letters of adminiftration, in order to ’
receive fuch payments; and the forging, or procuring
to be forged, and likewife the uttering or publilhing,
as true, of any counterfeited feaman’s will or power:
to which may be added, though not ftriftly reducible
to this head, the counterfeiting of Mediterranean paf-
fes, under the hands of the lords of the admiralty, to
proteft one from the piratical Hates of Barbary ; the
forging or imitating of any ftamps to defraud the
public revenue : and the forging of any marriage re-
gifter or licence: all which are, by diftinft afts of par¬
liament.
[ 344 1
FOR [ 34J ] FOR
Forging, llamcnt, made felonies without benefit of clergy. By FORISFAMILIATION, in law. When a child,
_—v—- ilatutes 13 Geo. III. c. 52. & 59. forging or counter- upon receiving a portion from his father, or otherwife,
feiting any ftamp or mark to denote the ftandard of renounces his legal title to any further (hare of his fa-
gold and filver plate, and certain other offences of the ther’s fucceffion, he is faid to be forisfamiliated.
like tendency, are punifhed with tranfportation for 14 FORK, a well-known inftrument, confiding of a
years. By llatute 12 Geo. III. c. 48. certain frauds handle and blade, divided at the end into two or more
on the ftamp-duties, therein defcribed, principally by points or prongs.
ufing the fame damps more than once, are made Angle The pitch-fork is a large utenfil of this conftru&ion,
felony, and liable to tranfp® :ation for feven-years, employed in hay-making, &c.
And the fame punifhment nflidfed by datute 13 'The table-fork, an indrument now fo indifpenfable,
Geo.TII. c. 38. on fuch as counterfeit the common did not come into ufe in England till the reign of
feal of the corporation for manufacturing plate-glafs Jamesl. as we learn from a remarkablepaffageinCoryat.
(thereby ereCted), or knowingly demand money of the The reader will probably fmile at the folemn manner
company by virtue of any writing under fuch counter- in which this important difcovery or innovation is re-
feit feal. lated : “ Here I will mention a thing that might have
There are alfo two other general laws, with regard been fpoken of before in difcourfe of the fird Italian
to forgery ; the one 2 Geo. II. c. 25. whereby the fird towns. I obferved a cudom in all thofe Italian cities
offence in forging or procuring to be forged, ading or and townes through the which I paffed, that is not
affiding therein, or uttering or publifhing as true, any ufed in any other country that I faw in my travels,
forged deed, will, bond, writing obligatory, bill of ex- neither do I thinke that any other nation of Chriden-
change, promiffory note, indorfement or aflignment dome doth ufe it, but only Italy. The Italian and al-
thereof, or any acquittance or receipt for money or fo mod drangers that are commonant in Italy, doe al-
goods, with intention to defraud any perfon (or cor- ways at their meals ufe a little forke when they eat
poration), is made felony without benefit of clergy, their meate ; for while with their knife which they
And by ftatute 7 Geo. II. c. 22. it is equally penal to hold in one hand they cut the meate out of the difh,
forge, or caufe to be forged, or utter as true, a conn- i^ey fallen the fork which they hold in the other
terfeit acceptance of a bill of exchange, or the number hand upon the fame difh, fo that whatfoever he be
of any accountable receipt for any note, bill, or any that fitting in the company of any others at meale
other fecurity for money, or any warrant or order for fhould unadvifedly touch the difh of meat with his fin-
the payment of money, or delivery of goods. So that, gers from which all the table doe cut, he will give oc-
through the number of thefe general and fpecial pro- cafion of offence unto the company as having tranf-
vifions, there is now hardly a Cafe poffible to be con- greffed the lawes of good manners, in fo much that
ceived, wherein forgery, that tends to defraud, whether - for his error he fhall be at lead brow-beaten if not re¬
in the name of a real or fi&itious perfon, is not made a prehended in wordes. This form of feeding I under¬
capital crime. Hand is generally ufed in all parts of Italy, their forkes
Forging, in law, the aft of Forgery. for the mod part being made of yronn, deele, and
Forging, in fmithery, the beating, or hammering fome of filver, but thofe arejufed only by gentlemen. .
iron on the anvil, after having fird made it red-hot in The reafon of this their curiofity is, becaufe the Ita-
the forge, in order to extend it into various forms, and han cannot by any means indure to have his difh touch-
fafiiion it into works. See Forge. ed with fingers, feeing all mens fingers are not alike
There are two ways of forging and hammering iron, cleane. Hereupon I myfelf-'thought good to imitate
One '.i by the force of the hand, ip which there are the Italian fafhion by this forked cutting of meate,
ufually feveral perfons employed, one of them turning not only while I was in Italy, but alfo in Germany,
the iron and -hammering likewise, and the red only and often times in England fince I came home: be-
hammering. The other wvy is by the force of a wa- ing once quipped for that frequently ufing my forke,
ter-mill, which raifes .and works feveral huge hammers by-a certain learned gentleman a .familiar friend of
beyond the force of man ; under the drokes whereof mine, Mr Lawrence Whitaker ; who in his merry hii-
the workmen prefen. large lumps or pieces of iron, mobr doubted not to call me a table Furcifer, only for
which are fuilained at one end by the anvils,, and at ufing a forke at feeding, but for no other caufe.”
the other by iron-chains fadened to the cieling of the FORLI, an ancient and confiderable town of Italy,
forge. See Mill. and capital of a territory of the fame name, in Ro-
This lad way of forging is only ufed in the larged magna, with a bidiop’s fee. The public drufturesare
works, as anchors for drips, &c. which ufually weigh very handfome ; and it is feated in a fertile, healthy, and
feveral thoufand pounds. For the lighter Works, a pleafant country, 10 miles fouth-ead of Faenza, and 45
fingle man ferves to hold, heat, and turn with one hand, north-ead of Florence. E. Long. 12. i.N. Lat. 44.
while he hammers with the other. 28.
Each purpofe the work is defigned for requires its FORLORN-hope, in the military art, fignifies men
proper heat; for if it be too cold, it will not feel the detached from feveral regiments, or otherwife appoint-
weight of the hammer, as the fmiths call it when it ed, to make the fird attack in day of battle; or, at a
will not t atter under the hammer ; and if it be too hot, fiege, to dorm the counterfcarp, mount the breach, or
it will read-fear, that is, break or crack under the ham- the like. They are fo called from the great danger
mer. they are unavoidably expofed to ; but the word is old,
The feveral degrees of heat the fmiths give their and begins to be obfolete.
itons, are, fird, a blood-red heat; fecondly, a white* FORM, in phyfics, denotes the manner of being pe-
flame-heat; and, thirdly, a fparkling or welding heat. culiar to each body ; or that which conditutes it fuch
Vol. VII. Part I. X x a
FOR t 346 1 FOR
a particukr body, and diftinguifhes it from every other, were concluded equally fubftantial. But to this it is Form..
Mr Harris ufes the term form likewife in another anfwered, that though the foul be that by which a  v-—’J
fenfe, as an efficient animating principle; to which he man is man, and confequently is the form of the hu-
fuppofes Ovid to refer in the firft lines of hisMetamor- man body, as human ; yet it does not follow, that it
phofis, is properly the form of this body of ours, as it is a
In nova fert animus mutatas dkere formas body ; nor of the feveral parts thereof, conlidered as
Corpora  diftinft from each other: For thofe feveral parts have
Thefe animating forms are of themfelves no objefts ei- their proper forms fo clofely connetted with their mat-
ther of the ear or of the eye; but their nature or ter, that it remains infeparable therefrom long after
character is underftood in this, that were they never to the foul has quitted the body : thus, flefh has the form
exert their proper energies on their proper fubje&s, of flefh, bone of bone, &c. long after the foul is re-
the marble on which the fculptor exercifes his art moved as well as before. The truth is, the body does
would remain for ever fhapelefs, and the harp from not become incapable of performing its accuifomed
which the harper calls forth founds would remain for fun&ions becaufe the foul has deferted it ; but the
ever filent. foul takes its leave, becaufe the body is not in a condi-
Thus, alfo, the animating form of a natural body tion to perform its fun&ions.
is neither its organization nor its figure, nor any other The ancient and modern corpufcular philofophers,
of thofe inferior forms which make up the fyftem of therefore, with the Cartefians, exclude the notion 'of
its vifible qualities ; but it is the power, which is yet fubftantial forms ; and ffiow, by many arguments, that
able to produce, preferve, and employ thefe. It is the the form is only the modus or manner of the body it is
power, which firft moves, and then conducts that la- inherent in. And as there are only three primary
tent procefs, by which the acorn becomes an oak, and modes of matter, viz, figure, reft, or motion, with
the embryo becomes a man ; by which digeftion is two others arifing therefrom, viz. magnitude and fi-
performed in plants and animals, and, which depart- tuation, the form of all bodies they hold to confill
ing, the body ceafes to live, and its members putrefy ; therein ; and fuppofe the variations thefe modes are
and by which every being produces another like itfelf, capable of, fufficient to prefent all the variety obfer-
and every fpecies is continued. In animals, it is that vable in. bodies.
higher faculty, which, by employing the organs of Forms are ufually diftinguifhed into ejfentml and ac-
fenfe, peculiar to them as animals, diftinguilhes them cidental.
as fenfitive beings from vegetables; and it is alfo that EJfential. Though the five modes above mentioned,
more noble faculty, which by its own divine vigour, generally taken, be adventitious; yet to this or that
unaffifted perhaps with organs, makes and denominates body, e. gr. to fire or water, they are efiential: thus,
him a being intelle&ive and rational. So that Mr it is accidental to iron, to have this or that magnitude,
Harris reckons two forts of forms, thofe which are figure, or fituation, fince it might exift in different
paffive elements, and thofe which are efficient caufes. ones; yet to a knife or hammer, the figure, magni-
And all of them agree in this, that they give to every tude, and pofition of parts, which conftitute it a ham¬
being its peculiar and diftinflive charadter: and on the mer or knife, are effential; and they cannot exift or
whole he concludes, that form appears in part to be an be conceived without them. Hence it is inferred,
element, and in part an efficient caufe, i. e. a caufe that though there be no fubftantial, there are effen-
which aflbciates the conllituent elements of natural tial, forms, whereby the feveral fpecies of bodies be-
iubftance, and which employs them, when affociated, come what they are, and are diftinguifhed from all
according to their various and peculiar charafters. others.
The philofophers generally allow two principles of Accidental forms, are thofe really inherent in bodies,,
bodies : matter, as the common bafis or fubftratum qf but in fuch manner as that the body may exift in' all
all; and form, as that which fpecifies and diftinguifhes its perfe&ion without them. Such is whitenefs in a
■ each ; and which, added to a quantity of common wall, heat in water, a figure of a man in wax, &c.
matter, .determines or denominates it this or that ; Form is alfo ufed, in a moral fenfe, for the manner
wood, or fire, or allies, &c. of being or doing a thing according to rules : thus we
Subftantial forms feem to have been firft broached by fay, a form of government, a form of argument, &c.
;he followers of Ariftotle, who thought matter, under Form, in law, the rules eftablifhed and requifite to
different modes or modifications, not fufficient to con- be obferved in legal proceedings.—-.The formal part of
ilitute different bodies ; but that fomething fubftantial the law, or method of proceeding, cannot be altered
was neceffary to fet them at a greater diftance : and but by parliament; for if once thefe outworks were
thus introduced fubftantial forms, on the footing of demolifhed, there would be an inlet to all manner of
fouls, which fpecify and diftinguiffi animals. What innovation in the body of the law itfelf.
led to this erroneous notion was the circumftances of Form, in carpentery, is ufed to denote' the long
life and death : For dbferving, that, as foon as the feats or benches in the choirs of churches or in fehools,
foul was departed out of a man, all motion, refpira- for the priefts, prebends, religious, or fcholars, to fit
tion, nutrition, &c. immediately ceafed, they conclu- on. Du-Cange takes the name to be derived from
ded, that all thefe functions depended on the foul, hence, that the backs of the feats were anciently en-
and confequently that the foul was the form of the a- riched with figures of painting and fculpture, called in
nunal body, or that which conftituted it fuch: [that Latin forma et typi. In the life of St William of Rof-
the foul was a fubftance, independent of matter, no child, we meet wdth forma as fignifying a feat for an
body doubted ; and hence the forms of other bodies ecclefiaftic, or religious, in a choir ; and in that of ■St
Lupi-
FOR [ 347 ] FOR
Form Lupicin, we have formula in the fame fenfe. In
If the rule of the mouaftery of St Caefarea, the nun who
Forman. preflc]es over choir is called prhnlceria, vel formari.
"""" '>-^m At fchools, the worth form is frequently applied to
what is otherwife termed a clafs. See Class.
Form alfo denotes the external appearance or fur-
face of a body, or the difpofition of its parts, as to the
length, breadth, and thicknefs,
F®rm is alfo ufed among mechanics, for a fort of
mould whereon any thing is faihioned or wrought.
Printer’s Form, an affemblage of letters, words, and
lines, ranged in order, and fo difpofed into pages by
the compofitor ; front which, by means of ink and a
prefs, the printed fheets are drawn.
Every form is inclofed in an iron-chafe, wherein it
is fintily locked by a number of pieces of wood j fome
long and narrow, and others of the form of wedges.
There are two forms required for every fheet, one for
each fide ; and each form confifts of more or fewer pa¬
ges according to the fize of the book.
Hatter’s Form, is a large block or piece of wood, of
a cylindrical figure ; the top thereof rounded, and the
bottom quite flat. Its ufe is, to mould or faihion the
crown of the hat, after the matter thereof has been
beaten and fulled.
Paper-maker’s Form, is the frame or mould wherein
the flreets are fafhioned. See Paper.
FORMA pauperis, in law, is when a perfon has
juft caufe of fuit, but is fo poor that he cannot de¬
fray the ufual charges of fuing at law or in equity ; in
which cafe, on making oath that he is not worth L.y
in the world, on all his debts being paid, and produ¬
cing a certificate from fome lawyer that he has good
caufe of fuit, the judge will admit him to fue in forma
pauperis ; that is, without paying any fee to counfel-
lors, attorneys, or clerk : the ftatute i I Hen. VII.
c. 12. having enafted, that counfel and attorneys, &c.
lhall be affigned to fuch poor perfons gratis. Where
it appears that any pauper has fold or contra&ed for
the benefit of his fuit whilft it is depending in court,
fuch caufe flrall be thenceforth totally difmifled ; and a
perfon fuing in forma pauperis, fhall not have a new
trial granted him, but is to acquiefce in the judgment
of the court.
FORMAL, fomething belonging to or conftituting
the form of a thing. See Form.
FORMALITY, the quality of a form, or for¬
mula ; or that which cdnftitutes and denominates them
fuch.
Formality, as defined in the fchools, is any man¬
ner wherein a thing is conceived; or a manner in any
objeft, importing a relation to the underftanding,
whereby it may be diftinguiftied from another objett.
Thus, animality and rationality are formalities. The
Scottifts make great ufe of formalities, in oppofition
to the virtualities of the Thomifts.
Formalities, in matters of law, are frequently
ufed for the formulas themfelves, or the rules pre-
fcribed for judiciary proceedings. In contrafts of ftrift
law, all the formalities muft be ftridtly obferved : an
omiflion of the leaft formality .may ruin the whole
convention.
The term is alfo ufed for a certain order, or deco¬
rum to be obferved.
FORMAN (Andrew), archbilhop of St Andrew’s,
earl of Pittenweem, and of Cottingham in England, Forman,
one of the lords of the regency appointed by the ftates '—4' J
during the minority of king James V. of Scotland,
legate a-lktere, primate of all the kingdom of Scot¬
land, and archbiihop of Bourges in France, was de-
fcended from the family of the Formans of Hutton in
the Ihire of Berwick, and is confidered to have been
one of the bell ftatefmen of the age in which he lived;
He was employed in 1501, along with Robert Blackader
archbilhop ofGlafgowand Patrick'earl of Bothwell, to
negociat.e a match between Ja. IV. of Scotland and Mar¬
garet eldeft daughter of Hen. VII. of England ; which
next year was ratified by the Scottifh ambaffadors. He
was afterwards frequently employed as Scots ambafla-
dor to Rome, England, and France, upon the moft
important occafions. In 1514 he wastranflated from
the fee of Moray, to which he had been appointed in
1502, to that of St Andrew’s. During the time of
his pofiefling the former, he was employed as mediator
betwixtPope Julius II. and Louis XII. of France, who
were at that time at variance ; and he happily fucceed-
ed in conciliating the difference. Having taken leave
of the Pope, he paffed through France on his return
home, where he was kindly received by the king and
queen, who beftowed upon him the biihopric of Bour¬
ges in France, which annually brought him in 4001
tons of wine, 10,000 franks of gold, and other fmaller
articles. Befides all this, he was moft liberally rewarded
by Pope Julius; who promoted him to the archbifhopric
of St Andrew’s, as has been already mentioned; con-5
ferred on him the two rich abbeys of Dunfermline and
Aberbrothic ; and made him his legate a-latere. At
that time, however, there were two other candidates
for the archiepifcopal fee. The learned Gavin Dou¬
glas bifhop of Dunkeld having been nominated by:
the queen, had a&ually taken poffeffion of it; but
John Hepburn, a bold and factious man, having
been preferred by the monks, drove out the offi¬
cers of Gavin Douglas, and placed a ftrong garri-
fon in the caftle. So great was the power of this man,
that when Forman was nominated by the Pope, no
perfon could be found who durft proclaim the
bulls for his ele&ion. At laft lord Home, at that time-
the moft powerful nobleman in Scotland, was induced,
by large promifes, befides fome gifts of great confe-
quence, among which was the donation of the abbacy
of Coldingham to his youngeft brother David, to un¬
dertake the talk. It was executed at Edinburgh and
St Andrew’s; to which places lord Home’s brother went
with 10,000 men ; though the doing of it, contrary
to Forman’s inclination, proved a fource of much
trouble to that nobleman afterwards. The quarrel be¬
twixt Hepburn and Forman, however, was at laft ter¬
minated by the latter furrendering the bifhopric of
Moray, as well as fome years revenue of the archbi-
ffiopric itfelf; paying Hepburn alfo 3000 French
crowns annually out of his ecclefiaftical revenues. On
the appointment of the duke of Albany to the regen¬
cy, Hepburn endeavoured to undermine the primate’s
credit with that nobleman, by reprefenting him as one
who had in a manner collefted all the money in the
country, and who confequently might endanger the
tranquillity of the kingdom. Thefe infinuations, how¬
ever, weje but little regarded by the regent 5 and For¬
man had the good fortune afterwards to make up a;
X x 2 diffe-
FOR [ 348 1 FOR
Forrnation difference between him and the nobility, which was
I! _ likely to be attended with much bloodfhed. In 15:17
. Folmire' the archbifhop was appointed by the ftates one of the
^ v lords of the regency, on occafion of the duke of Al¬
bany’s going to France. We have already mentioned
his embaffy to Pope Julius II. In M‘Kenzie’s lives
we are informed that in the colledtion of the Letters
of the Scottifh Kings from the year 1505 till the-year
1626, in the lawyers library, there is a letter from that
pope to king James IV. wherein he not only highly
commends Forman, but likewife promifes that at the
firft creation of cardinals he fhould be made one. This
letter is dated the 6th of May 1511 : but the pope
died before he had an opportunity of performing his
promife. In the fame colledtion there is a letter from
the duke of Albany to Leo X. Julius’s fucceffor, where¬
in he preffesthe pope to advance him to the dignity of
a cardinal promifed him by his predeceffor, and to con¬
tinue him his legate a-latere. Archbifhop Forman died
in 1521, and was buried at Dunfermline. Dempijer
fays that he wrote a book again(l Luther, a book
concerning the Stoic Philofophy, and a Colledtion out
of the Decretals.
FORMATION, in philofophy, an- adt whereby
fomething is formed or produced.—For the formation
of the foetus in the womb, fee Anatomy, n° 109,
110.
Formation of Stones. See Stone.
Formation of Meta/s and Minerals. See Metal
and Mineral.
Formation, in grammar, fignifies the manner of
forming one word from another : thus accountantfhip is
formed from accountant, and this laft from account.
FORMEDON, in law, (breve de forma donathn'is),
a writ that lies for a perfon who has a right to lands or
tenements^ by virtue of any entail, arifmg from the fta-
tute of Weflm. 2 Ch. II.
This writ is of three kinds, viz. a defcender, remain¬
der, and reverter. Formedon in lies where a
tenant in tail in feoffs a dranger, or is diffeifed and dies,
and the heir tmay bring this writ to recover the lands.
Formedon in remainder, lies where a man gives lands,
&c. to a. perfon in tail, and, for default of iffue of
his body, the remainder to another in tail: here if the
tenant ip tail die vvithout iffue, and a ftranger abates
and enters into the land, he in remainder fhall have
this writ. Formedon in reverter, lies where lands are
entailed on certain perfons and their iffue, with re¬
mainder over for want of iffue ; and, on that re¬
mainder failing, then to revert to the donor and his
heirs: in this cafe, if the tenant in tail dies without
iffue, and alfo he in remainder, the donor and his heirs,
to whom the reverlton returns, may have this writ for
the recovery of the eftate, though the fame be aliena¬
ted, &c.
FORMLE, or Formia, (anc. geog.), a maritime
town of the Adjefted or New Latium, to the fouth-
eafl of Cajeta; built by the Lacedaemonians, (Strabo;)
called originally Hormia, on account of its commo¬
dious harbour. An ancient municipium. Formlani,
the people ; who were admitted to the liberty of the
city the very year in which Alexandria was built; but
not to the right of fuffrage till a long time after the
fecond Punic war, (Livy) . Formia: at this day lies in
ruins, near a place now called Mola.
FORMICA, or the Ant, iirzoology ; a genus of Formicail I
infeas belonging to the order of hymetioptera, the  v—-I
charaaers of which are thefe: There is a fmall fcale piate
betwixt the breaft and belly ; and the joint is fo deep, CKCVI. ,
that the animal appears as if it were almofl cut thro’
the body. The females, and the neuters or work¬
ing ants which have no fexual charaaeriflics, are fur-
nifhed with a hidden fling ; and both the males and
females have wings, but the- neuters have none. There
are 18 fpecies, mod. of them diflinguifhed by their co¬
lours.
Thefe infeas keep together in companies like the
bees, and maintain a fort of republic. Their neft is
not exaaiy fquare, but longer one way than the other;
and in it there are a forf of paths, which lead to dif¬
ferent magazines. Some of the ants are employed in .]
making the ground firm, by mixing it with a fort of
glue, for fear it fhould crumble and fall down upon
them. They may be fometimes feen to gather feve-
ral twigs, which ferve them for rafters, which they
place over the paths, to fupport the covering ; they
lay others acrofs them, and upon them rufties, weeds,
and dried grafs, which they heap up into a double de¬
clivity, which ferves to turn off the water from their
magazines. Some of thefe ferve to lay up their pro-
vifions in, and in others they lay their eggs.
As for the provifions, they lay up every thing that is
fit for them to eat; and you may often fee one loaded
with pippin or grain of fruit, another with a dead fly,
and feveral together with the carcafe of a may-bug or
other infeft. If they meet with any they cannot bring
away, they eat it upon the fpot, or at lead fo much of
it as may reduce it to a bulk fmall enough for them
to carry. They do not run about where they pleafe,
at all adventures : for fame of them are fent abroad to
make difcoveries; and if they bring back news that they
have met with a pear, or a fugar-loaf, ora pot of fweet-
meats, they will run from the bottom of the garden, as
high as the third dory of a houfe, to come at it. They
all follow each other in the fame path, without wan- ~
dering to the right or the left; but in the fields they
are more at their liberty, and are allowed to run about
in fearch of game. There is a fort of green fly *, that ’ The A.
does a great deal of mifchief among the flowers, and/4",
which curls up the leaves of peach and pear trees: and
thefe are furrounded with a fort of glue, or honey,
which the ants hunt after very greedily ; for they touch
neither the plant nor the flies themfelves. Next to
this, their greated paffion is to lay up hoards of wheat
and other corn ; and for fear the corn fliould fprout by
the moidure of the fubterraneous cells, they gnaw off
the end which would produce the blade. The ants
are often feen pulhing along grains of wheat or barley
much larger than thamfelves. It is remarkable, that
if one ant meets another that is loaded, it always gives
way to let it pafs freely ; or will help it if it be over¬
burdened.
The ant lays eggs in the manner of the common
flies; and from'thefe eggs are hatched the larvae, a fort
of fmall maggots or worms without legs : thefe are
fliarp at one end and blunt at the other; and are white,,
but fo tranfparent that the intedines are feen through '
the Ikin. Thefe, after a ihorttime, change into large
white aureliae or chryfalids, which are what are ufually
called ants eggs. That end which is to be the tail is
Plate CXCVT.
W/t/.
"N? i.
"rr/n/sw ^Zr{?
S'/'j////rrrs(r
FOR [ 349 ] . E 0 R
Formica, the largeft, and that which is the head is fomewhat fervient to the deftrudtion of caterpillars. This is done Fo
■—Y—tranfparent. The ants move thefe about at pleafure by hanging a pouch filled with ants upon a tree; and
with their forceps. It is well known, that when a they, making their efcape through an aperture con¬
ned of thefe creatures is difturbed, and the aurelise feat- trived on purpofe, run over the tree without being able
tered about, the ants are at infinite pains to get toge- to reach down to the ground, becaufe care has been
ther all that are unhurt, and make a neft for them previoufiy taken to befmear the foot of the tree with
again : nay, any ants will do this, and thofe of one neft wet clay or foft pitch -r in confequence of which, corn-
will often take care of the aureliae«of another. pelled by hunger, they fall upon the caterpillars and
The care thefe creatures take of their offspring is devour theih. People pretend to fay, that ants, taken
remarkable. Whenever a hill is difturbed, all. the ants inwardly, give a fpring to the urinary duffs and to the
are found bufied in confulting the fafety, not of them- organs of generation. The red colour which they com-
felves, but of the eggs or thofe larger bodies inclofing municate to blue paper, wheiv crufhed upon it, proves
the maggot or young ant; they carry thefe down any that they contain an acid (fee Chemistry, n° 2d 907.)
way fo as to get them out of fight, and will do this The large, black, winged ants.of America, to avoid
over and over as often as they are difturbed. They the great rains which fall there at particular feafons,
carry away the eggs and vermicles together in their con- make to themfelves large nefts on trees, with a covered
fufion ; but, as foon as the danger is over, they carefully way for them to go up and down on the lee-fide of the
feparate them, and place each fort in parcels by them- tree. Thefe nefts are roundilh on the outfide, made
felves under fhelter of different kinds, and at various of light brown earth, plaftered fmooth. They are
depths, according to the different degrees of warmth larger than a bulhel; and in the infide are many.finuous
and coverture the different ftates require. In the warm caverns or lodgings communicating with one another,
feafon of the year, they every morning bring up th,e See Plate CXCVI. A, The ants neft ; B, The tu-
eggs, as they are ufually called, to the furface, or near- bular paffage, made of the fame materials,
ly fo ; and from ten in the forenoon to five in the af- As to thofe infefts called white ants, which abound
ternoqn or thereabouts, all thefe will be found juft un- in Africa and the Eaft Indies, they belong to a dif-
der the furface : and if the hills be examined toward ferent genus; for which fee the article Termes.
eight in the evening, they will be found to have car- . FormicA-Leo, the Ant-lion, in zoology, an infeft
ried them all down ; and if rainy weather be coming fo called from its devouring great numbers of ants. It
on, it will be neceffary to dig a foot deep or more, in is the caterpillar or worm of a fly much refembling the
order to find them. All human precautions have not libelke or dragon-flies; and feeds chiefly upon ants,,
hitherto been able to fupply that degree of warmth from which property it derives its name,
and minute attention which the ants put in prattice to It is fomewhat of the nature of the fpider in its way
forward the inftant of their laft metamorphofis. The of taking its prey, its manner of fpinning, and the fi-
-infedl, iffuing forth to a new life, tears its white tranf- gure and foftnefs of its body. It has, in its general
parent veil; it is then a real ant, deftitute of wings, if figure, fomewhat of the appearance of the millepes or
it has no fex ; winged, if it be male or female, always wopddoufe, fo that fome have miftaken it at firft fight
to be known by a fmall ere.df fcale placed on the thiead for that animal. It is of a dirty greyifli colour, marked
which connedls the body and thorax. Antstrr 'r"£i with fome black fpots; and thefe are alfo compofed of
their amours in the air. The males, who are much many points when viewed with a microfcope, which
fmaller, feldom frequent the common habitation : but make it refemble a hedge-hog or porcupine. Its body
the females much larger, repair to it to depofit their is compofed of feveral rings, and has thence a wrinkled
eggs, which is all the labour they undergo; the win- look. It has fix legs, four are joined to the breaft,
ter’s cold deftroys them. As to the males, it is uncer- and the other two to a longer part, which may be
tain whether they fall vi&ims to the feverity of winter, taken for its neck. Its head is fmall and flat, and it
or are made over to the rage of the labouring ants, has two remarkable horns: thefe. are about a fixth
Thefe laft pafs the winter in a torpid ftate, as fome part of an inch long, and as thick as a hair : they are
other infe&s do, till fpring reftores them to their wont- hard, hollow, and hooked at the end like the claws of
ed aftivity : they have therefore no ftores for winter, a cat. At the origin of each of thefe horns, it has a
no confumption of provifions. What are commonly dear and bright, black-eye, which fees very diftindly,
fold in markets for ant’s eggs are grubs newly hatched, and gives the creature notice to efcape on fight of the
of which phe%fants, nightingales, and partridges, are fmalleft objed.—This creature is-not able to hunt after
very fond. The chief enemies to ants are the formica- its prey, nor to deftroy large infe&sit can only draw
leo, magpies, and fome other birds and beafts. into its fnares fuch as come, near its habitation, and off
In the hotter countries, as Italy, Spain, and the thefe very few are fuch as he can manage : all the
Weft Indies, ants are the greateft peft of the fields, winged kind are able to efcape by flight; and the beetle
Trees, which they are faid to injure greatly, may be kinds, and others that have hard fliells upon their bo-
preferved from them by encompaffing the ftem, for four dies, are of no ufe to him, as his horns cannot pierce
fingers breadth, with a roll of wool, newly pulled from them. The fmallnefs of the ant, and the want of wings-
the Iheep’s belly; or by laying faw-duft all round the in the neuters, make them the deftined prey of this de-
ftump of it. Some, anoint the tree with tar, which vourer. The manner in which he catches his prey is as
has .the fame effeft. But whatever harm they may do follows.
in pailure-lands, by making up hills for their habita- He ufually encamps under an old wall, that he may
ticn and impairing or drying up the grafs, their da- be flreltered from the injuries of the weather; and he
mag>ng fruit-trees appears to be an unjuft reproach, always choofes a place where the foil is compofed of a
Un the contrary, in Switzerland they are made fub- fine dry fand In this he makes a pit of the fhape of
F O R
a funnel, or an inverted hollow cone,
the pit to be but fmall, he thrufts down his hinder part
into the fand, and by degrees plunges himfelf back¬
ward into it; and when he has got to a certain depth,
he toffes out the loofe fand which has run down with
[ 35° ] F O Pv
If he intends mouth or trunk, or any other organ to be difcovered Formica,
about its head, which could ferve to the purpofe of eat-
ing; the head feeming only intended for throwing a-
way the fand in forming the pit. The horns of this
animal being fo neceffary to its life, nature has provi-
his head, artfully throwing it off beyond the edges of ded for the reftoring them in cafe of accidents; and,
his pit. Thus he lies at the bottom of a fmall hollow,
which is wideft at the top, and comes (loping down to
his body.
But if he is to make a larger pit, more pains are re¬
quired to bring it k> perfection. He firft traces, in
the furface of the fand, a large circle, which is the e-
reCted bafe or mouth of the :)it he is to make in form
of an inverted cone. He tnen buries himfelf in the
if cut off, they are found to grow again.
The food this creature procures by its pit can be but
little ; and as it has no power of catching its prey any
other way, its motion being only backwards, and that
flowly, and by fmall fpaces at a time, fome people have
believed its catching now and then an ant by this
means was rather for diverfion than hunger. But tho'
the formica-leo will live a long time without food, and
fand near the edge of this circle, and carefully throws even pafs through all its changes when (hut up in a
up the fand above him, with his head tofiing it out be¬
yond the circumference of the circle. Thus he conti¬
nues his Work, running down backwards in afpiral line
all the way, and carefully throwing off the fand from
above him, till he is come to the place of his reft,
.which is the'point or reverted apex of the hollow cone
he has. formed by his paffage. The length of his neck,
and the flatnefs of his head, gives him a power of ufing
-the whole as a fpade, and throwing off the fand with
•great eafe ; and his ftrength in this part is fo great,
that he is able to throw off a quantity of it to fix
inches diftance. This is a power he exerts oftener,
however, in throwing away the remains of the animals
he has fed upon, that his den may not become fright-
.ful to others of the fame fpecies, by feeing their fellow
carcafes about it.
When he has finiftred his pit, he buries himfelf at the
bottom of it among the faitd, leaving no part above
■ground but the tips of his two horns, which he expands
to the two fides of the pit. In this condition he lies
and waits for his prey, and never comes up afterwards.
When an ant, or any other fuch creature, chances to
box, jet it is always ready to eat when food is offered
it; it always appears ftarved and fmall w’hen kept thus;
and if a fly is given it in this hungry date, it will fo
fucktiut all its juices, that the (hell remaining may be
rubbed to powder between the fingers, while the body
of the creature that has fucked it appears remarkably
fwelled and diftended ; fo that it is plain that the juices
of the prey are conveyed into the body of the creature;
though it is not eafy to fee by what means, the horns
not appearing to have any perforation.
When the formica-leo has lived a proper time in this
date, it leaves its pit, and is only feen drawing line*
and traces on the furface of the fand. After this it bu¬
ries itfelf under the furface ; and there inclofes itfelf in
a fine web, in which it is to pafs its transformation in¬
to the winged ftate. This cafe is made of a fort of
filk which the creature fpins in the manner of the fpi-
der, and of a quantity of the grains of fand cemented
together by a glutinous humour which flows from its
pores. This cafe, however, would be too harfh and
coarfe for the body of the creatdre, and therefore it
ferves only for the outer covering to defend it from in¬
walk over the edges of his pit, its fteps throw down a juries; the creature fpinning one of pure and incom-
little of the fand, which naturally running down to
the bottom of the pit, gives the enemy notice of his
prey ; he then toffes up the fand which covers his head,
to bury the ant, and bring him down with its return¬
ing force to the bottom ; and as one fuch attempt can¬
not be fufficient to prevent the ant’s efcape, he throws
more and more fand upon him, till he by degrees brings
him down. All the endeavours of the ant to efcape,
when once it is within the verge of the pit, are in vain ;
for, as it attempts to climb, the fand runs away from
under its feet, and it finks the lower for every attempt.
This motion of the fand alfo informs the enemy where
it is, and dire&s him to throw up more fand in the right
place ; which it does, till the poor ant falls to the bot¬
tom between its horns. It then plunges the points
deep into the ant’s body; and having fucked all the
juice out of the prey, it throws out the empty (kin
parably fine filk, of a beautiful pearl colour, within it,
which covers its whole body.
When the creature has lain fome time in this cafe,
it throws off its outer (kin, with the eyes, the horns,
and every other part neceffary to its life before, and
becomes an oblong nymph, in which a careful eye may
trace1 the form of the fly into which it is to be tranf-
formed. There may be feen, through its tranfparent
covering, new eyes, new horns, wings, and all the.other
parts of the animal in its perfeft ftate. This nymph
makes its way about half out of the (hell, and remains
in this condition, but without farther life or motion,
till the perfedf fly makes its way out at a (lit in the
back. In this laft ftate it much refembles the libellas
or dragon-flies common about our waters. The male
couples with the female in this ftate only; and M. Pou-
part, to whom the world is obliged for this curious de¬
as far from the hole as :it can. This done, it mounts feription, is of opinion that the females lay only
up the edges of its pit, and if it has fuffered any
injury, repairs it with great care, and immediately
buries itfelf again in the centre, to wait for another
meal. The horns of this creature are its only organs
for receiving nouriftiment ; it never brings any animal
which it has feized near to its head, but always holds
it at the tip of the horns. They therefore plainly ferve
as fyringes, to draw into its ftomach the juices of the
bodies of the infe&s it feeds upon : neither is there any
egg; but this is very different from the courfe of na¬
ture in the other animals of the fame clafs.
When this infed forms its pit in a bed of pure fand,
it is made and repaired with great eafe; but where it
meets with other fubftances among the fand, the la¬
bour becomes greatly the more embarrafling. If, for
inftance, when the creature has half formed its pit, and
then comes to a ftone of fome moderate fize, it does
not defert the work for this, but goes on, intending to
i remove
FOR [ 351 ] FOR
Forming, remove that impediment at laft. When the pit is fi-
Formofa. the creature crawls backward up the Tide of the
'-—v—-' plaCe where the done is, and getting its backfide under
it, takes great pains and time to get it on a true poife,
and then begins to crawl backward with it up the edge
to the top of the pit, to get it out of the way. It is a
very common thing to fee a formica-leo in this manner
labouring at a done four times as big as its own body;
and as it can only move backward, and the poife is
hard to keep, efpecially up a dope of fuch crumbly
matter as fand, which moulders away from under its
feet, and neceffarily alters the pofition of its body, the
done very frequently falls (|own when near the verge,
and then it is fure to roll to the bottom. In this cafe
the animal attacks it again in the fame way, and often
is not difcouraged by five or fix mifcarriages of this
kind; but, after all, attempts again, and at length gets
it over the verge of the place. When it has done this,
it does not leave it there, led it fhould roll in again ;
but is always at the pains of pufhing it farther on, till
it has removed it to a neceffary didance from the edge
* of the pit.
The common formica-leo'moves only backward; but
Mr Rouet has obferved a fpecies which moves forward
in the common way of other animals, and makes no
pit of this kind to entrap its prey, but feizes other in¬
feeds by force.
FORMING is ufed for the a<d of giving being or
birth to any thing.
The word is alfo limply ufed for giving the figure
to any thing. The potter forms his veffels as he
pleafes. Geometry teaches how to form all kinds of
figures.
It is likewife ufed for the producing of a thing,:
thus, the lineaments qf the face began to be formed.
Forming of a Siege, is the making lines of circum-
vallation to,fortify the camp, and difpoling things for
the attack of a place in form.
They alfo fay, to form a fquadron or battalion ;
meaning, to range the foldieis in form of a fquadron,
&c.
Forming the Line, is drawing up infantry, cavalry,
and artillery, into line of battle. See Line.
Forming is alfo ufed in grammar, in fpeaking of
certain tenfes of verbs, which are made from others by
a change of certain letters. The pfefent tenfe is formed
from the infinitive. Compound and derivative words
alfo, and even all that have any etymology, are faid to
be formed.
FORMOSA, an ifland in the Pacific' Ocean, be¬
tween 1190 and 122° of E. Long, and 22° and 250
N. Lat. about ioo miles eaft of Canton in China. It
is fubjedf to the Chin,efe; who, however, notwithlland-
ing its vicinity, did not know of its exiftence until the
year 1430. It is about 85 leagues in length, and 25
in breadth. A long chain of mountains, which runs
from north to fouth, divides it into two parts, the
eaftern and weftern. The Dufch formed an ellablilh-
ment in the weftern part in 1634, and built the fort
of Zealand, which fecured to them the principal port
of the illand ; but they were driven from thence in
1659 or 1661 by a celebrated Chinefe pirate, who
made himfelf mafter of all the weftern part, which after¬
wards fubmitted ih 1682 to the authority of Kang-he
emperor of China.
This weftern part of Formofa is divided into three Formofa.
diftinct goverhments, all fubordinate to the governor —v 1
of Tai-OuAn, the capital of the ifland, who is himfelf
fubjedt to the viceroy of the province of Fokien.
This ifland prefents extenfive and fertile plains, wa¬
tered by a great number of rivulets that fall from the
eaftern mountains. Its air is pure and wholefome ; and
the earth produces in abundance corn, rice, and the
greater part of other grains. Moft of the Indian fruits
are found here, luch as oranges, bananas, pine-apples,
guavas, papaws, cocoa-nuts ; and part of thole of Eu¬
rope, particularly peaches, apricots, figs, raifins,.chef-
nuts, pomegranates, water-melons, £tc. Tobacco,
fugar, pepper, camphire, and cinnamon, are alfo com¬
mon. Horfes, flieep, and goats, are very rare in this
ifland: there are even few hogs, although theie ani¬
mals abound in China. Domeftic poultry, fuch as
fowls, geefe, and ducks, are exceedingly plenty ; phea-
fants alfo are fometimes feen ; and monkeys and flags
have multiplied fo much, that they wander through
the country in large flocks.
The inhabitants of Formofa rear a great number of
oxen, which they ufe for riding, from a want of horfes
and mules. They accuftom them early to this kind
of fervice, and by daily ex.ercife train them to go as
well and as expeditioufly as the beft horfes. Thefe
oxen are furniftied with a bridle, faddle, and crupper.
A Chinefe looks as big and proud when mounted in
this manner, as if he were carried by the find! Barbary^
courfer.
Wholefome water fit for drinking is the only thing
wanting in the ifland of Formofa. It is very extraor¬
dinary, that every kind of water in it is a deadly poi-
fon to ftrangers, for which no remedy has hitherto
been found. “ One of the governor’s fervants,” fays
Father de Mailla, “ whom 1 had in my train (a ftrong
and robuft man), trufting too much to the force of
his conftitution, would not believe what had been told
him concerning this water: he drank foroe of it; and •
died in lefs than five days, after every medicine and
antidote had been adminiftered without fuccefs. There
is none but the water of the capital which can Be
drunk: the mandarins of the place therefore always
took care to tranfport a fufficiency of it in carts for
our ufe.” Our author adds,, that at the bottom of a
mountain a league diftant from Fong-kan-hien, there is
a fpring that produces a ftream, the water of which is of
a whitifti blue colour, and fo noxious, that no one can
approach it.
There ate few mulberry-trees in Formofa, confe-
quently little filk is made in the country. Numerous
manufa&ures, however, would foon be introduced in¬
to it, were the Chinefe permitted indiferiminately to
tranfport themfelves thither, and to form eftablifliments
in the ifland. Thofe who go to it muft be protefted
by paflports from the Chinefe mandarins, and thefe
paflports are fold at a dear rate ; fecurities are befides
required. This is not all: when they arrive, money
muft be given to the mandarins who are appointed to
examine thofe who enter or quit the ifland, and who
generally difeharge this duty with the moft rigid feve-
rity. ' If they give no prefent, or offer only a trifle, ,
they meet with little mercy; and are fure to be fent
back, whatever pafiport they may have. The Chinefe, .
through policy, connive at thefe exactions, to prevent
too--*
FOR l 352 1 FOR
Firmofa. too great a number of people from emigrating to this
^ idand, which is rendered a place of great importance
by its proximity to China. They fear, and with great
reafon (efpecially fince Tartar emperors have been on
the throne), that if any revolt fhould happen in For-
mofa, its influence might fpread, and occafion great
difturbance in the whole empire. On this account,
the Tartars keep a garrifon' there of 10,000 men ;
which they take care to change every three years, or
even oftener if they judge it neceffary.
Befides the capital, the Chinefe have alfo two other
cities, and fome villages, where they inhabit alone;
for they do not permit the Indians, who are their fub-
jefts, to live among them ; they fuller none to remain
but thofe who are either their flaves or domeftics.
Thefe Indians are united into 45 villages; 36 of which
lie to the north, and 9 towards the fouth. The nor¬
thern villages are very populous, and the houfes are
built almoft after the Chinefe manner. The habita¬
tions of the fouthern iflanders are only heaps of huts
or cottages of earth. In thefe huts they have neither
chairs, benches, tables, beds, nor any piece of furni¬
ture ; the middle part is occupied by a kind of hearth
or chimney, raifed two feet high, and conftrufted of
earth, upon which they drefs their victuals. Their
ordinary food is rice, other fmall grain, and the game
which they catch by courfing or kill with their arms.
Thefe illanders run with fuch furprifrng fwiftnefs, that
they can almoft outftrip the fleeteft grehound. The
Chinefe attribute this agility to the precaution they
take of confining their knees and reins by a clofe band¬
age until the age of 14 or 15. Their favourite arms are
lances, which they dart to the diftance of 60 or 80
feet with the greateft dexterity and precifion. They
ufe bows and arrows, and can kill a pheafant on wing
with as much certainty as an European fportfman could
with a fufee. Thefe people are very dirty in their
manner of eating. They have neither plates, dilhes,
nor fpoons, nor even the fmall fticks ufed in China.
Whatever they drefs is placed on a plain board or mat,
and they make ufe of their finger s for conveying it to
their mouths. They eat flelh half raw ; and provided
it has been only prefented to the fire, it appears to
them excellent. Their beds are formed of frdh-gather-
ed leaves. They go almoft naked, and wear only a
piece of cloth which hangs from their girdle to their
knees. Thofe among them who, according to the
judgment of the chiefs of the village, have borne away
the prize for agility in running or dexterity in the
chafe, obtain the honourable privilege of making on
their Ikin, by a very painful operation, feveral fantafti-
cal figures of flowers, trees, and animals. All have
the right of blackening their teeth, and of wearing or¬
naments of bracelets and crowns made of flrells and
cryftal.
The iflanders who inhabit the northern part, where
the climate is fomething colder, clothe themfelves with
the fkins of the flags which they kill in hunting. They
make a kind of drefs of them without fleeves, that
pretty much refembles a dalmatic, or veftment worn
at the altar by the Roman clergy. They wear on
their heads caps in the form of a cylinder, made of
palm-leaves, and ornamented with feveral crowns pla¬
ced one above another, on the top of which they fix
plumes compofed of the feathers of a cock or pheafimt
N° 129.
The marriage ceremonies of the inhabitants of For- Formof*.
mofa approach near to the Ample laws of nature. They ——v""”*
neither purchafe, as in China, the women whom they
efpoufe, nor does intereft-ever prefide over their unions.
Fathers and mothers are fcarcely ever confulted. If a
young man has a mind to marry, and has fixed his af-
fection on a young girl, he appears for feveral days
following near the place where {he lives with a mufical
inllrument in his hand. If the'young woman is fatis-
fied with the figure of her gallant, ftfe comes forth and
joins him : they then agree, and fettle the marriage-
contraft. After this they give notice to'their parents,
who prepare a wedding-dinner, which is always given
in the houfe where the young womafrrefides, and where
the 'bridegroom remains without returning again to
his father. The young man afterwards confiders the
houfe of his father-in-law as his own. He becomes
the whole fupport of it, and he has- no farther connec¬
tion with that of his father; like married women in
Europe, who generally quit their paternal home in
order to live with their huftrands. Thefe iflanders
therefore feldom offer up vows for obtaining male chil¬
dren : they prefer daughters, becaufe they procure
them fons-in-law, who become the fupports of their old
age.
Although the Formofans are entirely fubje&ed to
the Chinefe, they ftill preferve fome remains of their
ancient government. Each village choofes three or
four old men from among thofe who have the greateft
reputation for probity. By this choice they become
the rulers and judges of the reft of the,hamlet. They
have the power of finally determining all differences}
and if any one fhould refufe to abide by their judge¬
ment, he would be immediately baniflred from the vil¬
lage, without hopes of ever be', g able to re-enter it,
and none of the inhabitants would afterwards dare to
receive him.
The natives pay in grain the tribute impofed on
them by the Chinefe. To regulate every thing that
concerns the laying on and colle&ing of this im-
poft, government have eftabliflred a Chinefe in every
village, who is obliged to learn the language, and
a£t as interpreter to the mandarins. Thefe inter¬
preters are moft cruel extortioners to the miferable
people, whom they ought rather to proteft : they are
fueh infatiable leeches, that they can fcarcely ever be
fatisfied. This daily and domeftic tyranny has already
caufed the defedlion of three villages in the fouthern
part of the ifland, where formerly there were twelve.
The inhabitants of thefe villages revolted, expelled their
interpreters, refufed to pay tribute any longer to the
Chinefe, and have united themfelves to the independ¬
ent nation in the eaftern part of the ifland.
It was in the ifland of Formofa that John Struys
affirms to have feen with his own eyes a man who had
a tail more than a foot in length, covered with red
hair, and greatly refembling that of an ox. This man
with a tail faid, that his deformity, if it was one, pro¬
ceeded from the climate, and that all thofe of the
fouthern part of the ifland were born with tails like
his,—But John Strays is the only author who attefts
the exiftence of this extraordinary race of men; no
other writer who has fpoken of Formofa makes the
leaft mention of them. - Another circumftance, no Ids
Angular, and which appears to be little better authen¬
ticated,
FOR [ 353 U F O R
Formofa. tieatecl, i«, that in this ifland women are not permit-
K—v~— ted to bring forth children before they are 35, although
they are at liberty to marry long before that age.
* Dutd Eajl Rechteren * thus exprefies himfelf concerning this
jnifia Com- ftrange cuftom :
Tany VoT When women are firft married, they bring no
*v'a6,Q V' c^i^ren 'nto the world; they muft, before that is
1 ' permitted, have attained the age of 35 or 37. When
they are big with child, their priettefies pay them a
vifit, and tread on their bellies wdth their feet, if it be
neceflary, and make- them mifcarry, with perhaps
greater pains than they would have in being brought
to bed. It would be not only a fhame, but an enor¬
mous crime, to bring forth a child before the term
prefcribed. I have ieeri feme females who had alrea¬
dy deftroyed the fruit of their womb 15 or 16 times,
and who were big for the 17th when it was lawful for
them to bring forth a living child.”
To our defeription of Tor mo fa we fhall add the fol¬
lowing account of the dreadful difafter that lately
befel this unhappy ifland. The details were conveyed
by a letter from Peking, addrefled to M. Berth, and
dated the 14th of July 1782.
‘ The waters of the ocean have well nigh deprived
China of one of its moil valuable maritime pofieffions.
TThe ifland of Tay-ouan, known in Europe by the
name of Formofa, has been almoft fwallowed up by
them. It has been reported here, that part of the
mountain which divides the ifland has funk and difap-
peared ; that the reft has been overturned; and that
the greater part of the inhabitants have periflied. Such
have been for fume days the popular reports in this
capital. Government, however, has put a flop to them,
by informing the public of the real truth ; fuch as it
is has been announced to the emperor by the officers
V’ho have this fmall portion of his territories under
their jurifdi&ion. I cannot do better than tranferibe
what they have written. The difpatches of the Chi-
iiefe officers, addreffed to the emperor, run thus:
“ Bechen, governor-general of the provinces of Fo-
Itien and Tche-Kyang-ya, viceroy of Fokien, and
others, make known to your majefty the difafter
that has lately befallen the ifland of Tay-ouan. Mon-
ha-bon, and other principal officers of this ifland, have
acquainted us, that on the 21ft of the fourth moon
(May 22d, 1782), a moft furious wind, accompanied
with heavy rain and a fwellof the fea greater than ever
remembered, had kept them under continual apprehen-
fion of being fwallow'ed up by the weaves, or buried in
the bowels of the earth, from the hour of yn until the
hour ouei (a). This dreadful tempeft feemed to blow
at tbc fame time from the four cardinal points of the
compafs, and continued with equal violence during the
above mentioned time. The buildings where the tri¬
bunals were held,'the public granaries, the barracks,
fait warehoufes, and works, have been totally dtftroy-
ed, and every thing they contained is loft: warehoufes
and work-fliops, as well as private houfes, for the moft
part, prefent nothing but ruins and heaps of rubbiftr.
Of 27 Ihips of war which were in the harbour 12 have
difappeared ; two others have been dallied to pieces,
Vox.. VII. Part I.
and 10 are fnattcred in fuch a manner that they are
rendered entirely unfit for feryice; other fmaller vef-
fels of different fizes, above 160 in number, have
ftiared the fame fate ; eighty have been fwallowed up;
five others,.which bad juft taken in a lading of rice
for Fokien, have funk, and their cargoes, which a-
mounted to 100,000 bulhds, are wholly loft. With
regard to other veffels, whether fmall or great, wdiich
had not entered the harbour, 10 or 12 of the largeft
are reckoned to have been fwallowed up ; thofe of in¬
ferior fize, as well as a prodigious number of barks,
boats, and other fmall veffels of different kinds, have
difappeared, without leaving the leaft piece of wreck
behind them. As the whole ifland has been covered
with water, the provilians have been either fwept
away or fpoilt, fo as to render them prejudicial to the
health of thofe who ufe them in their prefent ftate.
The crops are entirely loft. When we ftiall have
been informed of particulars, We fiiall not fail to give
your majefty the earlieft intelligence of them.—
After having received this letter from Mon-ha-hon,
and the other principal officers refiding at Tay-
ouan, I employed the utmoft diligence to give every
affiftance in my power to this unfortunate ifland ; and
I ordered the travelling commiffary, and Trey-ouer,
general of the province, to get particular information
of the number of thofe who have periflied, of the
houfes deftroyed, and of the quantity of fait and other
provifions that has been loft : I have likewife enjoined
them to rebuild with the utmoft expedition the tribu¬
nals, granaries, and other public edifices ; to difpatch
proper perfons to fearch for the veffels and fliips that
have difappeared; to repair thofe which are not alto¬
gether unfit for fervice, and to fend immediately to
the neighbouring countries for fait and other neceffary
provilions ; but above all, to afeertain in the moft ac¬
curate manner the different Ioffes fuftained by the in¬
habitants, and the precife number of people that have
perifhed, in order that I may be able to give the fulleft
information to your majeily.”
‘ The emperor of China caufed a particular detail
(jf thefe Ioffes to be publiflied, together with the fol¬
lowing letter:
“ Tchang-yu, &c. Tchem-hoei-Thon-Tfong-tou of
Fokien, and others, have informed me of the difmal
event that hath taken place in the ifland of Tay-ouan,
which is a diftrift of the province of Fokien. They
have written to me, that on the 21ft of the fourth
moon. [Here the emperor repeats what is contained
in the preceding letter, and continues thus]: I com¬
mand Tfong-tou to get the bell information he can of
the different Ioffes fuftained by the inhabitants of the
ifland, and to tranfmit the particulars to me, in order
that I may give them every affiftance to repair them.
My intention is, that all the houfes which have been
thrown down fliall be rebuilt entirely at my expence;
that thofe be repaired which are only damaged ; and
that provifions, and every thing which the people
ftand in immediate want of, be fupplied them. I
fhould feel much pain, were even one among them to
be negle&ed: I therefore recommend the utmoft di-
Y y ligence
(a) The hours of the Chinefe are double ours: the hourbegins at three in the morning and ends at fivej
cwri begins at three in the afternoon and ends at five.
Formofa.
T? O R [ 354 ] FOR
Formula
„ II
Formca-
ligence and ftrifteft inquiry, as I am defirous that none
of my fubjefts fhould entertain the leaft doubt of the
tender affe&ion which I have for them ; and that they
Ihould know that they are all under my eyes, and that
I myfelf will provide for .their wants. With regard
to my ftlips of war, tribunals, and public edifices, let
them be reftored to their former Hate with money
taken from the public treafury, and let the general ac¬
count of the whole expence be laid before me.”
The miffionary who fent this account farther fays,
From thefe letters it evidently appears, that this dif-
after happened in confequence of an earthquake ; but
he adds, that the volcano which occafioned it muft be at
a prodigious depth below the fea. He does not pre¬
tend to give an explanation of it; he is contented with
obferving, that the fame feene feems to have paffed at
the ifland of Formofa as at Lima and Lifbon.
FORMULA, or Formulary, a rule or model, or
certain terms preferibed or decreed by authority, for
the form and manner of an aft, inftrument, proceeding,
or the like.
Formula, in church-hiflory and theology, fignifies
a profeffion of faith.
Formula, in medicine, imports the conftitution of
medicines, either fimple or compound, both with re-
fpeft to their prefeription and confiftence.
FORMULARY, a writing, containing the form or
formula of an oath, declaration, atteftation, or abjura¬
tion, &c. to be made on certain occafions.
There are alfo formularies of devotion, of prayers,
&c. Liturgies are formularies of the public fervice in
moft churches.
FORNACALIA, or Fornicalia, in Roman an¬
tiquity, a feftival inftituted by Numa, in honour of
Fornax, the goddefs of ovens; wherein certain cakes
were made, and offered in facrifice before the ovens.
FORNICATION (Fornicatio, from the fornkes in
Rome, where the lewd women proftituted themfelves
for money), is whoredom, or the aft of incontinency,
between fingle perfons ; for if either of the parties is
married, it is adultery. Formerly court-leets had power
to inquire of and puniffi fornication and adultery; in
which courts the king had a fine affeffed on the offen¬
ders, as appears by the book of Domefday.
In the year 1650, when the ruling powers found it
for their intereft to put on the femblance of a very ex¬
traordinary ftriftnefs and purity of morals, not only
inceft and wilful adultery were made capital crimes,
but alfo the repeated aft of keeping a brothel, or com¬
mitting fornication, were (upon a fecond conviftion)
made felony without benefit of clergy. But, at the
reftoration, when men, from an abhorrence of the hy-
pocrify of the late times, fell into a contrary extreme
of licentioufnefs, it was not thought proper to renew
a law of fuch unfalhionable rigour. And thefe offen¬
ces have been ever fince left to the feeble coercion of
the fpiritual court,, according to the rules of the canon
law ; a law which has treated the offence of inconti¬
nence, nay, even adultery itfelf,, with a great degree of
tendernefs and lenity; owing perhaps to the conftrain-
ed celibacy of its firft compilers. The temporal courts
therefore take no cognifanqe even of the crime of adul¬
tery otherwife than as a private injury. See Adul¬
tery.
The evils of fornication, which too many wiflt to
confider as no fin, may be judged of from the follow- Fornica-
ing particulars. tion.
1. The malignity and moral quality of each crime v ""
is not to be eftimated by the particular effeft of one
offence, or of one perfon’s offending, but by the general
tendency and confequence of crimes of the fame nature.
In the prefent cafe, let the libertine confider and fay,
what would be the confequence, if the fame licentiouf¬
nefs in which he indulges were univerfal? or what
fiiould hinder its becoming univerfal, if it be innocent
or allowable in him ?
2. Fornication fuppofes proftitution ; and by pro-
ftitution the viftims of it are brought to almoit cer¬
tain mifery. It is no fmall quantity of mifery in the
aggregate, which, between want, difeafe, and infult,
is' fuffered by thofe outcaffs of human fociety who in-
feft populous cities ; the whole of which is a general
confequence of fornication, and to the increafe and
continuance of which every aft and inftance of forni¬
cation contributes.
3. Fornication produces habits of ungovernable lewd-
nefs, which introduce the more aggravated crimes of
feduftion, adultery, violation, See. The criminal in¬
dulgences between the fexes prepare an eafy admif-
fion for every fin that feeks it : they are, in low life,
ufually the firft ftage in mens progrefs to the moft
defperate villanies ; and in high life, to that lamented
diffolutenefs of principle, which manifefts itfelf in a pro¬
fligacy of public conduft, and a contempt of the obli¬
gations of religion and moral probity.
4. Fornication perpetuates a difeafe, which may be
accounted one of the foreft maladies of human nature,
and the effefts of which are faid to vifit the conftitu¬
tion of even diftant generations.
The paffion being natural, proves that it was in¬
tended to be gratified ; but under what reftriftions, or
whether without any, muft be collefted from different
confiderations.
In the Scriptures, fornication is abfolutely and pe¬
remptorily condemned. ‘ Out of the heart proceed
evil thoughts, murders, adulteries, fornication, thefts,
falfe witnefs, blafphemies ; thefe are the things which
defile a man.’ Thefe are Chrift’s own words; and one
word from him upon the fubjeft is final. The apoftles
are more full upon this topic. One well-known paf-
fage in the Epiftle to the Hebrews may Hand in the
place of all others; becaufe, admitting the authority
by which the apoftles of Chrift fpake and wrote, it is
decifive. ‘ Marriage and the bed undefiled is honour¬
able amongft all men, but whoremongers and adulter¬
ers God will judge;’ which was a great deal to fay, at
a time when it was not agreed even amongft philofo-
phers that fornication was a crime.
Upon this fubjeft Mr Paley adds the following ob-
fervations*. _ _ * Mural ami
“ The Scriptures give no fanftion to thofe aufteri- Political
ties which have been fince impofed upon the world
under the name of Chrift’s religion, as the celibacy of*,,a*fi*
the clergy, the praife of perpetual virginity, the pro-
hibitio Loncubitus cum gravida uxore; but with a juft
knowledge of, and regard to the condition and intereft
of the human fpecies, have provided in the marriage of
one man with one woman an adequate gratification for
the propenfities of their nature, and have reftrained
them to that gratification.,
« The
FOR L 315 ] FOR
Fern'cation " The avowed toleration, and in feme countries the of the fea and the violence of the wind. It had been Forres.
II licenfing, taxing, and regulating of public brothels, has the cuftom to pull up the bent, a long fpiry grafs near  v'~—'
, Fories- appeared to the people an authorizing of fornication, the Ihore, for litter for horfes, by which means the fand
" v_~ and has contributed, with other caufes, fo far to vitiate was loofened, and gave way to the violence of the fea
the public opinion, that there is no pra&ice of which and wind, which carried it over feveral thoufand acres
the immorality is fo little thought of or acknowledged, of land. The people having been prevented from pull-
although there are few in which it can more plainly * ing up any more of the grafs, the progrefs of the fand
be made out. The legiflators who have patronized re- is now nearly flopped, and the fea has retired ; but the
ceptacles of proilitution ought to have forefeen this wind has blown fome of the fand from the hills over
effeft, as well as confidered, that whatever facilitates Colonel Grant’s land, and deftroyed near 100 acres,
fornication, diminifhes marriages. And as to the ufual A fand-bank, which is all dry at low-water, runs out
apology for this relaxed difeipline, the danger of great- from this place for feveral miles into the Murray-Firth.
er enormities if accefs to proftitutes were too llriftly Some of the land, which has been long forfaken by
watched and prohibited; it will be time enough to look the water, is now beginning to be ufeful again, and is
to that, after the laws and the magillrates have done turned into grazing land. At Forres, coarfe linen and
their utmoft. The greateft vigilance of both will do fewing thread are made. About a mile from the town,
no more, than oppofe fome bounds and fome difficul- on the left-hand fide of the road, is a remarkable obe-
ties to this intercourfe. And after all, thefe pretended liik, faid to be the moll ftately monument of the Go-
fears are without foundation in experience. The men thic kind to be feen in Europe. It has been the fub-
are in all refpefts the moll virtuous in countries where jedl of many able pens; but totally overlooked by
the women are moll chafie. Dr Johnfon, who fays, “ At Forres we found good •
“ If fornication be criminal, all thofe incentives accommodation, but nothing worthy of particular re-
which lead to it are accefifaries to the crime ; as lafei- mark.”—It is thus deferibedby Mr Cordiner, in a let-
vious converfation, whether expreffed in obfeene or ter to Mr Pennant: “ In tire firlt divifion, underneath
difguifed under modell phrafes; alfo wanton fongs, the Gothic ornaments at the top, are nine horfes with
pictures, books; the writing, publilhing, and circula- their riders, marching forth in order : in the next is a
ting of which, whether out of frolic or for fome piti- line of warriors on foot, brandilhing their weapons,
ful profit, is produ&ive of fo extenfive a mifehief from and appear to be Ihouting for the battle. The import
fo mean a temptation, that few crimes within the of the attitudes in the third divifion is very dubious,
reach of private wickednefs have more to anfwer for, their expreffion indefinite. The figures which form a
or lefs to plead in their excufe. fquare in the middle of the column are pretty complex
“ Indecent converfation, and by parity of reafon all but diftinft ; four ferjeants with their halberts guard a
the reft, are forbidden by St Paul, Eph. iv. 29. ‘ Let company, under which are placed feveral human heads,
no corrupt communication proceed out of your mouth;’ which have belonged to the dead bodies piled up at
and again, Col. iii. 8. * Put filthy communication out the left of the divifion: one appears in the charadler of
of your mouth.’ executioner fevering the head from another body; be-
“ The invitation or voluntary admiffion of impure hind him are three trumpeters founding their trum-
thoughts, or the fuffering them to get pofleffion of the pets, and before him two pair of combatants fighting
imagination, falls within the fame defeription, and is with fword and target. A troop of horfe next ap-
condemned by Chrift, Matt. v. 28. ‘ Whofoever look- pears, put to flight by infantry, whofe firft line have
eth on a woman to luft after her, hath committed a- bows and arrows; the three following, fwords and tar-
dultery with her already in his heart.* Chrift, by thus gets. In the lowermoft divifion now vifible, the horfes
enjoining a regulation of the thought, ftrikes at the feem to be feized by the vidlorious party, their riders
root of the evil.” beheaded, and the head of their chief hung in chains
FORNIX, in anatomy, is part of the corpus callo- or placed in a frame ; the others being thrown toge-
fum in the brain; fo called, becaufe of a diftant refem- ther befide the de^d bodies under an arched cover,
blance it hath to the arches of ancient vaults when The greateft part of the other fide of the obelifk,
viewed in a particular manner. occupied by a fumptuous crofs, is covered over with
FORK AGE, in the military art, denotes hay, oats, an uniform figure, elaborately raifed, and interwoven
barley, wheat, grafs, clover, &c. brought into the camp with great mathematical exadlnefs. Under the crofs
by the troopers, for the fuftenance of their horfes. are two auguft perforiages, with fome attendants, much
It is the bufinefs of the quarter-mafter general to obliterated, but evidently in an attitude of reconcilia-
appoint the method of forrage, and poll proper guards tion ; and if the monument was eredled in memory of
for the fecurity of the foragers. the peace concluded between Malcolm and Canute,
FORRES, a parliament town of Scotland in the upon the final retreat of the Danes, thefe large figures
county of Murray, claffing with Invernefs, Fortrofe, may reprefent the reconciled monarchs. On the edge
and Nairn. It is a fmall well-built town, pleafantly below the fretwork are fome rows of figures joined
fituated on an eminence near the river Findhorti. The hand-in-hand, which may alfo imply the new degree
country about it has a cheerful appearance, having a of confidence and fecurity which took place, after the
few gentlemens feats, with fome plantations about feuds were compofed, which are characterized on the
them. On a hill weft of the town are the remains of front of the pillar. But to whatever particular tranf-
a caftle ; and a melancholy view of a number of fand- aClion it may allude, it can hardly be imagined, that
hills, that now cover that trad of land which was in fo early an age of the arts in Scotland as it muft
formerly the eftate of a Mr Cowben in the parilh of have been raifed, fo elaborate a performance would
Dyke. This inundation was occafioned by the influx have been undertaken but in confequence of an event
Y y 2 of
FOR [ 356 ] FOR
Forlkuhlea of the mo ft general importance ; it is therefore fur-
. if prifing, that no diftinfter traditions of it arrived at the
Ports'5 era wiien letters were known. The height of this
‘ t monument (called King Bueno'sJione) above the ground
is 23 feet; befides 12 or 15 feet under ground. Its
breadth is 3 feet 10 inches by 1 foot 3 inches in
thicknefs.”
FORSKOHLEA, in botany: A genus of the pen-
tagynia order, belonging to the decandria clafs of
plants. The calyx is pentaphyllous, and longer than
the corolla. There are ten petals fpatulated, /. e.
roundilh before, with a linear bafe.
FORSTERA, in botany: A genus of the trian-
dria order, belonging to the gynandria clafs of plants.
The perianthium is double ; the extenor one beneath
three-leaved ; the interior one above, and fix-cleft;
the corolla tubular.
FORT, in the military art, a fmall fortified place,
environed on all fides with a moat, rampart, and para¬
pet. Its ufe is to fecure fome high ground, or the paf-
fage of a river, to make good an advantageous poft, to
defend the lines and quarters of a fiege, &c.
Forts are made of different figures and extents, ac¬
cording as the ground requires. Some are fortified with
baftions, others with demi-baftions. ' Some again are
in form of a fquare, others of a pentagon. A fort dif¬
fers from a citadel, as this lalt is built to command
fome town.
Vitrified Forts, a very Angular kind of ftru&ures
found in the highlands and northern parts of Scotland,
in which the walls have the appearance of being melt¬
ed into a folid mafs, fo as to refemble the lava of a
volcano, for which indeed they have been taken by fe-
veral perfons who have vilited them.
Thefe walls weri taken notice of by Mr Williams
an engineer, who wrote a treatife upon the fubjeft,
and was the firil who fuppofed them to be the works
©f art ; other naturalifts having attributed them to a
volcanio origin. Thefe works are commonly fituated
on the tops of fmall hills, commanding an extenfive
view of the adjacent valley or low country. The area
©n the fummit, varying, as is fuppofed, according to
the number of cattle the proprietor had to proted, or
the dependents he was obliged to accommodate, is fur-
rounded with an high and llrong wall, of which the
ftones are melted, moft of them entirely ; while others,
in which the ftifton has not been fo complete, are funk
in the vitrified matter in fuch a manner as to be quite
inclofed with it; and in fome places the fufion has
been fo perfedt, that the ruins appear like maffes of
eoarfe glafs. Mr Williams has not only abfolutely de¬
termined the walls in queflion to be the works of art,
but has even hazarded a conje&ure as to the. manner
in which they were conftrudted, and which, according
to him, was as follows. Two parallel dikes of earth
©r fod being raifed, in the dire&ion of the intended
wall, with a fpace between them fufficient for its thick¬
nefs, the fuel was put in, and fet oh fire. The ftones
beft adapted for the purpofe, called the plum-pudding
Jione, are every where to be found in the neighbour¬
hood. Thefe were laid on the fuel, and when melted,
were kept by the frame of earth from running off; and
by repeating the operation, the wall was raifed to a
fufficient height. This opinion of the ftones being
thrown in without any order, is thought to be con¬
firmed by the circumftance of there not being any Vitrifiei
where a large one to be feen, nor a ftone laid in any Forts,
particular diredtion, nor one piece which has not in '—
fome degree been affedted by the fire. Mr Williams
mentions a fadt tending to confirm his hypothefis,
viz. of a brick kiln fituated on the declivity of an emi¬
nence, fo as to be expofed to the wind, which happen¬
ing to rife brrikly one time when the kiln was burn¬
ing, fo increafed the heat, that the bricks were melted,
and ran, like a lava, for a coniiderable way down til;
hill.
The opinion of Mr Williams has been embraced by
feveral other authors ; particularly Mr Freebairn and
Dr Anderfon, the latter having pmbli fned two treatifes
upon thefe buildings in the Archaeologia. In the fam<5
work, however, we meet vvich a paper by the Hon.
Dailies’ Barrington, in which the author expreffes quite
different fentiments. Fie obferves, that Mr Williams,
and the other antiquaries, who fuppofe the walls in
queftion to be the works of arc, imagine that the rea-
fon of theirieing conftrudted in this manner was the
ignorance of cement, which in thefe remote hges pre¬
vailed in Scotland : but with refpedt to this circum-
ftance, he fays, that if one fide of the wall only was
heated, and that to any confiderable height, the mat¬
ter in fufion would in all likelihood drop down to the
bottom, without operating as any cement to the loofe
ftones thrown in amongft it. This circumftance of
the walls being vitrified only on one fide, is indeed re¬
markable, and takes place in moft of the forts of this
kind to be met with at prefent : but with regard to
it, Mr Barrington obfervss, that he himfelf has been
twice in the Highlands of Scotland, and has found
very few hills of any height which were cloathed with
wood ; the trouble therefore of carrying it up to the
top of fuch a mountain would be very confiderable.
But to this it might eafdy be replied, that we cannot
by any means argue from the prefent ftate of the hills
in the Highlands to their ftate in a-very remote period
of antiquity. At that time, it is neither impoffihle
nor in the leaft improbable, that moft of the hills in
Scotland were overgrown with wood ; or at any rate,
there undoubtedly was plenty of peat, which is ftill
ufed as fuel in Scotland, and which affords fuch a»ftrong
heat as to be advantageoufly employed in fmelting
iron*, as we are informed by M. Magellan. A third • See the
particular mentioned by Mr Williams is, that thefe in-articie iW# .
clofures were intended as places of defence; and in
fupport of this opinion alleges, that there are dried
wells found within moft of them. But on this Mr
Barrington obferves, that ffielter from the weather was
alfo neceffary “ upon the top of a bleak Scotch hill,
whilft whilky (or a fuccedaneum for. it) would be often
in greater requeft than the bare element of water.’*
This objedion, however, as well as the laft, is evident¬
ly very frivolous ; for thefe buildings might have roofs
as well as any other; and whatever neceffity there
might be for- whilky occafionally, water was certainly
an indifpenfable requifite.
Mr Barrington having thus given his reafons for
diffenting frorrt the opinion of Mr Williams and the
antiquaries juft mentioned, proceeds to ftate his
own. He tells us, that having travelled for 21
years the moft mountainous circuit in Wales, he has
frequently obferved inclofures of dry ftones,. particu-
3 laily
for [ 357 -] F O R
Vitrified larly a long tract in the weftern part of Merioneth-
Forts. {hire, called in the language of the country Duffryn,
* k e. the vale. On firft viewing thefe fmall inclofurea
made with walls of thick Hones, he was at a lofs to
imagine how it could be worth while to conttruft fuch
ftrong fences for fo inconfiderable a piece of ground
as they inclofed : but, on examining the adjacent
country, he found it almoft entirely covered with
Hones of a limilar kind ; and, of confeqtience, the*
fmallet the fpace to be cleared, the lefs expenfive
would be the removal. “ For the fame reafon (faya
he), fuch dry walls are often of a great thicknefs, and
foraetimes the corners of the inclofures are filled with
Hones to a £reat width, this being the only poffible
means of procuring paHure.” To a pra&ice of the
feme kind our author would aferibe the origin of the
works in queHion ; but the objedlion occurs very
Hrongly, that the walls in Scotland are vitrified, and
it is not to be fuppofed that fuch trouble would be
taken with fences made in fuch a fortuitous manner.
This obje<Hion, our author owns, would indeed be un-
anfwerable, on the fuppofition that the vitrification
•w.as made on purpofe to Hrengthen the walls of the
fertrefs; “ but (fays he) may not the vitrification
have been occafioned by volcanoes, or by what are cal¬
led bloomeries ? The fame effect may be produced like-
wife on diy walls of Hone by lightning pafiing along
them. The loofe Hones in either cafe would not be
reje&ed becaufe they were glaffy, and would be piled'
up in the fence of the inclofure ; as the great point
upon thefe occafions is to clear the ground, and remove
the incumbering Hones to the fmallefi difiance. One
of the advocates for the defigned and not fortuitous
vitrification, fays, that the pieces he had procured did
not referable what is called lava. But every volcano
is not neceffarily an Etna or a Vefuvius ; and coufe-
quently the matter difgorged from the crater mufi per¬
petually vary both in fubfiance and form. Vitrified
naaffes, larger or, fmaller, will likewife be produced by
the fame means. It may be contended indeed, that
pafiure thus procured, by clearing the ground, would
be more convenient at the bottom or on the Tides,
than on the top of the hill: but to this I anfwer, that
in rocky countries you mufi get what pittance you
oan of foil, and often it will happen tjhat the only de¬
tached and removeabk Hones are on the fummit. When
fuch inclofures have been1 made, they became very con¬
venient for putting cattle into ; and hence perhaps
fome of the wells which Mr Williams hath mentioned.^
Our author concludes his differtation on this fubjeft
by. obferving, that if vitrification anfwered the putpofe
of cement, it is very extraordinary that the ancient in¬
habitants of Scotland did not apply it to the houfes
or huts in which they confiantly lived, but referved
this troublefome and expenfive proeefs merely for a
fortification, which might not per haps be ufed in half
a century againfi an enemy. On this it is almofi fu*
perfluous to obferve, that in the ages of barbarity and
bloodfhed, in which thefe inclofures, whether natural
or artificial, were fuppofed to be ufed as fortreffes,
war was fo frequent, that a defence againfi an enemy
might feem to be neceffaty every day, inftead df once
in half a century. Before we proceed further in the
argument, however, it will be neceffary to give fome
account of the fitaation and appearance of thefe for- Vitrified i
treffes. 1'' * „
According to Mr Cardonnel, the largeft of them ^
is fituated on the hill of Knockfarril, to the fouth of
the valley of Strathpeffer, two miles weft from Ding-
Wall in Rofsfhire. The inclofure is 120 feet long and
40 broad within the walls; ftrengthened on the out-
fide with works at each end. A range of habitations
feem to have been eredted againft, or under, the fhade
of the outward wall; of which thofe on the fouth-fide
feem to have been higher and larger than thofe on the
north. There are two wells in the middle, which,
on being cleared out, filled with water. On the
feirts of the hill to the fouth are many detached build¬
ings ; which, from the ftratum of dung found on re¬
moving the ruins, appear plainly to have been ufed for
fecuring the cattle. This place feems to have been
anciently of confequence, and the refidence of fome
powerful chief, from a road which leads through the
hills to the north-weft fea. To the eafi of the works
are a number of vitrified ruins, extending for a confi-
derabie way along the ridge of the hill. The end
next the fort feems to have joined-the outer wall, and
con lifted either of two parallel walls, clofed above, with
a paffage between them under cover, or a high wall
broad enough to walk on. In this wall there is tha
vefiige of a break about the middle, over which a
bridge has been laid, to be drawn up or removed as
occafion might require.
The fort next in confequence to that of Knock¬
farril is fituated on the hill of Craig-Phadrick near In-
vernefs, “ which (fays Mr Cardonnel) has this pecu¬
liar circumftance, that there appears to have been two
vitrified walls quite round the area. The inner one
feems to have been very high and ftrong ; the outer
wall but low: probably the fpace between was intend¬
ed for fecuring their cattle, as there are no remains of
dry-Hone buildings, fuch as are found near the reft.
Several parts of this outer wall appear quite entire,
fiieking to the firm bare rock, where it was firft run.
The area within the inner wall is near .80 paces long,
and 27 broad.” Gf this we have an accountf by \Edm.Thlh.
Alexander Frafer-Tytler, Efq; profeifor of civil hiitory Traifoa.
in the univerlky of Edinburgh, who vifited it in the }}'
year 1782.. The kill itfelf is a fmall conical eminence,
forming the eaftern extremity of that ridge of moun¬
tains which bounds Locb-Nefs oa the north.-weft fide.
It is fituated about a mile to the north of Invernefs,
and is acceffible on two different quarters, viz. the
weft and fouth-eaft 7 the former affording entrance by
a narrow level ridge joining the hills on Eoch-Nefs,
and the latter by an eafy afeent from the high ground
above Inverr.efs. On approaching the hill from the
weft, we firft meet with a road cut through the rock
from the bottom to the top, in moft places 10 feet
broad and nearly as deep; winding, for about 70 feet,
with an eafy Terpentine diredtion, by which we gain
an afeent over a fteep rock otherwife quite inacceffible
from that quarter. This road, in our author-’s opi¬
nion, is undoubtedly the work of art, and the vitrified
matter on the top is the only thing which indicates
the effedt of fire ; there being neither an appearance
of pumice ftone, lava, norbafaltes about the hill other-
wife. There t# indeed plenty of plum-pudding ftoue 5
which >
for [ 358 ] . FOR
which fome have fuppofed to be of the nature of vol- of earth, with a flone in the centre, were more dif- Vitrified
canic tufa: but this opinion is reje&ed by our author cernible. On the eaft-fide a portion of the internal Forts,
as erroneous. “ But the circumftance (fays he) fpace appears feparated from the reft by two ranges of ~ 'r““J
which in my apprehenfion evinces, in the moft Tatis- ftones fixed ftrongly in the earth, and forming a right-
faftory manner, that thefe appearances of the effedt angled parallelogram. “ This feparation (fays our
of fire, on the fummit of this hill are not the opera- author) is immediately difcernible by the eye, from
tion of nature but of art, is the regular order and dif- this circumftanee, that the whole of the inclofed fum-
pofition of thofe materials, the form of the ground, mit has been moft carefully cleared from ftones, of
and the various traces of flcill and contrivance which *which there is not one to be feen, unlefs thofe that
are yet difcernible, though confiderably defaced either form this divifion, and the fingle one in the middle
by external violence or the obliterating hand of time.” of the circle of tumuli above mentioned. What has
To inveftigate this matter regularly, he begins with the been the defign of this feparated fpace, it is difficult to
winding road already mentioned, and which is evi- conjecture. It might perhaps have marked the refi-
dently cut through the rock for the purpofe of gain- dence of thofe of a higher rank, or ferved as a temple
ing an eafy afcent from the .level ridge to the fummit, for the purpofes of devotion.” On the eaft end of
which would otherwife have been impracticable. In the large area on the fummit is a well of about fix
afcending by this road, there appears, towards the feet in diameter, which has probably been funk very
middle, on the right hand, a fmall platform overhang- deep in the rock, though now it is filled up with rub-
ing the paffage, and inclining by a very gentle declivity bifh to within a yard of the top.
to the very edge of the rock. Four enormous-ftones The other fortified hills mentioned by Mr Cardon-
are placed upon the platform, and on the edge and nel are thofe of Dun-Evan in the fliire of Nairn ; Tor-
extremity of it, which have evidently been guided by- dun caftle, near Fort Auguftus ; and another on the
art iato that pofition; it being impoffible that they weft fide of Gleneves in Lochaber, three miles to the
could have refted there, had they tbeen rolled down fouth of Fort William. The Caftle-hill of Finhaven,
from the higher parts. The ob.vious reafon for placing in the county of Angus, has likewife fome confiderable
them in fuch a pofition has been, that on an alarm of ruins of the fame kind.
danger they might be projeded into the path below, Dun-Evan and the hill of Finhaven have likewife
which could be done by the efforts of a very few men ; been vifited by Mr Tytler, who gives an account of
and when this was done, the paffage would be entirely them in the paper already quoted; of which the fol-
obftruCIed, or at leaft rendered fo difficult that it could lowing is an abftraCf. “ On the fummit of the hill
be defended by a few againft any number of affailants. of Dun-Evan, whofe name implies that it had been
Some other large ftones are placed on an eminence to originally a place of defence, are the remains of two
the left, probably with a view to block up an hollow walls furrounding an oblong fpace like that of Craig-
channel, by which an enemy might have attempted to Phadrick already defcribed, but fomewhat fmaller in
afcend. When we come to the top of the hill, a few fize. [Mr Cardonnel fays that it is about 70 paces
feet below the rampart which crowns the whole, there long and 30 broad]. There are likewife the traces
appears an outward wall, approaching on the fides of of a well in the inclofed area; and at the eaft end are
the hill fo near the upper rampart, as to have only a the remains of a prodigious mafs of building, much
trench of 10 or 12 feet wide between them. This more extenfive than that on Craig-Phadrick.” Here,
outward wall is in fome places fo low as to be alnioft however, our author could not perceive any marks
level with the rock, though in other places it rifes to of fire; and Mr Williams owns that the vitrified
the height of two or three feet; but even where 'ruins here are more wafted than on Knockfarril or
loweft, it may be traced by a line of vitrified matter Craig-Phadrick. But with regard to the vitrifications
fticking fall to the rock all along, and nearly of the here, our author is inclined to fuppofe Mr Williams
fame breadth, which is about nine feet. The remains to have been entirely in a miftake. On the Caftle-hill
of this wall are ftrongly vitrified, except in one place of Finhaven, however, the vitrified remains are very
on the north fide, where, for about 70 yards, the vifible all round the fummit, which is cleared of ftones
rampart is formed only of- dry ftones and earth. At and levelled, unlefs at one end, where there is a great
the eaft fide, where the hill is more acceffible, there hollow fpace feparated from the reft of the area, and
is a prodigious mound of vitrified matter, extending probably deftined exclufively for the keeping of cattle,
itfelf to the thicknefs of above 40 feet. At the fouth- The inclofed area is about 140 yards long and up-
eaft corner, and adjoining to this immenfe mound, wards of 40 broad.
is an outwork, confifting of two femicircular vitrified Befides thefe fortifications, the hill of Noth affords
walls, with a narrow pafs cut through them in the a remarkable appearance of the fame kind : of which
middle : which appears to have been another, and per- Mr Cordiner gives the following defcription, not from
haps the principal, entry to the fort. his own obfervation, but thofe of a gentleman of cre-
The inner wall, furrounding the fummit of the hill, dit who vifited the place. “ On the top of the hill
inclofes an oblong level area of about 75 yards long there is an oblong hollow, as I could guefs, of about
and 30 broad, rounded at each of the ends like the an Englifii acre, covered with a fine fward of grafs:
outward wall. It is of confiderable height, and near- in the middle toward the eaft end of this hollow is a
ly of the fame thicknefs with the outward one. — It large and deep well. The hollow is furrounded on all
has fome appearance of having been defended with fides with a thick rampart of ftones. On three fides
four turrets or baftions: but the traces are fo imper- of this rampart, from 8 to 12 feet thick, is one com-
fe£t, that Mr Tytler does not lay much ftrefs on his pa£t body of ftones and minerals which have been in a
obfervations in this refpeft j a number of fmall tumuli ftate of fufion, refembling a mixture of ftone and
3 iron-
FOR [ 359 J FOR
Vitrified Iron-ore, all vitrified, calcined, • and incorporated. On
Forts. the north fide, the rampart conlifts of broken pieces of
v——v~"”' rock, which have the appearance of having been torn
to pieces by fome extraordinary violence. If the cal¬
cined compaft wall exifts under them, it is not at pre-
fent vifible.”
Such are the defcriptions of the moft remarkable of
thefe curious fortifications, which of late feem to have
engaged the attention of the learned in a confiderable
degree. We have already taken notice, that by fome
they are fuppofed to be the works of art, by others
the produ&ions of a volcano. Mr Cardonnel adopts
the opinion of Mr Williams as the moft probable, both
with refpedft to their ufe and manner of conftru&ion.
Mr Tytler takes notice of the remarkable difference
of opinion among thofe who have viewed the places
in queftipn. “ It is curious to remark (fays he)
how the fame appearances, to different obfervers, lead
to the moft oppofite opinions and conclufions. The
two gentlemen above-mentioned (Mr Williams and
Dr Anderfon), feem not to have entertained the fmall-
eft doubt, that the vitrified materials on the tops of
thefe hills were the veftiges of works of art, and the
remains of ftru&ures reared for the purpofes of fecu-
rity and defence. The bifhop of Derry, when on a
tour to the north of Scotland, vifited the hill of Craig-
Phadrick near Invernefs, and expreffed his opinion,
that the mounds of vitrified matter were not the re¬
mains of any artificial work, but the traces of an an¬
cient volcano. In the Phil. Tranf. of the Royal So¬
ciety of London for 1777, Part II. n°20. is an account
of Creek Faterick, there termed a Volcanic hill near In-
•vernefs, in a letter from Thomas Weft, Efq; to Mr
Law, F. R. S. in which the writer does not hefitate
to pronounce this hill an extinguiftred volcano : and
having fent fpecimens of the burnt matter for the in-
fpeftion of the Royal Society, the fecretary fubjoins
a note to the paper, intimating, that thefe fpecimens
having been examined by fome of the members well
acquainted with volcanic productions, were by them
judged to be real lava. Such was likewife the opinion
of the late Andrew Croibie, Efq; who, in an account
which he gave to the Philofophical Society of Edin¬
burgh in 1780, offered fome very curious conjeSures
with regard to the procefs of nature, by which he fup¬
pofed the whole of this hill to have been thrown up
from the bottom of the fea by the operation of inte-
ftine fire.
Mr Tytler agrees with thofe who think the vitrified
ftru&ures to be artificial works ; but he differs from
Mr Williams and others, who think that they were vi¬
trified on purpofe for cementing the materials toge¬
ther. His reafon for this is, that the number of forts
that (how marks of vitrification is inconJiderable when
compared with thofe that do not. He therefore con-
fiders the vitrification as accidental; and that it muft have
been accomphfhed in the following manner. In the rude
ftate in which we muft fuppofe Scotland to have been
in early times, it is very probable that their buildings,
both for habitation and defence, would be frequently
conftrufted of loofe ftones of an irregular (hape ; of
which, by themfelves, it would fcarce be pollible to fa¬
bricate a wall of any tolerable ftrength. Hence it
became neceffary to ufe wood as well as ftone in their
conftruftion. This kind of building then, in our au¬
thor’s opinion, was begun by raifing a double row of Vitrified
pallifades or ftfong (lakes in the form of the intended FHrts'
itruCture, in the fame way as in that ancient mode of
building deferibed by Palladio under the name of riem-
piuta a cajpiy or coffer-work. Thefe flakes were pro¬
bably warped acrofs by boughs of trees laid very clofe-
ly together, fo as to form two fences running parallel
to each other at the diftance of fome feet, and fo clofe
as to confine all the materials of whatever fize that
were thrown in between them. Into this intermediate
fpace Mr Tytler fuppofes were thrown boughs and
trunks of trees, earth and ftones of all fizes, large or
fmall as they could quarry or collect them. Very little-
care would be neceffary in the difpofition of thefe ma¬
terials, as the outward fence would keep the mound
in form. In this way it is eafy to conceive that a very
ftrong bulwark might be reared with great difpateh ;
which, joined to the natural advantage of a very inac-
ceffible fituation, and that improved by artful contri¬
vances for increafing the difficulty of accefs, would
form a (Irudture capable of anfwering every purpofe of
fecurity or defence. The moft formidable attack a-
gainil fuch a building would be fire, which would
no doubt be always attempted, and often with fuccefs,
by an enemy who undertook the fiege. If the befiegers
prevailed in gaining an approach to the ramparts, and,
furrounding the external wall, fet fire to it in feveral.
places, the conflagration muft fpeedily have become u-
niverfal, and the effedt may be eafily imagined. If
there happened to be any wind at the time to increafe
the heat, the ftony parts could not fail to come into
fufion; and as the- wood burnt away, finking by their
own weight into a folid mafs, there would remain a
wreck of vitrified matter tracking the fpot where the
ancient rampart had flood ; irregular, and of unequal
height, from the fortuitous and unequal diftribution
of the ftony materials of which it had been compofed. ^
This conjecture appears very probable from their ap¬
pearance at this day. They do not feem to have ever
been much higher than they are at prefent, as the
fragments that have fallen from them, even where the
wall is lowed, are very inconfiderable. The durable
nature of the materials would prevent them from fuf-
fering any changes by time; though, from the gradual
increafe of the foil, they muft in fome places have loft
confiderably of their apparent height, and in others
been quite covered. Mr Williams, in making a cut
through the ramparts at Knockfarril, found in many
places the vitrified matter covered with peat-mofs halF
a foot thick.
In confirmation of this opinion, our author likewife
urges, that in the fortification on Craig Phadrick, a
large portion of the outward rampart bears no marks
of vitrification. The reafon of this feeing to be, that the
fteepnefs of the hill on that fide renders a low fence of
ftones and turf fufficient; and no wood had probably
been employed in its conftrudlion. “ It appears there¬
fore highly probable (concludes our author), that the
effeft of fire upon thefe hill-fortifieations has been en¬
tirely accidental;. or, to fpeak more properly, that fire,
has been employed, not in the conftrudlion, but to¬
wards the demolition of fuch buildings: and for the
latter purpofe it would certainly prove much more ef¬
ficacious than for the former. It is much to be doubt¬
ed, whether it would be at all poffible, even in thepre.-
fenb:
V 0 n [ 360 ] FOR
v Wrificd fent dayj by the utmdPc combinritioa of labour and of
, Foits- fiiiHj to furround a large fpace of ground with adouble
”~~v rampart of ftones compadled by fire, of fuch height
andfolidity as to anfwer any purpofe of fecurity or de¬
fence againft an enemy. Any Itru&ure of this kind
muft have been irregular, low, fragile, eafily fcaled,
and quite infecure ; a'much weaker rampart, in fliort,
than a fimple wall of turf or wooden pallifade. The
veftiges yet remaining, as I have already obferved, give
no room to fuppofe that the vitrified mound has ever
been much more entire than- it is at prefent. The ef¬
fect of fire upon ftru&ures reared in the manner I have
fuppofed them to have been, will account moft per-
fedly for their prefent appearance. It was from ne-
ceflity that the builders of thefe fortifications betook
themfelves to a mode of-ftrufture fo liable to be de-
ftroy«d by fire. In thofe parts where ftones could be
eafily quarried, of fuch fize and form as to rear a ram-
-• part by themfelves of fufficient ftrength and folidity,
there was no occafion to employ wood or turf in its
conftrudfion; and it was therefore proof againft all af-
faults by fire. ' Such are the ramparts which appear on
the hill of Dun-Jardtl, Dun-Evan, and many others,
on which there is not the fmalleft appearance of vitri¬
fication. But on Craig Phadrick, and the other hills
above defcribed, where, from the nature of the rock,
the ftones could be procured only in irregular and ge¬
nerally fmall fragments, it was neceffary to employ
fome fuch mode of conftruftion as I have fuppofed ;
and thefe ramparts, though folid aad well calculated
for defence againft every attack by force or ftratagem,
were not proof againft an afl'ault by fire.”
Mr Cordiner is of opinion, that the vitrifications in
- queftion cannot have been the works of art, and ridi¬
cules the contrary hypothefis ; though without addu¬
cing any argument againft It. The Hill of Noth is
by him fuppoftd to have been a volcano. He de-
fcribes it as “ a moft majeftic mountain, in general
brown, with mofs and heath, interfperfed with bare
rock, in many places crumbling down. The higheft
part of it is a circular hill, whofe verdure, as well as
height, diftinguiihes it from the reft of the mountain.
This is called the Top of Noth; and bears theftrongeft
refemblance to every defcription of a volcanic mount.
At the diftance of many miles, one can diftinguifh
thofe ridges which are the boundaries of the crater, in¬
dicating the hollow in the top.” The gentleman from
whom Mr Cordiner received the account of the vitrifi¬
cations on the fummit, informs us, that on firft feeing
fpecimens of them, he imagined that they had been pie¬
ces of ftone calcined by the burning down of a caftle;
as he had found ipmething very like them on the
cattle-hill at Cullen, in parts where the fward of grafs
was broken : but on reaching the top, and viewing
the appearances on it already defcribed, he altered his
opinion. “ That men hardly befet (fays he) might
climb up with fome provifqms to this as a place of re¬
fuge, is probable: but that, on a barren mountain-
top, far from cultivated ground, half a day’s journey
from the plain ; that there, In any period of fociety,
man (hould have been tempted to build that amazing
rampart, is not to be imagined: they have found it a
natural and extenfive fortrefs, and in critical circum-
fiances have made ufe of it accordingly. That it has
■been occupied as a place of ftrength and of refuge, is
N°iz9.
very evident; for, fome hundred yards down lower on Vitrified
the hill, there are the remains of another rampart or F°m.
wall, confifting of loofe ftones piled together without ““"V—"
any cement, carried quite round the hill. Thislaft has
been built for an additional defence to thdfe who made
their abode on the top. The top of Noth, for two‘-
thirds downwards, is covered with a green fward ; be¬
low that, it is brown with heath : this is the very re-
verfe of the adjacent mountains; and the greater ver¬
dure of the upper part I imputed to a new foil created
by the afhes of the volcano. The opening, called a
w//, I fuppofe to have been the lateft crater. About
a mile fouth, down towards the lower grounds of the
Cahrock, there is a very pretty*Vegular green hill,
which I aferibe to a later eruption'than thofe which
may have formed the contiguous hills now covered
with heath. There is an extraordinary luxuriant fpring
of water ruihes out at once from the fide of the hill of
Noth ; which is likewife fome confirmation of the o-
pinion that a volcano has fome time exilted there,
which has occafioned great hollows and refervoirs of
water in the heart of the mountain. And the wild ir¬
regularities of nature through all the Cabrock, the hi¬
deous and ft range projeftion of rocks from the fides
of the hills, would feem to indicate fome vaft con-
vulfions which the earth mult have fuffered in thefe
parts.
“ The traces of ancient volcanoes (fays Mr Cor¬
diner) are far from being unfrequent in Scotland.
The hill ofFinhaven is one inftance ; and not only
abundant in this fpecies of lava, but with tarras, or
the pulvis puteolanus, an amalgama, as Condamine calls
it, of calcined ftones mixed with fcorias and iron-ruft
reduced to powder. The hill of Beregonium, near
Dunftaffage caftle, is another, yielding vaft quantities
of pumices or fcoria of different kinds; many of which
are of the fame fpecies with thofe of the volcanic Ice¬
land. The noble affemblage of bafaltic columns at
Staffa, thofe in the Ifle of Sky, and the rock Humble,
are but fo many evidences of the ancient volcanoes of
this country. And finally, the immenfe ftratum of pu-
mex vitreus or Iceland agate, on the hill of Dun-fuin
in Arran, is the laft proof I ftiall bring in fupport of
the queftion.”
On this difpute we can only obferve, that whatever
fide we embrace, the difficnlties feem to be very great,
nay almoft infurmountable. When we confider the
great thicknefs of the walls on the top of Noth, from
8 to rz feet, and the vaft mound of vitrified matter, no
lefs than 40 feet in breadth, mentioned by Mr Tytler,
we can fcarce conceive it poffible that lefs than a vol¬
canic fire could be able to form them. We may eafily
allow, that, in the way this gentleman mentions, there
might be confiderable vitrifications formed ; but that
fuch immenfe maffesfhould be brought into perfect fu-
fion by the fmall quantity of fuel which could be put
round them in palifades, or intermixed with the mate¬
rials themfelves, will he incredible to every one ac¬
quainted with the extreme difficulty with which ftones
of any magnitude are brought into complete fufion. We
fee even in the infides of Furnaces, though fometimes
built of no more unfufible. materials than common
brick, no fuch eftefts follow. There is a flight vitri¬
fication indeed, but it fcarce ever penetrates to the
depth of an inch or two, though very violent fires are
FOR t 361 ] FOR
Vitrified kept up for a much longer time than we could fuppofe
Forts tije wood furrounding thofe walls to require for its be-
ing confumed. In conflagrations, w^'-re houfes are
confumed, which are the only ft. ..<1. examples we
have, no fuch effect is perceived. Even in the great
fire at Loadon in 666, where fo many buildings were
dellroyed, we do not hear of their walls being vitri¬
fied, though the materials of many of them were un¬
doubtedly as fufibl’ as the rocks and ftones of Craig-
Phadrick, :.v _'op of Noth. If, on the other
hand, we reject this, and adhere to the volcanic hypo-
thefis, our difficulties are equally -• rest. For where
ffiall we find in any other part of the world an ex¬
ample of volcanoes ejecting lava q e form of walls
inclofing a regular area ■ This would be attributing
fuch a Angularity to the volcanoes of Scotland as the
molt extravagant imagination cannot admit. We muff
therefore conclude, that though thefe ruins are cer¬
tainly the works of art, we have hot yet fufficient data
to decide the queftion with refpeft to their conftruc-
tion, but that the fubjeft requires a farther invefti-
gation.
In the paper already quoted,MrTytlerobferves, that
“ thefe ancient fortifications prefent a more curious and
interefting objedf of fpeculation, than thofe uncertain
and indeed fruitlefs conjeftures as to the mode in which
they have been reared.” This, he juftly obferves, muff
have been before the ufe of mortar was known ; for as
the country abounded in limeftone, and the build-
crsr certainly would exert all their powers in giving
them a proper degree of ftrength, it would undoubted¬
ly have been ufed. Hence we are led to afcribe to
thefe a very confiderable degree of antiquity; for as
the Britons were taught the ufe of mortar by the Ro¬
mans, it is probable that we muff date the origin of
the ftrudlures in queftion before the time of the inva-
fion of that people, or at leaft foon after it: fo that
we muft look upon them to be more than 1650 years
old ; but how far beyond that period we are to fearch
for their origin, does not appear. “ All that we can
conclude with certainty (fays our author) is, that they
belong to a period of extreme ^barbarifm. #They muft
have been conftrudted by a people fcarcely removed
from the ftate of favages, who lived under no impref-
fion of fixed or regulated property in land; whofe only
appropriated goods were their cattle ; and whofe fol»
fecurity, in a life of conftant depredation, was the re¬
treat to the fummits of thofe hills of difficult accefs,
which they had fortified in the beft manner they could.
As the fpace inclofed was incapable of containing a
great number of men, efpeeially if occupied in part by
cattle, it is prefumable, that thefe retreats were form¬
ed chiefly for the fecurity of the women and children
of the canton and of their herds. They could be de¬
fended by a few men, while the reft of the tribe were
engaged with their enemies in the field.”
Our author concludes his differtation with a conjec¬
ture, which indeed feems well fupported, that the
forts in queftion were conftrudfed, not only before the
Roman invafion, but before th“ introduftion of the
rites of the Druids into Britain ; as “ there appears no
probability that the inhabitants either lived under fuch
a government as we know to have prevailed under the
influence of the Druids, or had any acquaintance with
•thofe arts which it is certain they cultivated.”
Vol.VII. Parti.
FORTALICE, in Scots knv, fignified anciently a Fortrlicft
fmall place of ftrength, originally built for the defence ^ .
of the country ; and which on that account was for-. ° ’ ,
merly reckoned inter regalia, and did not go along with
the lands upon which it was fituated without a fpecial
grant from the crown. Now, fortalices are carried by
a general grant of the lands; and the word is become
fynonymous with manor-place, meffuage, &c.
FORTESCUE (Sir John), lord chief juftice of
the king’s bench, and lord high chancellor of England,
in the reign of king Henry VI. was defcend^d front
the ancient family of Fortefcuej in the county of De¬
von. He ftudied the municipal laws of England in
Lincoln’s Inn, of which he was made one of the go¬
vernors in the fourth and feventh years of the reign of
king Henry VI. In 1430 he was called to the degree
of a ferjeant at law, and in 1441 was conftituted the
king’s ferjeant. The following year he was made lord
chief juftice of the king’s bench; in which honourable
ftation he continued till near the end of that king’s
reign, who ffiowed him many particular marks of his
favour, and advanced him to the poll of lord high
chancellor of England. During the reign of king Ed¬
ward IV. he followed the fortunes of the houfe of Lan-
cafter, and was many years in exile with queen Mar¬
garet and prince Edward her fon. At length, they
having a profpeft of retrieving their defperate for¬
tunes, the queen and prince returned to England, and
Sir John Fortefcue, with many others, accompanied
them : but foon after the decifive battle of Tewklbury,
he was thrown into prifon and attainted, with other
Lancaftrians; but found means to procure his pardon
from Edward IV. He wrote, 1. A learned com¬
mentary on the politic laws of England, for the ufe of
prince Edward ; to one edition of which Mr Selden
wrote notes. 2. The difference between an abfolute
and limited monarchy, as it more particularly regards
the Engliffi conftitution (which was publiflred, with
fome remarks, by John Fortefcue, afterwards lord For¬
tefcue, in 8vo, in 1714; and a fecond edition was
publiffied, with amendments, in 1719) : And feveral
works, which ftill remain in manufcript. He died near
90 years of age ; and was buried in the parifh church
of Ebburton, where a monument was erefled to his
memory, in 1677, by one of his defcendants.
FORTH, one of the moft noble and commodious ri¬
vers in Scotland. It takes its rife near the bottom of
Lomond hills ; and running from weft to eaft, receives
in its paffage many confiderable ftreams, deriving their
waters from the eminences in the midland counties of
North Britain. Between Stirling and Alloa, the Forth
winds in a moft beautiful and furpriling manner; fo
that, though it is but four miles by land, it is 24 by
water between thofe two places. Below Alloa the
river expands itfelf to a great breadth between the
counties of Lothian and Fife, till at Queen’s-ferry it
is contracted by promontorfes (hooting into it from
both coafts ; fc that, from being four or five, there it
is not above two miles broad. In the middle of the
channel lies a fmall iflartd called Inchgarvy, which has
a fpring of freffi water : upon the ifland there is an
ancient fort, which has been lately repaired; and if
there were either forts or blockhoufes on the oppofite
promontories, that part of the river which lies between
Alloa and Queens-ferry would be -as feeure and conve-
Z z nient
* View of
the Britijh
Empire,
vol. ii.
P-JI8.
FOR [ 362 ] FOR
nient a liarbour as could be defired. A little below
this, near the north ihore, lies Inchcomb, on which
are the remains of an ancient monaltery of connderable
extent ; and oppofite to Leith Hands the illand of
Inchkeith, formerly fortified, but now in ruins. Be¬
low Queens-ferry the north and fouth {bores receding,
the bocly of the water gradually enlarges till it be¬
comes two or three leagues broad, affording feveral
fafe harbours on both fides, and excellent roads through¬
out, unembarraffed with latent rocks, fhoals, or fands;
and allowing fecure anchorage to the largdl Ihips with¬
in a league of the coaft in almoft any part of the
Frith, and to veffels of a fmaller fize within a mile or
lefs. The Firth, or (as it is commonly written) the
Frith, of Forth, is, at the mouth of it, from North
Berwick to Fifenefs, full five leagues broad; having the
little iiland of May (on which there is a light-houfe,
and there might alio be a fort) in the middle of it, and
to the weft of this the rocky ifiand of Bafs; notwith-
ftanding which, the largeft fleet may enter and fail up
it many miles with the utmoft facility and in the great-
eft fafety. In 1781, Admiral Parker’s fleet lay fome
weeks oppofite to Edinburgh, accompanied by 500 fail
of merchantmen, the whole in full view of the city and
caftle.
The Forth was known to the ancients by the name
of Eodotria, or (as Ptolemy calls it) Boderia, and has
betfn ever famous for the number of its havens: fome
of which are, indeed, in their pi'efent condition, fcarce
worthy of that name. It is navigable for merchantmen
as high as Alloa, 50 miles from the fea; and for coaft¬
ers as far as Stirling, 24 miles further by water, though
only four by land in a diredl line, as already obferved.
The tide flows only a full mile above Stirling to a
place called Craigforth, where the proprietor intercepts
the paffage of the falmon by a cruive or weir, very in¬
jurious to the large traft of country, which ftretches
as far as Lompnd w’eftward. The river from Stir¬
ling to the bridge of Aberfoil, at the entrance into the
Weft Highlands, is only paffable for man or horfe at
few places, and thefe in ’dry feafons. It glides gently
through a dead flat, from Gartmore eaftward ; “ and
on thefe accounts (fays Mr Knox*) it might be made
navigable for barges, at a trifling expence to the pro-
prietprs of the lands, an improvement much wanted in
a rich, extenfive, and populous valley, without market
towns, coal and lime. Suppofing this work to be ex¬
ecuted, of which there is fome probability, the whole
extent of navigation on the Forth, will, including all
its windings, exceed 200 miles, through a coaft of
nearly 100 miles; fertile, populous, induftrious; and
from Stirling eaftward, almoft lined wfith towns, an¬
ciently the feats of commerce and navigation, till they
were ruined by the Englifti depredations; in which mi*
ferable ftate fome of them Hill remain, while others
begin to refume the appearance ofbuiinefs. The prin¬
cipal objedt of thefe towns jras the filheries, which
they profecuted with great vigour as far as Iceland,
till the time of the Union, from which period the eaft>
ern fifheries gradually dwindled away ; and the poor
fiftiermen, unable to fubfift themfelves upon air and
water, took up the trade of fmuggjipg ; but fo fooa
as the filhery laws ftiall be amended, the fait duties a-
boliftied, and an adequate bounty extended to boats
as well as buffes, thefe people will readily fall into the
track of their anceftors, live by honeft induftry, and
add new vigour to our naval ftrength. Many of the
ports are nearly choaked up, others want repairs,
which neither the individuals nor the corporations of
thofe decayed places can accomplifh. Though the
harbours on- the Forth are in general fmall, the depth
of water might be made fufficient for veffels of 200
tons burden, which fully anfwers the purpofes of their
coafting and Baltic trade; but to obtain this, or even
a lefs depth of water, an aid of 50,000 1. would be re-
quifite.”
By this river and the Clyde, Scotland is almoft di¬
vided into two parts. The Forth falls into the eaft fea.
below Edinburgh, and has an eafy communication with
the whole eaftern coaft of Great Britain; with France,
Oftend, Holland, Hamburgh, Prufiia, Dantzie, Ruffia,
Sweden, Denmark, Norway, and Greenland. The Clyde
falls into the Atlantic ocean below Glafgow, and com¬
municates with the weftern coaft of Great Britain; with
Ireland, the fouth of France, Portugal, Spain, theMe-
diterranean, America, and the Weft Indies. Thefe
two rivers, thus falling in oppofite dire&ions into the
two feas which environ our ifland, and the neck of
land between them amounting fcarcely to 24 miles,
gave rife to the idea of a junftion, fo as to open a
communication acrofs the kingdom, and thereby cut
off the long dangerous navigation by the Land’s End
and the Pentland Frith : an object of vaft utility, and
which has lately been happily accomplifhed. See the
article Canal.
F O R T I F I
HE art of fortifying a town, or other place ; or
of putting them in fuch a pofture of defence, that
every one of its parts defends, and is defended by,
fbme other parts, by means of ramparts, parapets,
moats, and other bulwarks ; to the end that a fmall
number of men within may be able to defend them¬
felves for a confiderable time againft the affaults of a
numerous army without, fo that the enemy in attack¬
ing them muft of neceflity fuffer great lofs.
The origin and rife of fortification is undoubtedly
owing to the degeneracy of mankind. In the firft ages
of the world, men were difperfed up and down the
CATION;
countries in feparate families, as we are told in the hi-
ftories of the Jews and Scythians, who wandered from-
one place to another, for the fake of finding pafturc
for their cattle. Thefe families became in time fo nu¬
merous as to form large communities, which fettled all
together in a place ; from whence villages and towns
had their origin and rife : but they found it was ne-
ccffary, for the common fecurity, to furround thofe
towns with walls and ditches, to prevent all violences
from their neighbours, and fudden furprifes. This was
fufficient for fome time, till offenfive weapons were in¬
vented, and conquering became a falhion. Then walls
with
$«a.
r.
FORTIFICATION.
with loop-holes were made at proper diftances, in or¬
der to fcreen the defenders againft the arrows of the
affailants : but finding that, as foon as the enemy got
once clofe to the walls, they could from no part be
difcovered or repulfed; for this reafon they added fquare
towers at proper diftances from each other, fo that
every part of the wall might be defended by the adja¬
cent fides of the towers. However, this manner of
inclofing of towns was found to be imperfeft, becaufe
there remained ftill one of the faces of the towers
which fronted the field that could not be feen from any
other part, and therefore could not be defended. To
remedy this, they made the towers round inftead of
fquare, imagining this figure to be the ftrongeft to re¬
fill the battering engines, as likewife to be better de¬
fended from the other parts of the wall.
Notwithftanding the fuperiority of this method a-
bove the former, there remained yet a part of thefe
towers unfeen and incapable of being defended; which
made them change the figure of the towers again ;
that is, they made them fquare as before ; but, inftead
of prefenting a face to the field as formerly, they pre-
fented an angle ; by this means they effedtually found
out fuch a difpofition of their works, that no part
could be attacked without being feen or defended by
fome other part.
This laft method was in ufe a long while; and would
in all probability have continued to this day, if gun¬
powder had not been found out: but the violence of
the guns and mortars foon convinced the world, that
fuch towers and walls were but a weak defence againft
thefe thundering engines; and befides, as the nature
of the attack was entirely changed, it was alfo necef-
fary to change that of fortifying likewife.
From that time ramparts were added to the walls,
the towers enlarged into baftions, and all forts of out¬
works have been added, fuch as ravelins, counter¬
guards, horn and crown works, and others of the like
nature, in order to render the defence in fome meafure
equivalent to the attack.
Notwithftanding all the improvements which have
been made in the art of fortifying fince the invention
of gun-powder, that of attacking is ftill fuperior to it:
engineers have tried in vain to render the advantages of
a fortification equal to thofe of the attack; the fupe¬
riority of the befiegers fire, together with the greater
number of men, obliges generally, fooner or later, the
befieged to fubmit.
The greateft improvement made in the art of at¬
tacking happened in the year 1697, when M. Vaukan
made firft uie of ricochet-firing at the fiege. of Ath,
whereby the befieged.placed behind the parapets were
as much expofed to the fire of the befiegers as if there
had been none ; whereas, before, they had been fe-
cure as long as the parapet was not demoliftied : and
the worft is, that there can be no remedy found to
prevent this enfilading, without falling into inconve-
niencies almoft as bad as thofe which we endeavour to
avoid.
Fortification is either regular or irregular. Re¬
gular fortification, is that built in a regular polygon,
the fides and angles of which are all equal, being com¬
monly about a mulket-fhot from each other. Irregular
fortification, on the contrary, is that where the fides
and angles are not uniform, cquidiftant, or equal ;
363
which is owing to the irregularity of the ground, val- Vauban's
leys, rivers, hills, and the like. Method.
Sect. I. Of Regular Fortification.
Althouuh authors agree as to the general form in
the prefent manner of fortifying, yet they moftly differ
in particular conftruftions of the parts. As it would
be both needlefs and fuperfluous to treat of all the dif-
fetjjnt methods hitherto propofed, we {hall contept
ourfelves with explaining thofe only which are moll
efteemed by the bell judges, and have been moftly put
in practice. •
Confrullion of M. Vauban's Method.
This method is divided inio little, mean, and great ;
the little is chiefly ufed in the conftru&ion of citadels,
the mean in that of all forts of towns, and the great in
particular cafes only.
We {hall give the conftrudtion of the mean, as being p*atei
moft ufeful ; and refer the reader to the table hereaf- ^^^*
ter, for thofe dimenfions which are different in thefe fe-
veral fortifications.
Infcribe in a circle a polygon of as many fides as the
fortification is defigned to have fronts ; let AB be one
of the fides of half an hexagon, which bifedl by the
perpendicular CD ; divide half AC of it into nine
equal parts, and one of thefe into ten others; then
thefe divifions will ferve as a fcale to conftruft all the
parts of the fortification, and each of them is fuppo-
fed to be a toife or fathom, that is, fix French feet;
and therefore the whole fide AB is fuppofed to be 180
toifes.
As the dividing a line into fo many equal parts is
troublefome and tedious ; it is more convenient to have
a fcale of equal parts by which the works may be con-
ftrufted.
If therefore, in this cafe, the radius is taken equal
to 180 toifes, and the circle deferibed with that radius
being divided into fix equal parts, or the radius being
carried fix times .round, you will have an hexagon in-
feribed; AB being bifefted by the perpendicular CD
as before, fet off 36 toifes from C to D, and draw the
indefinite lines ADG, BDF ; in which take the parts
AE, BH, each equal to 50 toifes; from the cen¬
tre E deferibe an arc through the point H, meeting
AD in G, and from the centre H deferibe an are
through the point E, meeting BD in F ; or which is
the fame, make each of the lines EG, HF, equal to
the diftance| EH ; then the lines joining the points
A, E, F, G» H, B, will be the principal or outline of
the front.
If the fame conftrudlion be performed on the other
fides of the polygon, you will have the principal or
outline of the whole fortification.
If, with a radius of 20 toifes, there be deferibed
circular arcs, from the angular points B, A, M, T,
and lines are drawn from the oppofite angles E, H,
&c. fo as to touch thefe arcs, their parts ab, be. See*
together with thefe arcs, will reprefent the outline Of
the ditch.
Definitions.
1. The part FEALN, is called the baftion,
2. AE, AL, the faces of the baftion.
3. EF, LN, the flanks.
4. FG, the curtain.
Z z 2
5‘
I
364
Of
Orilions.
Plate
CXCVII.
F O R T I F
5. FN, the gorge of the baftion.
6. AG, BF, the lines of defence.
7. AB, the exterior fide of the polygon.
8. CD, the perpendicular.
9. Any line which divides a work into two equal
parts, is called the capital of that work.
10. " a be, the counter'fcarp of the ditch.
11. A, M, the flanked angles.
12. H, E, L, the angles of the fhoulder, or Ihoul-
der only.
13. .G, F, N, the angles of the flank.
14. Any angle whofe point turns from the place is
called a faliant angle, fuch as A, M : and any angle
whofe point turns towards the place, re-entering angle,
fuch as b, F, N.
15. If there be drawn two lines parallel to the prin¬
cipal or outline, the one at 3 toifes diftance, and the
other at 8 from it; then the fpace y x included between
the principal one and that fartheft diftant, is called
the rampart.
And theripace x x, contained by the principal line,
and that near to it, and which is generally ftained
black, is called the parapet.
CATION. Sea. I.
16. There is a fine line drawn within four feet of Of
the parapet, which expreffes a ftep called banquette. Ravelins.
N. B. All works have a parapet of three toifes
thick, and a rampart of 8 to 10, befides their fiopes. cxcvif
The rampant is elevated more or lefs above the level
of the place, from to to 20 feet, according to the na¬
ture of the ground and the particular conftru&ions of
engineers.
The parapet is a part of the rampart elevated from
6 to y^-ifeet above the reft, in order to cover the troops
which are drawn up there from the fire of the enemy in
a fiege; and the banquette is two or three feet higher
than the rampart, or about four feet lower than the
parapet; fo that when the troops ftand upon it, they
may juft be able to fire over the parapet.
17. The body of the place, is all that which is con¬
tained within this firft rampart: for which reafon, it is
often faid to conftrudt the body of the place ; which
means propeily, the conftru&ion of the baftions and
curtains.
18. All the works which are conftrufted beyond
the ditch before the body of the place are called out¬
works.
TABLE.
X
Forts.
Side of Polyg. I I 22 | 122 I 112 j L£2 I I3°
Perpendicul. ; 10 ! i_i ! I2^ ! H j _V5 j
Faces bUT j 22 j 25 1 ~z8 30 j 33 I 35
Cap, of ravel. 1 25 1 28 1 30 1 35 1 38 1 40
Little Fortif.
140 I 150 I 160 j 170
_42 42
45 ‘ 5°
23!
_45
5° I
180 I 190
Gteat. |
200 j 260I
_55 r_22
60 1 30!
In the firff vertical column are the numbers ex-
preffing the lengths of the exterior fides from 80 to 260.
In the fecond, the perpendiculars anfwering to tln-fe
fides. In the third, the lengths of the faces of ba¬
ftions ; and in the fourth, the lengths of the capitals of
the ravelins.
The forts are moftly, if not always, fquares : for
which reafon, the perpendiculars are made one-eighth
of the exterior fides ; becaufe if they were more, the
gorges of the baftions would become too narrow.
The little fortification is chiefly defigned for citadels,
and are commonly pentagons; the perpendiculars are
made one-feventh of the exterior fide :• the mean is u-,
fed in all kinds of fortifications from an hexagon up¬
wards to any number of fides: and the great is feldom,
ufed but in an irregular fortification, where there are
fonie fides that cannot be made lefs without much ex¬
pence ; or in a town which lies near., a.great river,
where the fide next the river is made from 200 to 260.
toifes ; and as that fide is lefs expofed to be attacked
than any other, the perpendicular is made ftiorter,
which faves much expence.
The faces of the baftions are all ^ths of the exte¬
rior fides, or nearly fo, becaufe the fra&ions are ne-
glefted.
It may be obferved in general, that in all fquares the
perpendicular is -jth of the exterior fide, and all penta¬
gons ^th, and in all the reft upward -gth.
I. Conjlruclum of Orillons and retired Flanks.
Describe the front MPQJR.ST as before, and-di-
vj4e the flank into three equal parts, of which fuppofe
S r to be one : from the oppofite flanked angle M draw
a line M r, in which take the part r of 5 toifes ; take
likewife Rn in the line of defence M R, produced,
equal to 5 toifes, and join « m, upon which as a bafe
deferibe the equilateral triangle npm, and from the
angle p, oppofite to the bafe as centre, is deferibed the
circular flank « m.
And if Sr be bife&ed by the perpendicular 1,2, and.
another be eredted upon the face S T, at S; the inter-
fedtion 2 of thefe two perpendiculars will be the cen¬
tre of the arc which forms the orillon.
The oriilons are very ufeful in covering the retired
flanks, which cannot be feen but diredlly in the front;
and as thefe orillons ate round, they cannot be foeafily.
deftroyed as they would be if they wer? of apy other-
figure.
2. ConJlru8ion of Ravelins or Half-moons.
Fig. 2. Set off 55 toifes, from the re-entering,
angle O of the counterfcarp, on the , capital OL or
on the perpendicular produced, and from the point
L draw lines to the fhoulders A B ; whofe parts LM,,
LN, terminated by the counterfcarp, will be the faces,
and MO, ON, the femi-gorges of the ravelin requi¬
red.
This is MrVauban’s methodof conftrudfing ravelins, .
according" to fome authors : and others will have the;
faces of the ravelin to terminate on thofe of the baftions
within 3 toifes of the ftioulders ; which feemsto be the
beft way, for thefe ravelins cover the flanks much bet¬
ter than the others.
The ditch before the ravelin is 12 .toifes, its counter-.
fearp,,
r on tiri c a t i o nr.
<3.
Plate OXCT1I.
Sefl. I. F O R T I F
of fcarp parallel to the faces of the ravelins ; and is made
Ten allies. jn a c;rcular arc, before the faliant angle ; as likewife
all ditches are in general.
CXCVII When the ravelins are made with flanks, as in fig. 3.
the faces ftiould terminate on thofe of the baftions, at
lead 5 -toifes from the (boulders.
The flanks are made by fetting off 10 toifes from
the extremities of the faces, from f to h, and from m to
/; and from the points h, /, the flanks //>, are
drawn parallel to the capital LO of the ravelin.
There are fometimes redoubts made in the ravelin,
fuch as in fig. 2. which is done by fetting off 16 toifes
from the extremities of the faces on the femi gorges;
from N to £, and from M to a ; and from the points b,
a, the faces are drawn parallel to thofe of the Ravelin :
the ditch before the redoubt is 6 toifes, and its coun-
terfearp parallel to the faces.
3. ConJlruBlon of Tenailles.
A tenaille is a work made in the ditch before the
curtains, the , parapet of which is only 2 or 3 feet
higher than, the level ground of the ravelin. There
are three different forts : the firft are thofe as in fig. 4.
which are made in the direction of the lines of defence,
leaving a paffage of 3 toifes between their extremi¬
ties and the flanks of the ballions, as likewife another
of 2,.in the middle for a bridge of communication to
the ravelin.
The fecond fort are thofe as in fig. 5. Their fa¬
ces are in the lines of defence, and 16 toifes long, be-
fides the paffage of 3 toifes between them and the
flanks of the baftions ; their flanks are found by de-
feribing arcs from one ftxouldtr of the tenaille as centre
through the other, on which are fet off jo toifes for the
flanks defined.
And the third fort are thofe as in fig. 6. Their fa¬
ces are 16 toifes, as in the lecond fort, and the flanks
are parallel to thofe of the baftions.
The ufe in general of tenailles, is to defend the bot¬
tom of the ditch by a grazing (ire, as likewife the. le¬
vel ground of the ravelin, and efpecially the ditch be¬
fore the redoubt within the ravelin, which can be de¬
fended from no where elfe fo well as from them.
The firft fort do not defend the ditch fo well as the
Others, as being too oblique a defence ; but as they
are not fubjedt to be enfiladed, M. Vauban has gene¬
rally preferred them in the fortifying of places, as may
be feen in the citadel of Lille, at Landau, New Brifac,
and in a great many other places.
The fecond fort defend the ditch much better than
the firft, and add a low flank to thofe of the baftions;
but as thefe flanks are liable to be enfiladed, they have
apt been much put in practice. This defedt might
Kowever be remedied, by making them fo as to be co¬
vered by the extremities of the parapets of the oppofite
ravelins, or by fome,other work..
As to the third fort, they have the fame .advan¬
tage as ihe fecond', and are likewife liable to the fame
objections; for which reafon, they may be ufed with
the fame precautions which.have been mentioned in the
fecond.
Tenailles are efteemed fo neceffary, that there is
ffardly any place fortified without them : and it is not
without, reafon... For when, the ditch is dry, the part
[CATION. 365
behind the tenailles ferves as a place of arms, from
which the troops may fally, deftroy the works of the Lunettes,
enemy in the ditch, oppofe their defeent, and retire   ^
with fafety ; and the communication from the body of p]ate
the place to the ravelin becomes eafy and fecure: CXCVIt.
which is a great advantage ; for by that means the ra¬
velin may be a much better defence, as it can be
fupplied with troops and neceffaries at any time. And
if the ditch is wet, they ferve as harbours for boats,
which may carry out armed men to oppofe the paf¬
fage over the ditch whenever they pleafe ; and the
communication from the tenailles to the ravelin, be¬
comes likewife much eafier than it would be without
them.
4. Conjlrucllon of Lunettes.
Fig. 7. Lunettes are placed on both fides of the
ravelin, .fuch as B, to increafe the (Length of a place :
they are conftrudted, by bifetting the faces of the ra¬
velin with the perpendicular LN ; on which is fet off
30 foifes from the counterfcarp of the ditch, for one
of its faces; the other face, PN, is found by making
the femi-gorge TP of 25 toifes; the ditch before the
lunettes is 12 toifes, the parapet 3, and the rampart 8*
as in the ravelin.
Tnere is fometimes another work made to cover the
faliant angle of the ravelin,, fuch as A, called bonnet, ,
whofe faces are parallel to thofe of the ravelin, and
when produced bifcCt thofe of the lunettes; the ditch
before it is 10 toifes.
There are likewife lunettes, fuch as D in fig. 8.
whofe faces are drawn perpendicular to thofe of the ra¬
velin, within a.third part from the faliant angle ; and
their femi gorges are only 20. toifes.
Thefe kind'of works may make a good defence, ,
and coft no very great expence.; for as they are fo near
the ravelin, the communication with it is very eafy,
and One cannot well be maintained till they are all three : <
taken.,
5. Conflruftion of Lenaillans.-
Fig. 9. Produce the faces of the ravelin beyond the
counterfcarp of the ditch, at a diftance MN of 30 toi¬
fes, and take on the counterfearp of the great ditch
15 toifes from the re-entering angle / to q, and draw
Ny; then yNM/ will be the tenailles required ; its
ditch is 12 toifes, that is, the fame as that of the rave¬
lin. Sometimes there is made a retired battery in the .
front of the tertaillons, as in B ; this .battery is 10,
toifes.from the front to which it is parallel, and lytoi- •
fes long.
There^are commonly retrenchments mad^ in the te»
naillons, fuch as O ; their parapets are parallel to the
fronts MN, and bifeft the fide yN; the ditch before -
this retrenchment is 3 toifes : and there is. a banquette :
before the parapet next to the ditch of about 8 feet, ,
called berm ; which ferves to prevent the earth of the
parapet (which feldom.has any revetment) from falling
into the ditch.
It is to be obferved, that the ravelin, before which ,
tenaiilons.are conftrueled, mull have its faliant angle
much greater than the former conftrudion makes them ; ;
otherwife the faliant angles of the tenaillons become
too acute ; for which, reafou we made the .capital of c
this,..
355 F O R T I F I
Of this ravelin 45 toifes, 'and the faces terminate within 3
guaTdT&c.toifes of the fhoulders-
1 '' 6. Conjlrudion of Counterguards.
CXCVII. Fig. 10, 11. When the counterguard is placed be¬
fore the ravelin, fet off 40 toifes on the capital of the
ravelin from the faliant angle A to the faliant angle B,
of the counterguard 5 and 10 from C to D, on the
counterfcarp of the ditch.
When the counterguard is before the bullion, fuch
as in fig, 2. its faliant angle F is 50 toifes from the fa¬
liant angle E of the baftion, and the breadth near the
ditch of the ravelin 10 toifes as before.
The ditch before the counterguards is 12 toifes, and
its counterfcarp parallel to the faces.
Counterguards are made before the ravelin on fome
particular occafions only ; but are frequently conftrutt-
ed before the baftions, as covering the flankswonderfully
well. Some authors, as Mr Blondel and Mr Coehorn,
will have them much narrower than they are here.
7. Conjlruet'ion of Tlorniuorks.
Fig. 12. Produce the capital of the ravelin be¬
yond the faliant angle A, at a diftanee AB of about
80 toifes; draw DBE at right angles to AB ; in
which take BD, BE, each equal to 55 toifes; and
on the exterior fide DE, trace a front of a polygon
in the fame manner as that of the body of the place,
making the perpendicular BF 10 toifes, and the fa¬
ces 30.
The branches D a, E£, of thehornwork, when pro¬
duced, terminate on the faces of the baftions, with¬
in 5 toifes of the Ihoulders. The ditch of the horn-
work is 12 toifes, and its counterfcarp parallel to the
branches ; and in the front terminates at the fhoul¬
ders, in the fame manner as the great ditch before the
baftions.
The capital of the ravelin before the front of the
born work is 35 toifes, and the faces terminate on the
fhoulders, or rather 2 or 3 toifes beyond them : and
the ditch before the ravelin is 8 toifes.
There are fometimes retrenchments made within the
hornwork, fuch as S, S ; which are conftrudted by
erecting perpendiculars to the faces of the ravelins,
within 25 toifes of their extremities. This retrench¬
ment, like all others, has a parapet turfed only with a
berm of 8 feet before it; as likewife a ditch from 3
to 5 toifes broad.
Fig. 13. When a hornwork is made before the ba-
ftiqn, the diftance DL of the front from the faliant
angle of the baftion is too toifes, and the branches
terminate on the faces of the adjacent ravelins within 5
toifes from their extremities ; all the reft is the fame as
before. .
8. CorflruBion of Cronvn-lvvrh.
Plate From the faliant angle, A (fig. 1.) of the ravelin,
pXCVUI. as a centre, defcribe an arc of a circle with a radius of
about 1 20 toifes, cutting the capital of the ravelin
produced at C; from the point C, fet off the cords
CB, CF, each of them equal to 1x0 toifes; and on
each of which, as an exterior fide, conftrudl a front of
a polygon of the fame dimenfions as in the hornwork ;
that is, the perpendicular Ihould be 18 toifes, the faces
CATION. Sea. I,
30, and the branches terminate on the faces of the ba- Of
itions within 25 toifes of the flioulders. Covert-
The ditch is 12 toifes, the capifid of the ravelin 35, ^cc‘f
and its ditch 8 ; that is, the fame as in the hornwork. piate
Sometimes the crownwork is made before the ba- CXCVltk
(lion, as in fig. 2. The arc i\defcribed from the fa¬
liant angle A of the baftion, with a radius of 120
toifes, as before; and the branches terminate on the
faces of the adjacent ravelins within 25 toifes of their
extremities: the reft of the dimenfions and conftruc-
tions are the fame as before.
Hornworks, as well as crownworks, are never made
bat wben a large fpot of ground falls beyond the for¬
tification, which might be advantageous to an enemy
in a fiege, or to cover fome gate or entrance into a.
town.
9. ConJlruBibn of Covert-iur-ys and Glacis.
Although we have not hitherto mentioned the co¬
vert-way, neverthelefs all fortifications whatfoever have
one ; for they are efteemed to be one of the moft effen-
tial parts of a modern fortification ; and it is certain,
the taking the covert-way, when it is in a good con¬
dition and well defended, is generally the moft bloody
aft ion of the fiege.
After having conftrufted the body of the place, and
all the outworks which are thought neceffary, lines are
drawn parallel to the outmoft counterfcarp of die
ditches, at 6 toifes diftant from it; and the fpace m n,
m n, included between that line and the counterfcarp,
will be the covert-way required.
Fig. 3. There is in every re-entering angle of the
counterfcarp a place of arms, m ; which is found by
fetting off 20 toifes from the re-entering angle a, on
both fides from a to b, and ftom a to c ; and from the
points b, c, as centres, arcs are defcribed with a radius
of 25 toifes, fo as to fnterfeft each other in d; then
the lines drawn from this interfeftion to the points b, c,
will be the faces of the places of arms.
If lines are drawn, parallel to the lines which termi¬
nate the covert way, and the places of arms, at 20
toifes diftant from them, the fpace x, x, x, between
thefe lines and thofe which terminate the covert-way,
will be the glacis.
At the extremities of the places of arms, are tra* ^
verfes made, fuch as v, <v, which ferve to inciofe them;
thefe traverfes are 3 toifes thick, and as long as the
covert-way is broad ; and a paffage is cut in the gla¬
cis round them, of about 6 or 8 feet, in order to have
a free communication with the reft of the covert-way.
There are alfo traverfes of the fame dimenfions be¬
fore every faliant angle of the baftion and outworks,
and are in the fame direftion as the faces of thofe works
produced ; and the thicknefs lies at the fame fide as the
parapets.
The paffages round thefe iaft traverfes are likewife
from 6 to 8 feet wide.
In each place of arms are two fally ports z z, which
are 10 or 12 feet wide, for the troops to fally out; in
time of a fiege they are ftuit up, with barriers or gates.
1 o. ConfiruQion of Arrows and Detached Redoubts.
An arrow is a work made before the faliant angles
of the glacis, fuch as A, fig. 3. It is compofed of a
6 parapet
Plate CXCYITI.
T O H T IP I C A T I O 1ST .
'-X
Sea. I. F O R T I F I
Of parapet of 3 toifes thick, and 40 long 5 and the ditch
Covert- before it 5 toifes, terminating in a flope at both ends,
ways, &c. rpjie communjcat;0n from the covert way into thefe
* " ’ arrows is 4 or 5 toifes wide ; and there is a traverfe, r,
eXCVill. at the entrance, of 3 toifes thick, with a paffage of 6
or 8 feet round it.
A detached redoubt is a kind of work much like a
ravelin, with flanks placed beyond the glacis ; fuch as
B : they are made in order to occupy fome fpot of
ground which might be advantageous to the befiegers;
likewife to oblige the enemy to open their trenches far¬
ther off than they would do otherwife.
Their diftance from the covert-way ought not to
exceed 120 toifes, that it may be tfcfended by mufket-
fhot from thence.
The gorge a 3 is 4c toifes; the flanks a c, bf, which
are perpendicular to the gorge, 10; and the faces c d,
/</, 30 : the ditch before it is 6 toifes, ending in Hopes
at both ends ; the covert-way 4 ; the branches of the
covert-way are 42 toifes long, or thereabouts ; the
faces of the places of arms y, y, which are perpendicu¬
lar to the branches, 10 ; and the other, which is paral¬
lel to them, 14.
The communication from the covert-way into the
redoubt, is 5 or 6 toifes wide ; and there is a traverfe
made juft at the entrance, and another in the middle
when it is pretty long. The parapets of this commu¬
nication terminate in a flope or glacis.
If thefe redoubts are above 50 toifes diftant from
the covert-way, the befiegers cany their trenches round,
and enter through the gorge ; by which the troops
that are in them are made prifoners of war, if they do
not retire betimes ; to prevent which, fome other out¬
works fhould be made to fupport them.
11. Conflruclion of Second Ditches and Covert-ways.
Fig. 4. When the ground is low, and water to be
found, there is often a ditch about 10 or 12 toifes
made round the glacis; and oppofite to the places of
arms are conftruded lunettes, beyond the ditch : fuch
as D, whofe breadth on the counterfcarp of the ditch
is 10 toifes, from b to a, and from c 10 d; and the
faces a L, d L, are parallel to thofe of the places of
arms; the ditch before them is from 8 to 10 toifes
wide.
The fecond covert-way is 4 toifes, the femi-gorges
of the places of arms, m, about 15, and the faces per¬
pendicular to the counterfcarp ; the fecond glacis is
from 15 to 18 toifes broad.
This fecond covert-way has traverfes every where,
in the fame manner as the firft.
12. Conjlru8ion of Pr(files.
A profile is the reprefentation of a vertical fe&ion
of a work ; it ferves to ftiow thofe dimenfions which
cannot be reprefented in plans, and is neceffary in the
building of a fortification. Profiles are generally con-
ftrufted upon a fcale of 30 feet to an inch. It would
be endlefs to deferibe all their particular dimenfions;
we (hall therefore lay down the principal rules only,
given by M. Vauban, on this fubjefl.
1. Every work ought to be at leaft 6 feet higher
than that before it, fo that it may command thofe be¬
fore it ; that is, that the garrifon may fire from all the
works at the fame time, with great and fmalT arftts, at
CATION. 367
the befiegers in their approaches. Not with Handing 0f
this fpecious pretence, there are feveral authors who _ t0^;ey- ^
objeft againft it. For, fay they, if you can difeover p!ate
the enemy from all the works, they can difeover, by CXCVUh.
the fame reafon, all the works from their batteries ; fo
that they may deftroy them without being obliged to
change their fituation, and thereby difmount all the
guns of the place before they come near it.
But if all the works were of the fame height, thofe
within cannot be deftroyed, till fuch time as thofe be¬
fore them are taken : guns might be placed in the co¬
vert-way and outworks to obftrudl the enemy’s ap¬
proach ; and when they come near the place, they
might be tranfported into the inner-works : and as the
body of the place would be much lower, the expence
would be confiderably diminifhed.
But when works are low, they are eafily enfiladed
by the ricochet batteries, which is a kind of firing with
a fmall quantity of powder, by giving the gun an ele¬
vation of 10 or 12 degrees: this might however be
partly prevented, by making the parapets near the fa-
liant angles, for .the fpace of 8 toifes on each fide, 5 or
6 feet higher than the reft of the works.
2. The covert-way ftiould be lower than the level-
ground, otherwife the body of the place muft be raifed
very high, efpeciaily where there are feveral outworks •
this is to be underftood only when the works exceed
each other in height, otherwife it need not be below
the level.
3. The bafes of all inward Hopes of earth fliould be
at leaft equal to the height, if not more.
4. The bafes of all outward Hopes of earth, two-
thirds of their heights.
5. The Hopes of all walls or revetments fliould be
one-fifth of their height; or one-fixth might perhaps
be fufficient: the height of a wall is eftimated from
the bottom of the ditch, and not from the beginning
of its foundation.
6. The Hopes of all parapets and traverfes are one-
fixth of their breadth ; that is, 3 feet towards the
field; or the infide, where the banquettes fliould be 3
feet higher than the outfide.
7. When the revetment of a rampart goes quite uj>
to the top, 4 feet of the upper part is a vertical wall
of 3 feet thick, with a fquare ftone at the top of it
proje&ing 6 inches; and a circular one below, or
where the flope begins, of 8 or 10 inches diameter:
they go quite round the rampart, and the circular pro-
jedfion is called the cordon.
Where the flraight part of the wall ends and the
flope begins, the wall is always made 5 feet thick;.
and the counterforts or buttreffes reach no higher than
that place.
8. When the rampart is partly walled and partly,
turfed, then one-fifth of the height which is turfed
muft be added to 5 feet, to get the thicknefs of the
wall above.
And having the thicknefr, of any wall above, by ad¬
ding one-fifth of its height from the bottom of the
ditch, the fum will be the thicknefs of the wall at the
bottom; but if a fixth part is only taken for the flope,
then a fixth part muft be added.
For inftance, fuppofe a rampart of 30 feet high from
the bottom of the ditch, and that 10 of which are to-
be turfed; then the fifth part of 10, which is 2, added
JLo
j68 T O R T I F I
Of to 5, gives 7 for the wall above ; and as this wall is
Forfifica 20 ^ett t^e fifth'of which is 4, and 4 added to
tion. t^ie thicknefs 7 above, gives 1 x for the thicknefs near
v the foundation.
Plate Fig. 1. Reprefents, in military peffpeftive, the pro-
CXC1X. files of the body of a place, the ravelin and covert-way ;
which gives a clear idea, of what is meant by a profile,
and from which thofe of all other works may be eafily
conceived.
Sect. II. 0/ Irregular Fortification.
The moft effential principle in fortification confifts
in making all the fronts of a place equally ftrong, fo
that the enemy may find no advantage in attacking
either of the fides. This can happen no otherwife in
a regular fortification fituated in a plain or even ground:
but as there are but few places which are not inegular
either in their works or fituations, and the nature of
the ground may be fuch as makes.it impra&icable to
build them regular without .too great expence ; it is fo
much the more neceifary to fhow in what confifts the
ftrength or weaknefs of a town irregularly fortified, fo
that the weakeft part may be made ftronger by addi¬
tional outworks ; as likewife, if fuch a place is to be
attacked, to know which is the ftrongeft or weakeft
part.
i. ConftruBion of an irregular place floated in an open
■ country.
If the place to be fortified is an old town inclofed by
a wall or ranipart, as it moft frequently happens, the
engineer is to confider well all the different circum-
ftances of the figure, fituation,jand nature of the ground;
and to regulate his plan accordingly, fo as to avoid the
difadvantages, and gain all the advantages poffible :
he fhould examine, whether by cutting off fome parts
of the old wall or rampart, and taking in fome ground,
the place can be reduced into a regular figure, or
nearly fo ; for if that can be done without increafing
the expence confiderably, it fhould by no means be
omitted. Old towns have often towers placed from
diftance to diftance, as Douay. Tournay; and many
other places, which are generally made ufe of, and
mended when it may be done. If there is a rampart
without baftions or towers, it muft be well confidered
whether baftions may not be added, or if it is not bet¬
ter to make only fome outworks: if the ditch about
this rampart is not too wide and deep, it would be ad¬
vantageous to make detached baftions ; otherwife ra¬
velins and counterguards muft be conftru&ed. Special
care muft be taken to make all the fides of the polygon
as nearly equal as poffible, and that the length of the
lines of defence do not exceed the reach of mufket-fhot;
but if that cannot be done, thofe fides which are on
the narroweft part fhould be made the longeft.
If it fhould happen that fome of the fides are inac-
ceffible or of very difficult approach > either on account
of fome precipice, marfhy ground, or inundation* they
may be made much longer than the others which are
of eaiy accefs, and the flanks need not be fo large as
the reft; by doing fo, there will be fome expences faved,
which may be ufed in making the other fides ftronger
by adding more outworks.
There are few fituations but what are more advan-
N°i30. 4
CATION. Sea. II.
tageous in fome parts than in .others ; it is therefore Of
the bufinefs of an engineer to diftinguifh them, and to
render thofe fides ftrpng by art which a.e not fo by 0^nca*
nature.   _ ,■
If the fituation is low and watery, lunettes or tenail- Plate
Ions, and fuch other fmall outworks, fhould be conftruc- CXCIX*
ted; becaufe they are not of any great expence, and
may make a very good defence. But if one fide of the
place only is low, and running water is to be had, a fe-
cond ditch and covert-way with lunettes may be made,
by obferving, that if the firft glacis is made to Hope,
fo as to become even with the level of the water in the ,
fecond ditch ; or if the water can be fwelled by means
of dykes or fluices, fo as to overflow the bell part of
the firft glacis, it fhould be done : for by fo doing
thefe works' will be able to make a very good defence,
fince the befiegers will find it a difficult matter to lodge
themfelves upon this glacis; which cannot be doye but
within a few toifes of the firft covert-w'ay, where the
befieged are ready to receive them, and to deftroy their
works with great advantage ; whereas the enemy can¬
not fupport their workmen but from the fecond covert¬
way, which is too far off to be of any great fervice td
theni. ^
But if the fituation is of a dry nature, without any ^
water about it, caponiers fhould be made in the great .
ditch, from the curtains to the ravelin, and batteries
raifed in the entrance of the ditch before the ravelin,
whofe parapet muft.Hope off into a glacis fo as to af¬
ford no cover for the enemy behind them. Arrows and
detached redoubts are likewife very proper to be ufed
in fuch a cafe; and fometimes horn or crown works, if
it fhould be thought convenient: but thefe works fhauld
never be conftru&ed without an abfolute neceffity, ei¬
ther to occupy a fpot of ground which might be ad¬
vantageous to the enemy, or to cover fome gate or en¬
trance into the town ; for they are of great expence,
and their defence feems not to be anfwerable to it.
Moft of the places in Flanders are fortified with horn-
wmrks, fuch as Ipres, Tournay, Lille, and others.
If the place to be fortified is new, and the fituation
will not admit of [a regular conftru&ton, particular
care muft be taken in choofing fuch a fpot of ground as
is moft advantageous, and leaf! liable to any difadvan¬
tages either in the building or in the maintaining of it.
All hills or rifing. grounds ftiould be avoided, which
might command any part of the works; marfhy grounds,
becaufe fuch fituations are unwholefome; or lakes and
Handing waters for the fame reafon, excepting a lake
is or may be made navigable. Good water fiiould be
had either within the place or near it, for it is abfo-
lutely neceffary4for men and cattle ; the air ftiould be
wholefome ; jjtherwife the continual ficknefs that may
reign in fuch a place might prevent people to come and
live in it, and the garrifori would not be in a condition
to defend themfelves as they ought to do. In fhort, all
the different circumftances attending fuch an underta¬
king (hcmld be maturely confidered before a refolution
is taken to fortify any place.
• . When a fituation is fixed upon, the next thing to be
confidered is, the bignefs of the town and the number
of its outworks ; wdiich muft abfolutely depend upon
the confequence fuch a place is of to a nation. If it is
only to guard a pafs or entrance into a country, it
need not be fo large: but if it is to be a place either to
promote
Plate CXC1X.
v-
I
I
Sea. II. F O R T I F :
Of promote or to protect trade, it (hould be large and com-
IrregnJar inocHous ; the llreets ihould be wide, and the buildings
F°tH>D regular and convenient. As to what regards the fortifi¬
er— -1— cation, its confti nation fhould depend oa the nature of
Plate the fituation, and the number of works, on the funds
CXCIX. or expehce a prince or a nation will be at; which,
however, ought to be according to the benefit arifing
from fivch a place: for as fuch undertakings are of very-
great expence, ah engineer cannot be too fparing in
his works; on the contrary, the greateft economy
fhould be ufed both in regard to the number of works
and to their conftrudtion. The body of the place may
have (a) revetments quite up to the top, or only in
part, and the reft turfed; but as to the outworks, they
fhould have half revetments, or they may be made
with turf only; as being not fo neceffary to prevent the
place from being furprifed, which may neverthelefs
make a good defence.
Fig. 2. is the plan of ah octagon, one half of which
is fimilar and equal to the othet half; it being fuppo-
fed, that the fituation would not admit of fortification
quite regular. The exterior fides are each t Bo toifes,
and the works are conftru&ed according to our me¬
thod : but becaufe the fides AB, FF, are weaker than
the reft, as has been proved before, we have added te-
nailles, redoubts in the ravelins, and lunettes, to ren¬
der them nearly equal in ftrength wijJI the others; and
if counter-guards were made before fne baftions A and
B, it would effectually fecure that front. Inftead of
4 lunettes, any other works may be made, as may be
^ thought convenient and according to the nature of the
ground. If it ftiould be judged necclfary to add other
outworks to the ravelins all round the place, care muft
be taken to add like wife more to the fronts AB, EF,
in order to render the advantages and difadvantages of
attacking on either fide equal.
2. ConJlruBlon of an Irregular place Jituated on a hill
or rock.
In the conftru&ion of fuch places, care muft be ta¬
ken that no neighbouring hill commands any part of
the works. The town Ihould always be built on the
higheft part; but if it ftiould be thought more conve¬
nient to place it lower, then the upper part muft.be For¬
tified with a fort. The fituation ftiould be made level
as near as poffible, by removing the earth from fame
places to fill up others; and if it cannot well be level¬
led without extraoidinary expence, works muft be made
on the higheft part, fo as to command and proteCt the
lower. The works ought to occupy all the upper part
of the bill; but if it ftiould be too extenlive to be all
inejofed, or fo irregular as not to be fortified without
great inconvenience, the parts which fall without fhould
be fortified with fome detached works, and a com¬
munication with the place muft be made either above
or.under ground. There Ihould be no cavity or hollow
roads within cannon-fliot round about the place, where
the enemy might be able to approach under cover. If
there Ihould happen to be a fpring near the top of the
hill, it Ihould be inclofed in the fortification; or if that
cannot be done, by fome work or other: for there is
You VII. Part I.
: C A T I O N. 369
nothing more neceffary, and at the fame time fcarcer, Of
in fuch fituations, than water; for which reafon-there !rre^lar
cannot be too much care in providing it: feveral ci- ^ion
fterns are to lie made to receive the rain-water, and ' > ■
to preferve it; wells fliould be dug b'kewife, though Plate
ever fo deep, the water of which will ferve for com- CXCIX.
mon ufe.
Places built on hills or rocks ftiould never be large;
for their ufe is generally to guard paffes or inlets into
a country, and are feldom ufefal in traffic ; and it is a
difficult matter to provide for a large garrifon in fuch
lituations, neither fiiould any fuch place be built with¬
out fome very material reafons: but when it is abfo-
lutely neceffary, great care and precaution Ihould be
taken to render the works as peifeft as the fituation
will admit of, and at the fame time to be as frugal in
the expence as poffible.
3. ConftruU'ton of irregular fortifications fitnated near
rivers y lakes, or the fea.
As the intent of building thefe kind of places is
chiefly to facilitate and protetl trade, they are of more
importance than any other kind, efpecially in mari¬
time countries, where the principal llrtngth and power
depends on them ; for which reafon, we ftiall treat
of this conftru&ion more largely than of any other.
The firft thing to be confidered is their fituation,
which ought to be fuch as to afford a good harbour
for (hipping, or a fafe and eafy entrance in ftormy
weather; but as it is hardly poffible to find any where
(hips may go in and lie fecure with all winds, care
(hould be taken to make them fafe to enter with thofe
winds which are moft dangerous : but it is not fuffi-
cient that the harbour is fate againft ftormy weather,
they (hould likewife be fo againft an enemy both by
land and water; for it often happens, that (hips are de-
ftroyed where it was imagined they were fecure, which
is of too great confequence not to beprovided againft;
for which reafon, forts or batteries muft be built in the
moft convenient places, to prevent the enemy’s (hips
from coming too ne?r, fo as to be able to cannonade
thole in the harbour, or fling (hells amongft them; and
if there is any danger of an enemy’s approach by land,
high ramparts and edifices muft be built, fo as to co¬
ver them.
When a river is pretty large, and it is not convenient
for making a harbour without great expence; the (hips
may ride along the (hore ; which, for that reafon, muft
be made acceffible for (hips of burden : this may be
done by advancing the quay into the river if the water
is too (hallow, or by digging the river fufficiently deep
for that purpofe.
And to prevent an enemy from coming up the river,
forts muft be built on both fides, efpecially when there
are any turnings or windings. Antwerp is fuch' a
place: for the Scheld is fufficiemly deep to carry drips
of great burden, which may come quite near the town-
wall; and feveral forts are built below it on both fides,
fo that it would not be an eafy matter for an enemy to
come up the river.
When the river is but fmall, fo that no drips of bur-
3 A den ‘
(a) Revetments are chiefly made to prevent a place from being furprifed: outworks do not want to be made
fo ; the taking them by firrprife is of no great confequence, except in a fiege, when other cautions are ufed to
prevent it.
37°
Of
Irregular
Fortifica-
Plate
exax.
rig-3-
F O R T I F I
den can come through it, it is fufficient to make it run
through fome of the works, where proper landing-places
are contrived, from whence the goods may be carried
in to the place ; as at Sarrelouis, where a hornwork is
built beyond the Sarre, in the gorge of which the
goods are landed.
If the breadth of the river does not exceed 200
yards, it, commonly pafTes through the middle of the
town, and proper quays are made on each fide; in
fuch a cafe, the fortification is fo contrived, as that
the river paffes through the curtain, in order to have
a baftion on each fide to defend the coming in and go¬
ing out.
When M. Vauban fortified near rivers, he made al¬
ways the exterior fide near the water much longer than
any of the others; fuch as Hunninghen on the Rhine,
and Sarrelouis on the Sarre; but for what reafon he
fortified thefe places in that manner, has not been told
by any author.
But it is plain that the fides which terminate at the
river are the weakeft; becaufe the beiiegers trenches
being fecured by the river, they may draw moft of their
troops off, and adl therefore with more vigour and
ftrength on the other fide: befides, as the ftrength of
a fide increafes in proportion as the angle of the poly¬
gon is greater, by making the fide next the river
longer, the angles at its extremities became wider, and
confequently the adjacent fides ftronger.
There are other advantages, befides thofe mention¬
ed already, which arife from the lengthening that fide:
for if the river is pretty deep fo as not to be fordable,
that fide is not liable to be attacked; and by increa-
ling its length, the capacity of the place increafes much
more in proportion to the expence, than if more fides
were made; the centre of the place will be likewife
nearer the river, which makes it more convenient for
tranfporting the goods from the water-fide to any part
of the town.
To illuftrate this method of M Vauban’s, we {hall
give the plan of Hunninghen : this place was built for
the fake of having a bridge over the Rhine, for which
reafon he made it only a pentagon ; the fide AB next
to the river is 200 toifes, and each of the others but
CATION. Sea. IL
About the fpace abc, which lies before the front Of
AB, is a tlone wall 5 and the paffages x x are {hut up Irr<Xu,ar
with fluices, to retain the water in the ditches in dry
feafons: and to prevent an enemy from dellroying the , / ' j
fluice near the point c, whereby the water would run Plate
out and leave the ditches dry, the redoubt y was built OXCIXl
in the little illand hard by, in order to cover that
Ouice ; without which precaution the place might be
infulted from the river fide, where the water is lhallow
in dry feafons.
The hornwork K beyond the Rhine was built to co¬
ver the bridge ; but as this woik cannot be well de¬
fended crofs the river, the horawork H was made to
fupport the other.
Before finifiring the defeription of this plan, we {hail
{how how to find the long fide AB.
After having inferibed the two fides GE, GF, in a \
circle, draw the diameter CD, fo as to be equally di-
ftant from the line joining the points E F that is
parallel to it. On this diameter fet off ioo toifes on
each fide of the centre; from thefe points draw two in¬
definite perpendiculars to the diameter; then if from
the points E F, as centres, two arcs are deferibed with
a radius of 180 toifes, their interfedtions A and B,
with the faid perpendiculars, will determine the long
fide AB, as likewife the other two FB and EA. In
like manner may be found the long or Ihort fide of any
polygon whatfoever.
When a place near a river is to be fortified for the
fafety of commerce, particular care Ihould be taken in
leaving a good fpace between the houfes and the wa¬
ter-fide, to have a key or landing place for goods
brought by water; it fiiould alfo be contrived to have
proper places for fhips and boats to lie fecure in ftormy
weather, and in time of a fiege ; and as water-carriage
is very advantageous for tranfporting goods from ono
place to another, as likewife for bringing the neceffary
materials, not only for building the fortifications, but
alfo the place itfelf, the expenccs will be lelftned con-
fiderably when this convenience can be had ; for which
reafon, places fhould never be built any wheie elfe but
near rivers, lakes, or the fea ; excepting in extraordi¬
nary cafes, where it cannot be avoided.
FOR
FORTIN, Foarrlet, or Field-fort, a fconce or
little fort, whofe flanked angles are generally 120 fa¬
thoms diftant from one another.
The extent and figure of fortins are different, ac¬
cording to the fituation and nature of the ground; fome
of them having whole bafiions, and others demi-ba-
ftions. They are made ufe of only for a time, either
to defend the lines of circumvallation, or to guard fome
paflage or dangerous poft.
FORTISSIMO, in mufic, fometimes denoted by
FEE, or ///, fignifies, to ling or play very loud or
ftrong. . , I .
FORTITUDE, a virtue or quality of the mind,
generally conlidered as the fame with Courage ; tho’
in a more accuiate fenfe they feem to be diftinguifh-
able. Courage may be a virtue or a vice, accoiding
tq cirCumttances ; fortiiude is always a virtue: we fpeak
FOR
of defperate courage, but not of defperate fortitude. Fort'tud*
A contempt or negledf of danger, without regard to y——'
confequences, may be called courage ; and this fome
brutes have as well as we: in them it is the effedl
of natural inftindf chiefly ; in man it depends partly
on habit, partly on ftrength of nerves, and partly on
want of confideration. But fortitude is the virtue of
a rational and confiderate mind, and is founded in a
fenfe of honour and a regard to duty. There may be
courage in fighting a duel, though that folly is more
frequently the efteft of cowardice : there may be cou¬
rage in an ail of piracy or robbery; but there can be
no fortitude in perpetrating a crime. Fortitude im¬
plies a love of equity and of public good ; for, as Plato
and Cicero obfdrve, courage exerted for a felfifh pur-
pofe, or without a regard to juftice, ought to be called
audacity rather, tliau fortitude.
I. This
/
FOR [ 37i 1 FOR
!Fortitiu!e, This virtue takes different names, according as it
^Fortuna. afts jn oppofition to different forts of evil; but fome
y of thofe names are applied with confiderable latitude.
With refpeft to danger in general, fortitude may be
termed intrepidity ; with refpeCt to the dangers of war,
’valour-, with refpeft to pain of body or diflrefs of
mind, patience; with refpedt to labour, activity; with
refpeCt to injury, forbearance; with refpedt to our con¬
dition in general, magnanimity.
Fortitude is very becoming in both fexes ; but cou¬
rage is not fo fuitable to the female character : for in
women, on ordinary occafions of danger, a certain de¬
gree of timidity is not unfeemly, becaufe it betokens
gentlenefs of difpofition. Yet from thofe of very high
rank, from a queen or an emprefs, courage in emer¬
gencies of great public danger would be expedted, and
'the want of it blamed ; we fhould overlook the fex,
and confrder the duties of the Hation. In general,
however, mafculine boldnefs in a woman is difagree-
able ; the term virago conveys an offenfive idea- The
female warriors of antiquity, whether real or fabulous,
Camilla, Thaleftris, and the whole community of Ama¬
zons, were unamiable perfonages. But female cou¬
rage exerted in defence of a child, a hufband, or a near
relation, would be true fortitude, and deferve the high-
eft encomiums.
The motives to fortitude are many and powerful.
This virtue tends greatly to the happinefs of the in¬
dividual, by giving compofure and prefence of mind,
and keeping the other paflions in due fubordination.
To public good it is eflential; for without it, the in¬
dependence and liberty of nations would be impofiible.
It gives to a charadler that elevation which poets, ora¬
tors, and hiftorians, have in all ages vied with one an¬
other to celebrate. Nothing fo effeftually infpires it
as rational piety ; the fear of God is the beft fecurity
againft every other fear. A true eftimate of human
life; its fhortnefs and uncertainty; the numberlefs
evils and temptations to which by a long continuance
in this world we muft unavoidably be expofed; ought
by no means to difcourage or to throw any gloom on
our future profpe&s: they flrould teach us, that many
things are more formidable than death; and that no¬
thing is loft, but much gained, when, by the appoint¬
ment of Providence, a well-fpent life is brought to a
conclufion.
Let it be confidered too, that pufillanimity and fear-
fulnefs can never avail us any thing. On the contra¬
ry, they debafe <W nature, poifon all our comforts,
and make us defpicable in the eyes of others; they
darken our reafon, difconcert our fchemes, enfeeble
our efforts, extinguifh our hopes, and add tenfold
poignancy to all the evils of life. In battle, the brave
foldier is in lefs danger than the coward ; in lefs dan¬
ger even of death and wounds, becaufe better prepared
to defend himfelf; in far lefs danger of infelicity; and
has before him the animating hope of viftory and ho¬
nour. So in life, the man of true fortitude is in lefs
danger of difappointment than others are, becaufe his
iinderftanding is clear, and his mind difencumbered ;
he is prepared to meet calamity without the fear of
finking under it; and he has before him the near pro-
fpedt of another life, in which they who pioufly bear
the evils of this will obtain a glorious reward.
FOBTUNA, a goddefs worihipped with great de¬
votion by the ancient Greeks and Romans; who be- Fortunate,
lieved her to prefxde over human affairs, and to diftri- F<)r!u 'e'.
bute wealth and honour at her pleafure. See For¬
tune.
FORTUNATE-ISLANDS, in ancient geography,
certain iflands (concerning the lituation of which au¬
thors are not agreed) famous for the golden apples of
the Hesperides.—The common opinion is, that they
are, the Canary IJlandt.
FORTUNE a name which among the an¬
cients feems to have denoted a principle of fortuity,
whereby things came to pafs, without being neceffi-
tated thereto : but what and whence, that principle is,
they do not feem to have ever precifely thought.
Hence their, philofophers are often intimating, that
men only framed the phantom Fortune to hide their
ignorance ; and that they call Fortune whatever befals
a man without his knowing for what purpofe. Hence
Juvenal (fat. x. ver. 366.) affirms, they were men who
made a deity of Fortune.
Nullum nuwn abejij't fit prudent', a; fed te
NoS facimus. Fortune,, deam ^idoque locamus.
The ingenious Mr Spence gives another reading of this
paffage:
Nullum numen babes, f, fit prudentia ; fed te
Nos facimus, Fortuna, deam cesloque locamus.
This reading, he thinks, agrees beft with the context:
Juvenal fays, ver. 356. that the two things we Ihould
pray for are good health and good fenfe ; that we
might be the authors of our own happinefs if we plea-
fed, ver 363; that virtue is the only way to true hap¬
pinefs, ver. 364; that if we ourfelves are prudent, For¬
tune has no power over us; and that, in truth, (lie is
no goddefs at all, and has only ufurped a feat in heaven
from the folly of mankind, ver. 366. Fortune was not
confidered as a deity by the old Romans, but was made
fo by the devotion and folly of the vulgar ; and Mr
Spence fays, that he has feen an ancient gem, in which
Cybele, the mother of the gods, is reprefented as turn¬
ing away her head from Fortune, in an attitude of
difowning and rejeftingher; (Polymetis, p. 150, 154.
&c.)
According to the opinion of the heathens, therefore,
fortune in reality was only the arrival of things in a
fudden and unexpe&ed manner, without any apparent
caufe or reafon : fo that the philofophical lenfe of
the word coincides with what is vulgarly called chance.
But in religion it had a farther force; altars and
temples in great numbers were confecrated to this
Fortune, as a deity. This intimates, that the hea¬
thens had perfonified, and even deified, their chance;
and conceived her as a fort of goddefs, wfio difpofed
of the fate of men at her pleafure. Hence that invo¬
cation of Horace, 0 diva,, gratum qua regis jlntium,
in the 35th ode ofthefirft book, where he recom¬
mends Auguftus, then preparing for a vifit to Britain, to
her protection. From thefe different fentiments it may
be inferred, that the ancients at one time took For¬
tune for a peremptory caufe, bent upon doing good to
fome, and perfecuting others; and fometimes for a
blind inconftant caufe, without any view or determina¬
tion at all.
If then the word fortune had no certain idea in the
mouth of thofe who ereCted altars to her, much lefs
can it be afeertained what it denotes in the mind o
3 A 2 thofe
Fortune
FOR r 372 ] FOR
thofe wLo flow ufe the vrord in their writings. They
who would fubfh'tute the name Providence in lien of
that of Fortune, cannot give any tolerable fenfe to half
the.phrafes wherein the word occurs.
Horace paints the goddefs, preceded by Neceftky,
holding nails and wedges in her hands, with a cramp-
iron, and melted lead to fallen it; rarely accompanied
with Fidelity, unlefs when {he abandons a family ; for
in that cafe Fidelity never fails to depart with her, as
well as fritnds.
She fs difreipaftfully fpoken of by moft of the Ro¬
man writers, and reprefented as blind, inconftant, un¬
juft, and delighting in mifclyef, [Ovid, adLro. ver. 52.
ver. 374. Hor. lib. i. od. 34. vef. 26. lib. Hi. oi. 29.
ver. 51. Statius, rrheb. xii. ver. 505.) However, they
had a good as well as a bad Fortune, a conftant and
inconftant Fortune; the latter of which was reprefent¬
ed with wings, and a wheel by her, [ffor. Wb. iii. od.
29. ver. 56.) Juvenal alludes to.a ftatue of Fortune,
which exhibited her under a very good chara&er, as
the patronefs of the poor infants that were expofed by
their parents in the ftreets, [Sat.Vi. ver. 605.)
The painters reprefent her in a-woman’s habit, with
a bandage before her eyes, to (how that Ihe acts with¬
out difeernmetrt; and ftanding on a wheel, to exprefs
her inftabiluy. The Romans, fays La&antius, repre-
fentecl her with a cornucopia, and Ihe helm of a Ihip,
to fliow that Ihe diilributes riches, and diredls the af¬
fairs of the world» In effeft, it is with fuch charafters
that we fee her reprefented on fo many medals, with
the iufcriptiorw, t ortvna avg. fortyna redvx. for-
tvnjv. avg. or RiiDvcis, &c. Sometimes (lie is feen
pointing at a globe before her feet, with a feeptre in
one hand, and holding the cornucopia in the other.
The Romans had a virile as 'well as a mulicbrian
Fortune, for the objefts of their adoration : the For-
turta virilis was honoured by the men, and the Fortuna
■muliebris by the women. They honoured Fortune alfo
under a variety of other appellations.
The Romans derived the worlhip of Fortune from
the Greeks, under the reign of Servius Tullius, who
dedicated the firft temple to her in the public market.
Nero alfo -built a temple to Fortune. The Fortune
Worfhrpped at Antium was probably of the moft ex¬
alted chara&er of any among the Romans; if we may
judge by the account which Horace gives us of the
great foiemn proceffions that were made to her, [Hor.
lib. i. od. 35. ver. 22.) But the moft celebrated tem¬
ple of Fortune was at Praenefte. Statius fpeaks of fe-
veral Fortunes there, and calls them the PraYieJimarfo-
rores, (Lib. i. Sylv. iii. ver. 80.)
FoRTUitE-Te/krs. Perfons pretending to tell fortunes
are to be puniftied with a year’s imprifonment, and
ftanding four times' on the pillory. Stat. 9 Geo. II.
FORTY-DAYS Court, the court of attachment or
nvoodmote, held before the verderors of the foreft once
every forty days, to inquire concerning all offenders
againft vert and venifon. See Attachment.
° FORUM, in Roman antiquity, a public ftanding
place within the city of Rome, where caufes were ju¬
dicially tried, and orations delivered to the peqple.
Forum was alfo ufed for a place of traffic, anfwer-
ing to our market-place. Thefe were generally called
5
fora 'octurltn; in eontradiftin&ion to tfle former, which Forum,
were called fora civilla. w—y—j
The fora civilia were public courts of juftice, very
magnificent in themfelves, and furrounded with porti¬
cos and {lately edifices; of thefe there were fix very
remarkable : 1. Forum Romanum. 2. 'Julianum. 3. An-
gnjhim. 4. Palladium. 5. Forum Yrajani. Forum Sa~
tnjlii. The Forum Romanum was the moft noted, and
is often called limply Forum, by way of eminence.
Here was the pleading place called Rojlrp, the Co mi¬
lium, the fanftuary of Saturn, temple of Cajlor, See.
See Rostra, Comitium, &c.
The fora vena/ia, or market-places, were very nume¬
rous. The chief of them‘were the fonim boarium for
oxen or beef; faarium for fwine ; ptjlorium for bread ;
cupedinarium for-dainties ; olitorium fur garden fluff.
The Grecian exaftly correfpond with the Ro¬
man fora, being places where courts and markets were
held. At Athens they had mzay fora, but the chief
of them were the old and the new.
Forum Indicere, was the aft of the prsetor appointing
the place in Rome where caufes were to be tried.
Agere forum denoted the bringing on caufes out of
R.ome, in a Roman province (Cicero, Suetonius); the
fame with agers conventum (Floras).
The term forum added to a proper name, denoted
fome market town or borough ; as,
Forum Allieni, a place mentioned only by Tacitus ;
and, from what he fays of it, thought to be Ferrara,
capital of the duchy of that name in Italy. E. Long.
12. 5. N. Lat. 44. 46.
Forum Appii (Cicero, Luke); a town of the Volfci,
in Latium, on the Via Appia, a little beyond the Tres
Tabernss; fet down in the Jerufalem Itinerary as fi-
tuated near the river Nymphaeus: now entirely ex-
tinft.
Forum Gornelii, a town of the Cifpadana, built by
Sylla : Now Imola, a city in the Romania, and terri¬
tory of the pope. E. Long. 12. 12. N. Lat. 44. 30.
Forum Domitii, a town of Gallia Narbonenfis: pro¬
bably built by AhenbBarbus Domitius, who command¬
ed in thofe parts : Now Frontignan, or Fr&ntigniac, in
Languedoc, near the Mediterranean. E.Long. 3. 3O.
N. Lat. 43. 3-d.
Forum Fulvii, a town of Liguria, furnamed Valen-
tinum; from which it is conjectured that it is now1
Palenza, in the duchy of Milan; which is confirmed
by Peutinger’s diftances. E. Long. 90. N. Lat45°.
Forum Gallorum, a fmall town of the Cifpadana, 6n
the Via iEmilia, eight miles from Mutina, beyond the
river Scultenna. Here Antony defeated Panfa, and
was in his turn defeated by Flirtius : Now Cafelfranco,
in the territory of Bologna.—Another Forum Gallorum,
a town of the Vafcones in the Hither Spain : Now
Gurrea, a fmall town of Arragon.
Forum Jidium. There are feveral towns of this
name ; as a Forum Julium, of Gallia Narbonenfis; or
Forojulium: NowYH/W, or Frejules, in Provence, at the
mouth of the Argens. Forum Julium Carnorum, to
the north of Aquileia, in the Tranfpadana : Now Civi-
dal di Friuli, formerly Cividal d’AuJlria, in the terri¬
tory of Venice.
Forum Jutuntorum, a town of the Infubres, in the
Tranfpadana : Now Crema, capital of the Cremafco,
^ J / / //sr/sr .
Plate CCI.
IT O S SIL
• j//t /Aj
^r' .
F O S [ 373 ] F O S
in the territory of Venice. E. Long. Vo. 15. N. Lat.
45'
Forum LiVti, a town of the Semnones, in the Cif*
padana : Now Forli, in Romania. E. Long. 12,45.
N.Lat 44. 25.
Forum Seguftattorurn, fitnated on the eaft fide of the
Liger, in Gallia Celtica : Now Fears, on the Loire,
in the Lionnois, capital of the territory of Forez. E.
Long. 4. 15. N. Lat. 45. 44.
Forum Iibe.ru, a town of the Pagus Tigurinus, in
Belgica, on the left or Couth fide of the Rhine : Now
Kuyjerjlull; literally the tribunal of Tiberius, which he
held there when commander in the Rhetian war.
Forum Fulcani (Strabo); the Campi Phkgraei of
pliny: a place in Campania, encampafled with reeky
eminences, near Puteoli, and diilar.t from it two miles
towards Naples, emitting fmoke, and in Come places
dame, like a large extendve furnace, and yielding ful*
phur ; Now called Solfatara, in the Terra di Lavoro.
Forum, is alfo ufed, among cafuifts, &c. forjurif-
didiion ; thus they fay, In faro legis, 8ic.
FOSS, or Fosse, in fortification, See. a ditch or
moat. The word is French, formed of the Latin par¬
ticiple fojfum, of the verb fodio" I dig.”
Foss, Fajpi% in anatomy, a kind of cavity in a bone,
with a large aperture, but no exit or perforation.
When the apeituie is very narrow, it is called afmus.
Foss is particularly ufed for the cavity or denture in
the back part of the neck.
FOSSA magna, or navicularis, is an oblong ca¬
vity, forming the infide of the pudendum mttliebre, and
which prefects itfelf upon opening the labia; and in
the middle whereof are the caruncule myrtiformes. See
Anatomy, p. 470.
Fossa, in our ancient cuftoms, was a ditch full of
water, where women committing felony were drowned;
as men were hanged; Nam et ipji in omnibus tenementis
fids omnem ah antiquo legalem habuere jujlitiam, videlicet
ferrum, fvjjiim, fureas, et Jimilia. In another fenfe it is
taken for a grave, as appears by thefe old verfes:
Hie jiUcnt ill f’jjfa Bedes veheratilis iff
Hie ej) fijfatus, qui bis erat hie catbediutus.
Foss-lVay was anciently one of the four great Ro¬
man high-ways of England: fo called, according to
Cambden, becaufe it was ditched on both fides, which
was the Roman method of making highways.
FOSSARII, in antiquity, a kind of officers in
the eaitern church, whofe bufinefs was to inter the
dead.
Ciaconius relates, that Conftantine created 950
fofi'aries, whom he took out of the divers colleges
or companies of tradefmen: he adds, that they were
exempted from taxes, fervices, burdenfome offices, &c.
F. Goar, in his notes on the Greek Euchologion,
infmuates that the foflarii were eftablifhed in the times
of the apoftles ; and that the young men, who carried
off the body of Ananias, and thofe perfons full of the
fear of God, who interred St Stephen, were of the
number.
St Jerom affures us, that the rank of foffarii held the
firft place among the clerks; but he is to ,be underitood
of thofe clerks only who had the diredlion and intend¬
ance of the interment of the devout.
FOSSE, the Roman military-way in South Britain,
begins at Totnefs, and pafles through Exeter, Ivel- FolSh
cue iter, Shepton-Maliet, Bath, Circuceiler, Leicefler, ^ v ,
the Vale of Belvoir, Newark, Lincoln, to Barton up¬
on the Humber, being ftiil viable in feveral parts, tho*
of 1400 years {landing. It had the name from the fof-
fes or ditches made by the fides of it.
FOSSIL, in natural hiflory, denotes, in general, Plates
every thing dug out of the earth, whether they be na-CC.&CCI.
tives thereof, as metals, ftones, falts, earths, and other
minerals^ or extraneous, repofited in the bowels of the
earth by fome extraordinary means, as earthquakes, the
deluge. See. See Metal, Stone, &q.
Native foffils, according to Dr Hili, are fubtlances
found either buried in the earth, or lying oh its furface,
of a plain fimple ftru&ure, and fhowing no figns of
containing veffils or circulating juices. Thefe are fub-
divided by the fame author, 1. Into foffils naturally
and efientially fimple. Of thefe, fome are neither in¬
flammable nor foluble in water ; as fimple earths, talcs,
fibrariae, gypfum, felenitse, cryllal, and fpars : others,
though uninflammable, are foluble in water; as all the
fimple falts: and others, on the contrary, are inflam¬
mable, but not foluble in water; as fulphur, auripig-
mentum, zarnich, amber, ambergreafe, gagates, af-
phaltum, ampelites, lithanthrax, naphtha, and piflaf-
phalta. 2. The fecond general fubdivifion of fbffils
comprehends all fuch as are naturally compound, but
unmetallic. Of thefe, fome are neither inflammable,
nor foluble in water; as compound earths, ftones, fep-
tariae, fiderochita, femipellucid gems, See. others are
foluble in water, but not inflammable ; as all the me¬
tallic falts: and, laftly, fome are inflammable, but not
foluble in water ; as the marcafites, pyritae, and phlo-
gonia. 3. The third, and laft, general divifion of
foffils comprehends all the metallic ones ; which are
bodies naturally hard, remarkably heavy, and fufible
in fire. Of thefe, fome are perfe&ly metallic, as her
ing malleable when pure ; fuch are gold, lead, filver,
copper, iron, and tin-*: others are imperfe&ly metal¬
lic, as not being malleable even in their pureft ftate ;
fuch are antimony, bifmuth, cobalt, zinc, and quick-
Jilver or mercury. Of all which fnbftances, the rea¬
der will find a particular description under their re-
fpe&ive heads.
Extraneous foffils are bodies of the vegetable or ani¬
mal kingdoms accidentally buried in the earth. Of the
vegetable kingdom, there are principally three kinds,
trees or parts of them, herbaceous plants, and corals ;
and of the animal kingdom there are four kinds, fea-
fhells, the teeth or bony palates and bones of fiflies,
complete-fifhes, and the bones of laud-animals. See
Bones, Tree, Wood, Plant, Shell, &c.
Thefe adventitious or extraneous foffils, thus found
buried in great abundance in divers parts of the earth,
have employed the curiofity of feveral of our la-
teft naturalifls, who have each their feveral fyftem to
account for the furprifing appearances of petrefied fea-
fifhes, in places far remote from the , fea, and on
the tops of mountains; ftells in the middle of quarries
of flone ; and of elephants teeth, and bones of divers
animals, peculiar to the fouthern climates, and plants
only growing in the eaft, found foffile in our northern
and wellern parts.
Some will have thefe (hells, &c. to be real ftones,
and
F O S [ 374 ] F O T
and ftone plants, formed after the ufual manner of o-
° ter' ■ t*ier figured itones ; pf which opinion is the learned
" ' Dr Lifter.
Another opinion is, that thefe foffil (hells, with all
their foreign bodies found within the earth, as bones,
trees, plants, &c. were buried therein at the time of
the univerfal deluge ; and that, having been penetra¬
ted either by the bituminous matter abounding' chiefly
in watery places, or by the falls of the earth, they have
been preferved entire, and fometimes petrefied.
Others think, that thofe (hells, found at the tops of
the higheft mountains, could never have been carried
thither by the waters, even of the deluge ; inafmuch as
mod of thefe aquatic animals, on account of the weight
of their (hells, always remain at the bottom of the wa¬
ter, and never move but clofe along the ground. They
imagine, that a year’s continuance of the waters of the
deluge, intermixed with the fait waters of the fea, up¬
on the furface of the earth, might well give occafion
to the produdtion of (hells of diverfe kinds in different
climates; and that the univerfal faltnefs of the water
was tire real caufe of their refemblance to the fea-fliells,
as the lakes^brmed daily by the retention of rain or
ffpring water produce different kinds.
Others think, that the waters of the fea, and the
rivers, with thofe which fell from heaven, turned the
whole furface of the earth upfide down; after the fame
manner as the waters of the Loire, and other rivers,
which roll in a fandy bottom, overturn all their fands,
and even the earth itfelf, in their fwellings and inun¬
dations ; and that in this general fubveriion, the (bells
came to be interred here, fifties there, trees there, &c.
See Deluge.
Dr Woodward, in his Natural Hiftory of the Earth,
purfuing and improving the hypotlufis of Dr Burnet,
maintains the whole mafs of earth, with every thing
belonging thereto, to have been fo broken and diffol-
ved at the time of the deluge, that a new earth was
then formed on the bofom of the water, confiding of
different ftrata, or beds of terreftrial matter, ranged
over each other ufually according to the order of their
fpecific gravities. By this means, plants, animals, and
efpecially fifties and (hells, not yet diflblved among
the reft, remained mixed and blended among the mi¬
neral and foffil matters ; which preferved them, or at
lead; affumed and retained their figures and impreffions
either indentedly, or in relievo.
See more on this fubjedt under the article Eak.th,
paffim. See alfo Petrifactions and Strata.
Fossils Pitch. See Petroleum.
POSTER (Dr James), a moft diftinguifhed and
popular diffenting minifter, born at Exeter in 1697.
He began to preach in 17x8 ; and ftrong difputes ari-
fing foOn after, among the diffenters, concerning the
Trinity and fubfeription to tells, his judgment deter¬
mining him to the obnoxious opinions, the clamour
grew loud againft him, and occafioned more than one
removal. His talents were hid among obfeure coun¬
try congregations, until 1724; when he was chofen
to fucceed Dr Gale in Barbican, where,he laboured as
pallor above 20 years. The Sunday evening-ledture,
begun in the Old Jury meeting-houfe In 1728, and
which he condudted with fuch uncommon applaufe for
more than 20 years, indifputably ftiow-'ed his abilities as
•a preacher. Persons of all perfuafions and ranks in life
flocked to hear him : and Mr Pope has honoured him Fofter
with a commendatory couplet in his fatires ; which, |j
how’ev^f, his commentator laboured to deftroy the in- Fothergilk
tention of by a frivolous note. In 1746, he attended
the unhappy lord Kilmarnock, at his execution on
Tower-hill ; an office which thofe who lived with him
imagined made too deep an impreffion on his fympa-
thizing fpirit, as his vivacity abated from that time.
He died in 1753 ; after having publiftted feveral va¬
luable compofitions and fermons ; particularly, 1. A
Defence of Chriftianity, againft Tindal’s Chriftianity
as old as the Creation. 2. An Effay on Fundamentals.
3. Four volumes of Sermons. 4. Difcourfes on Natural
Religion and Social Virtue, in 4to.
Foster (Samuel), an ingenious Engliftx mathema¬
tician of the laft century, and aftronomical profeffor in
Greftxam college, was one of that learned affociation
which met for cultivating the new phiiofophy during
the political confufions, and which Charles 11. efta-
blifhed into .the Royal Society. Mr Fofter, however,
died in 1652, before this incorporation took place;
but wrote a number of mathematical and aftronomical
treatifes, too many to particularize. There were two
other mathematical ftudents of this name ; William
Fofter, a difciple of Mr Oughtred, u'ho taught in Lon¬
don ; and Mark Fofter, author of a treatife on trigo¬
nometry, who lived later than the former two.
FOTHER, or Fodder, is a weight of lead, con¬
taining eight pigs, and every pig one and twenty ftone
and a half; fo that it is about a ton or common cart¬
load. Among the plumbers in London, it is nineteen
hundred and a half; and at the mines it is two and
twenty hundred and a half. The word is of Teutonic
origin, hova fuder.
FO THERGILL (Dr George), was born in Weft-
moreland in 1705, where his family had been long
feated on a competent eftate that had defeended regu¬
larly for feveral generations. After an academical e-
ducation in Queen’s college, Oxford, of which he be¬
came a fellow, he w^as, in 1751, elefled principal of
St Edmund’s-hall, and prefented to the vicarage of
Brumley in Hampftn’re. Having been long affli&ed
with an afthma, he died in 1760. He was the author
of acolle&ion of much efteemed fermons, in 2 vols 8vo.
The firft volume confifts of occafional difcourfes, pub-
lilhed by himfelf; the fecond printed from his MSS.
Fothergill (Dr John), a late eminent phyfician,
fon of John and Margaret, quakers, was born in 1712,
at Carr End in Yorkshire, where his father, who had
been a brewer at Knarelborough (after having travel-
Ld from one end of America to the other), lived re¬
tired on a fmall eftate which he cultivated. The
Dodtor was the fecond of five children (four fons and
a daughter), and received his education under the care
of his grandfather Thomas Hough, a perfon of fortune
in Cheihire (which gave him a predile&ion for that
county ), and at Sedburg in Yorklhire. He afterwards
ferved his time to one Mr Bartlett an apothecary at
Bradford. From thence he removed to London, and
became a pupil of Dr (afterwards Sir Edward) Wil-
mot, at St Thomas’s Hofpital. He then went to the
univerfity of Edinburgh to ftudy phyfic, and took his
doctor’s degree there. From Edinburgh he went to
Leyden ; whence, after a (hort (lay, he returned to
London, and began to praftife about the year 1740,
is
F O T [ 375 ] F O T
Fothergil! Jn a houfe in White-hart Court, Lombard-ftreet, where
he relided during the greateft part of his life, and ac¬
quired moll of his fortune. In 1746, he was admitted
a licentiate of the college of phyficians in London ;
and in 1754 a fellow of that of Edinburgh, to v hich
he was a confiderable benefactor, fie afterwards be¬
came a member of the Royal Medical Society at Paris,
and a member both of the Royal and Antiquarian So¬
cieties. He continued his pradtice with uninterrupted
fuccefs till within the lall two years of his life, when the
illnefs which he had brought on himfelf by unremitted
attention, obliged him to give up a confiderable part of
it. Befides his application to medical fcience, he had
iiTibibed an early tafte for natural hilhory, improved by
his friend Peter Collinfon, and employed himfelf on co-
quillage and fmaller objedls of botany. He was for many
years a valuable contributor to the Gentleman’s Maga¬
zine ; u here his obfervations on the weather and difeafes
were begun in April 1 71; j ,and difconcinued in the begin¬
ning of 1 756, being difappointed in his views of exciting
other experienced phyficians in different parts to imi¬
tate the example. He had very extenlive praflice, but
he did not add to his art any great or various improve¬
ments. His pamphlet on the ulcerous fore throat is,
on every account, the belt of his publications; but
owes much of its merit to the information of the late
Dr Letheiland. It was firft printed in 1748, on the
re-appearance of that fatal diforder which in 1739 had
carried off the two only fons of Mr Pelham. In 1 762
Dr Fothergill purehafed an eftate at Upton in Efiex ;
and formed a botanic garden there, the fecond in Eu¬
rope : Kew is the firll. In. i 7 )6 he began regularly
to withdraw, from Midfummer to Michaelmas, from
the excefiive fatigue of his profeffion, to Lee- Hall, near
Middlewich, in Chefhire ; which, though he only rent¬
ed it by the year, he had fpared no expence to improve.
He took no fees during this recefs, but attended to
preferibe gratis at an inn at Middlewich once a-week.
In 1767, after he found himfeif obliged to relax his
attention to bafinefs, he removed from his houfe in the
city, to refide in Harpur-firett, Red-Lion Square.
Some time before his death he had been induftrious to
contrive a method of generating and preferving ice in
the Weft-Indies. He was the patron of Sidney Par-
kinfon, and drew up the preface prefixed to his account
of the voyage to the South fleas. At his expence al-
fo was made and printed an entire new tranflation of
the whole Bible, from the Hebrew and Greek origi¬
nals, by Anthony Furver, a quaker, in two volumes,
1764, folio, and alfo, in 1780, an edition of bifhop
Percy’s “ Key to the New Teftament,” adapted to the
ufe of a feminary of young Quakers, at Acworth, near
Leeds in Yorklhire, founded in l /jB by the Society,
who purchafed, by a fubfeription in which Dr Fother-
gill ftood foremoft, the houle and an eitate of thirty
acres which the Foundling Hofpital held there, but
which they found inconvenient fur their purpofe on
account of diftance. The Do&or himfelf firft projeft-
- ed this on the plan of a fmaller inftitution of the fame
kind at Gilderfomes. He alfo endowed it handfome-
ly by his will. It now contains above 300 children of
both fexes, who are cloathed and inftru61:ed. Among
tire other beneficent fchemes luggefted by Dr Fother-
gili vycre thofe of bringing filh to London by land car¬
riage, which, though it did not in every refpedt fueceed, "FothergiH,
tended to deftroy a fuppofed combination ; and of ren- Aithergiila-
dering bread much cheaper, though equally whole-   
fome, to the poor, by making it with one part of po¬
tatoes and three parts of houfehold flour. But his
public beuefa&ions, his encouragements of fcience, the
inflances of his attention to the health, the police, the
convenience of the metropolis, See. we cannot pretend
to fpecify. The fortune which Dr Fothergili had ac¬
quired was immenfe ; and, taking all things together,
the houfe and moveables in Harpur-ftreet, the property
in Elfcx, and the eftate in Chdhire (which he held on
a leafe), and his ready money, amounted to L.80,000.
His bufinefs when he was in full praflice was calcula¬
ted at near L. 7000 per annum. In the influenza of
1775 and 1776, he is laid to have had 60 patients on
his lift daily, and his profit was eftimated at L. 8000
per annum.
The diforder which haftened his death was a feir-
rhus of the proftata, and an obllruftion in the bladder
(in which were found after his death two quarts of
water), which had been gradually coming on him for
fix years pail, occafioned by a delicacy, which made
him unwilling to alight from his carriage ; and when,
after his temporary recovery from it the year before he
died, he fubmitted to ufe relief in his carriage, it was
too late. He died at his houfe in Harpur-ftreet, De¬
cember 26. 1780 ; and his.remains were interred, Ja¬
nuary 5. in the Quakers burying ground at Winch-
more-hill, whither they were accompanied by more
than 70 coaches and poft-chaifes, notwithftanding the
intention of the executors to have the funeral private.
The Doflor by his will appointed, that his fiiells, and
other pieces of natural hillory, Ihould be offered to the
late Dr Hunter at L. 500 under the valuation he or¬
dered to be taken of them. Accordingly Dr Huntec
bought them for L. 1200. The drawings and collec¬
tions in natural hiftory were alfo to be offered to Mr
(now fiir Jofeph) Banks at a valuation. His Englifli
portraits and prints, which had been colleded by Mr
John NickolL of Ware, and purchafed by him for 80
guim as, were'bought for 200 guineas by Mr Thane.
His books were fold by audion, April 30. 1781, and
the eight following days. His houfe and garden at
Upton, in which j 5 men were conftantly employed^
were valued at L. io,oco. He fpared no expence to
augment, this as well as his other colledions. He had
an ingenious artift qualified to colled for him at the
Cape of Good Hope, and another on the Alps, and
employed for feveral years before his death a painter in
natural hiftory at Leeds.
Dr Fothergill’s eharader was excellent. A tranf-
adion, indeed, with regard to one Dr Leeds, gave oev
cafion to fome of his enemies to blame him ; but how
unjullly, has been abundantly fhown by his biogra¬
phers Dr Elliott and DrLettfome. Befides the pam,-
phlet already mentioned, Dr Fothergill wrote a confi¬
derable number of Trads, which are now colleded in¬
to one volume 8vo, by Dr Elliott. He fometimes
wrote in the newfpapers, and is faid to have been the
author of more than too letters in the Gazeteer con¬
cerning the New Pavement.
FO FHERGILLA, in botany : A genus of the di-
gynia order,.belonging to the polyandria clafs-of plants.
The-
POT [ -s'
Fothering The calyx Is 1-obed, mod entire ; there Is no -corolla ;
the getmen bifid ; the capftde bilocular; and the cells
i ei 'u_1 two-valved ; the feeds folvtary and bony.
FOTHEHING, a peculiar method of endeavouring
to ftop a leak in the bottom of a fiiip while (lie is afloat,
either under-fail or at anchor. It is ufualty performed
in the following manner: A bafket is filled with allies,
cinders, and choped rope-yarns, and loofely covered
with a piece of canvas 5 to this is faftened a long pole,
by which it is plunged repeatedly in the water, asclofe
aspoffible to the place where the lake is conjectured to
lie. The oakhtim or chopped rope-yarns being thus gra¬
dually fhaken through the twigs, or over the top of
the bafket, are frequently fucked into the hole along
with the water, fo that the leak becomes immediately
choaked ; and the future entrance of the water is there¬
by prevented.
FOTHERINGAY, a town of Northamptonfhire,
about four miles from Staneford, fitmted on the river
Avon or Nen, and confiding of one dreet. Edward
duke of York in the reign of Henry V. founded and
endowed a fine collegiate church here, in which he was
interred. At the Diffolution the college and the choir
were pulled down, and the bodies of the founder and
his family left expofed till queen Elizabeth’s time, who
ordered them to be interred, and the prefent tnonu-
ments to be erected. On the north fide of the church
is a free fchool, founded by Henry VII. or Edward VI.
endowed with L.20 per annum for a mailer, payable out
of the exchequer by the receiver of the county. The
bridge over the river here was firlt built by queen E-
lizabeth, 1573, of timber, with three pillars upon the
foundation. Daniel, firft earl of Nottingham, and the
other truftees for William Saville, marquis of Halifax,
rebuilt it, in 172 2, of freellone from King’s Cliffe. On
the fouth-eaft fide of the Cliffe flood the caftle ; which
was of great antiquity and confiderable ftrength. Mary
queen of Scots, who had been in the cullody of Sir
Amias Powlet here, was tried and beheaded in the hall;
and her fon afterwards, forgiving and even taking into
favour her greateft enemy Cecil, only took the childifh
revenge of beating down the caftle ; which he lb com¬
pletely deraolifhed, that no morethan the earthworksnow
remain. Within the firft work is a farm-houfe with fomc
carved ftones wrought into it, and at the fouth-weft
corner of the inner trench are fome maffes of ftone-
•walls. Sir Robert Cotton. carried the wainfcot of the
hall to Connington.
FOU-tcheou, a city of China, in the province of
Fo-xien. It carries on a confiderable trade; but is
chiefly remarkable for the magnificence of its principal
bridge, which has more than 100 arches, conflru&ed
of white ftone, and ornamented with a double balu-
ftrade throughout. This city is the refidence of a
viceroy, and has under its jurifdi&ion nine cities of the
third clafs.
FOUGADE, or Fougasse, in the art of war, a
little mine, about 8 or 10 feet wide, and 10 or 12 deep,
dug under fome work or poft, which is in danger of
Falling into the enemy’s hands ; and charged with facks
of powder, covered with ftones, earth, and whatever
elfe can make great deftru&ion. It is fet on fire like
other mines, with a faucifle. See Mine.
FOUL, or Foule, m the fea-language, is ufed
when a fhip has been long untrimmed,, fo that the
N° 130. x
6 ] F O TJ
grafs-weeds, or barnacles, grow to her fides under wa- Foal
ter. A rope is alfo foul when it is either tangled in If
itfelf, or hindered by another, fo that it cannot run or **
be over-haWled. ,
Foul imports, alfo, the running of one fhip againft
another. This happens fometimes by the violence of
the wind, and fometimes by the carleffnefs of the peo¬
ple on board, to fhips in the fame convoy, and to fhips
in port by means of others coming in. The damages
occaltoned by running foul, are of the nature of thofe
in which both parties murt bear a fhare. They are
ufually made half to fall upon the fufferer, and half
upon the veflfel which did the injury: but in cafes
where it is evidently the fault of the mafter of the vef-
fel, he alone is to hear the damage.
FouL-Water. A fhip is faid to make foul-water,
when, being under fail, fhe comes into fuch fhoal-wa¬
ter, that though her keel do not touch the ground, yet
it Comes fo near it, that the motion of the water under
her raifes the mud from the bottom.
Foul is alfo a difeafe in cattle, proceeding from
blood, and a waterifli rheum that falls down into the
legs, and makes them fwell.
Foul or Pimpled Face. See Gvtta Rofacea.
FOUL A, or Foul IJland, one of the Shetland iflcs,
lying between fix and feven leagues weft from the
mainland. It is about three miles long, narrow, and
full of rough, fteep, and bare rocks ; one of which is
fo large, and mns up to fuch an height, that it may
be clearly feen from Orkney. This, therefore, may
be reckoned with the greateft probability to be the
Thule of Tacitus, whatever might be the Thule of the
Phenicians and Greeks., It has fcarce any pafturage,
and but very little arable land ; but that, however fmall
in extent, is very fertile, out of the produce of which,
with fowl and fifh, the poor inhabitants fubfift. They
have nothing that can be called a port; and the only
commodities they have are Itock-fifti, train oil, and
feathers.
FOUMART, in zoology, a fpecics of Mu stela.
FOUNDATION, in architecture, is that part of a
building which is under-ground. See Architecture,
•u° 96 et feq. and n° 13c &c.
Palladio allows a fixth part of the height of the
whole building for the hollowing or under-diggings
unlefs there be cellars’under ground, in which cafe he
would have it fomewhat lower.
Foundation, denotes alfo a donation or legacy, ei¬
ther in money or lands, for the maintenance and fup-
port of fome community, hofpital, fchool, fee.
The king only can found a college, but there may y„cd's
be a college in reputation founded by others. If it Lazv Dili,
cannot appear by iuquifition who it was that founded
a church or college, it (hall be intended that it was the
king, who has power to found a new church, &c.
The king may found and ereft an hofpital, and give a
name to the houfe upon the inheritande of another, or
licenfe another perfon to do it upon his own lands; and
the words fundo, creo, &c. are not necefl'ary in every
foundation, either of a college or hofpital, made by the
king ; but it is fufScient if there be words equivalent:
the incorporation of a college or hofpital is the very
foundation ; but he who endows it with lands is the
founder; and to the eredtion of an hofpita’, nothing
more is requifite but the incorporation and foundation.
Perfona
F O U
C 377 1
F O U
JFotmdcry. fpt,ncj Jjofpjfgts for tl'ie poor by deed enrolled in cljan- tity of metal intended to be caft.
1" ^ ' ' eery, Slq. which fliall be incorporated, and fubjeft to When the moulds are coolifti, the frames are un-
fuch vifitors as the founder fhall appoint, &c. flat. 39 ferewed, or unwedged, and the call work taken out of
Ehz- c. 5. the fand, which fand is worked over again for other
FOUNDER, in a general fenfe, the perfon who callings,
lays a foundation, or endows a church, fchool, religi- Foundery of Statues. The calling of llatues de-
ous houfe, or other charitable inllitution. See Foun- pends on the due preparation of the pit, the core, the
PAtion. wax, the outer mould, the inferior furnace to melt off
Founder, alfo implies an artih who calls metals, in the wax, and the upper to fufe the metal. The pit is a
various forms, for different ufes, as guns, bells, ftalues, hole dug in a dry place fomething deeper than the in-
printing-charadlers, candlefticks, buckles, &c. whence tended figure, and made according to the prominence
they are denominated gumfounders, bell-founders, fi- of certain parts thereof. The infide of the pit is com-
gure-founders, letter-founders, founders of fmall works, monly lined with ftop.e, or brick ; or, when the figure
&c. See Foundfry. is very large, they fometimes work on the ground, and
Founder, jn the fea-language: A Ihip is faid to raife a proper fence to refill the impullion of the melt-
founder, when by an extraordinary leak, or by a great ed metal.
fea breaking in upon her, Ihe is fo filled with water, The inner mould, or core, is a rude mafs to which
that Ihe cannot be freed of- it; fo that Ihe can neither is given the intended attitude and contours. It is rai-
veer nor fleer, but lie like a log ; and not being able fed on an iron grate, ftrong enough to fullain it, and
to fwim long, wall at lall fink. is ftrengthened within by feveral bars of iron. It is
FOUNDERED, in farriery. See there, § xli. generally made either of potter’s clay, mixed with hair
FOUNDERY, or Foundry, the art of cading all and horfe-dung; or of plalter of Paris mixed with
forts of metals into different forms. It likewife fignifies brick-dull. The ufe of the core is to fupport the wax,
the work-houfe or fmelting-hut wherein thefe opera- the fliell, and leflen the weight of the metal. The iron
tions are performed. bars and the core are taken out of the brafs figure
Foundf.rt of Small Works, or Cafling in Sand. The through an aperture left in it ’for that purpofe, which
fand ufed for calling fmall-works is at firft of a pretty is foldered up afterwards. It is neceflary to leave fome
foft, yellowilh, and clammy jnatare : but it being ne- of the iron bars of the core, that contribute to the llea-
ceffary to ftrew charcoal-dull in the mould, it at length dinefs of the proje&ing.part, within the brafs figure,
becomes of a quite black colour. This fand is worked The wax is a reprefentation of the intended ftatue.
over and over, on a board, with a roller, and a fort of If it be a piece of feuipture, the wax Ihould be all of
knife ; being placed over a trough to receive it, after the fculptor’s own hand, who ufually forms it on the
it is by thefe means fufficiently prepared. core: Though it may be wrought feparately in cavities,
This done, they take a woodea board of a length moulded on a model, and afterwards arranged on the
and breadth proportional to the things to be caft, and ribs of iron over the grate ; filling the vacant fpace in
putting a ledge round it, they fill it with fand, a little the middle with liquid plafter and brick-dull, whereby
moiftened, to make it duly cohere. Then they take the inner core is proportioned as the fculptor carries on
either wood or metal models of what they intend to the wax.
caft, and apply them fo to the mould, and prefs thfem When the wax, which is the intended thicknefs of
into the fand, as to leave their impreflion there. Along the metal, is finilhed, they fill fmall waxen tubes per-
tfie middle of the mould is laid half a fm.all brafs cy- pendicular to it from top to bottom, to ferve both as
linder, as the chief canal for the metal to run through, canals for the conveyance of the metal to all parts of
when melted, into the models or patterns ; and from the work ; and as vent-holes, to give paflage to the air,
this chief canal am placed feveral others, which extend which would otherwife occafion great diforder when
to each model or pattern placed in the frame. After the hot metal came to encompafs it.
this frame is finifhed, they take out the patterns, by The work being brought thus far, muft be covered
firft loofening them all round, that the fand may not with its fhell, which is a kind of cruft laid over the
give way. wax, and which being of a foft matter, eafily receives
Then they proceed to work the other half of the the impreflion of every part, which is afterwards corn-
mould with the fame patterns in juft fuch another municated to the metal upon its taking the place of the
frame; only that it has pins, which, entering into holes wax, between'the Ihell and the mould. The matter
that correfpond to it in the other, make the two cavi- of this outer mould is varied according as different lay-
ties of the pattern fall exadly on each other. ers are applied. The firft is generally a compofition of
The frame, thus moulded, is carried to the melter; clay, and old white crucibles well ground and fifted,
who, after extending the chief canal of the counter- and mixed up with water to the confiftence of a colour
part, and adding the crofs canals'to the feveral models fit for painting: accordingly they apply it with a pen-
in both, and ftrewing mill-duft over them, dries them crl, laying it feven or eight times over, and letting it
in a kind of oven for that purpofe. dry between whiles. For the fecond impreflion, they
Both parts of the mould being, dry, they are joined add horfe-dung and natural earth to the former com-
together by means of the pins; and to prevent their pofition. The third imprefiion is only horfe-dung and
giving way, by reafon of the melted metal palling thro’ earth. Laftly, the fhell is finiftied by laying on feveral
the chief cylindrical canal, they are ferewed or wedged more impreflions of this laft matter, made very thick
up like a kind of prefs. with the hand.
While the moulds are thus preparing, the metal is The Ihell, thus finilhed, is fecured by feveral iron/
Vol.VIL Parti.
SB
girths.
F O U [ 378 1 F O U
Foundery. girths, bound round it, at about half a foot diftance from
eacji ot]lerj an(i faftened at the bottom to the grate un¬
der the ftatue, and at top to a circle of iron where they
all terminate.
If the ftatue be fo big that it would not be eafy to
move the moulds with fafety, they muft be wrought
on the fpot where it is to be caft. This is performed
two ways: in the firft, a fquare hole is dug under
ground, much bigger than the mould to be made
therein, and its infide lined with walls of free-ftone or
brick. At the bottom is made a hole of the fame
materials, with a kind of furnace, having its aperture
outwards: in this is a fire made to dry the mould,
and afterwards melt the wax. Over this furnace is
placed the grate, and upon this the mould, &c. formed
as above. Laftly, at one of the edges of the fquare
it, is made another large furnace to melt the metal,
n the other way, it is fufticient to work the mould
above ground, but with the like precaution of a fur¬
nace and grate underneath. When finifhed, four
walls are to be run around it, and by the fide thereof
a maffive made for a melting-furnace. For the reft
the method is the fame in both. The mould being li-
nilhed, and inclofed as defcribed, whether under ground
or above it, a moderate fire is lighted in the furnace
under it, and the whole covered with planks, that the
wax may melt gently dow n, and run out at pipes con¬
trived for that purpofe, at the foot of the mould,.
which are afterwards exactly clofed with earth, fo foon
as the wax is carried off. This done, the hole is filled
up with bricks thrown in at random, and the fire in
the furnace augmented, till fuch time as both the
bricks and mould become red hot. After this, the fire
being extinguiftied, and every thing cold again, they
take out the bricks, and fill up their place with earth
moiftened, and a little beaten to the top of the mould,
in order to make it the more firm and fteady. Thefe
preparatory meafures being duly taken, there remains
nothing but to melt the metal, and run it into the
mould. This is the office of the furnace above defcri¬
bed, which is commonly made in. the form of an oven
with three apertures, one to put in the wood, another
for a vent, and a third to run the metal out at. From
this laft aperture, which is kept very clofe, while the
metal is in fufion, a fmall tube is laid, whereby the
melted metal is conveyed into a large earthen bafon,
over the mould, into the bottom of which all the big
branches of the jets, or cafts, which are to convey tlm
metal into all the paits of the mould, are inferted.
Thefe cafts or jets are all terminated with a kind
of plugs, which are kept clofe, that, upon opening
the furnace, the brafs, which gufhes out with violence,
may not enter any of them, till the bafon be full e-
nough of matter to run into them all at once. Upon
which occafion they pull out the plugs, which are long
iron rods with a head at one end, capable of filling
the whole diameter of each tube. The whole of the
furnace is opened with a long piece of iron fitted at
the end of each pole, and the mould filled in an in-
ftant. This completes the work in relation to the
calling part ; the reft being the fculptor’s or carver’s
bufinefs, who,, taking the figure out of the mould and
earth wherewith it is encompaffed, faws off the jets
with which" it appears covered over, and repairs it
with chiffels, gravers, puncheons, &c..
FouNDF.nr of Belh. The metal, it is to be obfer- Foundery.
ved, is different for bells from what it is for ftatues ; y——
there being no tin in the ftatue-metal: but there is a
fifth, and fometimes more, in the bell-metal.
The dimenfions of the core and the wax for bells,
if a ring of bells efpecially, are not left to chance, but
muft be meafured on a fcale, or diapafon, which gives
the height, aperture, and thicknefs, neceffary for the
feveral tones required.
It is on the wax that the feveral mouldings and other
ornaments and infcriptions, to be reprefented in re¬
lievo on the outfide of the bell, are formed. The
clapper or tongue is not properly a part of the bell,
but is furnilhed from other hands. In Europe, it is
ufually of iron, with a large knob at the extreme; and
is fufpended in the middle of the bell. In China, it is
only a huge wooden mallet, (truck by force of arm a-
gainft the bell; whence they can have but little of that
confonancy fo much admired in fome of our rings of
bells. The Chinefe have an extraordinary way of in-
creafing the found of their bells ; viz. by leaving a hole
under the cannon ; which our bell-founders would rec¬
kon a defeat.
The proportions of our bells differ very much from
thofe of the Chinefe. In ours, the modern propor¬
tions are, to make the diameter 15 times the thicknefs
of the brim, and the height 12 times. The parts of a
bell are, 1. The founding bow, terminated by an in¬
ferior circle, which grows thinner and thinner, 2. The
brim or that part of a bell whereon the clapper ftrikes,
and which is thicker than the reft. 3. The outward
finking of the middle of the bell, or the point under
which it grows wider to the brim. 4. The waift or
furniture, and the part that grows wider and thicker
quite to the brim. 5. The upper vafe, or that part
which is above the waift. 6. The pallet which fup-
ports the ftaple of the clapper within. 7. The bent
and hollowed branches of metal uniting with the can¬
nons, to receive the iron keys, whereby the bell is hung
up to the beam, which is its fupport and counterpoife,
when rung out.
The bufinefs of bell-foundery is reducible to three
particulars. I. The proportion of a bell. 2. The
forming of the mould. And, 3. The melting of the
metal. There are two kinds of proportions, viz. the
fimple and the relative; the former are thofe propor¬
tions only that are between the feveral parts of a bell
to render it fonorous ; the relative proportions eftablilh
a requifite harmony between feveral bells.
The method of forming the profile of a bell, pre¬
vious to its being caft, in which the proportion of the
feveral parts may be feen, is as follows : the thicknefs
of the brim, Ci (Plate CXCV.) is the foundation of
every other meafure, and is divided into three equal
parts. Firft, draw the line HD, which reprefents the
diameter of the bell ; bifetl it in F and eredl the per¬
pendicular F f; let D F and H F be alfo bife&ed in
E and G, and two other perpendiculars E e, G a, be
ere&ed at E and G : G E will be the diameter of the
top or upper vafe, *. r. the diameter of the top will be
half that of the bell; and it will, therefore, be the dia¬
meter of a bell which will found an o6tave to the
other. Divide the diameter of the bell or the line
HD into 15 equal parts, and one of thefe will give
Cl the thicknefs of the brim; divide again each of.
thefe
F O U [ 379 J F O U
Foundery. tliefe 15' equal parts into three other equal parts, and
v  then form a fcale. From this fcale take 12 of the lar¬
ger divifions or xr of the whole fcale in the compafs,
and fetting one leg in D defcribe an arc to cut the line
E e in N ; draw ND, and divide this line into 12
equal parts; at'the point 1 ereft the perpendicular
iC= ife and Cl will be the thicknefsof the brim rr-r1^-
of the diameter : draw the line C D : bifedt DN; and
at the point of bife&ion 6 eredt the perpendicular
6 K= ix of the larger divifions on the fcale. With an
opening of the compafs equal to twice the length of
the fcale or 30 brims, fetting one leg in N, defcribe an
arc of a circle, and with the fame leg in K and the
fame opening defcribe another arc to interfedl the for¬
mer : on this point of interfedfion as a centre, and
with a radius equal to 30 brims, defcribe the arc N K ;
in 6 K produced take K ^ larger meafure
of the fcale or of the brim, and on the fame centre
with the radius 30-f brims defcribe an arc AB parallel
to N K. For the arc BC, take 12 divifions of the
fcale or 12 brims in the compafs; find a centre, and
from that centre, with this opening, defcribe the arc
BC, in the fame manner as N K or AB were deTcri-
bed. There are various ways of defcribing the arc
Kp; fome defcribe it on a centre at the dillance of
nine brims from the points p and K; others, as it is
dpfie in the figure, on a centre at the diftance only of
feven brims from thofe points. But it is neeeffary firtt
to find the point p, and to determine the rounding of
the bell p 1. For this purpofe, on the point C as a
centre, and with the radius C 1, defcribe the arc 1 p n;
bifedl the part 1, 2 of the line D n, and eredting the
perpendicular p m, this perpendicular will cut the arc
t pn in m, which terminates the rounding xp. Some
founders make the bendings K a third of a brim lower
than the middle of the line D N; others make the part
C 1 D more acute, and inftead of making C1 perpendi¬
cular to DN at 1, draw it £th of a brim higher, making
it ftill equal to one brim ; fo that the line 1D is longer
than the brim C 1. In order to trace out the top-part
Na, take in the compafs eight divifions of the fcale or
eight brims, and on the points N and D as centres,
defcribe arcs to interfedl each other in 8 : on this point
8, with a radius of eight brims, defcribe the arc Nb;
this arc will be the exterior curve of the top or crown:
on the fame point 8 as a centre, and with a radius
equal to 7-f brims, defcribe the arc A e, and this will
be the interior curve of the crown, and its whole
thicknefs will be one third of the brim. As the point 8
does not fall in the axis of the bell, a centre M may
be found in the axis by defcribing, with the inter¬
val of eight brims on the centres D and H, arcs which
will interfe£f in M ; and this point may be made the
centre of the inner and outer curves of the crown as
before. The thicknefs of the cap which ftrengthens
the crown at O is about one-third of the thicknefs of
the brim ; and the hollow branches or ears about one-
fixth of the diameter of the bell. The height of the
bell is in proportion to its diameter as 12 to 15, or in
the proportion of the fundamental found to its third
major: whence it follows, that the found of a bell is
principally compofed of the found of its extremity or
brim, as a fundamental of the found of the crown
which is an o<ftave to it, and of that of the height
which is a third.
The particulars necefiary for making the mould of
3
a tell are, r. The earth: the moft cohefive is the Foundery.
bed 5 it mult be well ground and fifted, to prevent ^
any chink's. 2. Erick-done ; which mud be ufed for
the mine, mould, or core, and for the furnace. 3.
Horfe-dung, hair, and hemp, mixed with the earth,
to render the cement more binding. 4. The wax for
infcriptions, coats of arms, &c. 5. The tallow e-
qually mixed with the wax, in order to put a flight
lay of it upon the outer mould, before any letters are
applied to it. 6. The coals to dry the mould.
For making the mould, they have a fcaffold con¬
fiding of four boards, ranged upon treflels. Upon
this they carry the earth, grofsly diluted, to mix it
with horfe-dung, beating the whole with a large fpa-
tula.
The compafles of condruftion is the chief indru-
ment for making the mould, which confid of two dif¬
ferent legs joined by a third piece. And lad of all,
the founders flrelves, on which are the engravings of the
letters, cartridges, coats of arms, &c.
They fird dig a hole of a fufficient depth to contain
the mould of the bell, together with the cafe or can¬
non, under ground ; and about fix inches lower than
the terreplain, where the work is performed. The
hole mud be wide enough for a free paffage between
the mould and walls of the hole, or between one mould
and another, when feveral bells are to be cad. At
the centre of the hole is a dake ere&ed, that is drongly
fadened in the ground. This fupports an iron peg,
on which the pivot of the fecond branch of the,com¬
pafles turns. The dake is encompafled with a folid
brick-work, perfe&ly round, about half a foot high,
and of the propofed bell’s diameter. This they call a
mill-Jlone. The parts of the mould are, the core, the
model of the bell, and the Ihell. When the outer fur-
face of the core is formed, they begin to raife the core,
which is made of bricks that are laid in courfes of equal
height upon a lay of plain earth. At the laying of
each brick, they bring near it the branch of the com¬
pafles, on which the curve of the core is fhaped, fo as
that there may remain between it and the curve the
didance of a line, to be afterwards filled up with layers
of cement. The work is continued to the top, only-
leaving an opening for the coals to bake the core. This
work is covered with a layer of cement, made of earth
and horfe-dung; on which they move the compafles
of condruftion, to make it of an even fmoothnefs every¬
where.
The fird layer being finiflied, they put the fire to
the core, by filling it half with coals, through an open¬
ing that is kept Ihut, during the baking, with a cake
of earth that has been feparately baked. The fird
fire confumes the dake, and the fire is left in the core
half or fometimes a whole day : the fird layer being
thoroughly dry, they cover it with a fecond, third,
and fourth ; each being fmoothed by the board of the
compafles, and thoroughly dried before they proceed to
another.
The core being completed, they take the compafles
to pieces, with intent to cut off the thicknefs of the
model, and the compaffes are immediately put in their
place to begin a fecond piece of the mould. It con-
fids of a mixture of earth and hair, applied with the
hand on the core, in feveral cakes that clofe together.
This work is finiftied by feveral layers of a thinner
cement of the fame matter, fmoothed by the compaffes,
3 B 2 and
F O U [ 38
iindery. and thoroughly dried before another is laid on. The
firft layer of the model is a mixture of wax and greafe
fpread over the whole. After which are applied the
infcriptions, coats of arms, &c. befmeared with a pen¬
cil dipped in a vdfel of wax in a chafing-difh: this is
done for every letter. Before the Ihell is begun, the
compalfes are taken to pieces, to cut off all the wood
that fills the place of the thicknefs to be given to the
fliell.
The firfl: layer is the fame earth with the reft, fifted
■very fine ; whilft it is tempering in water, it is mixed
■with cow’s hair to make it cohere. The whole being
a thin cullis, is gently poured on the model, that fills
•exa&ly all the finuofities of the figures, &c. and this
is repeated till the whole is two lines thick over the
model. When this layer is thoroughly dried, they
cover it with a fecond of the fame matter, but fome-
what thicker ; when this fecond layer becomes of fome
confiftence, they apply the compaifes again, and light
a fire in the core, fo as to melt off the wax of the in¬
fcriptions, &c.
After this, they go on with other layers of the fhell,
by means of the compaffes. Here they add to the
cow’s hair a quantity of hemp, fpread upon the layers,
and afterwards fmoothed by the board of the compaf¬
fes. The thicknefs of the fhell comes to four or five
inches lower than the mill ftone before obferved, and
fuarounds it quite clofe, which prevents the extravafa-
tion of the metal. The wax fliould betaken out before
the melting of the metal.
The ear of the bell requires a feparate work, which
is done during the drying of the feveral incruftations
of the cement. It has feven rings: the feventh is cal¬
led the bridge, and unites the others, being a perpen¬
dicular fupport to ftrengthen the curves. It has an
aperture at the top, to admit a large iron peg, bent at
the bottom ; and this is introduced into two holes in
the beam, faftened with two ftrong iron keys. There
are models made of the rings, with maffes of beaten
earth, that are dried in the fire, in order to have the
hollow of them. Thefe rings are gently preffed upon
a layer of earth and cow’s hair, one half of its depth ;
and then taken out, without breaking the mould.
This operation is repeated 12 times for 12 half-moulds,
that two and two united may make the hollows of the
iix rings: the fame they do for the hollow of the bridge,
and bake them all, to unite them together.
Upon the open place left for the coals to be put in,
are placed the rings that conftitute the ear. They firft
put into this open place the iron-ring to fupport the
clapper of the bell; then they make a round cake of
clay, to fill up the diameter of the thicknefs of the
core. This cake, after baking, is clapped upon the
opening, and foldered with a thin mortar fpread over
it, which binds the cover clofe to the core.
The hollow of the model is filled with an earth,
fufficiently moift to fix on the place, which is ftrewed
at feveral times upon the cover of the core ; and they
beat it gently with a peftle, to a proper height; arid a
workman fmooths the earth at top with a wooden
trowel dipped in water.
Upon this cover, to be taken off afterwards, they
affemble the hollows of the rings. When every thing
is in its proper place, they ftrengthen the outfide of the
hollows with mortar, in order to bind them with the
o ] F O U
bridge, and keep them fteady at the bottom, by means Foimdety.
of a cake of the fame mortar, which fills up the whole  
aperture of the fliell. This they let dry, that it may
be removed without breaking. To make room for the
metal, they pull off the hollows of the rings, through
which the metal is to pafs, before it enters into the va¬
cuity of the mould. The fiiell being unloaded of its
ear, they range under the milliione five or fix pieces
of wood, about two feet long, and thick enough to
reach almoft the lower part of the ftiell ; between thefe
and the mould, they drive in wooden wedges with a
mallet, to (hake the (hell of the model whereon it refts,
fo as to be pulled up and got out of the pit.
When this and the wax are Itmoved, they break,
the model and the layer of earth, through which the
metal muft run, from the hollow of the rings, between
the ftiell and the core. They fmoke the inlide of the
ftiell, by burning ftraw under ft, that helps to fmooth
the furface of the bell. Then they put the fliell in
the place, fo as to leave the fame interval between that
and the core ; and before the hollows of the rings or
the cap are put on again, they add two vents, that are
united to the rings, and to each other, by a mafs of
baked cement. After which they put on this mafs of
the cap, the rings, and the vent, over the fliell, and
folder it with thin cement, which is dried gradually by
covering it with burning coals. Then they fill up the
pit with earth, beating it ftrongly all the time round
the mould.
The furnace has a place for the fire, and another for
the metal. The fire-place has a large chimney with a
fpacious afti-hole. The furnace which contains the
metal is vaulted, whofe bottom is made of earth,
rammed down ; the reft is built with brick. It has
four apertures; the firft, through which the flame re¬
vibrates ; the fecond is clofed with a ftopple that is
opened for the metal to run ; the others are to fepa¬
rate the drofs or fcoriae of the metal by wooden rakes:
through thefe laft apertures paffes the thick fmoke. .
The ground of the furnace is built Hoping, for the me¬
tal to run down.
FovNDERr of Great Guns and Mortar-Pieces. The
method of cafting thefe pieces is little different from
that of bells: they are run maffy, without any core,
being determined by the hollow of the Ihell; and they
are afterwards bored with a Heel trepan, that is worked
either by horfes or a water-mill.
For the metal, parts, proportions, &c. of thefe pieces, .
fee Gunnery.
Letter- FouNDEnr, or Cafting of Printing-Letters.
In the bufinefs of cutting, cafting, &c. letters for
printing, the letter-cutter mull be provided with a vice,
hand-vice, hammers, and files of all forts for watch¬
makers ufe; as alfo gravers and fculpters of all forts,
and an oil-ftone, &c. fuitable and fizeable to the feve¬
ral letters to be cut: a flat gage' made of box to hold
a rod of fteel, or the body of a mould, &c. exa&ly per¬
pendicular to the flat of the ufing file : a Hiding-gage
whofe ufe is to meafure and fet oft' diftances between
the fhoulder and the tooth, and to mark it off from the
end, or from the edge of the work: a face-gage,
which is a fquare notch cut with a file into the edge
of a thin plate of fteel, iron, Or brafs; of the thicknefs
of a piece of common tin, whofe ufe is to proportion
the face of each fort of letter, viz, long letters, af-
cending
F O U [ 3S1 1 F O U
l&untlery.'eendi’ng letters, and fhort letters. So there mull be
three gages, and the gage for the long letters is the
length of the whole body fuppofed to be divided into
42 equal parts. The gage for the afcending letters
Roman and Italic are or 3a parts of 42, and 33 parts
for the Englifh face. The gage for the fhort letters
is 4-» or 18 parts of 42 of the whole body for the Ro¬
man and Italic, and 22 parts for the Englifh face.
The Italic and other Handing gages are to meafure
the fcope of the Italic ftcms, by applying the top and
bottom of the gage to the top and bottom lines of the
letters, and the other fide of the gage to the Item; for
when the letter complies with thefe three Tides of the
gage, that letter has its true fhape.
The next care of the letter-cutter is to prepare good
fteel punches, well tempered, and quite free from all
veins of iron ; on the face of which he draws or marks
the exadt fhape of the letter with pen and ink if the
letter be large, or with a fmooth blunted point of a
needle if it be fmall; and then with fizeable and pro¬
per fhaped and pointed gravers and fculpters, digs or
fculps out the fteel between the ftrokes or marks he
made on the face of the punch, and leaves the marks
ftanding on the face. Having well fhaped the infide
ftrokes of his letter, he deepens the hollows with the
fame tools; for if a letter be not deep in proportion
to its width, it will, when ufed at prefs, print black,
3nd be good for nothing. This work is generally re¬
gulated by the depth of the counter-punch. Then he
works the outfide with proper files till it be fit for the
matrice.
But before we proceed to the finking and juftifying
of the matrices, we muft provide a mould to juftify
them by, of which you have a draught in Plate CXCV.
fig. 1.2,
Every mould is compofed of an upper and an under
part. The under part 'is delineated in fig. x. The
upper part is marked fig. 2. and is in all refpe&s made
, like the under part, excepting the ftool behind, and the
bow or fpring alfo behind ; and excepting a fmall
roundifh wire between the body and carriage, near the
break, where the under part hath a fmall rounding
groove made in the body. This wire, or rather half-wire,
in the upper part makes the nick in the fhank of the let¬
ter, when part of it is received into the groove in the
under part. - Thefe two parts are fo exadtly fitted and
gaged into one another (viz. the male-gage marked c
in fig. 2. into the female marked g in fig. 1. that
Vhen the upper part of the mould is properly placed
on, and in the under part of the mould, both together
make the entire mould, and may be flid backwards for
ufe fo far, till the edge of either of the bodies on the
middle of either carriage comes juft to the edge of the
female gages cut in each carriage : and jthey may be
IHd forward fo far, till the bodies on either carriage
touch each other : and the Aiding of thefe two parts
of the mould backwards makes the (hank of the letter
thicker, becaufe the bodies in each part Hand wider
afunder ; and the Aiding them forwards makes the
Thank of the letter thinner, becaufe the bodies on each
part of the mould ftand clofer together. The parts of
the mould areas follow : .toz. a, The carriage, b, The
body, c, The male gage. de. The mouth-piece,
fi, The regifter. g, The female gage, h. The hag.
aaaa, The bottom plate, tbi, The wood on which
the bottom plate lies, cce. The mouth. dJ, The Fbundery,
throat, e dd. The pallat. f. The nick, gg, The —v—
ftool. h hy The fpring or bow.
Then the mould muft be jufttfied: and firft the
founder juftifies the body, by cafting about 20 proofs
or famples of letters ; which are fet up in a compofing
flick, with all their nicks towards the right hand;
and then by comparing thefe with the pattern letters,
fet up in- the fame manner, he finds the exaft meafure
of the body to be call. He alfo tries if the two fides of
the body are parallel, or that the body be no bigger
at the head than at the foot, by taking half the num¬
ber of his proofs and turning them with their heads to
the feet of the other half j and if then the heads and
the feet be found exaftly even upon each other, and
neither to drive out nor get in, the two fides may be
pronounced parallel. He farther tries whether the
two fides of the thicknefs of the letter be parallel, by
firft fettrng his proofs in the compofing ftick with their
nicks upwards, and then turning one half with their heads
to the feet of the other half; and if the heads and feet lie
exadtly upon each other, and neither drive out nor get
in, the two fides of the thicknefs are parallel.
The mould thus juftified, the next buiinefs is to pre¬
pare the matrices. A. matrice is a piece of brafs or
copper of about an inch and a half long, and of a thick¬
nefs in proportion to the fize of the letter it is to con¬
tain. In this metal is funk the face of the letter in¬
tended to be caft, by ftriking the letter punch about
the depth of an n. After this the fides and face of
the matrice muft be juftified and cleared with files of
all bunchings made by finking the punch.
Every thing thus prepared, it is brought to the fur¬
nace; which is built of brick upiight, with four fquare
fides, and a ftone on the top, in which ftone is a wide
round hole for the pan to ftand in. A foundery of
any confequence has feveral of thefe furnaces in it.
As to the metal of which the types are to be caft,
this, in extenfive founderies, is always prepared in large
quantities ; but caft into fmall bars, of about 20
pounds weight, to be delivered out to the workmen as
occafion requires. In the letter foundery which has
been long carried on with reputation under the direc¬
tion of Dr Alex. Wilfon and fons at Glafgow, we are
informed, that a ftock of metal is made up at two dif¬
ferent times of the year, fufficient to ferve the cafters at
the furnace for fix months each time. For this purpofe,
a large furnace is built under a (hade, furnifiied with a
wheel vent, in order the more equally to heat the fides
of a ftrong pot of call-iron, which -holds when full
15 hundred weight of the metal. The fire being
kindled below, the bars of lead are let foftly down in¬
to the pot, and their fufion promoted by throwing in
fome pitch and tallow, which foon inflame. An outer
chimney, which is built fo as to projedl about a foot
over the fartheft lip of the pot, catches hold of the
flame by a ftrong draught, and makes it aft very power¬
fully in melting lead ; whilft it ferves at the fame time
to convey away all the fumes, &c. from the workmen,
to whom this laborious part of the bufinefs is commit¬
ted. When the lead is thoroughly melted, a due pro¬
portion of the regulus of antimony and other ingredi¬
ents are put in, and fome more tallow is inflamed to
make the whole incorporate fooner. The workmen
now having mixed the contents of the pot very tho¬
roughly',
F O U [ 382 ] F O U
Jamndery. roughly by flirring long with a large iron ladle, next
* proceed to draw the metal off into the fmall troughs
of caft-iron, which are ranged to the number of four-
fcore upon a level platform faced with ftone, built to¬
wards the right hand. In the courfe of a day 15 hun¬
dred wreight of metal can be eafily prepared in this
manner; and the operation is continued for as many
days as are neceffary to prepare a flock, of metal of all
the various degrees of hardnefs. After this, the whole
is difpofed into prefles according to its quality, to be
delivered out occafionally to the workmen.
The founder muft now be provided with a ladle,
which differs nothing from other iron ladles but in its
fize ; and he is provided always with ladles of feveral
fizes, which he ufes according to the fize of the letters
he is to caft. Before the cafler begins to call, he muft
kindle' his fire in the furnace to melt the metal in the
pan. Therefore he takes the pan out of the hole in
the ftone, and there lays in coals and kindles them ;
and, when they are well kindled, he fets the pan in
again, and puts in metal into it to melt: if it be a fmall-
bodied letter he cafts, or a thin letter of great bodies,
his metal muft be very hot; nay fometimes red-hot,
to make the letter come. Then having chofen a
ladle than will hold about fo much as the letter and
break is, he lays it at the ftoking-hole, where the flame
burfts out, to heat. Then he ties a thin leather, cut
with its narrow end againft the face to the leather
groove of the matrice, by whipping a brown thread
twice about the leather-groove, and faftening the thread
with a knot. Then he puts both halves of the mould
together, and puts the matrice into the matrice-cheek,
and places the foot of the matrice on the ftool of the
mould, and the broad end of the leather upon the
wood of the upper half of the mould, but not tight
up, left it might hinder the foot of the matrice from
finking clofe down upon the ftool in a train of work.
Then laying a little rofin on the upper wood of the
mould, and having his cafting-ladle hot, he with the
boiling fide of it melts the rofin : and, when it is yet
melted, prefles the broad end of the leather hard down
on the wood, and fo faftens it to the wood; all this is
the preparation.
Now he comes to calling. Wherefore, placing the
under half of the mould in his left hand, with the
hook or hag forward, he clutches the ends of its wood
between the lower part of the ball of his thumb and
his three hind fingers ; then he lays the upper half of
the mould upon the under half, fo that the male gages
may fall into the female gages, and at the fame time
the foot of the matrice places itfelf upon the ftool;
and, clafping his left-hand thumb ftrong over the up¬
per half of the mould, he nimbly catches hold of the
bow or fpring with his right-hand fingers at the top
of it, and his thumb under it, and places the point
of it againft the middle of the notch in the backfide
of the matrice, prefling it as well forwards towards
the mould, as downwards by the fhoulder of the notch
clofe upon the ftool, while at the fame time with his
hinder fingers, as aforefaid, he draws the under half
of the mould towards the ball of his thumb, and thrufts
by the ball of his thumb the upper part towards his
fingers, that both the regifters of the mould may prefs
againft both fides of the matrice, and his thumb and
fingers prefs both halves of the mould clofe together.
Then he takes the handle of his ladle in his right F’mnfet-f.
hand, and with the boll of it gives a ftroke, two or
three, outwards upon the furface of the melted metal,
to fcum or clear it from the film or dull that may r.vim
upon it; then takes up the ladle full of metal, and
having his mould, as aforefaid, in his left hand, he a
little twifts the left fide of his body from the furnace,
and brings the geat of his ladle (full of metal) to the
mouth of the mould, and twifts the upper part of hia
right hand towards him to turn the metal into it, while
at the fame moment of time he jilts the mould in hia
left hand forwards, to receive the metal with a ftrong
fhake (as it is called), not only into the body of the
mould, but while the metal is yet hot running, fwift
and ftrongly, into the very face of the matrice, to re¬
ceive its perfetl form there, as well as in the fhank.
Then he takes the upper half of the mould off the
under half, by placing his right-hand thumb on the
end of the wood next his left-hand thumb, and hi*
two middle-fingers at the other end of the wood ; and
finding the letter and break lie in the under half of
the mould (as moft commonly by reafon of its weight
it does), he throws or tofles the letter, break and all,
upon a fheet of wafte paper laid for that purpofe on
the bench, juft a little beyond his left hand, and is
then ready to caft another letter as before ; and alfo,
the whole number that is to be call with that matricc.
A workman will ordinarily caft about three thoufand
of thefe letters in a day.
When the cafters at the furnace have got a fufficient
number of types upon the tables, a fet of boys come
and nimbly break away the jets from them : the jets
are thrown into the pots, and the types are carried
away in parcels to other boys, who pafs them fwiftly
under their fingers, defended by leather, upon fmooth
flat ftones, in order to polifti their broad-fides. This
is a very dexterous operation, and is a remarkable in-
ftance of what may be effecfted by the power of habit
and long practice ; for thefe boys, in turning up the
other fide of the type, do it fo quickly by a mere touch
of the fingers of the left hand, as not to require the
leaft perceptible intermiflion in the motion of the right
hand upon the ftone. The types, thus finely fmooth-
ed and flattened on the broad-fides, are next carried
to another fet of boys, who fit at a fquare table, two
on each fide, and there are ranged up on long rulers
or flicks, fitted with a fmall proje&ion, to hinder them
from Aiding off backwards. When thefe flicks are fo
filled, they are placed, two and two, upon a fet of
wooden pins fixed into the wall, near the dreffer, fome¬
times to the amount of an hundred, in order to under¬
go the finifliing operations. This workman, who is
always the moft expert and Ikilful in all the different
branches carried on at the foundery, begins by taking
one of thefe flicks, and, with a peculiar addrefs, Aides
the whole column of types off upon the drefling-flick :
this is made of well-feafoned mahogany, and furnifhed
with two end-pieces of fteel, a little lower than the
body of the types, one of which is moveable, fo as to
approach the other by means of a long ferew-pin, in¬
fected in the end of the flick. The types are put in¬
to this flick with their faces next to the back or pro-
je&ion ; and after they are adjufted to one another fo
as to fland even, they are then bound up, by ferewing
home the moveable end-piece. It is here where the
great
F O U [ 383 ] F O U
Foundery. great and requifite accuracy of the moulds comes to cannot on this account be rubbed on the ftones, are Fount,
be perceived ; for in this cafe the whole column, fo feraped on the broad-fides with a knife or file, and fome Fountain,
boypd up, lies flat and true upon the flick, the two of the metal next the face pared away with a pen-
extreme types being quite parallel, and the whole has knife, in order to allow the type to come clofe to any
the appearance of one folid continuous plate of metal, other. This operation is called kerning.
The leaft inaccuracy in the exaft parallelifm of the in- The excellence of printing types confifts not only
dividual type, when multiplied fo many times, would in the due performance of all the operations above de¬
render it impoffible to bind them up in this manner, feribed, but alfo in the hardnefs of the metal, form,
by difpofing them to rife or fpring from the flick by and fine proportion of the chara&er, and in the exadt
the fmalleft preflure from the ferew. Now, when lying bearing and ranging of the-letters in relation to one
* fo conveniently with the nafrow edges uppermoft, which another.
cannot poflibly be fmoothed in the manner before men- FOUNT, or Font, among printers, &c. a fet or
tioned by the ftones, the workman does this more ef- quantity of charadters or letters of each kind, caifc
fe&ually by feraping the furface of the column with a by a letter-founder, and forted.—We fay, a founder
thick-edged but fharp razor, which at every ftroke has call a fount of pica, of engliih, of pearl, &c.
brings on a very fine fmooth Hein, like to polifhed filver ; meaning that he has call a fet of characters oF thefe
and thus he proceeds till in about half a miaute he kinds.
comes to the farther end of the flick. The other edges A complete fount does not only include the run-
of the types are next turned upwards, and poliihed in ning letters, but alfo large and fmall capitals, Angle let-
the fame manner. It iswhilft the types thus lie in the ters, double letters, points, commas, lines, and numeral
dreffing-ftick that the operation of bearding or barb- characters.
ing is performed, which is effedted by running a plane, Founts are large or fmall, according to the demand
faced with fled, along the fhoulder of the body next of the printer, who orders them by the hundred weight,
to the face, which takes more or lefs off the corner, or by fheets. When the printer orders a fount of
as occafion may require. Whilft in the drdfing-ftick 500, he means that the fount ftrould weigh joo lb*
they are alfo grooved, which is a very material opera- When he demands a fount of 10 Iheets, it is under-
tion. In order to underftand this, it muft be remem- flood, that with that fount he ftiall be able to compofe-
bered, that when the types are firft broken off from to fheets, or 20 forms, without being obliged to dif-
the jets, fome fuperfluous metal always remains, which tribute. The founder takes his meafures accordingly^
would make them bear very unequally againft the pa- he reckons 120 pounds for a ftveet, including the
per whilft under the printing-prefs, and effe&ually mar quadrates, &c. or 60 pounds for a form, which is half
the impreffion. That all thefe inequalities may, there- a fheet: not that the fheet always weighs 120 pounds,
fore, be taken away, and that the bearings of every or the form 60 pounds ; on the contrary, it varies ac-
type may be regulated by the fhoulders imparted to cording to the fize of the form ; befides, it is always
them all alike from the mould, the workman or dref- fuppofed that there are letters left in the cafes,
fer proceeds in the following manner. The types be- The letter-founders have a kind of lift, or tariff,,
ing ferewed up in the flick, as before mentioned, with whereby they regulate their founts; the occafion there-
the jet-end outermoft, and projedfing beyond the wood of is, that fome letters being in much more ufe, and
about one-eighth of an inch, the flick, is put into an oftener repeated than others, their cells or cafes,,
open prefs, fo as to prefentthe jet-end uppermoft, and Ihould be better filled and ftored than thofe of the let-
then every thing is made fall by driving a long wedge, ters which do not return fo frequently. Thus the a
which bears upon a flip of woodj which lies clofe to and i, for inftance, are always in greater quantity thai*
the types the whole length: then a plough or plane the k or z.
is applied, which is fo conftruCled as to embrace the This difference will be hell perceived from a propor-
proje&ing part of the types betwixt its long fides, tional comparifon of thofe letters with themfelves, or
which are made of polilhed iron. When the plane is fome others. Suppofe a fount of 100,000 characters,
thus applied, the fteel cutter bearing upon that part which is a common fount; here the a Ihould have
between the Ihoulders of the types, where theinequa- 5000, the c 3000, the e u,eoo, the i 6000, the rn
lities lie, the dreffer dexteroufly glides it along, and by 3000, the i only 30, and the*, y, and z, not many
this m-.ans ftripsoff every irregular part that comes in more. But this is only to be underftood of the let-
the way, and fo makes an uniform groove the whole ters of the lower cafe ; thofe of the upper having
length, and leaves the two Ihoulders Handing; by other proportions, which it would be, here, too long
which means every type becomes precifely like to ano- to infill on.
ther, as to the height againft paper. The types be- FOUNTAIN,- a fpring or fource of water rifing
rng now finilhed, the flick is taken out of the prefs, out of the earth. Among the ancients, fountains
and the whole column replaced upon the other flick ; were generally efteemed as facred ; but fome were held
and after the whole are fo dreffed, he proceeds to pick to be fo in a more particular manner. The good ef-
out the bad letters, previous to putting them up into feCts received from cold baths gave fprings and rivers
pages and papers. In doing this he takes the flick this high reputation; for the lalutary influence was
into his left hand, and turning the faces near to the fuppofed to proceed from fome prefiding deity. Par-
light, he examines them carefully, and whenever an ticular reafons might occafion fome to be held in great-
imperfeft or damaged letter occurs, he nimbly plucks er veneration than others. It was cuftomary to dirow
it out with a ftiarp bodkin, which he holds in the right little pieces of money into thofe fprings, lakes, or
hand for that purpofe. Thofe letters which, from their rivers, which were efteemed facred, to render the pre¬
form, proje£l over the body of the type, and which fiding divinities propitious j as the touch of a naked bc-
%
F O U [ 384 1 F O U
Fmmtain. dy was fuppofed to pollute their hallowed waters. For
phenomena, theory, and origin, of fountains or
fprings, fee Spring.
'Artificial Fountain, called alfo njet d’eau, is a con¬
trivance by which water is violently fpouted upwards.
See Hydraulics.
Boiling Fountain. See Iceland.
FouNTAiN-Tree, a very extraordinary vegetable
growing in one of the Canary iflands, and likewife faid
to exitl in fome other places, which diitils water from
its leaves in fuch plenty as to anfwer all the purpofes
of the inhabitants who live near it. Of this tree we
have the following account in Glafle’s hiftory of the
Canary iflands.—“ There are only three fountains of
water in the whole ifland of Hierro, wherein the foun¬
tain-tree grows. One of thefe fountains is called A-
. cof, which, in the language of the ancient inhabitants,
fignifies river ; a name, however, which docs not feem
to have been given it on account of its yielding much
water, for in that refpeft it hardly deferves the name
of a fountain. More to the northward is another call¬
ed Hapio,; and in the middle of the ifland is a fpring,
yielding a ftream about the thieknefs of a man’s finger.
This lail was difcovered in the year 1565, and is call¬
ed the fountain of Anton. Hernandez. On account of
the fcarcity of water, the flreep, goats, and fwine,
here do not drink in the fummer, but are taught to dig
up the roots of fern, and chew them to quench their
.third:. The great cattle are watered at thofe fountains,
and at a place where water dillils from the leaves of a
tree. Many writers have made mention of this fa¬
mous tree, fome in fuch a manner as to make it ap¬
pear miraculous: others again deny the exillence of
any fuch tree; among whom is Father Feyjoo, a mo¬
dern Spanifh author, in his Theatro Critico. But he,
and thofe who agree with him in this matter, are as
much miflaken as thofe who would make it appear to.
be miraculous. This is the only ifland of all the Ca¬
naries which I have not been in; but I have failed with
natives of Hierro, who, when quellioned about the ex-
ifiencc of this tree, anfwered in the affirmative.
“ The author of the Hiftory of the difcovery and con-
quefi has given us a particular account of it, which I
jhall here relate at large.
‘ The diitrid in which this tree Hands is called 77-
gulahe ; near to which, and in the cliff or fteep rocky
afcent that furrounds the whole ifland, is a narrow gut¬
ter or gulley, which commences at the fea, and conti¬
nues to the fummit of the cliff, where it joins or co¬
incides with a valley, w'hich is terminated by the flieep
front of a rock. On the top of this rock grows a tree,
called in the language of the ancient inhabitants, Garfe,
“ Sacred or Holy Tree,” which for many years has
been preferved found, entire, and freflr. Its leaves con-
ftantly dffiil fuch a quantity of water as is fufficient to
furniffi drink to every living creature in Hierro ; na¬
ture having provided this remedy for the drought of
the ifland. It is fituated about a league and a half from
the fea. Nobody knows of what fpecies it is, only
that it is called Til. It is diftindl from other trees,
and Hands by itfelf; the circumference of the trunk
is about 12 fpans, the diameter four, and in height
from the ground to the top of the higheff branch, 40
fpans : the circumference of all the branches together
Es 120 feet. The branches are thick and extended *
-N° r 30.
the lowed commence about the height of an ell from Fountain.
the ground. Its fruit refembles the acorn, and taftes ——
fomething like the kernel of a pine-apple, but is fofter
and more aromatic. The leaves of this tree refemble
thofe of the laurel, but are larger, wider, and more
curved; they come forth in a perpetual fucceffion, fi»
that the tree always remains green. Near to it grows
a thorn which faHens on many of its branches, and in¬
terweaves with them ; and at a fmall diHance from the
garfe are fome beech-trees, brefos, and thorns. On the
north fide of the trunk are two large tanks oi-cifierns,
of rough Hone, or rather one cifiern divided, each half
being 20 feet fquare, and 16 Ipans in depth. One of
thefe contains water for the drinking of the inhabi¬
tants ; and the other that which they ufe for their
cattle, wafliing, and fuch-like purpofes. Every morn¬
ing, near this part of the ifland, a cloud or milt arifes
from the fea, which the fouth and eafferly winds force
againff the fore-mentioned ffeep cliff; fo that the cloud
having no vent but by the gutter, gradually afeends it,
and from thence advances flowly to the extremity of
the valley, whence it is Hopped and checked by the
front of the rock which terminates the valley, and then
reHs upon the thick leaves and wide-fpreading branches
of the tree, from whence it diffils in drops during the
remainder of the day, until it is at length exhauffed,
in the fame manner that we fee water drip from the
leaves of trees after a heavy flrower of rain. This,
diflillation is not peculiar to the garfe or til; for the
brefos, which grow near it, likewife drop water ; but
their leaves being but few and narrow, the quantity is
fo trifling, that though the natives fave fome of it, yet
they make little or no account of any but what diffils
from the til, which, together with the water of fome
fountains, and what is faved in the winter feafon, is
fufficient to ferve them and their flocks. This tree
yields moff water in thofe years when the Levant or
eaflerly winds have prevailed for a continuance ; for,
by thefe winds only the clouds or miffs are drawn hi¬
ther from the fea. A perfon lives on the fpot near
which this tree grows, who is appointed by the council
to take care of it and its water ; and is allowed a houfe
to live in, with a certain falary. He every day diffri-
butes to each family of the diffridt feven pots or veffels
full of water, befides what he gives to the principal
people of the ifland.’
“ Whether the tree which yields water at this pre-
fent time be the fame as that mentioned in the above
defeription, I cannot pretend to determine : but it is
probable there has been a fucceffion of them ; for Pli¬
ny, deferibing the Fortunate ifland, fays, ‘ In the
mountains of Ombrion are trees refembling the plant
ferula, from which water may be procured by ,pref-
fure. What comes from the black kind is bitter, but
that which the white yields is fweet and potable.”
Trees yielding water are not peculiar to the ifland
of Hierro ; for travellers inform us of one of the fame
kind on the ifland of St Thomas, in the bight or gulph
of Guiney. In Cockburn’s voyages we find the follow¬
ing account of a dropping tree, near the mountains of
Fera Paz, in America.
“ On the morning of the fourth day, we came out
on a large plain, where were great numbers of fine
■deer, and in the middle Hood a tree of unufual fize,
fpreading its brunches over a vaff compafc of ground.
2 Cu-
F O U [
Fountain Curiollty led us up to it. We had perceived, at fome
: didance off, the ground about it to be wet; at which
^onrmcn , w£ Jjgggjj to j-,e fomewhat furprifed, as well knowing
v there had no rain fallen for near fix months paft, ac¬
cording to the certain courfe of the feafon in that lati¬
tude : that it was impoffible to be occafioned by the
fall of dew on the tree, we were convinced, by the
fun’s having power to exhale away all moillure of that
nature a few minutes after its riling. At lalt, to our
great amazement as well as joy, we faw water drop¬
ping, or as it were diftilling, faff from the end of every
leaf of this wonderful (nor had it been amifs if I had
faid miraculous) tree ; at leaft it was fo with refpeft to
us, who had been labouring four days through ex¬
treme heat, without receiving the leaft moifture, and
were now almoft expiring for the want of it
“ We could not help looking on this as liquor fent
from heaven to comfort us under great extremity. We
eatched what w^e could of it in our hands, and drank
very plentifully of it ; and liked it fo well, that we
could hardly prevail with ourfelves to give over. A
matter of this nature could not but incite us to make
the ftrifteft obfervations concerning it; and according¬
ly we ftaid under the tree near three hours, and found
we could not fathom its body in five times. We ob-
ferved the foil where it grew to be very ftrong ; and
upon the niceft inquiry we could afterwards make,
both of the natives of the country and the Spanilh in¬
habitants, we could not Jearn there was any fuch tree
knowm throughout New Spain, nor perhaps all Ame¬
rica over : but I do not relate this as a prodigy in na¬
ture, becaufe I am not philofopher enough to aferibe
any natural caufe for it; the learned may perhaps give
fubftantial reafons in nature for what appeared to us a
great and marvellous fecret.”
FOUQUIERES (James), an eminent painter, was
born at Antwerp in 1580, and received his chief in-
ftruftions from Velvet Brughel. He applied himfelf
to the ftudy of landfcapes, and went to Italy to im¬
prove himfelf in colouring ; and fucceeded fo happily,
that his works are faid to be nearly equal to thofe of
Titian.—He was engaged and much careffed at the
court of the eleftor Palatine, and afterwards fpent fe-
veral years of his life in France 5 whefe his works met
with univerfal approbation, and he was proportionably
well paid for his paintings. Yet by fome mifeonduft
he funk into poverty, and died in the houfe of an in*-
confiderable painter in 165-9. He had refided for fe-
veral years at Rome and Venice, where he acquired
that excellent ftyle of colouring and defign for which
he is fodefervedly diftinguiihed.
■ FOURCHEE, or Fourchy, in heraldry, an ap¬
pellation given to a crofs forked at the ends. See
Heraldry.
FOURMONT ( Stephen), -profeffor of the A rabic
and Chinefe languages, and one of the moft learned
men of his time, was born at Herbelai, a village four
leagues from Paris, in 1683. He fludied in Mazarine
college, and afterwards in the Seminary of Thirty-
three. Fie was at length profeffor of Arabic in the
Royal College, and was made a member of the Aca¬
demy of Infcriptions. In J738 he was chofen a
member of the Royal Society in London, and of that
of Berlin in 1741. He was oftVn confulted by the
duke of Orleans', firft prince of the blood; who had a
Vol. VII. Parti.
585 1 F O U •
particular efteem for him, and made him one of his fe- Fournefi.
cretaries. Fie wrote a great number of books; the  * *
moft confiderable of thofe which have been printed are,
1. The Roots of the Latin Tongue, in verfe. 2. Cri¬
tical Refledtions on the Hiftories of ancient Nations,
2 vols 410. 3. Meditationes Sinica, folio. 4. A Chinefe
Grammar, in Latin, folio. 5. Several Differtations
printed in the Memoirs of the Academy of Infcrip¬
tions, &c. He died at Paris in 1745.
He ought not to be confounded with Michael Four-
mont, his youngeft brother; who took orders, was
profeffor of the Syriac language in the Royal College,
and a member of the Academy of Infcriptions. He
died in 1746.
FOURNESS, in Loynfdale, Lancalhire, is a track,
between the Kent, Leven, and Dudden Sands, which
runs north parallel with the weft fides of Cumberland
and Weftmoreland; and on the fouth runs out into
the fea as a promontory. Here, as Mr Camden ex-
preffes it, “ the fea, as if enraged at it, ladies it more
furioufly, and in high tides has even devoured the fhore,
and made three large bays; viz Kentfand, into which
the river Ken empties itfelf; Levenfand and Dudden-
fand, between which the land proje&s in fuch a man¬
ner that it has its name thence; Forenefs and Foreland,
fignifying the fame with us as promontorium anterhs in
Latin.” Bifhop Gibfon, however, derives the name
of Fournefs, or Furnefs, from the numerous furnaces
that were there anciently, the rents and fervices of
which (called lloomfmithy rents) are ftill paid. This
whole trad, except on the coaft, rifes in high hills and
vaft piles of rocks called Fornefs - Fells; among which
the Britans found a fecure retreat, trufting to thefe
natural fortreffes, though nothing was inaccefiible to
the vi&orious Saxons: for we find the Britans fet¬
tled here 228 years after the arrival of the Saxons;
becaufe at that time Egfrid king of Northumberland
gave St Cuthbert the land called Carthmell, and all the
Britans in it, as is related in his life. In thefe moun¬
tainous parts are found quarries of a fine durable blue
flate to cover buildings with, which are made ufe of
in many other parts of the kingdom. Here are feveral
cotton mills lately erefted; and if fuel for fire were
more plentiful, the trade of this country would much
increafe : but there being no coals nearer than Wigan
or Whitehaven, and the coaft-duties high, firing is ra¬
ther fcarce, the country people ufing only turf or peat,
and that begins to be more fcarce than formerly. In
the moifes of Fournefs much fir is found, but more
oak : the trunks in general lie with their heads to the
call, the high winds having been from the weft. High
Fournefs has ever had great quantities of ftieep, which
browfe upon the hollies left in great numbers for them;
and produces charcoal for melting iron-ore, and oak-
bark for tanners ufe, in great abundance. The forefts
abounded with deer and wild boars, and the legh or
fcofe, or large ftags, whofe horns are frequently found
underground here. The low or plain part of Fournefs,
which is fo called to diftinguiih it from the woody or
mountainous part, produces all forts of grain, but prin¬
cipally oats, whereof the bread eaten in this country
is generally made ; and there are found here veins of a
very rich iron-ore, which is not only melted and
wrought here, but great quantities are exported to
other parts tp mix -with poorer ores. The three fands
3 C above
F O W [ 386 ] FOX
Fournefs above mentioned are very dangerous- to travellers by
H the tides and the many quickfands. There is a guide
i ,owey' , on horfeback appointed to Kent or Lancafter fand at
X 01. per ann. to Leven at 6\. per ann. out of the pub¬
lic revenue; but to Dudden, which are moft danger¬
ous, none; and it is no uncommon thing for perfons
to pafs over in parties of 100 at a time like caravans,
under the direction of the carriers, who go to or fro
every day.' The fands are lefs dangerous than former¬
ly, being more ufed and better known, and travellers
never going without the carriers or guides. “ Furnis
abbey up in the mountains,” was begun at Tulket in
Amoundernefs 1 124, by Stephen earl of Boulogne,
afterwards king of England, for the monks of Savigni
in France, and three years after removed to this val¬
ley, then called Belccmgefgill, or “ the vale of night-
Ihade.” It was of the Ciftertian order, endowed with
above 8001. per ann. Out of the monks of this abbey,
Mr Camden informs us, the bilhops of the Ifle of Man,
which lies overagainft it, ufed to be chofen by ancient
cuftom ; it being as it were the mother of many mo-
nafteries in Man and Ireland. Some ruins, and part
of the foffe which furrounded the monaftery, are {till
to be feen at Tulket. The remains at Fournefs breathe
that plain fimplicity of the Ciftertian abbeys ; the
chapter-houfe was the only piece of elegant Gothic
about it, and its roof has lately fallen in. Part of
the painted glafs from the eaft window, reprefent-
ing the crucifixion, &c. is preferved at Winder-mere
church in Bowlnefs, Weftmoreland. The church
(except the north iide of the nave), the chapter-houfe,
refe&ory, &c. remain, only unroofed.
FOUR TH redundant, in mufic. See Interval.
FOWEY, or Foy, a town of Cornwall in England,
240 miles from'London, with a commodious haven on
the Channel. It is a populous place, extending above
one mile on the eaft fide of a river of its own name ;
and has a great {hare in the fiftring trade, efpecially
pilchards. It rofe fo much formerly by naval wars and
piracies, that in the reign of Edward III. its {hips re-
fnfing to ftrike when required as they failed by Rye and
Winchelfea, were attacked by the {hips of thofe ports, but
defeated them; whereupon they bore their arms mixed
with the arms of thofe two cinque-ports, which gave rife
to thename of the “ Gallants of Fowey.” And we learn
from Camden, that this town quartered a part of the
arms of every one of the cinque-ports with their own ;
intimating, that they had at times triumphed over them
all: and indeed once they were fo powerful, that they
took feveral of the French men of war. In the reign
of Edward III. they refcued certain {hips of Rye from
diftrefs, for which this town was made a member of
the cinque-ports. Edward IV. favoured Fowey fo
much, that when the French threatened to come up
the river to burn it, he caufed two towers, the ruins of
which are yet vifibie, to be built at the public charge
for its fecurity : but he was afterwards fo difgufted
with the inhabitants for attacking the French after a
truce proclaimed with Louis XL that he took away
all their {hips and naval ftores, together with a
chain drawn acrofs the river between the two forts
above mentioned, which was carried to Dartmouth.
It is faid they were fo infolent, that they cut off the
ears of the king’s purfuivants ; for which Lome lives
were forfeited -as well as eftates. The corporation, coij-
fifts of a mayor, recorder, 8 aldermen, a town-clerk, and
2 afliflants. The mark ‘ is Saturday, the fairs May-day
and Sept. 10. Here ai e a fine old church, a free-fchool,
and an hofpital. The toll of the market and fairs, and
keyage of the harbour, were veiled in the corporation
on the payment of a fee-farm rent of about 40 s. It
does not appear to have fent members to parliament
before the 13th of Queen Elizabeth. Here is a coinage
for the tin ; of which a great quantity is dug in the
country to the north and weft of it. The river Foy,
or Foath, is very broad and deep here, and was for¬
merly navigable as high as Leftwithiel. W. Long. 50.
N. Lat. 50. 27.
FOWL, among zoologifts, denotes the larger forts
of birds, whether domeftic or wild: fuch as geefe,
pheafants, partridges, turkey, ducks, &c.
Tame fowl make a neceffary part of the ftoek of a
country farm. See the article Poultry.
Fowls are again diftinguifhed into two kinds, viz.
land and water fowl, thefe laft being fo called from
their living much in and about water : alfo into thofe
which are accounted game, and thofe which are not.
See the article Game.
FOWLING, the art of catching birds by means
of bird-lime, decoys, and other devices, or the killing
of them by the gun. See Bird-Catching, Bird-Lime,
Decoy, Shooting, and the names of the different
birds in the order of the alphabet.
Fowling, is alfo ufed for the purfuing and taking
birds with hawks, more properly called falconry or
hawking. See thefe articles.
Fair ling-Piece, a light gun for fhooting birds.
That piece is always reckoned beft which has the long-
eft barrel, from y4- to 6 feet, with a moderate bor.e ;
though every fowler fhould have them of different fizes,
fuitable to the game he defigns to kill. The barrel
fhould be well poliftred and fmoo.th within, and the
bore of an equal bignefs from one end to-the other;
which may be proved, by putting in a piece of pafte-
board, cut of the exadt roundnefs of the top: for if
this goes down without flops or flipping, you may con¬
clude the bore good. The bridge-pan muft be fome-
what above the touch-hole, and ought to have a notch
to let down a little powder: this will prevent the piece
from recoiling, which it would otherwife he apt to do.
As to the locks, choofe fuch as are well filed with true
work, whofe fprings muft be neither too ftrong nortoo
weak. The hammer ought to be well hardened, and
pliable to go down to the pan with a quick motion.
FOX, in zoology. See Canis.
The fox is a great nuifance to the hufbandman, by
taking away and deftroying his lambs, geefe, poultry,
&c. The common way to catch him is by gins $
which being baited, and a train made by drawing ravy
flefh acrofs in his ufual paths or haunts to the gin, it
proves an inducement to bring him to the place of de-
ftrudtion.
The fox is alfo a beaft of chace, and is taken with
grehounds, tarriers, &c. Seethe article Hunting.
Fox (John), the martyrologift, was born at Bofton
in Lincolnlhire in the year 1517. At the age of 16 he
was entered a ftudent of Brazen-nofe college in Oxford;
and in 1543 he proceeded mafter of arts, and was chofen
fellow of Magdalen college. He difeovered an early
genius for poetry, and wrote feveral Latin comedies,
6 the
FOX [ 387 ] FOX
the fubjfc&s taken from feripture, which his fon affures a principal point to wait in profound filence the direc-
us were written in ah eleganPHyle. Forfaking the tions of the Holy Spirit. Fox met with much rough
mufes, he now applied himfelrwith uncommon afii- treatment for his zeal, was often imprifoned, and fe-
duity to the ftudy of divinity, particularly church-hi- veral times in danger of being knocked on the head,
ftory ; and, difcovering a premature propenfity to the But all difcouragements notwithftanding, his feft pre-
do&rine of reformation, he was expelled the college as vailed much, and many confiderable men were drawn
tin heretic. His diftrefson thisoccalion was very great; over to them; among whom were Barclay and Penn.
but it was not long before he found an afyhlm in the He died in 1681. His followers were called Quakers.,
houfe of Sir Thomas Lucy of Warwicklhire, who em- in derifion of fome unufual fhakings and convulfion*
ployed him as a tutor to his children. Here he mar- with which they were feized at their firll meetings,
ried the daughter of a citizen of Coventry. SirTho- See the article Quakers.
mas’s children being now grown up, after redding a F'ox'G/ow, in botany. See Digitalis.
fliort time with his wife’s father, he came to London; Fox-IJlands, the name of a group of iflands, 16 in
where dnding no immediate means of fubdftence, he number, dtuated between the eadern coaft of Kamt-
was reduced to the utmoft degree of want; but was at fchatka and the weftern coalt of the continent of A-
length (as his fon relates) miraculoudy relieved in the merica. Each ifland has a particular name; but the
following manner : As he was one day fitting in St general name Fox-ijlands is given to the whole group,
Paul’s church, emaciated with hunger, a ftranger ac- on account of the great number of black, grey, and red
coded him familiarly, and, bidding him be of good .foxes with which they abound. The drtfs of the in-
chter, put a fum of money into his hand ; telling him habitants confids of a cap and a fur coat, which reaches
at the fame time, that in a few days new hopes Were down to the knee. Some of them wear common caps
at hand. Fie was foon after taken into the family of of a party-coloured bird-fkin, upon which they leave
the duchefs of Richmond, as tutor to the earl of Sur- part of the wings and tail. On the fore part of their
rey’s children, who, when their father was fent to the hunting and fifhing-caps, they place a fmall board like
tower, were committed to her care. In this family he a fkreen, adorned with the jaw-bones of fea-bears, and
lived, at Ryegate in Surrey, during the latter part of ornamented with glafs-beads, which they receive in
the reign of Henry VIII. the entire reign of Ed- barter from the Ruffians. At their fedivals and dan-
ward VI. and part of that of queen Mary : but at “ng parties they ufe a much more fhowy fort of caps,
length, perfecuted by his implacable enemy bifhop They feed upon the flefh of all forts of fea-animals,
Gardiner, he was obliged to feek refuge abroad. Ba- and generally eat it raw. But.if at any time they
fil in Switzerland was.the place of his retreat, where ohoofe to drefs their victuals, they make ufe of a hoi-
he fubfifted by correcting the prefs. On the death of low done; having placed the fifh or flefh therein, they
queen Mary lie returned to England ; where he was cover it with another, and clofe the interftices with
gracionfly received by his foimer pupil the duke of lime or clay. They then lay it horizontally upon two 4
Norfolk, who retained him in his family as long as he hones, and light a fire under it. The prov.ifion in-
lived, and bequeathed him a penfion at his death. Mr tended for keeping is dried without fait in the open
fecretary Cecil alfo obtained for him the reftory of air. Their weapons confift. of bows, arrows, and darts 4
Shipton near Salifbury; and we are allured that he and for defence they ufe wooden fhields.—The moft
might have had confiderable church preferment, had perfeft equality reigns among thefe iflanders. They
it not been for his unwillingnefs to fubfcribe to the have neither chiefs nor Tuperiors, neither laws nor pu-
canons. He died in the year 1587, in the 70th year tiifhments. They live together in families, and fo-
of his age ; and was buried in the chancel of St Giles’s, cieties of feveral families united, which form what
Cripplegatc. He was a man of great induftry, and con- "they call a race, who, in cafe of an attack or defence,
fiderable learning; a zealous, but not a violent reform- mutually help and fupport each other. The inhabi-
er; a nortconformift, but not an enemy to the church of tants of the fapie ifland always pretend to be of the
England. He left two fons ; one of which was bred fame race ; and every perfon looks upon his ifland as a
a divine, the other a phyfician. He wrote many pieces: poffcffion, the property of which is common to all the
but his principal work is, the AtFs and Monuments.of individuals of the fame fbciety. Feafts are very com*
the Church, &c. commonly called Fox’s Book of Mar- mon among them, and more particularly when the in-
tyrs. His fadls are not always to be depended on, and habitants of one ifland are vifited by thofe of the
he often lofes his temper; which, confidering the fub- others. The men of the village meet their guefts
jeft, is not much to be wondered at. beating drums, and preceded by the women, who fin$
FOX (George), the founder of the fe£l of Englifh and dance. At the conclufion of the dance, the holts
Quakers, was a fhoemaker in Nottingham. The ac- ferve up their beft provifions, and invite their guefts
counts of thofe times tell us, that as he wrought at to partake of the feaft. They feed their children
his trade, he ufed to meditate much on the feriptures: when very young with the coarfeft flefh, and for the
which, with his folitary courfe of life, improving his moft part raw; If an infant cries, the mother imme-
natural melancholy, he began at length to fancy him- diately carries it to the fea-fide, and whether it be
ftlf infpired ; and in confequence thereof fet up for a fummer or winter, holds it naked in the rvater until it
preacher. is quiet. This cuftom is fo far from doing the chil-
He propofed but few articles of faith; infilling chief- dren any harm, that it hardens them againlt the cold-,
ly on moral virtue, mutual charity, the love of God, and they accordingly go barefooted through the win-
and a deep attention to the inward motions and fecret ter without the lead inconvenience. They feldom heat
operations of the fpirit: he required a plain Ample their dwellings; but when they are defirous-ol warm-
worfhip, and a religion without ceremonies, making it ing themfelves, they light a bundle of hay, and ftand
FRA [ 388 ] FRA
Fracaftor, over it; or elfe they fet fire ■ to train-oil, which they put when in the tower over the working furnace, and Fradtion
Fraches. p0ur jnto a hollow ftone. They have a good fhare of by means of which they are . drawn out through the
plain natural fenfe, but are rather flow of underuand-
ing. They feem cold and indifferent in moft of their
aftions ; but let an injury, or even a fufpicion only,
roufe them from this phlegmatic ftate, and they be¬
come inflexible and furious, taking the moft violent
revenge without any regai'd to the confequences. The
leaft affli&ion proiftpts them to fuicide; the apprehen-
fion of even an uncertain evil often leads them to de-
fpait ; and they put an end to their days with great
apparent, infenfibility.
FRACASTOR (Jerome), a moft eminent Italian
poet and phylician, was born at Verona in the year
1482. Two Angularities are related of him in his in¬
fancy : one is, that his lips adhered fo clofely to each
other when he came into the world, that a chirurgeon
was obliged to divide them with his incifion-knife; the
other, that his mother was killed with lightning, while
he, though in her arms at the very moment, efcaped
unhurt. Fracaftor was of parts fo exquifite, and made
fo wonderful a progrefs in every thing he undertook,
that he became eminently Ikilled not only in the belles
lettres, but in all arts and fciences. He was a poet, a
philofopher, a phyfician, an aftronomer, a mathema¬
tician, and what not ? He was a man of vaft confe-
quence in his time ; as appears from pope Paul III.’s
making ufe of his authority to remove the council of
Trent to Bolougne, under the pretext of a contagious
diftemper, which, as Fracaftor depofed, made it no
longer fafe to continue at Trent. He was intimately
acquainted with cardinal Bembus, Julius Scaliger, and
all the great men of his time. Fie died of an apoplexy
■ at Cafi near Verona, in J553 : and in 1559, the town
of Verona eredted a ftatue in honour of him.
He was the author of many performances, both as
a poet and as a phyfician; yet never man was more
difinterefted in both thefe capacities than he : evi¬
dently foas a phyfician, for he pradfifed without fees;
and as a poet, whofe ufual reward is glory, nothing
•could be more indifferent. It is owing to this indiffe¬
rence, that we have fo little of his poetry, in compan¬
ion of what he wrote ; and that, among other compo-
fitions, his Odes and Epigrams, which were read in
manufeript with infinite admiration, yet, never palling
the prefs, were loft. What we have now of his, are
the three books of “Siphilis, or of the French djfeafe;”
a book of Mifcellaneous Poems; and two books of his
poem, intitled, Jofeph, which he began at the latter
end of his life, but did not live to finilh. And thefe
works, it is faid, would have perilhed with the reft, if
his friends had not taken care topreferve and commu¬
nicate copies of them : For Fracaftor, writing merely
for amufement, never troubled himfelf in the leaft
about what became of his work? after they once got
out of his hands. Fracaftor compofed alfo a poem,
called Alcon,five de ciira canum venaticorum. His poems
as well as his other works are written all in Latin.
His medical pieces are, De Sympathia & Anilpathia^—
De contagione & contagiofis mo this,—De canjis criticbrum
dierum,— De vim temperaturttf &c. His works have
been prihted feparately and colle&ively. The beft edi¬
tion of them is that of Padua 1735, in 2 vols4to.
FRACHES, in the glafs trade, are the flat iron
pans into which the glafs veffels already formed are
leers, that they may be taken gradually from the fire,
and cool by degrees.
FRACTION, in arithmetic and algebra, a part or
divifion of an unit or integer ; or a number which
Hands to an unit in the relation of a part to its whole.
The word literally imports a broken number.
Fra&ions are ufually divided into decimal, fexagefi-
mal, and vulgar. See Algebra and Arjthmetjc.
FRACTURE, in furgery, a rupture of a bone or
a folution of continuity in a bone when it is cruftied
or broken by fome external caufe. .See Surgery.
FRJENUM, or Frenum, BrilUe, in anatomy, a
name given to divers ligaments, from their office in re¬
taining and curbing the motions of the parts they are
fitted to.
Frjknvm Lingua, or Bridle of the Longue; a mem¬
branous ligame,nt, which ties the tongue to the os
hyoides, larynx, fauces, and lower parts of the mouth.
In fome fubje&s the franum runs the whole length of
the tongue t.o the very tip ; in which cafes, if it were
not cut, it'would take away all poffibility of fpeech.
See LoNGUE-Lied.
Frjsnum Penis, a flender ligament, whereby the
prepuce is tied to the lower part of the glans of the
penifc. Nature varies in the make of this part; it be-
ingfo^fhort in fome, that unlefs divided it would not
admit- of perfect erection. There is alfo a kind of
little. franum, faftened to the lower part of the cli¬
toris.
FRAGA, a ftrong town with a handfome caftle in
the kingdom of Arragon in Spain. It is ftrong by
fituation among the mountains; having the river Cinca
before it, whofe high banks are difficult of accefs;
and at its back a hill, which cannot eafily be ap¬
proached with large cannon. Alphonfo VII. king of
Arragon, and the firft of that name of Caftile, was
killed by the Moors in 1134, when he befieged this
town. E. Long. o. 23. N. Lat. 41. 28.
FRAGARIA, the Strawberry: A genus of the
polygynia order, belonging to the icofandria clafs of
plants ; and in the natur al method ranking under the
35th order, Senticofe. The calyx is decemfid; the pe¬
tals five; the receptacle of the feeds ovate, in the form
of a ber ry, an.d deciduous. There is but one fpecies,
viz. the vefca, or cultivated ftrawberry. The princi¬
pal varieties are, !. The fylveftris, or wood-ftrawbtrry,.
with oval fawed leaves, and fmall round fruit.. 2. The
Virginian fcarlet, or Virginia ftrawberry, with oblong
oval fawed leaves, and a roundiftr fcarlet-coloured fruit.
3. The mofehata, or hautboy, or mulky ftrawberry,
having oval, lanceolate, rough leaves, and large pale-red
fruit. 4. The Chiloenfis, or Chili ftrawberry, with
large, oval, thick, hairy leaves, large flowers, and very
large firm fruit. 5. The Alpina, Alpine, or monthly
ftrawberry, having fmall oval leaves, fmall flowers, and
moderate-fixed, oblong, pointed fruit.
All thefe varieties are hardy, low, perennials, du¬
rable in root, but the leaves and fruit-flalks are re¬
newed annually in fpring., They flower in May and
June, and their fruit comes to perfeflion in June, July,
and Auguft; the Alpine kind continuing till the be¬
ginning of winter. They all profper.in any common
garden foil, producing abundant crops annually with¬
out
FRA [ 389 ] FRA
Braguier oat much trouble. They increafe exceedingly every
Frame fummer* both by ofF-fets or fuckers from the Tides of
' the plants, and by the runners or firings, all of which
rooting and forming plants at every joint, each of
which feparately planted bears a few fruit the follow¬
ing year, and bear in great perfection the fecond fum-
mer. Thofe of the Alpine kind will even bear fruit
the fame year that they are formed. All the forts are
commonly cultivated in kitchemgardens, in beds or
borders of common earth, in rows lengthwife 15 or 18
inches diftance; the plants the fame diitance from one
another in each row. Patches of the different forts
difpofed here and there in the fronts of the different
compartments of the pleafure-ground, will appear or¬
namental both in their flowers and fruit, and make an
agreeable variety.
Strawberries, eaten either alone, or with fugar and
milk, are univerfally efleemed a molt delicious fruit.
They are grateful, cooling, fubacid, and juicy. Tho’
taken in large quantities, they feldom difagree. They
promote perfpiration, impart a violet fmell to the urine,
and diffolve the tartareous incruftations on the teeth.
People affliCled with the gout or ftone have found re¬
lief by ufing them very largely; and Hoffman fays, he
has known confumptive people cured by them. The
bark of the root is aflringent.—Sheep and goats eat
the plant;, cows are not fond of it; horfes and fwine
refufe it.
fRAGUIER (Glaude Francis), a polite and learn¬
ed French writer, born at Paris, of a noble family, in
He was educated under the Jefuits, and was
even admitted into the order, though, he afterwards
quitted it ; and being thus at liberty to follow his in¬
clinations, he foon after affifted the Abbe Bignon in
conducting the 'Journal de Stjavans, having all the qua¬
lifications for fuch a work. His works confift of Latin
poems, and a great number of very excellent difierta-
tions. He died in 1728.
FRAIL, a bafleet made of ruffles, or the like, in
which are packed up figs, raifins, &c. It flgnifies alfo
a.certain quantity of raifins, about 75 pounds.
FRAISE, in fortification, a kind of defence, con¬
fining of pointed flakes, fix or feven feet long, driven
parallel to the horizon- into the retrenchments of a
camp, a half-moon,, or the like, to prevent any ap¬
proach or fealade.
Fraifes differ from palifades chiefly in this, that the
latter fland perpendicular to the. horizon, and the for¬
mer jet out parallel to the horizon, or nearly fo, being
ufually made a little Hoping, or with the points hang¬
ing down. Fraifes are chiefly ufed in retrenchments
and other works thrown up of earth; fometimes they
are found under the parapet of a rampart, ferving in-
ftead of the cordon of ftohe ufed in flone-works.
'To Fraise a Battalion, is to liue the mufqueceers
i-ound with pikes, that in cafe they fhould be charged
with a body of horfe, the pikes being prefen ted, may
cover the mufqueteers from the fhock, and ferve as a
barricade.
FRAME, in joinery, a kind of cafe, wherein a
thing is fet or inclofed, or even fupported; as a win¬
dow-frame, a piCture-frame, &c.
Frame is alfo a machine ufed in divers arts; as,
Frame, among-printers, is the fland whichfupports
the cafes. See Case.
Frame, among founders, a kind of ledge inclofing Frame
aboard; which, being filled with wetted fand, ferves 11
as a mould to caft. their works in. See Foundery. Fla°ce' f
Frame is more particulaily ufed for a fort of loom,
whereon artificers flretch their linens, filks, fluffs, &c.
to be embroidered, quiked, or the like.
Frame, among painters, a kind of fquare, confiding
of four long flips of wood joined together, whofe in¬
termediate fpace is divided by threads into feveral little
fquares like a net; and hence fometimes called reticu*
la. It ferves to reduce figures from great to fmall;
or, on the contrary, to augment their fize from fmall
to great.
FRAMLINGHAM, a town of Suffex, 88 miles
from London. It is a large old place, with a caille,
fuppofed to have been built by fome of the firfl kings
of the Ead-Angles; the walls, yet Handing, are 44
feet high, 8 thick, with 13 towers 14 feet above them,
2 of which are watch-towers. To this cafile the prin-
ctfs, afterwards Queen Mary I. retired, when the Lady
Jane Grey was her competitor for the crown. The
town ispleafantly fituated, thoughbut indifferently built,
upon a clay-hill, in a fruitful foil and a healthy air,
near the fource of the river Ore, by fome called Winck-
nel, which runs through it to Orford. It has a fpa-
cious place for the market on Saturday ; and a large
flately church built all of black flint, with a fleeple
too feet high ; two good almfhoufes; and a free-
fchool.
FRANC. See Frank.
FRANCE, a large kingdom of Europe, fituated
between 5°W. and 7" E. Long, and between 430 and:
51’ N. Lat. being bounded by the Engliffl channel
and the Auflrian Netherlands on the north ; by Ger¬
many,. Switzerland, Savoy, and Piedmont, in Italy, on
the eaft; by the Mediterranean fea, and the Pyrenean
mountains, which feparate it from Spain-, on the fouth;
and by the bay of Bifcay on the well.
The kingdom of France was originally poflefled by
the Celtes or Gauls. They were a very v/arlike peo- .
pie, and often checked the progrefs of the Roman by
arms: nor did they yield till the time of Julius Csefar,Lus Crefar.
who totally fubdued their country, and reduced it to
the form of a Roman province*. The Romans con- • See GaitU
tinued in quiet-poffeffion of Gaul, as long as their em¬
pire retained its flrength, and they were in a condition
to reprefs the incurfions of the German nations, whom
even in the zenith of their power they had not been
able to fubdue. But in the reign of the emperor Va¬
lerian, the ancient Roman valour and difeipfine had
begun, ta decline, and the fame care was not taken to
defend the provinces as formerly. The barbarous na- a
tions, therefore, began to make much more frequent Invaded by?
incurfions ; and among the reft the Franks, a Ger-the Frailks*’
man nation, inhabiting the banks of the Rhine, proved
particularly troublefome. Their origin is varioufly ac¬
counted for; but the moft probable fuppolition is, that
about the time of the emperor Gordian, the peo¬
ple inhabiting the banks of the lower Rhine entered
into a confederacy.with thofe who dwelt on the Wefer,
and both together afiumed the name of Franh or'
Freeman. Their firft irruption, we are told by Vale-
fms, happened in the year 254, the fecond of Valerian.’s
reign. At this time they were but few in number;
and were regulfed by Aurdian,. afterwards emperor!.
Net*
FRA [ 390 1 FRA
SFhirtW; Isf0t difcouraged by this check, they returned two
'**“ v years after in far greater numbers ; but were again
defeated by Gallienus, whom Valerian had chofeh
for his partner in the empire. Others, however,
continued to pour in from their native country in fuch
multitudes, that Gallienus, no longer able to drive them
out by fdrce of arms, made advantageous propofals to
bne of their chiefs, whom he engaged to defend the
Frontiers againft his countrymen as well as other in*
vaders.
This expedient did not long anfwer the purpofe.
In 266 the Franks, taking advantage of the defeat
and captivity of Valerian in Perfia, broke into Gaul,
and afterwards into Italy, committing every where
dreadful lavages. Five years afteHvards they invaded
Spain ; which they poffeffed, or rather plundered, for
the fflace of 12 years: nor could they be driven out
of Gaul till the year 275, when the emperor Probus
not only gave them a total overthrow in that country,
but purfued them into their own, where he built feve-
ral forts to keep them in awe. This intimidated them
fo much, that nine of their kings fubmitted to the
'emperor, and prcmifed an annual tribute.—They con*
tinned quiet till the year 287; when, in conjun&iort
'with the Sakon pirates, they plundered the coafts of
Gaul, carrying off an intmenfe booty. To revenge this
infult, the emperor Maximiau entered the country of
the Franks the following year, where he committed
fuch ravages that two of their kings fubmitted to him;
and to many of the common people who chofe to re¬
main in Gaul, he allowed lands in the neighbourhood
of Treves and Cambray.
The reftlefs difpofition of the Franks, however, did
not allow them to remain long in quiet. About the
year 293, they made themfelves mafters of Batavia
end part of Flanders; but were entirely defeated, and
forced to furrender at diferetion, by Conllantius the
father of Conftantine the Great, who tranfplanted therh
into Gaul. Their countrymen in Germany continued
/ quiet till the year 306, when they renewed their de¬
predations ; but being overcome by Conftantine the
Great, two of their kings were taken prifoners, and
thrown to the wild beafts in the {hows exhibited on
that occafion.
All thefe vi&ories, however, as well as many others
faid to have been gained by the Romans, were not fuf-
licient to prevent the incurfionsof this refllefs and tur¬
bulent nation ; infomuch that, in the year 355, they
had made themfelves mafters of 40 cities in the pro¬
vince of Gaul. Soon after, they were totally defeated
l>y the emperor Julian, and again by count Theodo-
iius, father to the emperor of that name ; but, in the
year 388, they ravaged the province with more fury
than ever, and cut off a whole Roman army that was
fent again ft them. As the weftern empire was at
this time in a very low date, they for fome time found
more interruption from other barbarians than from
the Romans, till their progrefs was checked by Ae-
tius.
Pharam nd When the war with Aetius broke out, the Franks
the firft were governed by one Pharamond, the firft of their
king. kings of whom we have any diftinft account. He is
fuppofed to have reigned from the year 417 or 418,
to 428; and is thought by archbiihop Ufher to have
teen killed in the war with Aetius. By fome he is
fuppofed to have compiled the Salic Laws, with the France.
affiftahee of four fages nanied Wtfegafl, L of eg aft, Wide-  v
gdjl, and Solegaft. But Valentis is of opinion that the
Franks had no wmitten laws till the time of Clovis. 4
Pharamond was fucceeded by his fon Clodio, who Clodio.
likewife carried on a war againft the Romans. He is
faid to have received a terrible overthrow from Aetius
near the city of Lens; notwithftanding which, he ad¬
vanced to Cambray, and made himfelf mafter of that
city, where for fome time he took up his refidence.
After this he extended his conquefts as far as the rivet-
Somme, and deftroyed the cities of Treves and Co¬
logne, Tournay and Amiens. He died in the year
448, and was fuccceded by Mrrovaeus. ^
Authors are not agreed whether the new king was Merovxus.
brother, or fon, or any relation at all, to Clodio. It
feems probable indeed, that he was of a different fa¬
mily ; as from him the firtt race of French kings were
ftyled Merovingian. He was honoured and refpected
by his people, but did not greatly enlarge the bounda¬
ries of his kingdom. He died in 458. g
Merovreus was fucceeded by his fon Childeric; who Chihkric,
being no longer kept in awe by Aetius, made war on
the Romans, and extended his conquefts as far as the
river Loire. He is faid to have taken the city of Pa¬
ris after a fiege of five years, according to fome, and
of ten, according to others. The Roman power was
now totally deftroyed in Italy ; and therefore Clodo-
v/cus, Clovis, or Louis, for his name is differently
written, who fucceeded Childeric, fet himfelf about
making an entire conqueft of Gaul. Part of the pro¬
vince was ftill retained by a Roman named Syagrius,
who probably had become fovereign of the country
on the downfal of the weftern empire in 476. He
was defeated and taken prifoner by Clovis, who after¬
wards caufed him to be beheaded, and foon after totally
reduced his dominions. ^
Thus was the French monarchy eftabliihed by Clo- French ma¬
vis in the year 487. He now pofleffed all the conn-narchy efta-
try lying between the Rhine and the Loire; which,
though a very extenfive dominion, was yet confider-
ably inferior to what it is at prefent.
Clovis had been educated in the Pagan religion,
and continued in that profeffion till the 30th year of
his age ; notwithftanding which he allowed his fubje&s
full liberty of confcience. Having married, however,
Clotilda, daughter of the duke of Burgundy, this
princefs, who was a zealous Chriftian, ufed all her in¬
fluence with her hufband to perfuade him to embrace
lier religion. For fome time he continued to waver ;
but happening to gain a battle, where, being in great
danger, he had invoked the god of Clotilda and the
Chriftians, he afterwards gave fuch a favourable ear
to the difeourfes of Remigius bifhop of Rheims, that
he foon declared himfelf a convert, and was baptifed
in the year 496. His acknowledgment of the truths
of the gofpel was not followed by any amendment of
life : on the contrary, he employed the remainder of
his life in the aggrandifement of himfelf and extenfion
of his dominions by the moft abominable treachery*
fraud, and violence. In his attacks on Armorica be
proved unfuccefsful. The inhabitants of this country,
which comprehended the maritime part of ancient Gaul
lying between the rivers Seine and Loire, had united
for their defence ; and though abandoned by the Ro¬
mans*
FRA [39
France, mans, made a powerful defence againrid the barbarians
—V—who affauhed them on all Gdes. Clovis, finding them too
powerful to be fubdued by force, propofed an union
with his people, which they readily accepted, and this
the more eafily on account of his profeffing the Chrif-
tain religion. Thus the Chriftianity of Clovis in fcve-
ral inflances proved fubfervient to the purpofes of his
ambition, and his power became gradually very for¬
midable. The Burgundians at this time polTefled all
the country from the foreft of Vofges to the fea of
Marfeilles, under Gondebaud the uncle of Clotilda;
who to fecure his own authority, had put to death
two of his brothers, one of whom was the father of
the French queen. The third brother, Godagefil, whom
he had fpared and allowed to poffefs the principality of
Geneva, confpired with Clovis to drive him from his
dominions. A war having commenced between the
French and Burgundian monarchs, the latter was de-
ferted in a battle by Godagefil, and obliged to fly to
Avignon, leaving his antagonift mailer of the cities of
jLyons and Vienna. The vidtor next laid fiege to A-
vignon ; but it was defended with fuch vigour, that
Clovis at laft thought proper to accept of a fum of
money and an annual tribute from Gondebaud ; who
was likewife obliged to cede to Godagefil the city of
Vienne, and feveral other places taken during the
Gondebaud no fooner found himfelf at liberty from
his enemies, than he aflembled a powerful army; with
which he advanced towards Vienne, where Godagefil
himfelf refided atuhat time. The place was garrifon-
ed by 5000 Franks, and might have made confiderable
refinance ; but Gondebaud being admitted through
the fubterraneous pafiage of an aquedudl, maffacred
moll of the Franks, fent the reft prifoners to the king
of the Vifigoths, and put Godagefil to death. This
was quickly followed by the fubmiffion of all the other
places which had owned the authority of Godagefil:
and Gondebaud, now thinking himfelf able to refill
the power of Clovis, fent a meflage to inform him,
that he mull no longer expeft the promifed tribute ;
and though Clovis was very much mortified with this
defedion, he found himfelf obliged for the prefent to
put up with the injury, and accept of the alliance and
, military fervice of the king of Burgundy. ^
His next expedition was againft the Vifigoths, who
poflefied confiderable territories on both fides of the
Pyrenean mountains. His motives for this underta¬
king were expreffed in the following fpeech to his no¬
bility when aflembled in the city ot Paris, which he
confidered as the capital of his dominions. “ It is
with concern (faid the religious monarch) that I fuffer
the Arians to poflefs the moft fertile part of Gaul;
let us, with the aid of God, march againft them; and
having conquered them, annex their kingdom to our
dominions.” The nobility approved of the fcheme;
and Clovis marched againft a prince for whom he had
but lately profefied the greateft regard, vowing to e-
•reft a church in honour of the holy apoftles, if he fuc-
ceeded in his euterprife. Alaric the king of the Vi¬
figoths was a young man deftitute of military expe¬
rience, though perfonally brave. He did not there¬
fore hefitate at engaging his antagonift ; but, unable
•to contend with the veteran troops of Clovis, his army
.was utterly defeated on the banks of the Gain, 10
i ] F R A
miles fouth of Poi&iers, in the year 507. Alaric, per- France,
ceiving the ruin of his troops, rufhed againft Clovis in 1
perfon, by whom he was killed, and the remainder
of the army purfued for fome time with great flaugh-
ter. After this vidlory the province of Aquitain fub-
mitted, and Clovis eftabliflied his winter quarters at
Bourdeaux. Tholoufe furrendered next fpring; and
the royal treafures of the Vifigoths were tranfported
to Paris. Angouleme was next reduced, and the city
of Arles invefted. But here the vi&orious career of
Clovis was flopped by Theodoric king of the Oftro-
goths, who had overturned the dominion of Odoacer
in Italy. He had married Abolfleda the After of Clo¬
vis, but had alfo given his own daughter in marriage
to the king of the Vifigoths, and had endeavoured, as
much as was in his power, to preferve a good under-
ftanding between the two fovereigns. Finding this
impoflible, however, and that no bounds could be fet
to the ambition of Clovis, he fent one of his generals
with a powerful army againft hirp; by whom the
French monarch was defeated with the lofs of 30,000
men. By this misfortune Clovis was obliged to raife
the fiege of Arles with precipitation: however, the
Franks ftill retained the greateft part of their con-
quefts, and the province of Aquitain was indiftblubly
annexed to their empire. g
In 509, Clovis had the title of Roman conful; by fs honoUr-
which means the people of Rome were infenfibly led ed with the
to pay a peculiar regard to the French monarchs: and tide of Ro-
Cloyis was now fuppofed to be invefted with a juft'”3"
title to all his conquefts in whatever manner they had
been acquired^ He was folemnly invefted with his new
dignity in the church of St Martin in the city of
Tours; after which he-entered the cathedral clothed
in a purple tunic and mantle, the badges of,his office.
Clovis now proceeded to augment his power by the
murder of his kinfmen the princes of the Merovingian
race. Among thofe who perilhed on this occafion
were Sigibert king of Cologne, with his fon Cloderic,
Cararic, .another prince whofe dominions have not been
accurately pointed out by hiftorians; Ranacaire, who
governed the prefent diocefe of Cambray; and Reno-
mer king of the territory of Maine. All thefe mur¬
ders, however, were expiated, according to the views
'of the clergy of thofe times, by the great zeal he ex¬
preffed in the caufe of Chriftianity, and his liberality
to the church..
Clovis died in the year 511, after having reformed
and publilhed the Salic laws:. a few lines of which,,
debarring women from inheriting any part of the Sa¬
lic lands, have been extended fo far as to deprive the
females of the royal family’of France of their right of
fucceflion to the throne of that kingdom.
Clovis was buried in the church of St Peter and
St Paul, now Genevieve, in the city of Paris, where His domi- ,
his tomb is ftill to be feen. His dominions were di-mens divi-
vided among his four fons. Thieri, or Theo^doric, the^
eldeft, had the. eaftern part of the empire ; and, from"13 c 1 tea
his making the city of Metz his capital, is commonly’
called the king of Met*. Clodomir, the eldeft fon by
Clotilda, had the kingdom of Orleans ;. Childebert,
and Clotaire, who were both infants, had the king¬
doms of Paris and Soiffons, under the tutelage of their
mother. The prudence of Qotida kept matters quiet
in all the parts of the. empire for eight years; but
about;
V R A
about the year 520, a numerous fleet of Danes arrived
J at the mouth of the Meufe ; and their king Cochiliac,
having landed his forces, began to deftroy the country
with fire-and fword. Againlt him Thieri fent his fon
Theodobert, who defeated the Danifh army arid navy,
and killed their king, forcirig the reft to retire with
precipitation.
In 522, Hermanfroi king of Thuringia, havin'-; de-
flroyed one of his brethren named Berthath, and feized
on his dominions, applied to Thieri for afiiftance a-
gainft his other brother Balderic, whom he intended
r 392 ]
FRA
ving that his Wife and children were furrounded by his Prance,
father’s troops, he attempted to refcue them. In this v——^
attempt he was taken prifoner, and with his family
was thruft into a thatched cottage near the field of
battle; of which the king Was no fooner informed, than
he commanded the cottage to be fet on fire, and all
that were in it;peri(hed in the flames. ir
Clotaire did not lohg furvive this Cruel execution ofThe empire
his fon, but died in 5^2; and after his. death the3^'" dl*
French empire was divided among his four remainingV1 e *
Tons, Carihert, Gontran, Sigebert, and Chiiperic.-
treat in the fame manner. In this infamous enter- The old king made'no divifion of his dominions before
r“ rr,K:»-: -"*k—1’“4 — —i__ n._..u he died, which perhaps caufed the young princes to fall
but fooner than they would Otherwife have done. After
his death, however, they divided the kingdom by lot;
When Caribert, the eldeft, had the kingdom of Paris;
Goritran, the fecond, had Orleans; Sigihert had Metz
(or the kingdom of Auftrafia); and Chilperichad Soif-
prife Thieri embarked, on condition that he fllould
have one half of Balderic’s dominions; but after the
unhappy prince was overcome and killed in battle,
Hermanfroi feized all his dominions. Thieri had no
opportunity of revenging himfelf till the year 531 ;
when perceiving the power of the Oftrogoths, whom
them in common. The peace of the empire was firft dif-
iurbed in 563 by an invafion of the Abares ; a barba¬
rous nation, faid to be the remains of the Hunns.
They entered Thuringia, which belonged to the domi-
he much dreaded, to be confiderably lefiened by the fons. Trovence and Aquitaine were poffefled by all of
death of king Theodric, he engaged his brother Clo- ~ '  rr"— * r.i • on i-r
'taire to affift him; and they accordingly entered Thu¬
ringia with two powerful armies. They joined their
forces as foon as they had palfed the Rhine, and were
quickly after reinforced by a confiderable body of nibns of Sigebert ; but by him they were totally de-
troops under the command of Theodobert. The al¬
lies attacked the army of Hermanfroi, which vvasad-
vantageoufly polled; and having totally defeated it, he
was forced to fly from place to place in difguife. Soon
after this the capital was taken, and Hermanfroi him¬
felf being invited to a conference by Thieri, was trea-
cheroully murdered; after which his extenfive domi¬
nions became feudatory to Thicri.
In the mean time, Clotilda had excited her children
feated, arid obliged to t-epafs the Elbe with precipita¬
tion. Sigebert purfued them clofe, but readily con¬
cluded a peace with them on their firft propofals. Td
this he was induced, by hearing that his brother Chil-
peric had invaded his dominions, and taken Rheims
and fome other places in the neighbourhood. Againfi:
him, therefore, Sigebert marched with his viftorious
army, made himfelf mailer of Soiflbns his capital, and
of the perfon of his eldeft fon Theodobert. He then
■to make war on the Burgundians, in order to revenge defeated Chilperic in battle; and not only recovered
the death of her father Chilperic, whom Gondebaud the place which he had feized, but conquered the great-
king of Burgundy had caufed to be murdered. Gon- Cr part of his dominions : neverthelefs, on the media
Clotaiie be¬
come- foie
monarch.
debaud was now dead, and had left his dominions to
his Tons Sigifmund and Godemar. Sigifmurid’s forces
were quickly defeated ; and he himfelf was foon after
delivered up by his own fubje&s to Clodomir, who caufed
him to be thrown into a pit, where he perilhed mifer-
ably. By his death Godemar became foie matter of
Burgundy. Clodomir marched againft him, and de¬
feated him ; but purfuing his vi&ory tod eagerly, was
furrounded by his enemies and (lain. After the reduc¬
tion of Thuringia, however, Childebert and Clotaire
entered the kingdom of Burgundy at the head of a
powerful army, rind in 534, completed the conqrieft
of it*, in which, according to fome, Godemar was kill¬
ed ; according to others, he retired into Spain, and
from thence into Africa. ,
In 560 Clotaire became foie monarch of France. Fie
nad murdered the fons of Clodomir, who was killed in
Burgundy as above related. Thieri and his children
were dead, as was alfo Childebert; fo that Ciotaire was
tion of the other two brothers, Sigebert abandoned all
his conquefts, fet Theodobert at liberty, and thus re-
ftored peace to the empire.
Soon after this, Sigebert married Brunehaut daugh¬
ter to Athanagilde king of the Viilgoths in Spain; and
in a little time after the marriage, died Caribert king of
Paris, whofe dominions were divided among his three I2
brethren. In £67 Chilperic married Galfwintha, Brune- infamous
haul’s elddl lifter, whom he did not obtain without couchnSt of
feme difficulty. Before her arrival, he difmiffed his Chilperic. -
miftrefs called Frcdegtmde ; a woman of great abilities
and firmnefs of mind, but ambitious to the higheft de¬
gree, and capable of committing the blackeft crimes
in order to gratify her ambition. The queen, who
brought with her immenfe treafures from Spain, and
made it her whole finely to pleafe the king, was for
fome time entirely acceptable. By degrees, however,
Chilperic fuffered Fredegonde to appear again at court,
and was fufpe&ed of having renewed his intercourfe
foie heir to all the dominions of Clovis. He had five with her; which gave fuch umbrage to the queen.
fons; and the eldeft of them, riamed Chramnes, had fome
time before rebelled agairift his father in Auvergne.
As long as Childebert lived, he fupported the young
•prince; but on his death, Chramnes was obliged to
implore his father’s clemency. He was at this time
pardoned ; but he foon began to cabal•afrefii, and en¬
gaged the count of Bretagne to affift him in another
rebellion. The Bretons, however, were defeated, and
Chramnes determined to make his efcape ; but percei-
N° 130.
that Ihe defired leave to return to her own country,
promifing to leave behind her all the Wealth file had
brought. The king, knowing that this worild render
him extremely odious, found means to diffipate his
wife’s fufpicions, and foon after caufed her to be pri¬
vately ftrangled, upon which he publicly married Fre¬
degonde.
Such an atrocious afilion could riot fail of exciting
the greateil indignation againtl Chilperic. His dotm-
4 nions
FRA [ 393 1 FRA
nions were immediately invaded by Sigebeft and Gon- of being conquered by Gontran and Childebert, who Framce.
^ tran, who conquered the greateft part of them ; after had entered into a league for that purpofe. After his v—
which they fudderily made peace, Chilpefic confenting death Fredegonde implored the protection of Gontran
that Brunehaut Ihould enjoy thofe places which on his for herfelf and her infant fon Clotaire ; which he very
marriage he had beftowed upon Galfwintha, viz. Bour- readily granted, and obliged Childebert to put an end
deaux, Limoges, Cahors, Bigorre, and the town of to the war. He found himfelf, however, greatly dif-
Bearn, now called Lefcar. ficulted to keep Fredegonde and Brunehailt in awe ;
The French princes, however, did not long conti- for thefe two princeffes having been long rivals and im-
nue at peace among themfelves. A war quickly enfu- placable enemies, were continually plotting the de-
‘    ”' ftrudtion of each other. This, however, he accom-
plifhed, by favouring fometimes Brunehaut and fome-
. ed, in which Gontran and Chilperic allied themfelves
againft Sigebert. The latter prevailed ; and having
forced Gontran to a feparate peace, feemed determined times Fredegonde ; fo that, during his life, neither of
13 to make Chilperic pay dear for his repeated perfidy and
Sieebert af- infamous conduft ; when he was afiaffinated by a con-
faffinated; trivance of Fredegonde, who thus faved herfelf and
them durfl. undertake any thing againft the other.
On the 28th of March 593, died Gontran, having Dea'li of
lived upwards of 60, and reigned 32 years. ChildebertGontran5
Chilperic from the moll imminent danger. Immediate- fucceeded to the kingdom without oppofition, but did
ly on his death, Brunehaut fell into the hands of Chil¬
peric ; but Gondebaud, one of Sigebert’s bell gene¬
rals, made his efcape into Auflrafia with Childebert,
the only fon of Sigebert, an infant of about five years
of age, who was immediately proclaimed king in room
of his father. In a Ihort time, however, Meroveus, el-
deft fon to Chilperic, fell in love with Brunehaut, and
married her without acquainting his father. Chilperic,
on this news, immediately went to Rouen, where Me¬
roveus and his confort were ; and having feized them,
lent Brunehaut and her two daughters to Metz, and
not long enjoy it; he himfelf dying in the year 596,
and his queen fhortly after. His dominions were di¬
vided between his twm fons Theodobert and Thierri ;
the firft of whom was declared king of Auftrafia, and
the latter king of Burgundy. As Theodobert was
only in the nth year of his age, and Thierri in his
loth, Brunehaut governed both kingdoms with an ab-
folute fway. Fredegonde, however, took care not to
let flip fuch a favourable opportunity as was offered her
by the death of Childebert, and therefore made her¬
felf miftrefs of Paris and fome other places on the Seine.
carried Meroveus to Soiffbns. Soon after, one of his Upon this Brunehaut fent againft her the bell part of And Fre-
generals being defeated by Gontran, who efpoufed
Brunehaut’s caufe, Chilperic, in a fit of rage, caufed
Meroveus to be Ihaved and confined in a monaftery.
From hence he found means to make his efcape, and
with great difficulty arrived in Auftrafia, where Brune-
the forces in Auftrafia, who were totally defeated; but <'eg°nde.
Fredegonde died before Ihe had time to improve her
victory, leaving her fon Clotaire heir to all her domi¬
nions.
For fome time Brunehaut preferved her kingdom i
haul would gladly have protefted him : but the jealou- peace; but in the end her own ambition proved her
fy of the nobles was fo ftrong, that he was forced to
leave that country ; and being betrayed into the hands
of his father’s forces, was murdered at the inftigation
of Fredegonde, as was generally believed.
The French empire was at this time divided between
Gontran king of Orleans, called alfo king of Burgun-
Inftead of inftrudfting Theodobert in what was
neceffary for a prince to know, fhe took care rather to
keep him in ignorance, and even fuffered him to marry
a young and handfome flave of his father’s. The new
queen was poffefled of a great deal of affability and
good-nature; by which means Ihe in a fhort time gain-
dy, Chilperic king of Soiffons, and Childebert king of ed the affeftion of her hulband fo much, that he readily
Auftrafia. Chilperic found his affairs in a very difagree- confented to the baniftiment of Brunehaut. Upon this Brunehaut
able fituation. In 579, he had a difpute with Varoc difgrace ftie fled to Thierri king of Burgundy, in the bamihed.
count of Bretagne, who refufed to do him homage,
Chilperic difpatched a body of troops againft him ; who
were defeated, and he was then forced to fubmit to a dif-
honourable peace. His brother and nephew lived in
flridt union, and had no reafon to be very well pleafed
with him. His own fubjedls, being oppreffed with
year 599. By him ftie was very kindly received ; and
inftead of exciting jealoufies or mifunderftandings be¬
tween the two brothers, fhe engaged Thierri to at¬
tempt the recovery, of Paris and the other places which
had been wrefted from their family by Fredegonde,
procuring at the fame time a confiderable body of auxi-
heavy taxes, were miferably poor and difcontented. His liaries from the Vifigoths. This meafure was fo ac-
fon Clovis, by a former queen named Andovera, hated ceptable to Theodobert, that he likewife raifed a nu-
Fredegonde, and made no fecret of his averfion. To merous army, and invaded Clotaire’s dominions in con-
add to his embarraffment, the feafons were for a long junction with his brother.. A battle enfued, in which
time fo unfavourable, that the country was threatened the forces of Clotaire were totally defeated, and him-
with famine and peftilence at the fame time. The
king and queen were both attacked by an epidemic
difeafe which then raged. They recovered ; but their
three fons, Clodobert, Samfon, and Uagobert, died;
felf obliged foon after to fue for peace ; which was not
granted, but on condition of his yielding up the belt
part of his dominions.
This treaty was concluded in the year 600 ; but
after which, the fight of Clovis became fo difagreeable three years afterwards, it was broken by Clotaire. He
to Fredegonde, that ftie caufed him to be murdered,
and likewife his mother Andovera, left Chilperic’s af-
was again attacked by the two brothers, and the war
carried on with great vigour till the next fpring. At
*4
fedlion for her ihould return after the tragical death of this time Thierri having forced Landri, Clotaire’s ge-
her fon.
In 5 83 Chilperic himfelf was murdered by fome u._ .  0     ,     
1 wife chil- known affaflins, when his dominions were on the point long with Landri, was maffacred; to gratify, as Clo-
*enc* Vol. VII. Part I. 3D taire
neral, to a battle, gave him a total overthrow, in which
the king’s infant Ion Merovteus, whom he had fent a-
FRA [ 39+ ] FRA
Franee. taire pretended, the malice of Brunehaut. After this hated her, and who ufed her in the moft: cruel manner. France.
vi&ory, Thierri marched direftly to Paris ; fully bent After having led her about the camp, expofed to the v——*
on the defl.rud.ion of his coufm, which now feemed in- infults of all who had the meannefs to infult her, flie
evitable. This, however, was prevented by Theodo- was tied by the leg and arm to the tail of an untamed Brunehaut
bert ; who no fooner heard of the vi&ory gained by horfe, which, fetting off at full fpeed, quickly dafhedPut
Thierri, than he became jealous of his fuccefs, and of- out her brains. After this her mangled body was re-ciue eat“v
fered Clotaire fuch terms of peace as he gladly accept- duced to afhes, which were afterwards interred in the
ed. The latter having then nothing to fear on the abbey of St Martin at Autun.
fide of Auftrafia, quickly compelled Thierri to liflen to Thus in the year 613, Clotaire became foie monarch
terms of accommodation alfo. of France ; and quietly enjoyed his kingdom till his
This behaviour of Theodobert greatly provoked his death, which happened in 628. He was fucceeded by
brother; and his refentment was highly inflamed by Dagobert; who proved a great and powerful prince,
Brunehaut, who never forgot her difgrace in being ba- and raifed the kingdom of France to a high degree of
nifhed from his court. A war was therefore comroen- fplendor. Dagobert was fucceeded by his fons Sige-
ced between the two brothers in 605 ; but it was fo bert and Clovis ; the former of whom had the kingdom
highly difapproved of by the nobility, that Thierri of Auftrafia, and the latter that of Burgundy. Both
found himfelf obliged to put an end to it. The tran- the kings were minors at the time of their acceffion to
quillity which now took place was again difturbed in the throne, which gave an opportunity to the mayors
607, by Theodobert’s fending an embaffy to demand of the palace (the h:gheft officers under the crown) to
fome part of Childebert’s dominions which had been ufurp the whole authority. Sigebert died in 640, af-
added, by the will of that monarch, to thofe of Bur- ter a fhort reign of one year ; leaving behind him an
gundy. The nobility of both kingdoms were fo much infant fon named Dagobert, whom he ffrongly recom-
averfe to war, that they conftrained their kings to con- mended to the care of Grimoalde his mayor of the pa-
fent to a conference, attended by an equal number of lace. The minifter caufed Dagobert to lie immediate-
troops ; but Theodobert, by a fcandalous breach of his ly proclaimed king, but did not long fuffer him to en-
faith, brought double the number, and compelled his joy that honour. He had not the cruelty, however,
brother to fubmit to what terms he pleafed. This piece to put him to death ; but fent him to a monaftery in
of treachery inftantly brought on a war; for Thierri one of the Weftern iflands of Scotland ; and then, gi-
was bent on revenge, and his nobility no longer oppo- ving out that he was dead, advanced his own fon Chil-
fed him. It was neceffary, however, to fecure Clotaire debert to the throne. Childebert was expelled by Clo-
by a negociation ; and accordingly a promife was made vis king of Burgundy ; who placed on the throne
of reftoring thofe parts of his oominions which had Childeric, the fecond fon of Sigebert. Clovis died
formerly been taken from him, provided he would re- foon after the revolution, and was fucceeded in his
main quiet. This treaty being finilhed, Thierri en- dominions by his fon Clotaire ; who died in a fhort
tered Theodobert’s dominions, defeated him in two time, without iffue. He was fucceeded by his brother,
battles, took him prifoner, ufed him with the utmoft Childeric ; who, after a ffiort reign, was murdered with
indignity ; and having caufed an infant fon of his to his queen, at that time big with child, and an infant
be put to death, fent him to his grandmother Brune- fon named Dagobert ; though another, named Daniel,
baut. By her orders he was firft ffiaved and confined had the good luck to efcape. 20
in a monaftery ; but afterwards, fearing left he ffiould The affairs of the French were now in the moft de-Miferable
make his efcape, (he caufed him to be put to death.— plorable fituation. The princes of the Merovingianfa“ati°n °£ |
Clotaire, in the mean time, thought that the beft me- race had been for fome time entirely deprived of their£rrance*
thod of making Thierri keep his word was to feize on poVer by their officers called mayors of the palace. In
thofe places which he had promifed to reftore to him, Auftrafia the adminiftration had been totally engrofled
before his return from the war with Theodobert. This by Pepin and his fon Grimaulde ; while Archambaud
he accordingly did ; and Thierri no fooner beard of his and Ebroin did the fame in Neuftria and Burgundy,
having done fo, than he fent him a meffage requiring On the reunion of Neuitria and Burgundy to the reft
him to withdraw his forces, and, in cafe af his refufal, of the French dominions, this minifler ruled with fuch
declared war. Clotaire was prepared for this ; and a defpotic fway, that the nobility of Auftrafia were
Heath of accordingly affembled all the forces in his dominions, provoked to a revolt; elefring for their dukes two
Thierri. in order to give him a proper reception. But before chiefs named Martin and Pepin. The forces of the con-
Thierri could reach his enemies, he was feized with a federates, however, were defeated by Ebroiu ; and
dyfentery ; of which he died in the year 612, having Martin having furrendered on a protnife of fafety, was
lived 26 years, and reigned 17. treacheroaifly put to death. Pepin loft no time in re-
On the death of Thierri, Brunehaut immediately cruiting his (battered forces ; but before he had any
caufed his eldeft fon, named Sigi/hert, then in the loth occafion to try his fortune a fecond time in the field of
year of his age, to be proclaimed king. It is probable battle, the affaffination of Ebroin delivered him from all
that (he intended to have governed in his name with apprehenflons from that quarter. After his death Pe¬
art abfolute fway; but Clotaire did not give her time pin carried every thing before him, overthrew the royal
to difeover her intentions. Having great intelligence army under the command of the new nainifter Bertaire ;
in Auftrafia and Burgundy, and knowing that the no- and, having got poffeffion of the capital, caufed him-
bility in both kingdoms were difaffedted to Bfunehaut, felf to be declared mayor of'the palace ; in which fla¬
ke declared war againft her; and flic being betrayed tion he continued to govern with an abfolute fway da-
fey her generals, fefl into the hands of her enemies^ ring the remainder of his life.
Qutaire gave her up to the nobles; who generally Pepia (who had got the furname of KerijlaL from
bis.
FRA [395] FRA
France, his palace on the Meufe) died in the year 714, having
"v—^ enjoyed unlimited power for 26 years. He appointed
his grandfon Theudobalde, then only fix years of age,
to fucceed him in his poll of mayor of the palace. This
happened during the reign of Dagobert already men¬
tioned ; but this prince had too much fpiril to fuffer
himfelf to be deprived of his authority by an infant.
The adherents of the young mayor were defeated in
11 battle, and this defeat was foon followed by his death.
Exploit* of Charles, however, the illegitimate fon of Pepin, was
Charles now rajfcg to the dignity of duke by the Auftrafians,
artc ‘ and by his great qualities feemed every way worthy of
that honour. The murder of Dagobert freed him
from a powerful opponent ; and the young king Chil-
peric, who after Dagobert’s death was brought from a
cloyfter to the throne, could by no means cope with
fuch an experienced antagonift. On the 19th of March
717, Charles had the good fortune to furprife the
royal camp as he palled through the forelt of Arden ;
and foon after a battle enfued, in which the king’s for¬
ces were entirely defeated. On this Chilperic entered
into an alliance with Eudes duke of Aquitaine, whofe
friendlhip he purchafed by the final ceffion of all the
country which Eudes had feized for himfelf. Charles,
however, having placed on the throne another of the
royal family named Cktaire, advanced again!! Chilperic
and his afibciate, whom he entirely defeated near Soif-
fons. After this difafter, Eudes, defpairing of fuccefs,
delivered up Chilperic into the hands of his antagonitl;
after having liipulated for himfelf the fame terms which
had been formerly granted him by the captive mo¬
narch.
Charles now advanced to the fummit of power, treat¬
ed Chilperic with great refpeft ; and, on the death of
Clotaire, caufed him to be proclaimed king of Auftra-
• lia ; by which, however, his own power was not in the
leal! diminilhed: and from this time the authority of
the kings of France became merely nominal; and fo
ina61ive and indolent were they accounted, that hillo-
rians have beftowed upon them the epithet of faineans,
i. e. “ lazy or idle.” Charles, however, had (fill one
competitor to contend with. This was Rainfroy, who
had been appointed mayor of the palace; and who
made fuch a vigorous refillance, that Charles was obli¬
ged to allow him the peaceable poffefiion of the country
of Anjou. No fooner, however, had Charles thus fet
himfelf at liberty from domeftic enemies, than he was
threatened with dellru&ion from foreign nations. The
Suevians, Frifons, and Alemanni, were fuccellively en¬
countered and defeated. Eudes alfo, who had perfi-
dioufly broken the treaties to which he had bound him¬
felf, was twice repulfed ; after which Charles invaded
Aquitain, and obliged the treacherous duke to heark¬
en to reafon. This was fcarce accomplilhed, when he
found himfelf engaged with a more formidable enemy
than any he had yet encountered. The Saracens, ha¬
ving over-run great part of Alia, now turned their vic¬
torious arms wellward, and threatened Europe with total
fubjetlion. Spain had already received the yoke ; and
having palfed the Pyrenees, they next invaded France,
appearing in vail numbers under the walls of Thouloufe.
Here they were encountered and defeated by Eudes ;
but this proved only a partial check. The barbarians
once more palling the Pyremes, entered France with
fuch a powerful army, that Eudes was no longer able
to refill. He encountered them indeed with his accu- France.
Homed valour ; but being forced to yield to fuperior 'r—J
power, he folicited the prote&ion and aflillance of
Charles. On this occafion the latter, on account of his
valour and perfonal llrength, acquired the name oiMar¬
tel, i. e. “ the hammer,” alluding to the violence of the
ftroke& he beftowed'on his enemies*. Three hundred and *. See^-a-
feventy-five thoufand of the Infidels, among whom was- ’ n 1
the commander Abderahman himfelf, are faid to have
perilhed in the battle; notwithftanding which they foon
made another irruption : but in this they were attend¬
ed with no better fuccefs, being again defeated by
Charles; who by fo many viclories ellablilhed his power
on the moft. folid foundation. Having again defeated
the Frifons, and with his own hand killed their duker
he affumed the fovereignty of the dominions of Eudes
after his deceafe, referving to himfelf the claim of ho¬
mage, which he ought to have yielded to Thierri his
lawful fovereign. At laft his fame grew fo great, that
he was chofen by pope Gregory III. for his protestor.
He offered to lhake off the yoke of the Greek empe¬
ror, and to inveft Charles with the dignity of Roman
conful; fending him at the fame time the keys of the
tomb of St Peter ; but while this negociation was go¬
ing on fuccefsfully, the pope, the emperor, and Charles 2a
Martel himfelf died. After his death, which happen- France dt-
ed in the year 741, his dominions were divided among Vlded a-
his three fons, Carloman, Pepin, and Grippon, accord-
ing to the difpofition he had made in his life-time. By Charles,
this Carloman, the eldeft, had Aullrafia; Pepin, the fe-
cond, Neuftria and Burgundy; while Grippon, the
third, had only fome lands affigned him in France; by
which he was fo much difpleafed, that the tranquillity
of the empire was foon difturbed. With the affillance
of his mother Sonnechilde he feized on the city of
Laon, where he endured a violent fiege. In the end,
however, he was obliged to fubmit; Sonnechilde was
put into a monaftery, and Grippon imprifoned in a
catlle at Arden. The two brothers, having thus freed
themfelves from their domeftic enemy, continued to go¬
vern the empire with uninterrupted harmony; but
their tranquillity was foon difturbed by the intrigues of
Sonnechilde. That enterprifing and ambitious woman
had negociated a marriage between Odilon duke of
Bavaria and Hiltrude the filler of the two princes.
This was no fooner accomplilhed than Odilon, mitiga¬
ted by Sonnechilde, and alarmed at the growing power
of the two princes, entered into an alliance with Theo-
dobald duke of the Alemanni and Theodoric duke of
the Saxons; who having affembled a formidable army,
advanced direftly againft the princes. They polled
themfelves in an advantageous manner, with the river
Lech in their front; but Carloman and Pepin, palling
the river at different fords in the night-time, attacked
the camp of the allies with great vigour. The engage¬
ment continued doubtful for five hours ; but at laft: the
entrenchments were forced on all fides, the Bavarians
and Saxons entirely routed, and the vanquilhed dukes
obliged to fubmit to the clemency of the vidlors. Du¬
ring their abience on this expedition, Hunalde, whom
Charles Martel had appointed duke of Aquitain, ha¬
ving likewife entered into a confederacy with Odilon,
palled the Loire, ravaged the open country, and burnt
the magnificent cathedral of the city of Chartres. The
two princes, however, having returned with their vic-
3 D 2 torious
FRA [ 396 1 F R A
France, torious army, Hunalde found himfelf obliged to re-
treat: and even this availed him but little ; for the
Franks entering the duchy of Aquitain, committed
fuch devaftations, that Hunalde in defpair refigned his
dominions to his fon, and retired into a convent. This
event was foon followed by a fimilar refignation of Car-
loman, notwithftanding the uninterrupted fuccefs he had
met with. He fuddenly took the refolution of retiring
into a convent, and perfifted in his defign, notwithhand-
ing the intreaties of Pepin, who, to appearance atleaft,
,, did all he could to diffuade him.
Pepin be- By the refignation of Carloman, which happened in
comes foie jbe year 746, Pepin was left foie mafter of France ;
" anc* *n tk‘s exa^te^ Nation he acquitted himfelf in fuch
dom.' ° a manner as has juftly rendered his name famous to po-
flerity. One of the firit a&s of his new adminiftration
was to releafe his brother Grippon from prifon : but
that treacherous prince had no fooner regained his li¬
berty, than he again excited the Saxons to take up arms.
His enterprife, however, proved unfuccefsful; the
Saxons were defeated, their duke Theodoric taken,
and his fubjefts obliged to fubmit to the will of the
conqueror; who upon this occafion caufed them make
a profeffion of the Chriitian religion. Grippon then
fled to Hiltrude, his half-filter, whofe hulband Odilon
was now dead, and had left an infant fon named Tqfli-
lon. He met wuth a favourable reception from her ;
but, with his ufual treachery, feized both her and her
fon by the afiiltance of an army of malcontent Franks,
whom he had perfuaded to join him. His next ftep
was to affume the fovereignty and title of duke of Ba¬
varia ; but being driven from the throne by Pepin, he
was obliged to implore his clemency, which was once
more granted. All thefe misfortunes, however, were
not yet fufficient to cure Grippon of his turbulence
and ambition: He once more endeavoured to excite dif-
turbances in the court of Pepin ; but being finally de-
te&ed and baffled, he was obliged to take refuge in A-
24 quitain.
AITumes Pepin having now fubdued all his foes both foreign
the title of gnd domeftic, began to think of affuming the title of
fc‘nS- ting, after having fo long enjoyed the regal power. His
wifhes in this refpeft were quite agreeable to thofe of
the nation in general. The nobility, however, were
bound by an oath of allegiance to Childeric the nomi¬
nal monarch at that time ; and this oath could not be
difpenfed with but by the authority of the pope. Am-
balfadors for this purpofe were therefore difpatched
both from-Pepin and the nobility to pope Zachary, the
reigning pontiff. His holinefs replied, that it was law¬
ful to transfer the regal dignity from hands incapable
of maintaining it to thofe who had fo fuccefsfully pre-
ierved it ; and that the nation might unite in the fame
perfon the authority and title of I’ing. On this the
unfortunate Childeric was degraded from his dignity,
‘ ihaved, and confined in a monaftery for life ; Pepin af-
fumed the title of ling of France, and the line of Clovis
was finally fet afide.
This revolution took place in the year 751. The at¬
tention of the new monarch was firft claimed by a
revolt of the Saxons; but they were foon reduced to
fubje&ion, and obliged to pay an additional tribute :
and during his expedition againft them, the king had
the fatisfa&ion of getting rid of his reftlefs and trea-
vherous competitor Grippon. This turbulent prince,
having foon become weary of refiding at the court of Fran
Aquitain, determined to efcape from thence, and put ~—~y
himfelf under the prote&ion of Adolphus king of the
Lombards; but he was killed in attempting to force a
pafs on the confines of Italy. Pepin in the mean time
continued to pulh his good fortune. The fubmiffion
of the Saxons was foon followed by the reduction of
Brittany ; and that by the recovery of Narbonne from
the Infidels. His next exploit was the prote&ion of
pope Stephen III. againft Aftolphus the king of the
Lombards, who had feized on the exarchate of Ra¬
venna, and infifted on being acknowledged king of
Rome. The pope, unable to-contend with fuch a
powerful rival, halted to crofs the Alps and implore
the protection of Pepin, who received him with all the
refpect due to his character. He was lodged in the
abbey of St Dennis, and attended by the king in per¬
fon during a dangetous ficknefs with which he was
feized. On his recovery Stephen folemnly placed the
diadem on the head of his benefaftor, beftowed the
regal undtion on his fons Charles and Carloman, and
conferred on the three princes the title of patrician of
Rome. In return for . thefe honours Pepin accompa¬
nied the pontiff into Italy at the head of a powerful
army. Aftolphus, unable to withftand fuch a power¬
ful antagonift, fhut himfelf up in Pavia, where he was
clofely beixeged by the Franks, and obliged to renounce
all pretenfions to the fovereignty of Rome, as well as
to reftore the city and exarchate of Ravenna, and
fwear to the obfervance of the treaty. No fooner was
Pepin gone, however, than Aftolphus broke the treaty
he had juft ratified with fuch folemnity. The pope
was again reduced to diftrefs, and again applied to Pe¬
pin. He now fent him a pompous epiftle in the ftyle
and charafter of St Peter himfelf; which fo much in¬
flamed the zeal of Pepin, that he inftantly fet out for •
Italy, and compelled Aftolphus a fecond time to fub¬
mit to his terms, which were now rendered more fe-
vere by the impofition of an annual tribute. Pepin
next made a tour to Rome ; but finding that his pre¬
fence there gave great uneafinefs both to the Greeks
and to the pope himfelf, he thought proper to finiftr
his vifit in a ihoH time. Soon after his return Aftol¬
phus died, and his dominions were ufurped by his ge¬
neral Didier ; who, however, obtained the papal fanc-
tion for what he had done, and was recognifed as law¬
ful fovereign of the Lombards in the year 756.
Pepin returned to France in triumph; but the peace
of his dominions was foon difturbed by the revolt of
the Saxons, who always bore the French yoke with
the utmoft impatience. Their prefent attempts, how¬
ever, proved equally unfuccefsful with thofe they had
formerly made ; being obliged to fubmit and purchafe
their pardon not only by a renewal of their tribute, but
by an additional fupply of 300 horfe. But while the
king was abfent on this expedition, Vaifar duke of
Aquitain took the opportunity of ravaging Burgundy, .
where he carried his devaftations as far as Chalons.
Pepin foon returned, and entering the. dominions of
Vaifar, committed fimilar devaftations, and would
probably have reduced the whole territory of Aqui¬
tain, had he not been interrupted by the hoftile pre¬
parations of his nephew Taflilon the duke of Bavaria;
The king, however, contented himfelf at prefent with
fecuring his frontiers by a chain, of'^ofts, againft any
FRA [ 397 I FRA
France, mvaiion; after which he refumed his enterprife on the
—v  dominions of Vaifar. The latter at firit attempted to
impede the progrefs of his antagonift by burning and
laying wafte the country; but finding this to no pur-
pofe, he determined to try his fortune in an engage¬
ment! Vi&ory declared in favour of Pepin ; but
he refufed to grant a peace upon any terms. The
French monarch advanced to the banks of the Ga¬
ronne ; while Vaifar was abandoned by his ally the
duke of Bavaria, and even by his own fubje&s. In
this diftrefs he retired with a band of faithful followers
into the country of Saintonge, where he defended him-
felf as long as poffible, but was at lall deprived both of
his crown and life by the vidlor.
Thus the duchy of Aquitain was once more annex¬
ed to the crown of France; but Pepin had fcarce time
to indulge himfelf with a view of his new conqueft
when he was feized with a flow fever, which put an
Death of end to his life in the year 768, the 54th of his age,
Eepin. and 17th of his reign. He was of a fhort ftature,
whence he had the furnarae of Le Bref, or the Short;
but his great a&ions juftly intitled him to the charac¬
ter of an hero ; though under the fucceeding reign his
own fame feemed to have been entirely forgot, and on
his tomb was only infcribed, “ Here lies the father of
a6 Charlemagne.”
Succeeded Pepin vyas fucceeded in his authority by his two
by his two fons Charles and Carloman ; to whom with his dying
fons. breath he bequeathed his dominions. They continued
to reign jointly for feme time ; but the a&ive and en-
terprifing fpirit of Charles gave fuch umbrage to the
weak and jealous Carloman, that he regarded him with
envy, and was on the point of coming to an open rup¬
ture with him, when he himfelf was taken off by
death, and thus the tranquillity of the empire was pre-
ferved.
The firft military enterprife of Charles was againft
Hunalde, the old duke of Aquitain ; who leaving the
monattery where he had refided upwards of 20 years,
affumed the royal title, and was joyfully received
by his fubje&s, already weary of the French yoke.
Charles took the field with the utmofl expedition, and
with difficulty prevailed upon his brother Carloman,
who was then alive, to join him with his forces. But
the jun&ion was fcarce effe&ed, when Carloman with¬
drew his forces again, and left his brother to carry on
the war in the belt manner he could. Charles, though
thus deferted, did not hefitate at engaging the enemy;
and having overthrown them in a great battle, Hu¬
nalde was obliged to fly to the territories of Lupus
duke of Gafcony. Charles quickly fent an embafly de¬
manding the fugitive prince ; and Lupus, not daring
to difobey the orders of fuch a powerful monarch,
yielded up the unfortunate Hunalde, who wasxnflant-
ly call into prifon, from which, however, he after-
wards made his efcape.
Reign of ^he death of Carloman, which happened in the year
Charles the 771, left Charles foie matter of France; but the revolt
Great- of the Saxons involved him in a feries of wars from
which he did not extricate himfelf for 33 years. Thefe
had long been tributaries to the French, but frequently
revolted ; and now, when freed from the terror of Pe¬
pin’s arms, thought they had a right to fliake off the
yoke altogether. Charles entered their country with
a powerful army; and having defeated them in a num¬
ber of fmall engagements, advanced towards Erefbourg
near Paderborn, where they had their capital poft, and
where was the image of their god Irminful, reprefent-
ed as a man completely armed, and ftanding on a co¬
lumn. The Saxons made an obftinate defence, but
were at latt obliged to fubmit; and Charles employed
his army three days in demolifhing the mohuments of
idolatry in this place ; which fo much diffieartened the
whole nation, that for the prefent they fubmitted to
fuch terms as he pleated to impofe ; and which were
rendered eafier than they probably would have been,
by the news which Charles now' received from Italy.
He had concluded a marriage with the daughter of
Didier king of the Lombards ; but this had been dif-
folved by the Pope, who reproached the Lombards
with the firft ftain of the leprofy. Thus all friendffiip
was diffoived betwixt Didier and Charles; and as the
Lombard monarchs feem to have had a kind of natural
enmity towards the popes, it is not furprifing that it
ffiould now break out with uncommon fury. Didier
having feized and frighted to death Pope Stephen IV.
ufed his utmoft endeavours to reduce his fucceffor
Adrian I. to a ftate of entire dependance on himfelf.
Adrian applied to the French monarch, the ufual re-
fource of the pontiffs in thofe days. Charles was very
willing to grant the neceffary affittance, but the nobi¬
lity were averfe to an Italian war; fo that he was obli¬
ged to a6l with great circumfpe6tion. Several embaf-
fies were therefore fent to Didier, entreating him to re-
ftore to the pope thofe places which he had taken from
him, and at laft even offering him a large fum of money
if he wmuld do fo ; but this propofal being reje&ed,
he obtained the confent of his nobility to make war
on the Lombards. Didier difpofed his troops in fuch
a manner, that the officers of Charles are laid to havo
been unanimoufly of opinion that it would be impof-
fible to force a paffage. This, however, was accom-
pliffied, either thr ough the fuperior fkill of Charles,,
according to fome hittorians, or a panic which feized
the Lombard foldiers, according to others; after which*
Didier, with the old duke of Aquitain, who had efca~
ped from his prifon, and taken refuge at his court,
(hut themfelves up in Pavia. Adalgife, the only font
of the Lombard monarch, with the widow and chil¬
dren of Carloman, fled to Verona. That city was im¬
mediately invefted by the conqueror, and in a ffiort
time obliged to fubmit. Adalgife had the good luck
to efcape to Conftantinople, but we are not informed
what became of Carloman’s widow and children.
Charles, after paying a ffiort vifit to Rome, returned
to the fiege of Pavia. The place was vigoroufly de¬
fended, until famine and peftilence obliged the inhabi¬
tants to implore the clemency of Charles. Hunalde
fell a facriiice to his own ohftinacy in oppofing the
intention of the people; Didier was taken prifoner and
carried into France ; but we are not informed of his
fate afterwards. His kingdom, however, was totally
difiblved, and Charles was crowned king of Lombardy
at Milan in the year 774.
Having received the oaths of allegiance from his
new fubjettts, Charles fet out for Saxony, the inhabi¬
tants of which had again revolted, and recovered Eref¬
bourg their capital. The king foon recovered this
important poll ; but a detachment of his army being
cut off, and new troubles, arifing in Italy, he was obli»
FRA [ 398 1 FRA
Franc* ged to accept of the propofals of the Saxons, though
their fincerity was very doubtful. Having therefore
only ilrengthened the fortifications of Erelbourg, and
left a fufficient garrifon in the place, he fet out for
Italy, which was all in commotion through the in¬
trigues of the emperor of the Eaft, and Adalgife the
fon of Didier. The prefence of Charles reftored tran¬
quillity in that quarter ; but in the mean time, the
Saxons having taken Erelbourg and deftroyed the for¬
tifications, threatened to annihilate the French power
in that quarter. On the king’s return, he found them
employed in the fiege of Sigebourg. His fudden ar¬
rival llruck the barbarians with fuch terror, that they
inilantly fued for peace; which the king once more
granted, but took care to fecure their obedience by a
chain ef forts along the river Lippe, and repairing the
fortifications of Erelbourg. An afiembly of the Saxon
chiefs was held at Paderborn; and apromife was made,
that the nation Ihould embrace the Chriitian religion:
after which the king fet out on an expedition to Spain
in the year 778.
This new enterprife was undertaken at the requeft
of Ibunala, the Moorilh fovereign of Saragolfa, who
had been driven from his territory. He was reftored,
however, by the prowefs of Charles, who reduced the
cities of Pampluna and Saragofia. He reduced alfo
the (ity of Barcelona, and the kingdoms of Navarre
and Arragon ; but on his return, he met with a fe-
vere check from the Gafcons, who attacked and de¬
feated the rear-guard of his army with great llaughter
as they paffed the Pyrenean mountains. This engage¬
ment, which feems to imply fome defeat in the pru¬
dence or military Ikill of Charles, has been much cele¬
brated among romance writers, on account of the death
of Roland a famous warrior.
Next year, 779, he paid a vifit to Italy with his two
fons Carloman and Louis. Having paffed the winter
at Pavia, he entered Rome next fpring amidft the ac¬
clamations of the inhabitants. Here, in the 39th year
of his age, he divided his dominions in prefence of the
pope betwixt his two fons Carloman and Louis. The
former, who now took the name of Pepin, had Lom¬
bardy ; the latter Aquitain. Having then received
the fubmiffion of Taflilon duke of Bavaria, he fet out
for Saxony, where he took a moft fevere revenge on
the people of that country for the many treacheries
they had been guilty of. The prefent revolt was
chiefly owing to a chief named Witikind, who had
twice before fled from the vi&orious arms of Charles,
and taken refuge at the court of Denmark. Return¬
ing from thence in the king’s abfence, he roufed his
countrymen to a£fion, while the. generals of Charles,
difagreeing among themfelvts, negle&ed to take the
proper methods for repelling the enemy. In confe-
quence of this, they were entirely defeated on the banks
of the Wefer in the year 782. Charles arrived in
time to prevent the total deftru&ion of his people,
and dire&ly penetrated into the heart of the country.
Witikind, unable to refill his antagonift, once more
fled into Denmark; but 4500 of his followers perilhed
at once by the hands of the executioner. An univer-
fal infurre&ion was the confequence of this unheard-of
cruelty ; and though during three years the French
monarch was conftantly fuccefsful in the field, he found
it impoffible by any force whatever to fubdue the
5
fpirit of the people. At laft therefore he was obliged
to have recourfe to negociation. Witikind and feve-
ral other chiefs were invited to an interview; where
Charles reprefented to them in fuch ftrong colours the
ruin which muft neceffarily enfue to their country by
perfifting obftinately in oppofition to him, that they
were induced not only to perfuade their countrymen
finally to fubmit, but to embrace the Chriftian re¬
ligion.
Charles having thus brought his affairs in Saxony
to an happy conclufion, turned his arms againft Tafli¬
lon duke of Bavaria, who had underhand fupported
the Saxons in their revolt. Having entered his coun¬
try with a powerful army in the year 787, he made
fuch rapid advances, that the total deftruftion of Taf-
filon feemed inevitable. Charles had advanced as far
as the river Lech, when Taflilon privately entered his
camp, and threw himfdf at his feet. The king had
compaflion on his faithlefs kinfman on feeing him in
this abjefl pofture ; but no fooner did the traitor find
himfelf at liberty, than he ftirred up the Hunns, the
Greek emperor, and the fugitive Adalgife, againft the
king. He fomented alfo the difeontents of the fac¬
tious nobles of Aquitain and Lombardy ; but his fub-
jcjAs, fearing leaft thefe intrigues ftrould involve them
in deftru&ion, made a difeovery of the whole to
Charles. Taffilon, ignorant of this, entered the diet
at Ingelheim, not fufpe&ing any danger, but was in-
ftantly arrefted by order of the French monarch. Be¬
ing brought to a trial, the proofs of bis guilt were fo
apparent, that he was condemned to lofe bis head;
the punifliment, however, was afterwards mitigated to
perpetual confinement in a monaftery, and the duchy
of Bavaria was annexed to the dominions of Charles.
The Hunns and other enemies of the French mo¬
narch continued to profecute their enterprifes without
regarding the fate of their afibciate Taflilon. Their
attempts, however, only ferved to enhance the fame
of Charles. He defeated the Hunns in Bavaria,
and the Greek emperor in Italy ; obliging the latter
to renounce for ever the fortune of Adalgife. The
Hunns, not dilheartened by their defeat, continuing to
infeft the French dominions, Charles entered their
country at the head of a formidable army; and having
forced their entrenchments, penetrated as far as Raal
on the Danube, but was compelled by an epidemic
diftemper to retire before he had finiihed his conqneft.
He was no fooner returned to his own dominions, than
he had the mortification to be informed, that his eldeft
fon Pepin had confpired again ft his fovereignty and
life. The plot was difeovered by a prieft who had
accidentally fallen afleep in a church where the con-
fpirators were afiembled. Being awakened by their
voices, he overheard them confulting on the proper
raeafures for completing their purpofe ; on which he
inftantly fet out for the palace, and fummoned the mo¬
narch from his bed to inform him of the guilt of his
fon. Pepin was feized, but had his life fpared, tho’
condemned to expiate his offences by fpending the re¬
mainder of his days in a monaftery.
Charles was no fooner freed from this danger than
he was again called to arms by a revolt of the Saxons
on the one hand, while a formidable invafion of the
Moors diftrdfed him on the other; the Hunns at the
fame time renewing their depredations on his domi¬
nions.
Fran**.
FRA [ 399 ] FRA
France, nions. The king did not at prefent make war againft
kT-~v—~ the Moors; probably forefeeing that they would be
called off by their Chriftian enemies in Spain. This
accordingly happened; the victories of Alonfo the
Chafte obliged them to leave France ; after which
Charles marched in perfon to attack the Saxons and
Hunns. The former confented again to receive the
Chnllian religion, but were likewife obliged to deliver
up a third part of their army to be difpofed of at the
king’s pleafure ; but the Hunns defended themfelves
with incredible vigour. Though often defeated, their
love of liberty was altogether invincible ; fo that the
war was not terminated but by the death of the king,
and an almoft total deftrudUon of the people: only one
tribe could be induced to acknowledge the authority
of the French monarch.
Thefe exploits were finilhed betwixt the years 793
and 798 ; after which Charles invaded and fubdued the
ifiand of Majorca and Minorca ; which the diffenfions
of the Moorilh chiefs gave him an opportunity of
doing. The fatisfa&ion he felt from this new con-
queft, however, wasfoon damped by the troubles which
broke out in Italy. After the death of pope Adrian,
his nephew afpired to the papal dignity ; but a prieft
named L.eo being preferred, the difappointed candi¬
date determined on revenge. He managed matters fo
well, that his defigns were concealed for four years.
At laft, on the day of a proceffion, a furious affault was
made on the perfon of Leo. The unfortunate pon¬
tiff was left for dead on the ground ; but having with
difficulty recovered, and made his efcape to the Vati-'
can, he was protected by the duke of Spoleto, at that
time general of the French forces. His carafe was
warmly efpoufed by Charles, who invited him to his
camp at Paderborn in Weftphalia; whence he difpatch-
ed him with a numerous guard to Rome, promifing
foon after to vifit that metropolis, and redrefs all grie¬
vances. His attention for the prefent, however, was
called by the defcents of the Normans on the maritime
provinces of his dominions; fo that he was obliged to
defer the promifed affiftance for fome time longer.
Having conftrudted forts at the mouths of moll; of the
navigable rivers, and further provided for the defence
of his territories, by inftituting a regular militia, and
appointing proper fquadrens to cruife agarnft the in¬
vaders, he fet out for the fourth and laft time on a
i3 journey to Rome. Here he was received with the
wowrel higheft pofiible honours. Leo was allowed to clear
emperor 0jhim£elf by oath of the crimes lard to his charge by his
the weft, enemies, while his aecufers were fent into exile. On
the fefti val of Chriftmas, in the year 800, after Charles
had made his appearance in the cathedral of St Peter,
and aflifted devoutly at mafs, the pope fuddenly put a
crown on his head ; and the place inftantly refounded
with acclamations of “ Long life to Charles the Au-
guft, crowned by the hand of God! Long life and
victory to the great and pacific emperor of the Ro¬
mans!” His body was then confecrated and anointed
with royal iMi&ion ; and after being condnfted to a
throne, he was treated with all the refpeA ufually paid
to the ancient Caefars ; from this time alfo being ho¬
noured with the title of Charlemagne, or Charles the
Great. In private converfation, however, he ufually
protefted, that he was ignorant of the pope’s intention
at this time; and that, bad he known it, he would have
difappointed him by his abfence : but thele protefta- France,
tions were not generally believed; and the care he took —
to have his new title acknowledged by the eaftern em¬
perors, evidently fhowed how fond he was of it.
Charles, now raifed to the fupreme dignity in the
weft, propofed to unite in himfelf the whole power of
the firft Roman emperors, by marrying Irene the em-
prefs of the eaft. But in this he was difappointed by
the marriage of that princefs by Nicephoros; however,
the latter acknowledged his new dignity of Auguilus,
and the boundaiies of the two empires were amicably
fettled. Charles was further gratified by the refpeft
paid him by the great Haroun Al-Ralhid, caliph of
the Saracens, who yielded to him the facred city of
Jerufalem, and holy fepulchre there. But in the mean
time his empire was threatened with the invafion of a
very formidable enemy, whom even the power of Charles
would have found it hard to refill. Thefe were the
Normans, at this time under the government of God¬
frey a celebrated warrior, and who by their adventurous
fpirit, and /kill in maritime affairs, threatened all the
weilern coafts of Europe with defolation. From
motives of mutual convenience a tranfitory peace was
eftablilhed, and Charles made ufe of tliis interval to
fettle the final diftribution of his dominions. Aqui-
tain and Gafcony, with the Spanilh march, wtreaffign-
ed to his fon Louis; Pepin had Italy confirmed to
him ; and to this was added the greateft part of Ba¬
varia, with the country now poffeffed by the Grifons.
Charles the eldeft had Neuftria, iullralia, and Thu¬
ringia. The donation was fuppofed to be rendered
more authentic by the fanftion of the pope. 'Phis di-
vilion, however, had fcarce taken place, when the
princes were all obliged to defend their dominions by
force of arms. Louis and Pepin were attacked by the
Saracens, and Charles by the Sclavonians. All thefe
enemies were defeated ; but while Charles hoped to
fpend the Ihort remainder of his life in tranquillity, he
was once more called forth to martial exertions by the
hoftile behaviour of Godfrey the Norman leader.
Charles fent him a meffage of defiance, which was re¬
turned in the fame ftyle by Godfrey : but the former,
by artfully fomenting divifions among the northern
powers, prevented for a while the threatened danger ;
but, thefe difturbances being quelled, the Normans re¬
newed their depredations, and Charles was obliged to
face them in the field. An engagement, however,
was prevented by the death of Godfrey, who was af-
faffinated by a private foldier; on which the Norman
army retreated, and the deyninions of the emperor Rill
remained free from thefe invaders. Still the latter
days of Charles were embittered by domeftic misfor¬
tunes. His favourite daughter Rotrude died, as did
alfo Pepin king of Italy ; and thefe misfortunes were
foon followed by the death of his eldeft fon Charles.
The emperor then thought proper to affociate his only
furviving fon Louis with him in the government;
which was formally done at Aix-la-Chapelle. Charles Deaths or
himfelf furvived this tranfa&ion only a few months: his Charles the
death happened on the 27th of January 814; in the^reat'
71 ft year of his age, and 47th of his reign.
By the martial atchievements of this hero, the French Extent of
monarchy was raifed to its utmoft pitch of fplen-his terrtto-
dor. He hadcadded the province of Aquitain tothe1-'63'
territories of his anceftors ; he had confined the inha-
bitaats
FRA [ 400 ] FRA
France, bitants of Brittany to the (hores of the ocean, and ob-
' » liged them to fubmit to a difgraceful tribute. He
had reduced under his dominion all that part of Spain
which extends from the Pyrenees to the river Ebro,
and includes the kingdoms of Roufillon, Navarre, Ar-
ragon, and Catalonia. He poffelTed Italy from the
Alps to the borders of Calabria ; but the duchy of Be-
. neventum, including rcoft of the prefent kingdom of
Naples, efcaped the yoke after a tranfitory fubmiffion.
Befides thefe extenfive countries, Charles added to his
territories the whole of Germany and Pannonia ; fo
that the French now had the jurifdiftion of all the
country from eaft and weft, from the Ebro in Spain
to the Viftula; and from north to fouth, from the
duchy of Beneventum to the river Eyder, the boun¬
dary between Germany and the dominions of Denmark.
In acquiring thefe extenfive dominions Charles had been
guilty of horrid and repeated maflacres; for which, how¬
ever, he had been in fome meafure excufable by the bar¬
barity and rebellious difpofuion of the people with
w'hom he bad to deal, upon v'hom no mild meafures
would probably have had any effe6t. His eftabliftung
of fchools throughout the conquered provinces, ihow'ed
alfo his inclination to govern his fubjedts in peace, .
and to take proper fteps for their civilization ; though
indeed many parts of his private conduct ftiowed no
fmall inclination to cruelty ; particularly the fate of
the fons of Carloman, of whom no account could ever
be obtained. His advice to his fon Louis indeed was
excellent; exhorting him to confider his people as his
children ; to be very mild and gentle in his admini-
ftration, but firm in the execution of juftice ; to re¬
ward merit; promote his nobles gradually ; choofe mi-
nifters deliberately, but not remove them capricioufly
jj or without fufficient reafon. All thefe prudent maxims,
©ecline of however, were not fufficient to enable Louis to govern
ibis empire dominions fo extenfive, and people fo turbulent as he
had to deal with. At the time of the deceafe of his
father this prince was about 36 years of age, and had
married Ermengarde, daughter of the count of Hef-
bai of the diocefe of Liege, by whom he had three
fons, Lothaire, Pepin, and Louis. Lothaire, the
eldeft, was affociated with himfelf in the empire, and
the two youngeft were entrufted with the governments
of Aquitain and Bavaria. Every one of the princes
proved* unfaithful to their father, as well as enemies
to one another. The death of Ermengarde, and the
marriage of the emperor wilh Judith a princcfs of Ba¬
varia, artful but accomplifhed, proved the firft fource
of calamity to the empire. In the year 823, Charles,
the emperor’s youngeft fon w'as bom ; and his preten-
fions became in time more fatal to the public fcranquil-
lity than the ambition and difobedience of all the reft.
Various parts of the Imperial dominions were like-
wife afiauked by foreign enemies. The inhabitants of
Brittany and Navarre revolted; the Moors invaded
Catalonia; while the ambition of Judith produced a
war among ft the brothers themfelves.
Civlf wars Charles at firft had been appointed fovereign of that
anion? the part of Germany bounded by the rivers Danube, the
ibus of Maine, the Ntckar, and the Rhine ; the country of
Gentle*16 t^e G-rifons and Burgundy, comprehending Geneva
and the Swifs cantons: but this was oppofed by the
three elder fons. Pepin and Louis advanced with the
united forces of Aquitaine and Bavaria, while the Im-
N° 130.
perial forces deferted their ftandard and joined the France,
malcontents. The emperor was taken prifoner, and —t—
the emprefs retired to a monaftefy. Lothaire, the
eldeft of the young princes, to whom the reft found
themfelves obliged to fubmit, was the perfon who re¬
tained the emperor in his pofleffion ; but, notwithftand-
ing his breach of duty, his heart was touched with re-
morfe on account of the crimes he had committed.
Dreading the reproach of the world at large, and be¬
ing threatened with the cenfures of the church, he
threw himfelf at his father’s feet, and begged par¬
don for his guilt, confenting to relinquifh the autho¬
rity he had unjuftly ufurped. Thus Louis was re-
eftablifhed in his authority by thrdiet of the empire
which had met to depofe him. His firft ftep w'as to
recal his emprefs from the monaftery to which fhe had
retired; but this princefs, implacable in her refent-
ment, now perfecuted Lothaire to fuch a degree, that
he was obliged to join his two brothers Pepin and
Louis in a confederacy againft their father. The old
emperor thought to check this rebellious difpofition
by revoking his grant of Aquitain to Pepin, and con¬
ferring it on his youngtft fon Charles, then only
nine years of age ; but pope Gregory IV. conferred,
the Imperial dignity itfelf on Lothaiie, depofing the
unhappy monarch, and again fending the emprefs to a "
nunnery in the foreft of Arden. The unnatural beha¬
viour of his fons, however, once more excited the
compafiion of his fubje&s. Dreux, the biftiop of
Mentz, ufed his intereft with Louis king of Bavaria
to arm his fubje&s in defence of his father and fove¬
reign. In this enterprife the Bavarian monarch was
joined by the French and Saxons; fo that the aged
emperor was once more reftored, the emprefs releafed
from her nunnery, and Charles from his prifon, in the
year 833.
The ambition of Judith now fet matters once more
in a flame. Taking advantage of the afteftion her
hulband bore her, flie perfuaded him to inveft her fon
Charles with the fovereignty of Neuftria as well as
the dominions formerly aifigned him. This was pro-
duftive of great difeontents on the part of Lothaire
and Pepin; but their power was now too much broken
to be able to accomplifh any thing by force of arms.
The death of Pepin, which happened foon after, pro¬
duced a new divifion of the empire. The claims of
young Pepin and Charles, fons of the deceafed prince,
were entirely difregarded, and his French dominions
divided between the two brothers Charles and Lothaire,
the latter being named guardian to his infant nephew.
This enraged Louis of Bavaria, whofe intereft w>as en¬
tirely neglected in the partition, to fuch a degree,
that he again revolted; but the unexpected appearance,
with the hoftile preparations of the Saxons, obliged
him to fubmit and alk pardon for his offences Still,
however, the ambition of the tmprefs kept matters in
a continual ferment, and the empire was again threat¬
ened with all the calamities of civil war; but before
thefe took place, the emperor died, in 841, after a
moft unfortunate reign of 27 years. .
Louis was eminent for the nuklnefs of his manners
and peaceful virtues, which procured him the title of
Le Debonnaire, or “ the gentle:” but fuch was the tur¬
bulence and exceffxve barbarity of the age in which he
lived, that all his virtues, iuftead of procuring him
refpeft
FRA [ 4°i ] F R A
refpeft and efteem, were produ&ive only of contempt
and rebellion from thofe whom both duty and nature
ought to have rendered the molt fubmiflive and obe¬
dient.
The deceafe of vthe emperor was followed by a civil
war among his hpns. The united forces of Lothaire
and his nephew Pepin were defeated by thofe of
Charles and Louis in a very bloody battle in the plains of
Fontenoy, where 100,000 Franks perilhed, in the year
842. This victory, however, bloody as it was, did not
decide the fortune of the war. The conquerors having,
through motives of interell or jealoufy, retired each into
their own dominions, Lothaire found means not only
to recruit his lhattered forces, but prell'ed the other
two princes fo vigoroufly, that they were glad to con-
fent to a new partition of the empire. By this Lo¬
thaire was allowed to polfefs the whole of Italy, with
the whole trad! of country between the rivers Rhone
and Rhine, as well as that between the Meufe and
Scheld. Charles had Aquitain, with the country ly¬
ing between the Loire and the Meufe ; while Louis
had Bavaria, with the reft of Germany, from whence
he was diftinguilhed by the appellation of Louis the
„ German.
rtivifion < f By this partition, Germany and France were dif-
the empire, joined in fuch a manner as never afterwards to be uni¬
ted under one head. That part ol France which was
allowed to Lothaire, was from him called Lotharingia,
and now Lor rain, by a gradual corruption of the
word. The fovereignty, however, which that prince
bad purfued at the expence of every filial duty, and
purchafed at fo much blood, afforded him now but
Lothaire I't^6 fatisfadfion. Difgufted with the cares and anxie-
refi2I S- Bes fituation, he fought relief in a monaftery in
the year 855. On his retreat from the throne, he al¬
lotted to his eldeft fon Louis II. the fovereignty of
Italy ; to his fecond fon Lothaire the territory of
35 Lorrain, with the title of king; and to his youngeft
Reign of fon Charles, furnamed the Bald, Provence, Dauphiny,
JSaM C t^e an<^ Pal * ^le kmgd0111 of Burgundy ; fo that he
may be conirdered as properly the king of France.
From the year 845 to 857 the provinces fubjedbed to
his jurifdidh'on had been infefted by the annual de¬
predations of the Normans, from whom Charles was
at laft fain to purchafe peace at a greater expence than
might have carried on a fuccefsful war. The people
of Brittany had alfo revolted ; and though obliged by
the appearance of Charles himfelf, at the head of a
powerful army, to return to their allegiance, they no
fooner perceived him again embarraffed by the incur-
ftons of the Normans, than they threw off the yoke,
and under the condudl of their ^luke Louis fubdued
the neighbouring diocefe of Rennes ; after which ex¬
ploit Louis aftumed the title of king, which he tranf-
mitted to his fon Herifpee. By him Charles was to¬
tally defeated; and his fnbjecbs, perceiving the weak-
rtfs of their monarch, put themfelves under the pro¬
tection of Louis the German. His ambition prompt¬
ed biro to give a ready ear to the propofal; and there-
tore, taking the opportunity, of Charles’s abfence in
repelling an invafion of the Danes, he marched with a
formidable army into France, and was folemnly crown¬
ed by tiie archbiftiop of Sens in the year 857. Being
too confident of fuccefs, however, and fancying him-
iclf already eftablifhed on the throne, he was perfuaded
Vol. VII. Part II.
to difmifs his German forces; which he had no fooner
do'ne, than Charles marched againft him with an army,
and Louis abandoned his new kingdom'as eafily as he
had obtained it.
Notwithftanding this fuccefs, the kingdom of Charles
continued ftill in a very tottering fituation. The Nor¬
mans haraffed him in one quarter, and the king of
Brittany in another. He marched againft the latter
in the year 860 ; but had the misfortune to receive a
total defeat after an engagement which lafted two days.
The viftory was chiefly owing to a noted warrior na¬
med Robert le Fort, or the Strong, who commanded
the Bretons; but Charles^ound means to gain him
over to his party by invefttng him with the title of
Duke of France, including the country which lies, be¬
tween the rivers Seine and Loire.
For fome time the abilities of Robert continued to
fupport the tottering throne of Charles; but his diffi¬
culties returned on the death of that hero, who was
killed in repelling an invafion of the Danes. Some a-
mends was indeed made for his lofs by the death of the
king of Lorrain in the year 869 ; by which event the
territories of Charles were augmented by the cities of
Lyons, Vienne, Toul, Befan5on, Verdun, Cambray,
Vrviers, and Urez, together with the territories of
Hainault, Zealand, and Holland. Cologne, Utrecht,
Treves, Mentz, Strafburgh, with the reft of the ter¬
ritories of Lothaire, were affigned to Louis the Ger¬
man.
All this time the Normans ftill continued their in-
curfions to fuch a degree, that Solomon king of Brit¬
tany was perfuaded to join his forces to thofe of Charles,
in order to repel the common enemy. The event
proved unfortunate to the Normans ; for their principal
leaders were befieged in Angiers, and obliged to pur¬
chafe leave to depart by relinquifhing all the fpoil they
had taken. Charles thus freed from a formidable ene¬
my, began to afpire to the imperial crown, which a-
bout this time became vacant by the death of Louis.
This belonged of right to Louis the German ; but
Charles, having inftantly affembled a powerful army,
marched with it into Italy before Louis could be ap-
prifed of his defigns ; and being favourably received at
Rome, the Imperial crown was put upon his head with¬
out any hefuation by the Pope, in the year 873. Louis,
enraged at his difappointment, difeharged his fury on
the defencelefs country of Champagne ; and though
the approach of Charles obliged him for the prefent
to retire, yet he continued his preparations with fuch
vigour, that Charles would in all probability have found
him a very formidable adverfary, had he not been taken
off by death in the year 877. Charles was no fooner
informed of his brother’s deceafe, than he invaded the
dominions of his fon Louis, who poflefted Franconia,
Thuringia, the Lower Lorraine, with fome other terri¬
tories in that quarter. The enterprife, however, pro¬
ved unfuccefsful. Charles, though fuperior in num¬
bers, was defeated with great flaughter, and had fcarce
time to reunite his fcattered forces, when he was in¬
formed that the Normans had invaded his territories,
laid wafte part of the country, and taken pofleffion of
the city of Rouen. So many difafters affe&ed him in
fuch a manner that -he fell dangeroufly ill, and was
fcarce recovered of his fickiiefs when he found himfelf
calkd_ into Italy to the affiftance of the Pope againlt
3 E the
FRA [ 402 ] FRA
France, the Saracens, whofe invafions were encouraged by the
'“■"■Y”'—"' dukes of Beneventum and the Greek emperor. Charles
palled into Italy with only a few followers; but when
he came to Pavia, at which place the pontiff had ap¬
pointed to meet him, was informed that Carioman
king of Bavaria, and fon of Louis the German, was
already in Italy with a powerful army, and laid claim
to the imperial title in virtue of his father’s right.
Charles prepared to oppofe him by force of arms ; but
his generals confpired againft him, and the foldiers de¬
clared their refolution not to pafs the Alps. On this
he was obliged to retire to France, at the very moment
that Carioman, dreading his power, prepared to return
to Germany. This was the lad of Charles’s enterprifes.
He is poi- His journey brought on a return of his indifpofition,
jfoned. which was rendered fatal through the treachery of a
Jewifh phyfician named Zedechias, who adminiftered
poifon to him under pretence of curing his malady.
He expired in a miferable cottage upon mount Cenis
in the 54th year of his age, and 38th of his reign over
the kingdom of France.
Reign of The ambition of Charles had been produftive of
Louis the much diftrefs both to himfelf and to his fubjefts. His
Stammerer.fern Louis, furnamed, from a defeat in his fpeech, the
Stammerery-wizoi a quite different difpofition ; but his
feeble adminitiration was ill calculated to retrieve mat¬
ters in their prefent fituation. He died'on the 10th
of April 879, while on a march to fupprefs home in-
furreftions in Burgundy. He left his queen Adelaide
pregnant; who fome time after his deceafe was deliver*-
ed of a fon, named Charles. After his death followed
an interregnum ; during which a fadrion was formed
for fetting afide the children of Louis the Stammerer,
in favour of the German princes, fons to Louis the
brother of Charles the Bald. This fcheme, however,,
proved abortive; and the two fons of the late king,
Louis and Carioman, were crowned kings of France.
Another kingdom was at that time eredted by an af-
fembly of the ftates, namely, the kingdom of Provence,
which confided of the countries now called Lyonnais,
Savoy, Dauphiny, Franche Comte, and part of the duchy
of Burgundy ; and this kingdom was given to duke
Bofon, brother-in-law to Charles the Bald. In 881,
both kings of France died ; Louis, as was fufpedted,
by poifon ; and Carioman of a wound he received ac¬
cidentally while hunting. This produced a fccond in¬
terregnum ; which fended with the calling in of Char les
the Grofs, emperor of Germany. His reign was more
unfortunate than that of any of his predeceffors. The
Normans, to whom he had given leave to fettle in
Frieflatid, failed up the Seine with a fleet of yco {hips,
and laid ftege to Paris: Charles, unable to force them
to abandon their undertaking, prevailed on them to
depart by a large fum of money. But as the king
Could not advance the money at once, he allowed them
to remain in the neighbourhood of Paris during the
winter; and they in return plundered the country,
thus amafling vaft wealth befides the fum which Charles
had promifed. After this ignominious tranfadion
Charles returned to Germany, in a very declining ftate
of health both as to body and mind. Here he quar¬
relled with his emprefs ; and being abandoned by all
bis friends, he was depofed, and reduced to fuch
diftrefs, that he would not even have had bread to eat,
had not he been fupplied by the archbilhop of Mentr, France,
out of a principle of charity.  y—
On the depoiition of Charles the Grofs, Eudes count
of Paris was chofen king by the nobility during the
minority of Charles the fon of Adelaide, afterwards
named Charles the Simple. He defeated the Normans,
and reprefled the power of the nobility ; on which ac¬
count a faftion was formed in favour of Charles, who
was fent for, with his mother, from England. Eudes
did not enter into a civil war ; but peaceably refigned
the greateft. part of the kingdom to him, and content¬
ed to do homage for the reft. He died foon after this
agreement, in the year 898.
During the reign of Charles tip Simple, the French
government declined. By the introdu&ion of fiefs,
thofe noblemen who had got into the pofleflion of go¬
vernments, having thefe confirmed to them and their
heirs for ever, became in a manner independent fove-
reigns : and as thefe great lords had others under them,
and they in like manner had others under them, and
even thefe again had their vaftals; inftead of the eafy
and equal government which prevailed before, a vaft
number of infupportable little tyrannies were ereded.
The Normans, too, ravaged the country in the moft
terrible manner, and defolated fome of the fineft pro¬
vinces in France. At laft Charles ceded to Rollo, the
king or captain of thefe barbarians, the duchy of Neu-
ftria ; who thereupon became Chriftian, changed his
own name to Robei't, and tliat of his principality to
Normandy.
During the remainder of the reign of Charles the
Simple, and the entire reigns of Louis IV. furnamed
the Stranger, Lothaire, and Louis V. the power of the
Carlovingian race continually declined ; till at laft they
were fupplanted by Hugh Capet, who had been creat- FanJy Gf
ed duke of France by Lothaire. This revolution hap- Charles the
pened in the year 987, and was brought about much Great lup¬
in the fame manner as the former one had been by Pe- printe'1 by
pin. He proved an adive and prudent monarch, andL.^* a”
poffefied fuch other qualities as were requifite for keep¬
ing his tumultuous fubjeds in awe. He died on the
24th of Odober 997, leaving his dominions in perfed
quiet to his fon Robert. ^
The new king inherited the good qualities of his fa- Robert,
ther. In his reign the kingdom was enlarged by the
death of Henry duke of Burgundy, the king’s uncle,
to whom he fell heir. This new acceffion of territory,,
however, was not obtained without a war of feveral
years continuance on account of fome pretenders to
the fovereignty of that duchy ; and had it not been for
the affiftance of the duke of Normandy, it is doubtful
whether the king would have fucceeded.—As Robert
was of opinion, that peace and tranquillity were pre¬
ferable to wide extended dominions with a precarious
tenure, he refufed the kingdom of Italy and the impe¬
rial crown of Germany, both which were offered him.
He died on the 20th of July 1030 ; having reigned
33 years, and lived 60. _j0
Robert was fucceeded by his eldeft fon Henry I. Henry Ij
who in the beginning of his reign met with great op-
pofition from his mother. She had always hated him;
and preferred his younger brother Robert, in whofe fa¬
vour ihe now raifed an infurre&ion. By the affiftance
of Robert duke of Normandy, however, Henry over¬
came:
FRA [ 403 1 FRA
France, came all his enemies, and eftablifhed himfelf firmly up- on each other, but fpoiling and robbing his fubje&s France.
*—v—- on the throne. In return for this, he fupported Wil- with impunity. —-y—i
liam, Robert’s natural fon, and aftervvards king of In the year /no, Philip prevailed on the court of
England, in the poffeffion of the duchy of Normandy. Rome to have his affair reviewed in an affembly at
Afterwards, however, growing jealous of his power, Poi£tiers ; where, notwithflanding his utmoft efforts,
he not only fupported the pretenders to the duchy of fentence of excommunication was a fourth time pro-
Normandy fecretly,but invaded that country himfelf in nounced againft him. Yet, in fpite of all thefe fen-
their favour. This enterprize proved unfuccefsful, and tences, as queen Bertha was dead, and the count o£
Henry was obliged to make peace : but no lincere re- Anjou offered, for a large fum of money, to give
conciliation ever followed ; for the king retained a deep whatever afii'fance was requifite for procuring a dif-
fenfe of the difgrace he had met with, and the duke ne- penfation, Philip at laft prevailed, and the countefs
ver forgave him for invading his dominions. The trea- was proclaimed queen of France. But though the
ty between them, therefore, was quickly broken ; and king’s domeftic affairs were now in fome meafure quiet-
Heury once more invaded Normandy with two armies, ed, his negligence in government had thrown the af-
one commanded by himfelf, and the other by his bro- fairs of the nation into the greateft diforder. He there*
then The firll was haraffed by continual fkirmifhes, fore affociated with him in the government his eldeft
and the lafl totally defeated ; after which Henry was fon Louis. This prince was the very reverfe of his fa-
obliged to agree to fuch terms as the duke thought ther ; and by his adfivity and refolution, keeping cou-
proper: but the rancour between them never ceafed, flantly in the field with a confiderable body of forces,
and was in reality the caufe of that implacable averfion he reduced the rebellious nobility to fubjeftion, and,
which for a long feries of years produced perpetual according to the beft hiftorians, at this time faved the
quarrels between the kings of France and thofe of the Hate from being utterly fubverted.
41 Norman race in England. For thefe fervices tbe queen looked upon theyoun£
Philip. Henry died in 1059, not without a fufpicion of be- prince with fo jealous an eye, and gave him fo much
ing poifooed ; and was fucceeded by his eldeft fon Phi- diflurbance, that he found it neceffary to retire for fome
lip, at that time in the eighth year of his age. Bald- time into England; where he was received by king
win earl of Flanders was appointed his guardian ; and Henry I. with the greateft kindnefs. He had not been
died in the year 1066, about the time that William of long at court, before Henry received, by an exprefs, a
Normandy became king of England. After the death letter from Philip ; telling him, that, for.certain im-
of his tutor, Philip began to fliow a very infincere, portant reafons, he fhould be glad if he clofely confined
haughty, and oppreffive difpofition. He engaged in a his fon, or even difpatched him altogether. The king
war with William the Conqueror, and fupported his of England, however, inftead of complying with this
fon Robert in his rebellion againft him*. But after infamous requeft, fhowed the letter to Louis, and fent
the death of William, he aflifted Robert’s brothers a- him home with all imaginable marks of refpedt. Im*
gainft him ; by which means he was forced to confent mediately on his return, he demanded juftice ; but
to a partition of his dominions. the queen procured poifon to be given him, which o-
In 1092, king Philip being wearied of his queen perated fo violently that his life was defpaired of. A
Bertha, procured a divorce from her under pretence of ftranger, however, undertook the cure, and fucceeded •
confanguinity, and afterwards demanded in marriage only a palenefs remained in the prince’s face ever af-
Emma daughter to Roger count of Calabria. The terwards, though he grew fo fat that he was fufnamed
treaty of marriage was concluded ; and the princefs was the Grofs.
fent over, richly adorned with jewels, and with a large On his recovery, the prince was on the point of re¬
portion in ready money : but the king, inftead of e- venging his quarrel by force of arms; but his father
fpoufing her, retained her fortune, and difmiffed the having caufed the queen to make the moft humble fub-
princefs herfdf, carrying off from her huftmnd the coun- millions to him, his refentment was at length appeafed,
tefs of Anjou, who was efteemed the handfomeft wo- and a perfedf reconciliation took place,
man in France. With her he was fo deeply enamour- Nothing memorable happened in the reign of kingr
ed, that not fatisfied with the illegal poffefiion of her Philip after this reconciliation. He died in the year Grofs.1 *
perfon, he procured a divorce between jjer and her huf- 1108, and was fucceeded by his fon Louis the Grofs.
band, and prevailed upon fome Norman bilhops to fo- The firft years of his reign were dilturbed by infur-
iemnize his own marriage with her. The whole of reftions of his lords in different places of the king-
thefe tranfaftions, however, were fo fcandalous, that dom ; and thefe infurreftions were the more trouble-
the pope having caufed them to be revifed in a coun- fome, as they were fecretly fomented by Henry I. of
cil at Autun, in the year 1094, pronounced fentence England, that by weakening the power of France
of excommunication againft Philip in cafe he did not his duchy of Normandy might be the more fecure.
part with the countefs. On his repentance, the cen- This quickly brought on a war ; ifl which Henry
fure was taken off; but as the king paid no regard to was defeated, and his fon William obliged to do ho-
his promifes, he was, in 1095, excommunicated a fe- mage to Louis for the duchy of Normandy. As the
cond time. He again profeffed repentance, and was kings of England and France, however, were rivals
abfolved ; but foon after, living with the countefs of and exceedingly jealous of each other, the latter e-
Anjou as formerly, he was excommunicated a third fpoufed the caufe of William the fon of Robert duke
time. This eondudt, fo unworthy of a prince, expo- of Normandy, whom Henry had unjuftly deprived of
fed him to the contempt of the people. Too many of that duchy. This brought on a new war ; in which
the nobility followed his example, and at the fame Louis, receiving a great defeat from Henry, was obliged
time defpifed his authority ; not only making war up- to make peace upon fuch terms as his antagonift thought
3 E 2 proper.
* See Eng¬
land, n° by.
FRA . f 404 ] FRA
France, proper. The tranquillity, however, was but of fhort
! 1 duration. Louis renewed his intrigues in favour of
William, and endeavoured to form a confederacy a-
gajnft Henry ; but the latter found means not only to
diflipate this confederacy, but to prevail upon Hen¬
ry V. emperor of Germany to invade France with the
whole ftrength of the empire on one fide, while he
prepared to attack it on the other. But Louis ha¬
ving colle&ed an army of 200,000 men, both of them
thought proper to defift. , Upon this the king of
France would have marched into Normandy, in order
to put William in poffeffion of that duchy. His great
vaffals, however, told him they would do no fuch
thing ; that they had affembled in order to defend the
territories of Fiance from the invafion of a foreign
prince, and not to enlarge his power by deftroying
that balance which arofe from the king of England’s
poffefiion of Normandy, and which they reckoned ne-
ceflary for their own faftty. This was followed by a
peace with Henry ; which, as both monarchs had now
feen the extent of each other’s power, wms made on
pretty equal terms, and kept during the life of Louis,
who died in 1137, leaving the kingdom to his fon
43 Louis VII.
Xouis VII. The young king was not endowed with any 6f thofe
a weak qualities which conftitute a great monarch. From
jnnce. fUperftjtion common to the age in which he lived,
he undertook an expedition into the Holy Land, from
whence he returned without glory. In this expedition
he took his queen Eleanor along with him ; but was
fo much offended with her gallantries during her flay
there, as well as her behaviour afterwards, that he di¬
vorced her, and returned the duchy of Guienne which
he received with her as a portion. Six w^eeks after
this fhe married Henry duke of Normandy, count of
Anjou and Maine, and heir-apparent to the crown of
England. This marriage was a very great mortifica¬
tion to Louis ; and procured him the firname of the
Toung, on account of the folly of his conduft. When
Henry afcended the throne of England, fome wars
were carried on between him and Louis, with little
advantage on either fide : at laft, however, a perfedt
reconciliation took place ; and Louis took a voyage to
England, in order to vifit the fhrine of St Thomas of
Canterbury. On his return he was ftruck with an
> apoplexy ; and though he recovered for that time, yet
he continued ever after paralytic on the right fide.
After having languifhed for about a year under this
malady, he died on the 18th of September 1180,
leaving the kingdom to his fon Philip.
FhiHp the This prince, furnamed The Gift of God, The Magna-
(Great. nimous, and The Conqueror, during his lifetime ; and, as
if all thefe titles had fallen fhort of his merit, ftyled
Augujlus after his death,—is reckoned one of the
greateft princes that ever fat on the throne of France,
or any other.—It doth not, however, appear that tbefe
titles were altogether well founded. In the beginning
of his reign he was oppofed by a ftrong faftion excited
by his mother. Them indeed he reprefTed with a vi¬
gour and fpirit which did him honour; but his taking
part with the children of Henry II. of England in
their unnatural contefts with their father, and his
treacherous combination with John to feize his bro¬
ther’s kingdom when he was detained in prifon by the
emperor of Germany, mud be indelible daius in his
character, and for ever exclude him from tlie title of- France.
Magnanimous. As to military (kill and perfonal va-  v"1
lour, he was evidently inferior to Richard I. of Eng¬
land ; nor can his recovering of the provinces held by
the Englifh in France, from fuch a mean and daflardly
prince as king John, intitle him with any judice to
the furname of Conqueror. In politics he was evidently
the dupe of the Pope, who made ufe of him to inti¬
midate John into a fubmifiion, by promifing him the
kingdom of England, which he never meant that he
fhould enjoy. An account of thefe tranfa&ions, which
are the principal ones of this reign, is given under the
article England, n° 121 141.
Philip died in 1223, and wasJiicceeded by his fon R .*s .
Louis VIII. and he, in 1226, by Louis IX. afterwards LowslX.
dyled St Louis. This prince was certainly poffefied
of many good qualities, but deeply tindui ed with the
fuperdition of the times. This induced him to en¬
gage in two eroifades. The fird was againd the
Saracens in Egypt : in which he was taken prifoner
by the Infidels, and treated with great cruelty ; but
at lad obtained his ranfom, on condition of paying a
million of pieces of gold, and furrendering the city
of Damietta. He no fooner regained his liberty, than,
he entered Syria with a view of doing fometbiug wor¬
thy of his rank and chara&er. From this expedition
he was obliged to return fooner than he intended, by
the news of the deceafe of his mother queen Blanch,
whom he had appointed regent in his abfence, and
wrho had managed the national affairs with the greateft.
prudence. The king, however, found many difordtrs
in the kingdom upon his- return ; and thefe he fet
himfelf to reform with the utmoft diligence. Ha¬
ving fucceeded in this, he yielded to Henry III. of
England, the Limoufin, Querci, Perigord, and fome
other places; in confideration of Henry and his fon.
prince Edward their renouncing, in the fulleft manner,
all pretenfions to Normandy and the other provinces of
France which the Englifh had formerly poffeffed.
The reputation of this monarch for candour and
juftice was fo great, that the barons of England, as
well as king Henry III. confented to make him um¬
pire of the differences which fubfifted between them.
But though he decided this matter .very juftly, his
decifion was not produftive of any good effeift. At
laft the king, having fettled every thing relating to his
kingdom in a proper manner, fet out on another croifade
for Africa; where he died of the plague, on the 25th
of Auguft 1270. ^
Notwithftanding the misfortunes of Louis, his fuc--p)jj]jp
ceffor Philip, furnamed the Hardy, continued the war Hardy,
againft the Infidels with great vigour. Being rein¬
forced by his uncle Charles king of Sicily, he brought
the war to a more fortunate conclufion than his prede-
ceffor had been likely to do. The Saracens were de¬
feated in two engagements, and the king of Tunis,
obliged to fue for peace ; offering at the fame time to
double the tribute he formerly paid to the crown of
Sicily ; to reimburfe the expences of the war ; and to
permit the Chriftian religion to be freely propagated
throughout his dominions. Having accomplifhed this,,
the two princes fet fail for Europe ; but the feeds of-
the diftemper which had infe&ed the army in Africa,
not being eradicated, broke forth on their arrival in-
Sicily, and raged for fome time with great violence.,
B.efides
FRA L 4^5 ] FRA
France. Befidea a vaft number of common people, the king’s
1 v  brother John, his queen Ifabella, with his brother and
fifter-in-law the king and queen of Navarre, and his
uncle and aunt the count and countefs of Poiftiers, pe-
rifhed by this dreadful malady.
On his return to France, Philip took pofTeflion of the
counties of Provence and Thouloufe ; married his fe-
cond fon, though then very young, to the only daugh¬
ter of the king of Navarre ; while he himfelf efpoufed
Mary the daughter of the duke of Brabant, reckoned
one of the moft beautiful princeffes of the age. He
fteadily enforced the regulations of' his predeceffor,
who had prohibited the barons ftom making private
wars upon one another ; procured the friendfhip of
Edward I. of England by ceding to him the county
of Agenois ; and entered into a war with Spain in or¬
der to fupport the pretenfions of his nephews, the In¬
fants de la Cerda, to the throne of Caftile.
-The events of this war were of no great imporf-
ance ; and the king’s attention was quickly called off
from them by the death of his elded fon Louis at the
age of twelve years. This difaftrous event happened
in the year-1275, not without a fufpicion of poifon ;
and the young queen, Mary, was accufed by a fur-
geon named La Brofle as guilty of his death. Philip
gave fome credit to the accufation ; but having applied
to a nun, who pretended to be infpired, for full fatis-
faftion, her anfwer proved fatal to La Broffe. The
queen being cleared by this pretended prophetefs, La
Broffe was accufed of a treafdnable correfpondence with
the king of Cadile, and condemned to death. The
manner of his trial and execution, however, werefuch,
that the tide of popular favour was turned ; La Broffe
was by the voice of the people declared to be innocent,
and the king and queen themfeives loudly condemned.
During thefe unfavourable circumdances, the Sicilians,
over whom Charles of Anjou had edablifhed his au¬
thority, indigated by John of Procida, a noble exile,
came to a refolution of freeing themfeives at once from
French the French yoke by a general maffacre. This cruel
maffacred refolution was accordingly put in execution ; and the
in Sicily. French, to the number of 8000, murdered in one
night; after which Peter of Arragon failed to the
ifland, where he was received by the inhabitants as
their king and faviour. Charles was fenfibly affe&ed
by this misfortune ; and having laid dege to Medina,
failed dire&ly to Marfeilles, where he obtained a power¬
ful reinforcement. But during his abfence on this
occafion, his fon, to whom he had entruded the care of
the fiege, having raihly ventured an engagement with
the Spanilh fleet, was entirely defeated and taken pri-
foner; which fo much affected the father that he died
of grief, and Sicily was infeparably attached to the
houfe of Arragon.
The misfortunes of Charles were followed by others
equally great to Philip himfelf. Pope Martin IV. in
the warmth of his zeal for the caufe of the duke of
Anjou, had excommunicated Pedro king of Arragon,.
and bedowed his kingdom on Charles of Valois, a
younger fon of the king of. France. In attempting
to defend himfelf againd the execution, of this unjud
fentence, Pedro was mortally wounded ; but, foon af¬
ter, the French fleet being defeated by that of Arra¬
gon, the king was fo much affe&ed by the misfortune
that he. fell lick.. His difeafe was augmeated by the.
heat of the climate and the fatigues of war ; fo that, France,
quite worn out with grief and infirmities, he expired » 1"J.
at Perpignan in the 41ft year of his age, and 16th of
his reign. 48
By the death of Philip the Hardy the French crown Reign of
devolved on his fecond fon, cafied alfo Philip, and from the
the beauty of his perfon furnamed the Fair ; who had
efpoufed the princefs of Navarre, and at the time of
his accedion was in his 1 7th year. By the marriage
with this princefs he had obtained the counties of
Champagne and Brie ; yet with all this increafe of
power he found himfelf unable to fupport the war in
which his predeceffor had engaged. For this reafon
he thought proper to abandon the intered of the In¬
fants de la Cerda, and fettle the differences with Ca-
ftile. The treaty was concluded by the mediation of
Edward I. of England ; at whofe interceffion Charles
the Lame, fon to the duke of Anjou already mention¬
ed, was releafed from his captivity ; Edward Lrmfelf
paying part of his ranfom. On this Charles confent-
ed to renounce his claim on Sicily ; and Philip himfelf
promifed that his kinfman, Philip of Valois, diould
renounce all pretenlions to the crown of Arragon. In
return for this generofity, the latter obtained the elded
daughter of Charles, with the territories of Anjou
and Maine as a dowry.
The tranquillity procured by this treaty, however,
was foon interrupted by differences with Edward the
promoter of it ; pope Boniface VIII. and Guy de 49
Dampier, count of Flanders. The difference with Differenc*
England took place by a mere accident. A Norman w!th EnS“
and an Englidi veffel having met off the coad of Bay-land‘
onne, and having both occadon for water, the crews
met and quarrelled at the fame fpring. A Norman
was killed in the fquabble by his own weapon, witli
which he affaulted an Englifhman, as the latter pre¬
tended : but however the .matter was, complaints were
made by the Normans to Philip ; who, without giving
himfelf much trouble to inquire into the merits of the
caufe, indantly allowed them to redrefs their fuppofed
injuries. On this a kind of piratical war commenced
between the two nations, in which the two fovereigns
for fome time took no a&ive part ; though other na¬
tions interfered ; the Irifh and Dutch Teamen Tiding,
with the Englidi, and thofe of Flanders and Genoa
with the French. Thus the powers on both Tides were
gradually augmented, till at lad the affair became To -
ftrious, that in one engagement 15,000 French are
Taid to have peridied. Philip, alarmed at Tuch a car¬
nage, fummoned the king of England as his vaffal to-
attend; and, on his refufal, declared his edates in.
France to be forfeited. After a number of negocia- ■
tions, Philip declared that he would be fatisfied with
the nominal ceflion of the province of Guienne, which;
he engaged indantly to redore to the king of England
as foon as it diould be put into his hands. Edward
complied with his demand : but no fooner had the
French monarch obtained poffeflion of that country,
than he perfided in the forfeiture of the Englifh pof-
feffions in France; which treacherous proceeding in¬
dantly produced a war betwixt the two nations. Ed¬
ward, that he might the better defend himfelf againd'
fuch a formidable 'adverfary, concluded a treaty with:
the emperor Adolphus, together with the counts of/
Brittany, .Holland, Bar, JuJiers, Gueldves, and.Elan-,
ders
Difference
with Pope
®oniface.
FRA [ 406 ] FRA
tiers ; while Philip ftrengthened himfelf by an alliance the papal chair for Bertrand archbilhop of Bourdeaux, France.
1 with John Baliol of Scotland ; and this laid the foun- provided he would condemn the memory of Boniface, v—
dation of that ftridb union which took place between reilore the honours and eftates of the Coionnas which
France and Scotland for two centuries. During this had been forfeited, allow him, for five years, the
war the French made a defcent on the coaft of Eng- tenths of the clergy of France, an,d comply with a re¬
land, and dellroyed the town of Dover ; while Ed- queft which at that time it was not proper to divulge,
ward, in revenge, landed in Gafcony with an army of Bertrand having complied with the terms propofed
50,000 men. No great exploits, however, were per- by the king, afcended the papal throne by the name
formed with this mighty armament; and both parties of Clement V. but narrowly efcaped being killed on his
finding themfelves pretty equally matched, confented return from the cathedral of Lyons, by the falling of a
to a fufpenfion of arms for two years; during which a wall which had been overloaded by the number of
peace was finally concluded by the mediation of pope people who came to fee the procefiiou ; by which acci-
Boniface VIII. Guienne was reftored; Edward efpou- dent the duke of Brittany was killed, and the king
fed Margaret the lifter of Philip ; while his daugh- and count of Valois confiderably bruifed. The new rhg'p'ope 'i
ter Ifabella was given in marriage to the prince of pope fixed his refidence at Avignon, where he punc-fixes Ls re-
Wales. tually complied with all the conditions of the treaty, fidence at
Both Philip and Edward behaved to the allies whom except that of condemning the conduft of Boniface, Ayign°H‘
they had engaged in their caufe with equal perfidy, which he abfolutely refufed to do ; and, inftead of
Baliol was abandoned by Philip to the refentment of doing fo, vindicated with much folemnity, after ha-
Edward ; while Guy, earl of Flanders, was left equal- ving inquired into the matter, or pretended to do fo.
ly expofed to the refentment of Philip. The other condition, which Philip had at firft con-
The reconciliation betwixt the French and Englilh cealed, was difcovered by the death of the emperor
monarchs was foon followed by a difference with pope Albert of Auftria ; after which event he defired Cle-
Boniface, whom they had appointed mediator between ment to affift him in placing his brother Charles of
them. Senfible of his affuming difpofition, how- Valois on the Imperial throne. But his holinefs, ap-
ever, they had inferted in the reference made to him, prehenfive of the danger which might accrue to himfelf
that he was chofen as a private man, and not as from being furrounded with the powerful relations of
the fucceffor of St Peter. The haughty pontiff, I hilip, urged the diet to proceed inftantly to an elec-
however, foon fhowed, that he was not by any means tion ; recommending to them Henry of Luxemburg
to be treated as a private perfon, and a conteft with as a proper perfon to fill the Imperial throne. In this
Philip quickly enfued. Boniface began with forbidding fcheme he fucceeded fo well, that the ele&ion was over
the clergy to grant the king any fubfidies without before Philip could arrive at Avignon; and the only
firft obtaining the confent of the Holy See, under the confolation the French monarch could obtain for his
pain of excommunication. Philip revenged himfelf by difappointment was the poffeffion of the city of Lyons,
prohibiting any ecclefiaftics from fending money out which had hitherto maintained an independency under
of the kingdom without his leave ; and by protefting its archbifhop ; but was now perfuaded- to fubmit to
the Coionnas, who were the implacable enemies of Bo- the authority of Philip.
niface. By this his holinefs was fo much irritated that In the mean time Guy, earl of Flanders, being a- Expedition
he fent a moft abufive letter to Philip ; after which he bandoned by his ally Edward king of England, was of Philip
fummonedthe clergy of France to a council at Rome ; obliged to throw himfelf on the mercy of the Frenchthe
which Philip retaliated, by feizing the temporalities monarch, who had fent his brother, Charles , of Va-p]!jn(£ers>
of thofe who obeyed the fummons, and recalling his lois, with a powerful army to invade his dominions,
brother Charles of Valois, who had the title of the From the latter indeed he had obtained a promife, that
pope's general. Senfible, however, of the danger that if he could not, within a year, compofe the differences
attended this conteft, he difpatched two emiffaries, un- fubiifting between him and Philip, he (hould be at li-
der pretence of conciliating the differences, to levy berty to retire, and purfue what meafures he pleafed.
fuch a body of troops as might execute his hoftile pur- But Philip, in order to gratify the refentment which
pofes againft the holy father. With thefe he fuddenly his queen entertained againft the captive prince, de-
invefted the pope in his native city of Anegnia ; and. tainefthim, yvith two of his fons, in clofe confinement;
while the bull was preparing for the excommunication while he himfelf entering Flanders in triumph, was
of Philip, and releafing his fubje&s from their obe- every where received as fovereign of the country ; and
dience, the Pope himfelf was obliged to furrender pri- at his departure appointed John de Chatillon, a re-
foner to the troops of the prince whom he defigned to lation of the queen, to govern thofe newly acquired
anathematize. territories.
Though Boniface had been at this time delivered The new governor took care to repair the fortifica-
up to the troops of Philip through the treachery of the tions which had been fuffered to decay by reafon of the
people of Anegnia, yet he was no fooner taken pri- affiduous application of the Flemings to trade; butbe-
foner and brought to diftrefs, than they refcued him ing of a very haughty and tyrannical difpofition, and
from his guards and conveyed him to Rome, where he the poverty of the times not allowing his mailer to
foon after died of grief and lhame. His fucceffor Be- keep regular garrifons, an infurre&ipn quickly took
nedidt revoked the excommunication of Boniface, and place. This would have been effedually quelled by
attempted to regain the allegiance of Philip by gentle the diligence of the magiftrates, had not Chatillon un¬
means : but, before this could be effe&ed, he himfelf luckily entered Bruges, and publicly difplayed two
was cut off by death, not without ftrong fufpicions of hoglheads of ropes, which he threatened to employ
poifon. After his kdeceafe Philip offered to procure in the execution.of the inhabitants. On this they flew
FRA I 4°7 J F R A
Prance, to arms, maflacred 1500 French ; Chatillon himftlf
w—Y-— being obliged to efcape their fury by fwimming orer
the town ditch'. The infurgents now, daily gathering
ftrength, foon amounted to an army of 60,000 men,
who laid fiege to Courtray. Here they were rafhly
attacked in their trenches by the count d’Artois, who
met with the reward of his temerity, being cut off
with 20,000 of his troops. Philip determined on re¬
venge though the raifing another army obliged him
to debafe the coin of the kingdom. Thus, however,
53 he was enabled to enter Flanders with fuch a force as
The con- would probably have fubdued the whole country, had
queft of not j^ward artfully communicated to the queen of
try Cpre-" France, as a fecret, a feigned correfpondence between
vented by the French nobility and the court of Rome ; by which
Edward ill.falfe intelligence the king was induced to abandon the
of England enterpr-pe wi-tbout performing any thing worthy of the
Armament he had fitted out. The war was continued
for fome time longer; but the attempts of Philip were
conftantly defeated by the fteady valour of the Fle¬
mings ; and the only recompence Philip obtained for
all his trouble and expence was the city of Courtray.
Ex uffion The other remarkable tranfa&ions ©f this reign were
ofthe °n t^ie expulfion and confifcation of the eftates of the
knights Templars, who at that time enjoyed immenfe poffef-
Templars. fions in France. The confifcations took place without
any form of trial, and up wards of 50 of them were put
to death in a cruel manner. The grand-mafter, with
three of his principal officers, were burnt by a flow fire
in the prefence of the king himfelf. The whole body
of thefe unfortunate knights had been accufed of the
moft, grofs and abominable fenfualities. The particu¬
lars were revealed, or pretended to be fo, by two cri¬
minals who received their pardon for the difcoverves
they made ; and thefe difcoveries were confirmed by
the confefiion of the Templars themfelves. But this
confeffion was afterwards retraced, as being extorted
from them by the fear of abfolute deitru&ion ; and
thofe who fuffered, maintained their purity to thfe lalt:
and on the whole, it was believed that Philip confulted
his avarice rather than his juftice by this cruel execu¬
tion. The latter part of his life was embittered by
domeftic misfortunes. His three daughters-in-law,
Margaret daughter of the duke, and Jean and Blanch,
of the count of Burgundy, who had married his three,
fons Louis, Phil!;', and Charles, were accufed of infi¬
delity to their hufbands. After n fevere examination,
Margaret and Blanch were condemned to perpetual im-
prifonment; in which fit nation Margaret was after¬
wards ftrangled by order of her hufband Louis. Their
paramours, Philip and Walter de Launay, two bro¬
thers, were flayed alive, and afterwards hung upon a
gibbet, with an uflrer of the chamber, who had been
their confident. The uneafinefs of mind which Phi¬
lip fuffered on this account is fuppofed to have impair¬
ed his health, and he died of a confumption in the year
1395, the 47th of his age, and 30th of his reign.
Reiof OntheacceffionofLouis,furnamedtheBoiftt-rousonac-
Louis the count of hisviolent temper,he found his treafuryfo much
Boifterous. exhaufted,that he was obliged to delay for fome time the
ceremony of his coronation with his new queen Cle-
mence, daughter of the king of Hungary. Finding
the kingdom otherwife in a very diftradted ftate, heap-
plied himfelf very diligently to appeafe the difeontents
of his fubjects, and conciliate their afiedtion by every
means in his power. In this he was affifted by his France,
uncle Charles of Valois, on whom he at length entire- " J.
ly devolved the government of the kingdom. This re¬
gent, however, behaved with fuch cruelty as is fup¬
pofed to have proved fatal to the king himfelf; for ha¬
ving put to death a nobleman t&mz&Enguerrand de Pol-
lift- de Marigni, who enjoyed the confidence of the
late king, this cruelty was fo much refented, that his
friends were thought to have adminiftered poifon to
the king ; who expired fuddenly after drinking a glafs
of cold water, in the 26th year of his age, and fecond
of his reign. Immediately after his death, Charles
prepared to difpute the fovereignty with the brothers
of the late fovereign. Philip count of Poidlou, the
elded brother, was at that time at Rome affifting in
the eiedlion of a new pope; and it was not until a
month after the death of his brother that he was able
to put an end to the intrigues which took place on that
occafion: but on his arrival in France, the throne was
affigned to him by the unanimous voice of the people.
His profpefts, however, were for a fhort time clouded
by the queeu-dowager Clemence being delivered of a
fon, who has been inrolled among the kings of France ^
under the name of John I. His death in three weeks ReJgn of
fecured the throne to Philip ; who, on account of the Philip ther
tallnefs of his ftature was furnamed the Long. His Bong-
conduct proved fuperior to that of his predeceffor, who
had unfuccefsfully attempted to fubdue the Flemings,
and had even fuffered himfelf to be duped by their
count; but Philip, by his vigorous behaviour, fo redu¬
ced them, that they compelled their fovereign to con-
fent to a peace upon honourable terms. Hefummoned
Edward II. of England to do homage for his poffef-
fions in France ; but that monarch, finding himfelf in¬
volved in difficulties, which rendered the vifit inconve¬
nient, fent excufes to Philip, which he was pleafed to
accept. As the French monarch bad formerly taken
the crofs during the lifetime of his father, he now pro-
pofed to put his vow in execution ; but was diffuaded
from this by the pope himfelf, at whofe inftanfce he
fent an army into Italy to put an end to the contend-
ing factions of theGuelphs and Gibelines, who for fo nate0exp*c,
long time filled that country with blood and llaughter. dition iin<x
The event proved unfortunate; and the difgrace was Laly,
rendered more mortifying by a contagious diftemper,
which fwept off many thoufands of French fubjetfts.
This was fuppofed by the fuperftitious people of thofe
times to be occafioned by the Jews, who had confpired
with the Saracens to poifon the fprings ; and that the
execution of the projedt was committed to fome le¬
pers who lived by themfelves in hofpitals richly endow¬
ed. Gn this a perfecution was inffantly commenced
againft thefe unfortunate men, and great numbers of
them were burnt alive; while the Jews in general were
abandoned to the rage of the populace, who infulted
their perfons, and plundered their houfes without re-
morfe.
The remaining part of the reign of Philip was fpent
in attempting to regulate the internal concerns of his
kingdom. A defign had been formed by his prede-
ceffors of eftablifliing a certain ftandard for the coin,
weights, and meafures, throughout France : and this
was adopted by Philip; who, in order to carry it more
efle&oally into execution, purchafed from the counts^
of Valois, Clermont, and Bourbon, their right of
coinage^,
•F It A [ 4c8 ] FRA
f'l-irre. coinage within their own dominions. But notwith-
landing all his endeavours for this purpofe, he never
could bring the fcheme to bear ; nor indeed could he
in any degree conciliate the affeftion of his fubje&s.
He died of a fever and dyfentery in the year 1322, the
58 28th of his age, and 6th of his reign.
!E.eign of By the death of Philip, the crown of France devol-
t!ie ve(^ on *!)rot^er Charles IV. who had obtained the
furname of Fair. After fettling fome difputes with
the duke of Burgundy, his next Hep was to diflblve
his marriage with Blanch, who Hill continued in pri-
fon, and to efpoufe Mary the daughter of Henry em¬
peror of Germany. This marriage was contra&ed
with a view to the imperial crown itfelf, which had
been fo long feparated from that of France; and in
1325 an opportunity offered for Charles to gratify his
ambition. At that time the Imperial dignity was dif-
puted between Louis of Bavaria and Frederic of Au-
ftria; the latter of whom had been taken prifoner in a
battle with Louis. But pope John, who entertained
an implacable hatred againlt Louis, fulminated the fen-
tence of excommunication again!! him, iptrufling the
execution of it to Leopold the brother of Ferdinand.
The king of France was induced to embark in the fame
caufe, by a promife of the fpoils of Bavaria; while
Frederic himfelf confented to relinquifh his pretenfions
to the empire which he had fo unfoccefsfully main¬
tained. Louis, however, by inftantly releafing his
prifoner, and difmiffing him in an honourable manner,
engaged his friendfhip, and difarmed his moft formi¬
dable antagonift. But the pope was not to be fo dif-
appointed. A confiderable fum of money induced
Leopold to perfevere in his hoftilities, while it was
-detennined that a new council of ele&ors fhould be
held in order to transfer the Imperial crown to Charles.
In purfuit of this vifionary fcheme the king of France
fet out for the frontiers of Germany with a-fplendid
army; but foon found that there was no poffibility of
accomplifning his wifhes. Leopold alone, from mo¬
tives of intereft, remained his friend; the reft fhowed
the greateft indifterence ; and even his brother-in-law
the king cf Bohemia abfented himfelf from the diet ;
while in a ftiort time the death of the queen put an
end to all connections with that crown.
On the deceafe of Mary, Charles efpoufed Joanna
daughter to the count of Evreux : and in order to
avert the calamities to be feared from an infant fuccef-
fion, he entered into an alliance with Robert king of
Scotland ; by which it was provided, that (hould ei¬
ther of the fovereigns die without an heir apparent,
the ftates of the kingdom ftrould fill the vacant throne,
and the furvivor of the two kings ftiould with his whole
force fupport die legality of the nomination again!!
any other competitor : though even this proved infuf-
ficient to avert the danger which now threatened the
kingdom, as (hall be explained in the fequel.
'Candidates Charles died in the year 1328, in the 34th year of
{far the re his age, leaving his queen pregnant; and as the fuc-
gency and ceffton depended on the fruit of the queen’s pregnancy,
•ont he death a r£gent 'n ^ie mtan time was neceffary ; and two can-
of Charles, dicates inftantly appeared for this important poll,
urging at the fame time their right to the crown as
well as to the regency. Thtfe were, Philip de Valois,
coufin-german to the deceafed king ; the other, Ed-
,ward III. king of England, who afpired to the throne
N°
in right of his mother, and the nephew of Charles the Frarrae,
Fair. His pretenfions, however, were ealily fet afide,
and Philip was confirmed in the regency; from which
he foon after ftepped intefthe throne, on the queen
being delivered of a daughter; from which circum-
ftance he acquired the furname of Fortunate. But
though the pretenlions of Edward, both to the regen¬
cy and crown, were unanimoufiy reje6led by the peo¬
ple, it was Hill impoffible for Philip to think of the
claims of fuch a formidable rival without uneafinefs.
He therefore furnmoned the Englifh monarch to doDifpiites
homage for his pofl’effions in France; and, upon his with Edf-
not anfwering his fummons, forfeited them, and feized w.ard l!h
his revenues. This at la!! iniuced Edward to cr°fs
the fea and pay his homage ; which Philip confented
to receive in any form, Upon condition of a proper ex¬
planation being afterwards given : but as this was ftti-
dioiifly delayed after the return of the king of Eng¬
land, the province of Guienne was again feized by the
French monarch. Edward, unwilling to lofe his con¬
tinental dominions, or involve himfelf in a war for the
fake of a mere ceremony, fent over a formal deed, by
which he acknowledged that he owed liege homage to
France. Thus the flame was fmothered for the pre¬
fen t ; and would perhaps have been entirely extin-
guiftied, had it not been for the intrigues of Robert of
Artois, brother-in-law to the king of France himfelf,
who had been expelled his country, andhad taken refuge
in England. By him he was perfuaded topenew his
pretenfions to the crown of France, which of neceflity
produced a war.
For fome time, indeed, neither party made any
open declaration of hoftility ; but as both monarchs
were pofTefled of great prudence and fagacity, they loon
penetrated each other’s defigns. Philip, under pre¬
tence of taking the crofs, began to make prodigious
armaments, ftrengthening himfelf at the fame time by
alliances on every fide ; while Edward, determining to
renew his claim to the crown of France, projefcled the
conquel! of Scotland. This, however, he could not
accomplifli; and in the mean time Philip, in order to
favour the Scots, with whom he was in alliance, fuffer-
ed his fubjec!s to make irruptions into Guienne. ^
In 1337, the war broke out openly. Philip'having Edward’s
detached a fquadron of his fleet again!! the Infidels, fifft expe- .
employed the reft, confifting chiefly of Genoefe veffels,
again!! the Englifh. As in this war it was of great
importance which fide was taken by the Flemings,
thefe people were courted by both parties. Louis
count of Flanders declared for Philip, but his fubjeefts
were more inclined to king Edward. James Arceville
a brewer, the mo!! able and artful man in the country,
governed them at that time as much as if he had been
their prince; and the advantages arifing from the
Englifh commerce determining him in favour of Ed¬
ward, that prince, at his requeft, embarked for Sluys
with a numerous army. Here he arrived in 1338; and
on his firil landing, it was refolved that the German
princes in alliance with him fhould ad! again!! France.
But for this a pretence was wanting. The vaflals cf
the empire could not ad! by Edward’s orders, or even
as his allies, without dired!ions from the emperor, and
be was in league with France. This difficulty, how¬
ever, was foon overcome : the French had made them-
felves mafters of Cambray, and the emperor refolved
2 that
FRA [ 4o<) ] FRA
that it flioulif je retaken. With this view he created brought a reinforcement to the Englhh; which corrvjng Fraace. ■
Edward Vicar General of the Empire; an empty, title, unexpectedly, had a greater efftdi; than in proportion “—
but which feemed to give him a right of commanding to its power and numbers. Two hundred and thirty
the fervicesof the princes of Germany. The Flemings, Ihips were taken ; and 30,000 Frenchmen were killed,
who were vaffals of France, likewife pretended fcniples with two of their admirals: the lofs of the Englilh was
at invading the territories of their liege lord. To quiet inconfiderable, compared to the greatnefs and import-
thefe, Edward, by the advice of Arteville, aflumed the ance of the viftory. None of Philip’s courtiers, it is
title of King of France; and by virtue of this right faid, dared to inform him of the event ; till his fool or
challenged their affiftance for dethroning Philip de Va- jelter gave him a hint, by which he difcovered the lofs
lois, the ufurper of his kingdom. This Hep, which he had fuftained.
he feared would beget endlefs animofities and jealou- After this great vi&ory, Edward landed his forces,
fies, he did not take without hefrtation ; and, accord- and laid fiege to Tournay. Philip marched to its re-
ing to Mr Hume, from this time we may date the com- lief with a very numerous army; but afted with fo
mencement of that great animofity which the Englilh much caution, that Edw-ard found himfelf in a manner
have always borne to the French. blocked up in his camp : and the countefs dowager of
Edward’s firft attempt was upon the city of Cam- Hainault, filter to Philip, mother-in-law to Edward,
and fifter-in-law to Robert d’Artois, coming out of a
convent, to which Ihe had retired, interpofed with fo
much fpirit and addrefs, that Ihe engaged all partie? to
agree to a truce for a year, and might perhaps have
brought about a peace if lire had furvived.
In 1341, however, Edward’s ambition was once Edwatd ia.
more excited by the invitation of the count de Mount- vited ii
bray, to wdiich he laid fiege ; but in a Ihort time he
was prevailed upon by Robert d’Artois to raife the
fiege and march into Picardy. This country he enter¬
ed with an army of near 50,000 men, compofed mollly
of foreigners. Philip came within fight of him with
an army of near 100,000, compofed chiefly of native
fubjedls; and it was daily expedfed that a battle would
enfue. But the Englilh monarch was averfe to engage fort, who had pofiefled himfelf of the province ofFrancea
againft: fo great a fupeiiority ; and Philip thought it Brittany, and applied to Edward to fecond his claims.tllird l‘Q1
fufficient if he eluded the attacks of his enemy, without
running any unneceflary hazard. The two armies fa¬
ced each other for feveral days; mutual defiances were
fent; and Edward at lall retired into Flanders, and dif-
perfed his army.
An offer of this kind entirely coincided with Edward’s
moll fanguine defires. He was happy in the promifed
afilftance of Mountfort, an adlive and valiant ptince,
clofely united to him by intereft, and thus opening to
him an entrance into the heart of France. Thefe flat-
near L. 300,000 of. debt; he had anticipated all ken. But Jane of Flanders his wife foon made up foi
his revenue; he had pawned every thing of value the lofs of her hulband. This lady courageoully under-
which belonged either to himfelf or his queen; nay, he took to fupport the falling fortunes of her family. She
was obliged in fome meafure even to pawn himfelf to aflembled the inhabitants of Rennes, where Ihe thee
his creditors, by defiling .their permiflion to go over to refided ; and carrying her infant fun in her arms, de-
England in order to procure fupply, and by promifing plored her misfortunes, and attempted to infpire the
on his-word of honour to return in perfon if he did not citizens with an affeftion for her caufe. The inhabi-
remit their money. On his arrival in England, how- tants of Nantz inftantly efpoufed her intereffs, and all
ever, he procured a large fupply, fufficient to enable the other fortreffes of Brittany embraced the fame re-
folution. The king of England was apprifed of her ef¬
forts ; and was intreated to fend her fuccours with all
pofiible expedition to the town of Hennebone, in which
place fhe refolved to fuftain the attacks of the enemy.
Charles de Blois, Philip’s general, anxious to make
himfelf mailer of fo important a fortrefs as Hennebone,
and ftill more to take the epuntefs a prifoner, fat down
before the place with a large army, and conducted the
fiege with indefatigable induflry. The defence was no
lefs vigorous : feveral fallies Were-made by the garri-
fon, in which the countefs herfelf was ffill the mofl ac¬
tive, and led on to the affault. Obfctving one day that
their whole army had quitted the camp to join in a
general ftorm, fhe fallied out by a poftern at the head
him to make all the neceflary preparations for
invafion ; and fo certain were the Englifh that France
would now be conquered, that the parliament, before
Edward’s, departure, protefted that they owed him no
obedience as king of France, but that the two kingdoms
muff remain for ever diffinft and independent.
Hi? fecond The king of England fet out on his fecond expedi-
expedition. tion with a fleet of 240 vefiels. Philip had prepared
a fleet of 400 vefftls, manned with 40,000 men; which
he ftationed off -Sluys, in order to intercept him in his
The FrenchPa^affe’ The two fleets met on the 13th of June
entirely de- *34° > hut the Englifh, either by the fuperior abilities
fea-ed at of Edward, or the greater dexterity of his feamen,
fea> gained the wand of the enemy, and had the fun in
their backs; and with thefe advantages began the ac- of 300 hovfe, fet fire to the enemies tents and baggage.
tipn. The battle was fierce and bloody : the Engliffi
archers, whofe force and addrefs were now much cele¬
brated, galled the French on their approach; and
when the flips grappled together, the example of the
k mg and the nobility who were with him fo animated
the feamen and loldiers-, that they maintained every
where a fuperioiity over the enemy. The Flemings
obferving the battle, hurried out. of their ports, and
Vol. VII. Part II.
put their futtlers and fervants to the fword, and occa-
fioned fuch an alarm, that the French defifted from the
affault, in order to cut off her communication with the
town. Thus intercepted, fire retired to Auray, where
fhe continued five or fix days; then returning at the
head of 500 horfe, fhe fought her way through one
quarter of the French camp, and returned to her faith¬
ful citizens in triumph. But the befiegers had at
3 F length
FRA [41
Fnnce. length made feveral breaches in the walls; and it was
’■—— apprehended that a general affault, which was hourly
expe&ed, would be fatal. A capitulation was there¬
fore propofed, and a conference was already begun,
when the countefs, who had mounted on a high tower,
and was looking towards the fea with great impatience,
defcried fome {hips at a diftance. She immediately ex¬
claimed that fuccours were arrived, and forbid any
further capitulation. She was not difappointed in her
wifhes ; the fleet (he difcerned carried a body of Eng-
lifli gentlemen, with 6000 archers, whom Edward had
prepared for the relief of Hennebone, but who had been
long detained by contrary winds. They entered the
harbour under the conduft of Sir Walter Manny, one
of the moft valiant commanders of his time. This re¬
lief ferved to keep up the declining fpirits of the Bre¬
tons until the time appointed by the late truce with
Edward was expired, on which he was at liberty to re¬
new the war in greater form.
The fuccours under Sir Walter Manny were quickly
followed by a more conflderable reinforcement com¬
manded by Robert of Artois, who made himfelf ma¬
iler of the city of Vannes foon after his arrival: but
the Bretons foon recovered the city, and Robert was
compelled to relinquiflr his prize after receiving a mor¬
tal wound. Edward himfelf, eager to revenge the
death of his ally, foon landed at Morbian near Vannes
with an army of 12,000 men. With this fmall num¬
ber he undertook at once the fiege of Vannes, Nantz,
and Rennes: but by dividing his forces, he failed in
every enterprife, and gave an opportunity to John duke
of Normandy, the king of France’s eldeil fon, to inveft
him in his camp. In this fituation his provifions foon
began to fail; and Edward, notwithftanding all his
valour, would have been obliged to furrender, had he
not, by a train of artful negociations, induced Philip
to relinquiflr the advantage he had obtained, and con-
fenl to a truce of three years. This w'as accompliihed
by the mediation of the court of Rome; and the French
monarch was foon made fenfible of the partiality of
that court, and the imprudence of the Hep he himfelf
had taken. Edwprd foon found a pretence to renew
the war, from the execution of fome nobles of Brittany,
who, he faid, were partifans of Mountfort, and chofe
to look upon their puniflrment as an infradtion of the
treaty.
Philip now endeavoured to fecure himfelf againfl the
power of his rival by alliances, and by purchafing the
city of Montpelier from the king of Majorca : but in
the mean time, the Engliflr, under the command of the
earl of Darby, had invaded Guienne, twice defeated
the French army commanded by the Count de Lille,
and made themfelves mailers of a great number of
towns. Philip, by reafon of the exhaulled Hate of his
treafury, was for fome time incapable of making any
oppofition. To recruit his finances, he was obliged
to lay a duty on fait; which gave fuch offence to his
fubjedls as had almoll excited a rebellion. When thefe
difcontents were affuaged, however, he foon raifed an
army of 100,000 men, whofe courage was further
raifed by the prefence of the dukes of Normandy and
Burgundy. The Englilh general was therefore com¬
pelled to Hand upon the defenfive. One fortrefs after
another was furrendered to the French ; till at length
nothing appeared but a total extinction of the power
o ] FRA
of England upon the continent. In this fituation,' France.
Edward refolved to bring relief in perfori to his diHref-  v—
fed fubje&s and allies; and accordingly embarked in
1346 at Southampton, on board a fleet of near 1000
fail, of all dimenfions. He carried with him, befides
all the chief nobility of England, his eldell fon the
prince ofWales (afterwards furnamed t\iz Black Prince)',
a youth of about 15 years old, and already remarkable
both for underllanding and valour above his a<re. H^s ^ ,
ra j c a 0 He lands
army conlilted of 4000 men at arms, 10,000 archers, with an ar«-
10,000 Welfh infantry, and 6000 Irilh ; all which he my in Nor~
landed fafely at La Hogue, a port in Normandy, malldy*
which country he determined to make the feat of the
war.
The intelligence of Edward’s landing, and the deva-
Hation caufed by his troops, who difperfed themfelves
over the W'hole face of the country, foon fpread univer-
fal conllernation through the French court. The rich
city of Caen was taken and plundered by the Englilh
without mercy ; the villages and towns, even up to
Paris, {hared the fame fate ; and the French had no
other refource but by breaking down their bridges, to
attempt putting a Hop to the invader’s career. In the
mean time, Philip was not idle in making preparations
to reprefs the enemy. He had llationed one of his
generals, Godemar de Faye, with an army on the op-
pofite fide of the river Somme, over which Edward
was to pafs; while he himfelf, at the head of 120,000
fighting men, advanced to give the Englilh battle.
Edward, thus unexpeCledly expofed to the danger of
being inclofed and ftarved in an enemy’s country, pub-
lilhed a reward to any that flrould bring him intelli¬
gence of a paffage over the river Somme. This was dif-
covered by a peafant of the country named Gobin A-
gace; and Edward had jull time to get his whole army
over the river, when Philip appeared in his rear. Of
the battle that enfued, in which the French were over¬
thrown with great llaughter, ,an account is given under
the article Cressy.
Edward next laid fiege to Calais, which was then cai^ftam.
defended by John di Vienne, an experienced command-ken!1*
er, and fupplied with every thing neceffary for defence.
It was at length taken, after a twelvemonth’s fiege,
the defendants having been reduced to the lall extre¬
mity by famine and fatigue; for the confequences of
which, fee the article Calais.
From the very beginning of this unfortunate war,
Philip had invariably {bowed himfelf defirou’s of peace,
and the vidtory of Creffy rendered him Hill more fo. Ed-
waj-d alfo, notwithilanding his fucceffes, was unable to
fupport the expences of the war any longer. The me¬
diation of the court of Rome was therefore readily ac¬
cepted, and a truce for three years concluded. At the
fame time, Pnilip met with fome recompence for the
Ioffes he had fullained, by the acquifition of Dauphiny,
which has ever fince given the title of Dauphin to the
eldell fon of the king of France. It was obtained by the
refignation of Humbert prince of Dauphiny; who, be¬
ing difappointed in his hopes of marrying Joan, daugh¬
ter of the duke of Bourbon, gave up his territories to,
Charles the grandfon of Philip, who had married that
lady ; himfelf retiring into a convent. Soon after this
event, the king himfelf, who had been fome time a wi¬
dower, was married to Blanch, the daughter of Philip
count of Evreux, and Jane queen of Navarre; and his
fon
FRA [ 4*1 j FRA
Prance, fon John to the countefs of Boulogne. But the hap-
pinei's occafioned by thefe marriages was foon interrup-
DeatVof tec^ ^ t^le ^eat^ t^le w^i0 exP'red in the year
king Phi- I35°> lhe 57th of his age, and 23d of his reign.
'lip. On the death of Philip, his eldeft fon John took pof-
feffion of the kingdom ;. but fcarcely was he feated on
the throne, when he difgufted his nobility by an un-
feafonable adl of feverity. Robert de Brienne, count
of Eu and Guifnefs, had been taken prifoner by the
king of England at Caen ; and under pretence of ne-
gociating his ranfom, had puffed feveral times between
France and England ; but being accufed of a treafon-
able correfpondence with Edward, he was by order of
his fovereign fuddenly arrefted, condemned, and be¬
headed, without any form of trial. At his death, it
is faid, that he confeffed his treafonable practices ; but
this has not been authenticated by any hiftorian of
credit. Having been conftable of France, the fword,
the badge of his office, was delivered to Charles de la
Carda : but his fate was equally unfortunate with that
- of his predeceffor, beingfoon after affaffinatedby Charles
Infamous king of Navarre, furnamed The Wicked. This prince,
condudt of celebrated for his perfonal qualifications, but detefted
the king of for yg crimes W2S the fon-in-law of John himfelf. He
Jsav«rre. (jeman^e(3 duchy of Angouleme of the king ;
but as the latter had thought proper to.beftow it upon
Carda, he had taken the effe&ual method of revenging
himfelf by afTafTinating his rival. John did not fail to
fhow a proper refentment; but fuch was the weaknefs
of his government, that the king of Navarre fet him
at defiance, and would not even condefcend to the ce¬
remony of afking pardon until John had fent him his
fecond fon as an hoftage for his perfonal fecurity. To
thefe offences the king of Navarre added another ftill
more atrocious, viz. that of afpiring to the crown of
ITance itfelf; to which he pretended a right derived
from his mother, being grandfon by the female fide to
Louis tire Boillerous. But his more immediate de¬
mands were the countries of Champagne and Brie. To
obviate all difficulties on this head, however, John be¬
llowed the duchy of Normandy on his eldeft fon
Charles ; and commanded him to feize the eftates of
the king of Navarre. On this the latter foon made
his appearance at Paris ; but John found himfeif obli¬
ged to appeafe his murmurs at the expence of no lefs
than ico,ooo crowns.
All this time the truce with England had been very
ill obferved on both Tides ; the French had poffefs-
cd themfelves of the port of St Jean d^Angeli; and
_.the Englifh had furprifed the town of Guifnefs. The
rival houfes of Mountfort and Blois ftill continued
their animofitiesj while Edward continued to threaten
war. The king of Navarre went on with his in¬
trigues ; and even the dauphin was drawn into a con¬
federacy againft his father. John, however, being in*
formed of their machinations, found means to defeat
them effectually. The dauphin was reclaimed by
pointing out to him the impropriety of his conduft,
and the difadvantage which muft unavoidably accrue
69 to himfelf from the connections which he had formed.
He is taker. rppe k;ng 0f Navarre was invited, with his principal ad-
and confi- ijerentSj to an entertainment, wffiere they were unex-
e ‘ peCtedly arrefted ; the former being fent prifoner to
Chateau Gaillard, and feveral of the moft obnoxious
of the latter put to death. The reft of the confpira-
tors, inftead of being difmayed by this check, Imme- France,
diately fliowed themfelves in open rebellion; and find- ~—v——^
ing themfelves unable, without farther affiftance, to
gain their point, they without delay invited over Ed¬
ward from England. 70
That warlike and enterprifing monarch had never Fran« *-
loft fight of the objeCl he had originally embraced;
and on the expiration of the truce had fent his fon, warj.y
prince of Wales, and, from the colour of his armour,
furnamed the Black Prince, with a fleet towards the
coaft of France. Young Edward had with this fleet
entered the mouth of the river Garonne, burnt the
towns and villages of Languedoc, and retired with the
plunder into the country of Guienne. Edward him¬
felf, who had likewife paffed over to the continent, waft¬
ed the country as far as St Omer; but the French king,
notwithftanding all thefe provocations, determined to
avoid a battle, and therefore prohibited his general,
the conftable of Bourbon, from coming to an en¬
gagement though his army was much fuperior to that
of the prince of Wales. With the flower of his troops,
however, he purfued Edward from St Omer to Hef-
din, where he defied him to a pitched battle; but the
latter, without minding his bravadoes, continued his
march to Calais, from whence he embarked for Eng¬
land. After his departure, John called an affembjy
of the Hates at Paris, _where he explained the dif-
treffed fituation of his finances, and ffiowed fo fully the
neceffity of affifting him in the defence of the kingdom,
that they confented to maintain an army of 30,000
men during the war. To fupply the other exigencies
of government, they revived the duty on fait, and
added a variety of other impofts; but at the fame
time appointed a committee of their own number to
take care that the money was folely appropriated to the
public fervice.
The fatisfaftion which John received from thefe
grants, and the fuppreffion of fome difturbances which
happened about this time, was foon overcaft by the
news that the prince of Wales had marched with an
army of 12,000 men from Bourdeaux ; and, after
ravaging the Agenois, Quercy, and the Limouiin,
had entered the province of Berry. The young war¬
rior had penetrated into the heart of France with this
trifling body of forces, in hopes of joining the duke of
Lancalter in Guienne. But he foon found that his
fcheme was impradticable : the country before him
was too well guarded to permit this advancing^, fur¬
ther ; and all the bridges behind were broken down,
which effectually barred a retreat. In this embarraf-
fing fituation, his perplexity was increafed, by being
informed, that the king of France was a&ually march¬
ing at the head of 6o,oco men to intercept him. He
at firft thought of retreating : but foon finding it im-
poffible, he determined calmly to await the approach
of the enemy ; and, notwithftanding the ‘difparity of
forces, to commit all to the hazard of a battle.
It was at a place called Maupertuis, near Poi&iers, Battle of
that both armies came in fight of each other. The Poiftiers,
French king might very eafily have ftarved the Engliflr
into any terms he thought proper to impofe; but fuch
was the impatient valour of the French nobility, and
fuch their certainty of fuccefs, that it might have been
equally fatal to attempt repreffing their ardour to en¬
gage. In the mean time, while both armies were
3 F 2 draw ft
FRA [4
France, drawn out, and expecting the fignal to begin, they
u*—> “■ were Hopped by the appearance of the cardinal of 1’e-
rigord, who attempted to be a mediator between them.
However, John, who made himfelf fure of viftory,
would liiten to no other terms than the reftitution of
Calais ; with which the Black Prince refufing to com¬
ply, the onfet was deferred till the next morning, for
which both hides waited in anxious fufpence.
During this interval, the young prince ilrengthen-
cd his poll by new entrenchments ; and placed 3C0
men in ambulh, with as many archers, who were com¬
manded to attack the enemy in flank during the heat
of the engagement. Having taken thefe precautions,
he ranged his army in three divifions; the van was com¬
manded by the earl of Warwick, the rear by the eatls
of Salifbury and Suffolk, and the main body by him¬
felf. In like manner, the king of France arranged his
forces in three divifions; the firft commanded by the
duke of Orleans; the fecond by the Dauphin, attend¬
ed by his younger brothers ; while he himfelf led up
the main body, feconded by his youngefl and favourite
fon, then about 14 years of age. As the Englifh were
to be attacked only by marching up a long ^narrow
lane, the French fuffered greatly from their atchers,
w ho were polled on each fide, behind the hedges. Nor
were they in a better fituation upon emerging from
this danger, being met by the Black Prince himfelf
at the head of a chofen body of troops, who made a
furious onfet upon their forces, already in great difor-
Frcnch de- ^er' ^ dreadful overthrow enfued : thofe who were
feated. as yet in the lane recoiled upon their own forces;
while the Englifh troops who had been placed in am-
bufli, took that opportunity to increafe the confufion,
and confirm the victory. The dauphin and the duke
of Orleans were among the firft that fled. The king
of France himfelf made the utmcfl efforts to retrieve,
by his valour, w’hat his rafhnefs had forfeited : but
his fingle courage w>as unable to flop that confterna-
tion which had now become general through his army;
and his cavalry foon flying, he found himfelf expofed
to the enemy’s fury. At length, fpent with fatigue,
and defpairing of fuccefs, he thought of yielding him¬
felf a prifoner; and frequently cried out, that he was
ready to deliver himfelf to his coufin the prince of
King John Wales. The honour of taking him, however, w as re¬
taken pri- ferved for a much more ignoble hand ; he was feized by
loner. Dennis de Morbec, a knight of Arras, who had been
obliged to fly his country for murder.
In April following, the prince conduced his royal pri¬
foner through’London, attended by an infinite concourfe
of people of all ranks and ftations. His modefty upon
this occafion was very remarkable: the king of France
was clad in yoyal apparel, and mounted on a white tteed
diftinguifhetl by its fize and beauty ; while the prince
himfelf rode by his fide upon a mean little horfe, and
in very plain attire.
Mifertble ^’his dreadful defeat, which happened in the year
fituation of 1356, almoft entirely ruined the French affairs; and
Trance. the miferies which enfued from this caufe were greatly
augmented by inteftine commotions. The dauphin,
who had now afiumed the government, was altogether
unable to govern a turbulent and feditious people at
fuch a crifis. An afiembly of the Hates, which Jie
called, took the opportunity to limit the power of the
prince, impeach the former miniHers, and demand the
12 ] FRA
liberty of the king of Navarre ; the treafurer of the France,
crown was murdered by one Marcel,- a partizan of
that w'orthlefs prince, who had filled the ciry of Paris
with confunon by his intrigues. The affi.ffiii whom
Marcel employed was dragged, by order of the dau¬
phin, from an altar where he had taken refuge, and
ihHantly put to death. The bifliop of Paris relented
the indignity done to the church; and Marcel avenged
the fate of his adherent by murdering both the nraret-
chals, who had feized him in the prefence of tire dau¬
phin ; and fo near him, that his clothes were ftained
with their blood. The prince indignantly alked him,
if he was to be involved in the fame ddtruction? when
Marcel affefted to provide fophis fafety by putting
upon him a blue hood, the badge of the adherents of
Navarre. The public diforders were now alfo augmented The king1
by the efcape of the king of Navarre from confinement; >f Navai re
and though the dauphin was even affured that he hadfftaPc*',
adminillered a dofe of poifon to him, he was obliged t>ri“
Hill to pay him fome appearance of regard. A fcheme
was even formed by the chiefs of the fedition to change
the government, to veil all the power in the commons,
and leave the king no more than an empty title; but
though this was favourably received by the city of
Paris, it was entirely rejetded by the other cities of
the kingdom. The dauphin was likewife rccognifed as
regent by the Hates general, and the inhabitants of
Picardy and Champagne took up arms in his caufe. ^
In this difaHrous Hate of affairs, the miferies of the [nfunec-
pcople were heightened by a new and unexpected evil* irons and ta.
The peafants, who had been all along oppreffed by.^“‘^ of
the nobles, were how treated in fuch a manner, thatj-”^6^
they rofe in 'great numbers to revenge themfelves ;
the cafiles of the nobility were rafed to the groundJ
their wives and daughters ravifhed, and themfelves put
to the m@H cruel torments. At laH they were obliged
to arm in their own defence. The duke of Orleans
cut off 10,000 of them in the neighbourhood-of Pa¬
ris ; 12,000 were mafiacred by the.king of Navarre p
9000, who had laid fiege to the town of Meaux,
where the dauphinefs and three other ladies of the fir Hr
rank refided, were routed and purfued with dreadful
flaughter by an officer in the fervice of Edward. A-
midH thefe confufions, Marcel, the feditious leader al¬
ready mentioned, perifhed in a tumult of his own raf¬
fing ; and the moft virtuous and prudent people.of the.
nation fupported the pretenfions of the dauphin. His
molt dangerous enemy was the king of Navarre, who
had allured to his Handard numbers of thofe Norman,
and Englifh adventurers who had followed Edward in¬
to France, and there been left to feek their fortunes;
where they affociated themfelves under the name of the ^
Companions. By fuch a formidable competitor the Peace!,e-
dauphin was reduced almofl to the lafl extremity,when tween the
his hopes were revived by an unexpected propofal from ^
his rival, of peace upon equitable and moderate terms. °
Hiltorians in general have aferibed this to the natural
levity of the king of Navarre ; but fome have been of
opinion that he aCted from prudential motives, and
that he juHly fuppofed it would be more eafy to deal
with the dauphin, who was his own kinfman, and
humbled by fo many misfortunes, than with an haugh¬
ty and imperious conqueror like Edward.
On the expiration of the truce in 1359, Edward
again fet fail for France, and anchored before Calais.
with
FRA [4
France, with a fleet of 1100 fail, aflumed the title of king of
v.,—*— France, and augmented his army to 100,000 men.
% i 7s The dauphin, finding himfelf unable to withftand fo
vafionof" great a power, was obliged to a£l on the defenfive;
France by chooling the city of Paris for his flation, and allow-
Edward. ing the Englilh to ravage all the open countiy. Thus
they were allowed to penetrate through Picardy into
Champagne; but the city of Rhetms, where Edward
defigned to have been crowned king of Francftrbafded
their utmoft efforts. From Champagne, therefore,
which was already laid wafte, the Englifli monarch
marched into Burgundy ; pillaging Tonnere, Gaillon,
and Avalon. Burgundy was faved by the payment
of 100,000 merks, and a like fum was paid for Ni-
vernois. At lad, after a long and deftru&ive march,
Edward arrived at the gates of Paris; but the pru¬
dence of the dauphin and citizens of that metropolis
had rendered it impregnable to the attacks of famine
Re omi- as we^ as t^ie aflaults of an army. Thus the war went
eludes a on till the year 1360, when the king of England was
peace. inclined to peace, as is faid, by a dreadful tempeft,
to which his army was expofed while encamped in the
fields round Chartres. His conduft, however, may
more reafonably be derived from other motives. Not-
withftanding all the vi&ories he had gained, the French
nation Ihowed not the lead favour to his claim of fuc-
cefiion; the king of Navarre was a dangerous rival,
and the caution of the dauphin in avoiding an engage¬
ment deprived him of the advantages he might expeft
from his valour and military Ik ill. Thus conferences
for a peace were opened at Bretigny in the Chartraine ;
and it was at lad concluded on the following condi¬
tions, viz. That king John fliould pay for his ranfom,
at different periods, three millions of crowns of gold
(about a million and an half of our money); Edward
fhould for ever renounce all claim to the kingdom of
France ; and fnould remain pofleffed of the territories
of PoiHou, Xaintonge, I’Agenois, Perigord, the Li-
moufin, Quercy, Rouvergne, 1’Angoumois, and other
didrifts in that quarter, together with Calaij, Guifnes,
Montreuil, and the county of Pontliieu on the other
fide of France. Some other dipulations were made
in favour of the allies of England, as a fecurity for
the execution of thefe conditions.
Upon John’s return to his dominions, he found him¬
felf very ill able to ratify thofe terms of peace that had
been jud concluded. He was without finances, at the
head of an exhauded date ; his foldiers without difei-
pline, and his peafants without fubordination. Thefe
had rifen in great numbers ; aind one of the chiefs of
their banditti affumed the title of 'The Friend of God
and the Terror of Man. A citizen of Sens, named
fohn Gouge, alfo got himfelf, by means of his robbe¬
ries, to be acknowledged king; and he foon caufed as
many calamities by his devadations, as the real king
had brought on by his misfortunes. Such was the
date of that wretched kingdom upon the return of its
captive monarch : and yet fuch was his abfurdity,
that he immediately prepared for a croifede into the
Holy Land, before he was well replaced on the throne.
John °un- expanded fubjefts been able to equip him for
able to pay this chimerical projeft, it is probable he would have
bis ranfom,.gone through with it; but their miferies were fuch,
returns to that they were even too poor to pay his ranfom. This
Jn ' was a breach of treaty that John would not fubmit to;
.13 ] F R A
and lie was heard to exprefs himfelf in a very noble France..
manner upon the occaiion : “ Though (fays he) good  v—
faith fhould be baniflied from the red of the earth, yet
fhe ought dill to retain her habitation in the bread of
kings.” In confeqnence of this declaration, he ac¬
tually returned to England once more ; and yielded
himfelf a prifoner, fince he could not be honourably
free. It is faid by fome, that his paflion for the
countefs of Salifbury was the real eaufe of his journey :
but we want at this time the foundations for fuch an 8r
injurious report. He was lodged in the Savoy, the pa- Dies, and is
lace where he had redded during his captivity ; and fUC£eeded
foon after he clofed a long and unfortunate reign, by
his death, which happened in the year 1384, about the
3 6th year of .his age.
Charles, furnamed the Wife, fucceeded his father on
the throne of France ; and this monarch, merely by
the force of a finely condufted policy, and even tho*
fuffering fome defeats, reilored his country once more
to tranquillity and power. He quelled and diffipated
a fet of banditti, who had affociated themfelves under
the name of Companions, and who had long been a ter- '
ror to the peaceable inhabitants. He had them inrol-
led into a body, and led them into the kingdom of
Caftile again ft Peter, furnamed the Cruel, whom his-
fubjefts had dethroned, and who, by means of an al¬
liance with the Englifh, endeavoured to get himfelf re-
inftated upon the throne. In confequence of thefe al¬
liances, the Englifti and French again came to an en¬
gagement ; their armies on the one fide commanded by
the Black Prince ; on the other, by Henry of Tranftu-
marre, and Bertrand du Guefclin, one of the moft con-
fummate generals and accompliflred charafters of the
age in which he lived. However, the ufual good for¬
tune of the Englifti prince prevailed ; the French loft
above 20,000 men, while only four knights and 40
private men on the fide of the Engliih were flain.
Meverthelefs, thefe viftories were attended with very Bad fuccefs-
few good effefts. The Englifh, by their frequent le- of the Eng*
vies, had been quite exhaufted, and were Unable to!ifl1,
continue an army in the field. Charles, on the other
hand, cautioufly forbore coming to, any decifive en¬
gagement ; but was contented to let his enemies wafte
their ftrength in attempts to plunder a fortified coun¬
try. When they were retired, he then was fure to
fally forth, and poffefs himfelf of fuch places as they
were not ftrong enough to defend. He firft fell upon
Ponthieu; the citizens of Abbeville opened their gates
to him; thofe of St Valois, Rue,.and Crotoy, imita¬
ted the example; and the whole country was, in a
little time, reduced to total fubmiilion. The fouthern
provinces were, in the fame manner, invaded by his
generals with equal fuccefs: while the Black’Prince,
deftitiite of fupplies from England, and wafted by a
cruel and confumptive diforder, was obliged to returu
to his native country, leaving his affairs in the fouth of
France in a defperatc condition.
In this exigence, the refentment of the king of
England was excited to the utmoft pitch ; .and he feem-
ed refolved to take fignal vengeance on-his enemies cf
the continent. But the fortunate-occafion was now
elapfed ; and all his fucceeding defigns were marked
with ill fuccefs. The earl of Pembroke and his whok-
army were intercepted at fea, and taken prifoners by
Henry king of Caftile. Sir Robert Knoiles, one of
his
FRA [ 4H ] FRA
hi S'general s on the continent, at the head of 30,000 late king, in order to fupport his ambitious enter-' France.
^ ’’’ prizes. At that time Joan, infamous for her profli- *—
gacy, reigned in Naples. She had appointed one '
Charles Durazzo, who was her relation, to fucceed her
in the throne ; but the inhuman wretch murdered his
benefadlrefs, who with her lad breath revoked her
grant of the kingdom to him, and beftowed it upon
the duke of Anjou. His influence at the French
court enabled him to wafte the treafures of the king¬
dom in fupport of his pretenfions though he proved
ultimately unfuccefsful, his forces being conftantly de¬
feated, and his defigns fruftrated by the fuperior ikill
of his adverfary. The duke of Burgundy, inftead of
inftrufting his pupil in the ways of virtue, indulged
him in every kind of vicious pleafure, hoping thereby
to gain his favour afterwards. The citizens of Paris,
opprefied by taxes, broke out into tumults, and were
quelled with difficulty ; while the mal-adminiftration of
Philip the duke of Burgundy foon involved the nation
in hoftilities with the Flemings. Philip invaded their F]anc!jrfe
country at the head of an army oFSo,000 men,along with invaded-
whom was the young king, accompanied by the prin¬
cipal nobility of France. The ftrft operations of war
were favourable to the Flemings; but they were at
length totally defeated on the banks of the river Lis,
where their leader, with 25,000 of his followers, perifli-
ed. This victory was followed by the fubmiffion of
the whole country ; but the fatisfa&ion of the king at
this event was difturbed by new feditions and revolts
in the city of Paris, and other great towns of the
kingdom. His return, however, at the head of a vic¬
torious army, foon reduced them to their duty, and fe-
veral of the revolted cities were feverely puniffied ; at
the fame time that the death of the duke of Anjou ha¬
ving freed him from the immediate dependence on his
tutors, he affiimed the reins of government into his own
hands in the year 1384.
The genius which Charles began to difplay ip, his
early years, raifed the hopes of the nation ; but thefe
were foon^overcall, and greater misfortunes than ever
were now about to enfue. The young king, whofe
marriage began to be a fubjeft of attention to the
council, reful’ed to comply with the forms in ufe a-
meng his predeceflbrs, and infilled upon feeing the ^
perfon defigned for his confort. An interview waSjyia-r4
   men, was defeated by Bertrand du Guefclin; while
the duke of Lancafter, at the head of 25,000 men,
had the mortification of feeing his troops diminilhed
one half by flying parties, without ever coming to a
battle.
At lalt, the Engliffi affairs were totally ruined by the
death of the Black Prince and king Edward. On recei¬
ving this news, the armies of Charles attacked the Eng-
lilh on all fides. One, under the command of the
duke of Burgundy, entered Artois; another entered
Auvergne, under the command of the duke of Berry ;
that which adled in Guienne was commanded by the
duke of Anjou ; and the forces in Bretagne were un¬
der the conftable Guefclin: the king himfelf had a
■powerful body of troops, that he might be able to re¬
pair any accident which fhould happen through the
chance of war. The conftable joined the duke of
•Burgundy, who found it difficult to oppofe Sir Tho¬
mas Felton and the Senefchal of Bourdeaux. Soon
after his arrival, the conftable attacked and defeated
them, making both the commanders prifoners of war.
This viftory was fo well purfued, that, at the clofe of
the campaign 1377, Bayonne and Bourdeaux, with
the diftriits about them, and the fortrefs of Calais
with its dependencies, were all the places left to Eng¬
land on the continent.
Thus Charles eftablilhed once more the houfe of Va-
lois on the throne of France, but did not long live to
Death of enjoy his good fortune. He died in the year 1379, at
Charles; the age of 44, of the confequences of poifon formerly
given him by the king of Navarre, as has already been
mentioned. The immediate operation of this poifon
had been fufpended by the ikill of a phyfician fent by
the emperor Charles IV. He opened an iflue in his
atm, the running of which preferved his life ; but the
phylician declared, that whenever it fhould dry, up the
confequence would be fatal. Not long before his
death, Charles had commenced a procefs againft the
king of Navarre for this crime. Several of the aflb-
dates of the latter fuffered on this occafion, and the
king himfelf was deprived of his poffeffions in Nor¬
mandy, as well as his lordfhip of Montpelier, which
had been given him in lieu of the counties of Cham¬
pagne and Brie, and the duchy of Burgundy which he
And of the had claimed. He did not long furvive the death of accordingly contrived betwixt him and Ifabella daugh-ifabella
Icing of Na- ' " ’ ’ ’ ’ ' *  * ' '    ....
varre.
85 '
Seign of
Charles VI
the French monarch whom he deftroyed. His death
was Angular and very terrible ; for having been afflic¬
ted with the leprofy, he had been obliged to make ufe
of feme bandages dipped in fulphur and afterwards
fteeped in brandy. Thefe took fire by the careleffnefs
of a page, and the unfortunate prince was burnt to
death.
Charles V. was fucceeded by his fon Charles VI. fur-
named the Well-beloved, who at the time of his acceffion
to the throne was only 12 years of age. The duke of
Anjou, eldeft brother to the late king, had been ap¬
pointed guardian during the minority of the prince ;
but he being totally unfit for the office, and diftin-
guifhed only for his rapacity and ambition, readily re-
fig ned his charge to the dukes of Burgundy and Bour¬
bon, the former uncle to the king by his father’s fide,
the latter by his mother’s. None of thefe tutors, how¬
ever, proved faithful to the truft repofed in them. The
duke of Anjou feized the plate and treafures of the
ter to the duke of Bavaria ; where he fell in love with daughter
that princefs, and afterwards married her. His admi-^^^6
niftration was for fome time prudent and vigorous.
He conciliated the affedlions of his people by reftoring
their privileges, puniftiing their oppreflbrs, and relie¬
ving them from the taxes which had been impofed in
his minority. He reduced the Flemings to fubmit to
the authority of his uncle the duke of Burgundy; de¬
tached 15,000 archers and 1500 men at arms to affift
the Scots in their incurfions into England ; and in
1385 fitted out a prodigious armament againlt Eng¬
land. A vaft fleet was affembled in the harbour of
Sluys, and a very numerous army in the neighbour¬
hood. According to fome writers, the armament con-
fifted of 1200 ftiips, 20,000 foot differently armed,
20,000 cavalry, and 20,000 crofs-bow men. There
was befides a vaft wooden edifice or floating town,
which was contrived for the prote&ion of the foldiers
when landed : but all thefe preparations were at laft
6 brought
FRA f 4
Frarce. brought to nothing through the obftinaey of the duhe
**' v~— of Berry; who, having been originally againft this
meafure, carried on his part of the armament fo (low¬
ly, that he did not arrive at Sluys till the middle of
September, when the feafon was fo far advanced, that
no invafion was prafticable. A dorm that happened
foon after, drove the greateft part of the fleet on
fhore, and beat the wooden edifice all to pieces ; the
remains of which the king beftowed on the duke of
Burgundy, to whom he gave alfo the port of Sluys,
which was then very commodious, and of the utmoft
importance.
The deftrudlion of the French fleet was only a pre¬
lude to calamities of a more extraordinary nature. The
Sieur de Craon, a profligate nobleman, had been en-
trufted by the court of France with a confiderable fum
of money for the fupport of the duke of Anjou, at
the time he was reduced to diftrefs by his Italian ex¬
pedition. This money he had diflipated at Venice ;
but, by the credit of the duke of Orleans, the king’s
brother, he had obtained.his pardon, and returned to
court. Here he attempted to gratify his private re-
fentment by the aflafiination of Oliver Cliflbn the con-
ftable, whom he fufpefted of having promoted his dif-
grace. This veteran hero was attacked, on his return
from the hotel de St Pol, by a band of 20 ruffians,
againft whom he defended himfelf with wonderful in¬
trepidity, when at laft he fell, after receiving more
than 50 wounds. Happily, however, he recovered
notwithftanding his being mangled in this manner;
while the affaffin, to fcreen himfelf from vengeance,
fled for protettion to the duke of Brittany. The king
demanded the aflaffin to be given up to him in chains;
but the duke anfwered, that he knew nothing of him :
to which the king giving no credit, marched with all
his forces into his territories. When the army arrived
gg at Mans, the king was feized with a flow fever-; but
Is feized , could not be prevailed upon to reft or take phyfic. On
with lunatic the 5 th of Auguft 1391, having marched all day in
fits. the heat of the fun, a miferable, ragged, wild-looking
fellow, darted from behind a.tree, and laying hold of
the briddle of his horfe, cried out, “ Stop ! where
are you going, king ? You are betrayed ;” and imme¬
diately withdrew again into the wood. The king
pafled on, not a little difturbed ; and foon after one of
the pages, who rode behind and carried his lance, o-
vercome with heat, fell afleep, and let it fall upon the
helmet which was carried by the other. The king,
hearing the noife, looked about; and perceiving the
page lifting the lance, killed him immediately : then
riding furioufly with his fword drawn, he (truck on
every fide of him, and at every perfon, till he broke
his fword ; upon which one of his gentlemen leaped up
behind him and held his arm. He fell foon after, and
lay as if he had been dead; fo that being taken up and
bound in a waggon, he was carried back to Mans,
where he lay two days in a lethargy, after which he
came a little to himfelf, and expreffed great concern at
the blood he had (hed in his delirium. The people,
who had exprefled the greateft concern for his diltem-
per, were equally rejoiced at the news of his recove¬
ry ; but unfortunately it was foon difeovered, that he
no longer pofiefled that ftrength of judgment and un-
derftanding for which he had formerly been remark¬
able. Hence a regency became indifpenfably neceflary;
15 ] FRA
and the competition for it brought to light the cha- Fiance.
rafters of the queen and duke of Orleans, which had  v^
not hitherto been difplayed to public view. The for- . ^9
mer of thefe was a moft beautiful and accompliftied ^ abou^a
princefs; but vindiftive, violent, and intriguing; in-re/enevv '
fenfible to natural affeftion, but eafily acceffible to
flattery, and ready to yield to every impnlfe of law-
lefs paffion. The duke of Orleans was equally re¬
markable for his perfonal accomplifliments, and had
married Valentina daughter of the duke of Milan; but
his engagements with that princefs did not prevent him
from engaging in a number of licentious amours, and
among the reft, as was fuppofed, with his fifter-in-law
Ifabella. During the king’s illnefs he openly afpired
at the regency ; but his pretenfions were over-ruled
by the dates, the adminiftration of affairs being for
the prefent conferred on the duke of Burgundy. In a
few months indeed the health and underftanding of the-
king feemed to be fufficiently reftored; but in the year
1393 it was again difturbed by an accident no lefs extra-
-ordinary than the former had been. An entertainment An accident;
had been given in honour of the marriage of one of the occa^on.s ?■
queen’s attendants. At this fix mafques entered the a- wu, ^
partment, difguifed like fatyrs, in linen clothes covered1 6 inS*
with rofin, and while-warm ftuck over \yith down. Thefe
were the king and five of his lords. The duchefs of
Berri paid attention to the king though (he did not
know him, and engaged in converfation with him. In
the mean time the duke of Orleans, ignorant of the con-
fequence, out of diverfion ran a lighted torch againft
one of them. His whole drefs was inftantly in a flame,
and the fire was from him communicated to all the
reft. The mafques, notwithftanding the dreadful fi-
tuation they were in, called out, “ Save the king ; fave
the king !” On which the duchefs of Berri, recolleft-
ing that it muft be him with whom (he had engaged in
converfation, wrapped him in her cloak, and preferved
him from farther danger. Only one of the reft efca-
ped by jumping into a ciftern of water; the other four
periftied in the flames. The terror which the king un¬
derwent by this accident inftantly occafioned a relapfe;
and he continued delirious at intervals as long as he li¬
ved. During this ftate of infanity he was intraftable
by every perfon except Valentina duchefs of Or¬
leans ; who feemed to have as great an influence over
him as her hufband the duke had over the mind of the
queen. So great was the power indeed which (he had
over the king in this deplorable ftate, that in thofe fit-
perftitious times it was fuppofed by many to be the
effeft of magic. Others, with more probability, aferi-
bed it to her fuperior charms as a woman ; and this
idea inftantly produced her a number of enemies a-
mong her own fex. The duchefs of Burgundy, par¬
ticularly, by her hatred, and the quarrel between the
two ladies, foon extended itfelf to their hulbands. A-
midft their diflenfions, however, they did not entirely
negleft the adminiftration of public affairs; they drove
to conciliate the affeftion of the parliament by pre-
ferving the rights of the commons inviolate ; and they
endeavoured to check an inordinate paffion.for gaming,
which began to appear about this time, and to fubfti-
tute manly and martial exercifes in its place.
During the intervals of his reafon, Charles fre¬
quently affirmed the government into his own hand ;;
and as the war ftill continued with England, though in
FRA
frarce a languixl manner, the French monarch, in one of
  thefe lucid intervals, had an interview with Richard
91. king of England, in order to put an end to hoftilicies,
betwixt'thewhich botli were equally weary. Still, however,
king of their claims were fo difficult to be adjufted, that they
Frai.ce and could do no more than conclude a truce for 2$ years ;
England, during which fpace it was hoped that a lading peace
might take place. Richard gave up Cherburg to
Charles, and BreR to the duke of Brittany: a mar¬
riage was alfo concluded betwixt the king of England
and Ifabella the daughter of Charles, though the latter
was then, only feven years of age ; but by reafon of
the tender age of the princefs, this marriage was never
confummated.
During this unfortunate feign, France was Rill far¬
ther weakened by the fuccours lent to the Hungarians
Unhappy againR the Turks. On this fatal expedition up-
fate of the wards of icoo of the bravcR and molt experienced
fuccours knights were fent under the conduft of John count of
HuVa-116 Nevers, eldeR fon of the duke of Burgundy ; the
riansf3' count of Eu conRable of France ; John de Vienne
admiral of France ; and the count of Marche, a prince
of the blood-royal; together with De Courcy, one of
the belt and moR experienced captains in Chriftendom.
The prudent counfels of this veteran, however, were
not obeyed by the youthful warriors by whom he was
accompanied. Attacking the enemy therefore raffily,
and while heated with wine, they were all either killed
or taken prifoners. Notwithftanding this difafter, how¬
ever, afiiilance was fent in the year 1400 to Wance-
* flaus emperor of. Germany ; and the duke of Orleans,
who commanded the army on this occafion, acquitted
himfelf fo well that he acquired the duchy of Luxem¬
burg for himfelf, and left his ally fatisfied : but while
the friendfhip of France was thus courted by foreign
powers, the kingdom itfelf was in the moR miferable
fituation. The king’s diRemper feemed daily to gain
ground ; while the difeordant interefts of the contend-
‘"Violent ing Patt;es the whole nation in a ferment. The
commo- moR violent animofity took place betwixt the dnkes of
tions in Orleans and Burgundy. The former, by means of his
France. own JntereR with the queen, and the afcendancy his
duchefs had over the king, for fome time got the bet¬
ter of his rival, and was made lieutenant-general and
governor of the kingdom ; but having .prefumed on
his power to levy new impofts on the people, and op-
preffing alfo the churchmen, whom in that fuperRitious
-age he ought by all means to have let alone, he was
deprived of his authority, and obliged to yield to the
duke of Burgundy. For fome time, however, thefe pow¬
erful rivals were kept within fome bounds by the me¬
diation of the duke of Bourbon, who feems to have
been the only grandee who maintained a pure and un-
fpotted character ; but by his death in 1404, the un¬
happy nation was left totally expofed to their relentlcfs
fury. In 1405, the queen and duke of Orleans again
feized the adminiftration; but werefoon deprived of it
by the unanimous voice of the people. During.this
period Charles and his children were negledled and a-
bandoned to diftrefs ; but they were relieved by the
duke of Burgundy on his obtaining the regency; and I-
fabella, with the duke of Orleans, was obliged to retire
-from Milan. A fudden return of the king’s reafon and
underftanding for a much longer time than ufual, now
deprived both parties of their power ; and the ad-
.N°i3i. 4
416 ] FRA
miniftratidn was veiled in the queen and a council' com- France,
pofed of princes of the blood. y—
The two rival dukes, thus prohibited from inter¬
fering in public affairs, exercifed themfclves in com¬
mitting hoftilities againR the Englifh, with whom the
truce had been lately concluded. They were encou¬
raged to this iofraftion of the treatyNby the unfettled
fituation of the affairs of Henry IV.: but their at¬
tempts proving unfuccefsful, the truce was renewed af¬
ter obtaining reftoration of the prtneefs, who had been
married to Richard II. as has been already mentioned.
The failure of their enteprifes produced a new feene of
difeord betwixt the dukes, who mutually threw the
blame upon each other. By thojntreaties of the duke
of Berri they were apparently reconciled; but the duke
of Burgundy pretended friendfhip only in.order to take
the more fignal vengeance. To this he was now fur-
ther inflamed by jealoufy. Having hired a -band ofDuke of
ruffians to execute his bloody purpofe, the duke w’a8?Ireans
one evening attacked by eighteen of them while at- lna e ‘
tended only by two pages. A Norman gentleman
whom the duke had deprived of an employment, headed
the affaffins, and in perfon attacked the duke. At
the lirft blow he cut off his hand, at the fecond he
ilruck him from his mule, and at the third put an end
to his life. His wife Valentina was fo concerned at his
death, that fhe died foon after. The duke of Bur¬
gundy efcaped to Flanders; and the whole nation was
rent into two fail ions, called the Burgundians and Ar-
magnacs; the latter being the title of the party of the
duke of Orleans, from Armagnac the father-in-law of
that prince. A dreadful confulion enfued : the duke
of Burgundy foo-n returned to France, and extorted a
pardon from the unhappy king, who was now no
longer able to refiR him : and we may have fome no¬
tion of the Rate of the kingdom in general from being
told, that 2poo people periflied in one tumult in the
capital. The king himfelf was alternately the prifoner
of each party, and alternately transferred the power
from the one to the other as he happened to fall into
their hands. This therefore was thought by Henry V.
of England a favourable opportunity to recover from
France thofe grants that had been formerly given up
by treaty. But previoufly, to give his intended expe¬
dition the appearence of jullice, he fent over ambaffa-
dors to Paris, offering a perpetual peace and alliance,
on condition of being put in poffeffion of all thofe
provinces which had been ravilhed from the Englifh
during fome former reigns, -and of efpoufing Catharine,
the French king’s daughter, in marriage, with a fuit-
able dowry. Though the French court was at that
time extremely averfe to war, yet the exorbitance of
thefe demands could not be complied with ; and Henry
very probaHy made them in hopes of a denial. He(nva,^n])V
therefore affembled a great fleet and army at South-Henry V.of
ampton ; and having allured all the military men of england.
the kingdom to attend him, from the hopes of con-
queflj he put to fta, and landed at Harfleur, at the
head of an army of 6000 men at arms, and 24,000
foot, moftly archers.
His firfl operations were upon Harfleur ; which be-
ing preffed hard, promifed at a certain day to furren-
der, unlefs relieved before that time. The day arri¬
ving, and thegarrifon, unmindful of their engagement.,
ftill refolving to defend the place, Henry ordered an
affault
FRA [4
France, aflault to be made, took the town by ftorm, and put
'" * 11 all the garrifon to the fword. From thence, the vic»
tor advanced farther into the country, which had been
already 1 endered defolate by factions, and which he
now totally laid walte. But although the enemy made
.a feeble reliftance, yet the climate feemed to fight a-
gainft the Englifh ; a contagious dyfcntery carrying
off three parts of Henry’s army. In this fituation
he had recourfe to an expedient common enough in that
barbarous age, to infpire his troops with confidence in
their general. He challenged the dauphin, who com¬
manded in the French army, to fingle combat, offer¬
ing to flake his pretenfions on the event. This chal¬
lenge, as might naturally be expe&ed, was rejected ;
and the French, though difagreeing internally, at laft
feemed to unite at the appearance of the common
danger. A numerous army of 14,000 men at armsj
and 40,000 4bot, was by this time affembled under the
command of count Albert, and was now placed to in¬
tercept Henry’s weakened forces on their return. The
Englilh monarch, when it was too late, began to re¬
pent of his rath inroad into a country where difeafe
and a powerful army every where threatened deftruc-
tion ; he therefore thought of retiring into Calais. In
this retreat, which was at once both painful and dan¬
gerous, Henry took every precaution to infpire his
troops with patience and perfeverance; and fhowcd
them in his own perfon the brighteft example of forti¬
tude and refignation. He was continually haraffed
on his march by flying parties of the enemy ; and
whenever he attempted to pafs the river Somme, Scrofs
which his march lay, he faw troops on the other fide
ready to oppofe his paflage. However, he was fo for¬
tunate as to feize by furprife a paffage near St Quintin,
which had not been fufficiently guarded ; and there he
fafely carried over his army.
But the enemy was ftill refolved to intercept his re¬
treat : and after he had paffed the fmall river of Ter-
trois at Blangi, he was furprifed to obferve from the
6 heights the whole French army drawn up in the plains
Battle of of Agincourt; and fo polled, that it was impoffible for
aigincoiut. him to proceed on his march, without coming to an
engagement. A battle accordingly took place, in
which the Englilh gained a vi&ory, the moil remark¬
able perhaps of any recorded in hiftory; an account
of which is given under the article Agincourt.
This vi&ory, gained on the 25th of O&obcr 141J,
was however attended with no immediate effedffs.
Henry ftill continued to retreat, after the battle of A-
gincourt, out of the kingdom ; and carried his pri-
fone-rs to Calais, and from thence to England. In
Henry be once more landed an army of 25,000 men
lands again in Normandy ; and prepared to ftrike a decifive blow
in Nor- for the crown of France, to which the Englifh mo*-
niaE ' narchs had long made pretenfions. That wretched
country was now in a moft deplorable fituation. The
whole kingdom appeared as one vaft theatre of crimes,
murders, injurtice, and devaftation. The duke of Or¬
leans was affaffinated by the duke of Burgundy ; and
the duke of Burgundy, in his turn, fell by the trea¬
chery of the dauphin. At the fame time, the duke’s
fon, defirous of revenging his father’s death, entered
into a fecret treaty with the Englilh ; and a league was
immediately concluded at Arras, between Henry and
the young duke of Burgundy, in which the king pro-
Vol. VII. Part II.
17 ] FRA
mifed to revenge the murder of the late duke j and France,
the fon feemed to inlift upon no further ftipulations. —
Henry, therefore, proceeded in his conquefts without
much oppofition from any quarter. Several towns and
provinces fubmitted on his approach ; the city of Rou¬
en was befieged and taken ; Pontoife and Gifors he
foon became mafter of. He even threatened Paris by
the terror of his power, and obliged the court to re¬
move to Troye. It was at this city that the duke of
Burgundy, who had taken upon him the protedtion
of the French king, met Henry in order to ratify that
treaty which was formerly begun, and by which the
crown of France was to be transferred to a ftranger.
The imbecility into which Charles had fallen, made
him paflive in this remarkable treaty ; and Henry dic¬
tated the terms throughout the whole negociation.
The principal articles of this treaty were. That Henry
lhauld efpoufe the princefs Catharine; that king Charles
Ihould enjoy the title and dignity of king -for life ; bui;
that Henry Ihould be declared heir to the crown, and
Ihould be intrufted with the prefent adminiftration of
the government; that France and England Ihould for
ever be united under one king, but fliould ftill retain
their refpe&ive laws and privileges ; that Henry Ihould
unite his arms with thofe of -king Charles and the
duke of Burgundy, to deprefs and fubdue the dauphin
and his piartifans. 9S
_ It was not long after this treaty, that Henry mar-Kc marries
ried the princefs Catharine ; after which he carried his *
father-in-law to Paris,' and took a formal poffeffion of
that capital. There he obtained, from the eftates of
the kingdom, a ratification of the late compact; and
then turned his arms with fuccefs againft the adhe¬
rents of the dauphin ; who, in the mean time, wan¬
dered about a ftranger in his own patrimony, and to
his enemies fucceffes only oppofed fruitlefs expoftu-
lations.
Henry’s fupplies were not provided in fuch plenty
as to enable him to carry on the war, without return-,
ing in perfon to prevail upon his parliament for frefh
fuccours; and, upon his arrival in England, though
he found his fubje&s highly pleafed with the fplendor
of his conquefts, yet they feemed fomewhat doubtful
as to the advantage of them. A treaty, which in its
confequences was likely to transfer the feat of empire
-from England, was not much reli/hed by the parlia¬
ment. They therefore, upon various pretences, refufed
him a fupply equal to his exigencies or his demands ;
but he was refolved on purfuing his fchemes; and,
joining to the fupplies granted at home, the contribu¬
tions levied on the conquered provinces, he was able
once more to affemble an army of 28,000 men, and
with thefe he landedlafely at Calais.
In the mean time, the dauphin, a prince of great
prudence and aftivity, omitted no oppoitunity of re¬
pairing his ruined fituation, and to take the advantage
of Henry’s abfence from France. He prevailed upon
the regent of Scotland to fend him a body of 8000 men
from that kingdom ; and with thefe, and fome few
forces of his own, he attacked the duke of Clarence,
who commanded the troops in Henry’s abfence, and
gained a complete viftory.
This was the firft action which turned the tide of
fuccefs againft the Englilh. But it was of ftiort dura¬
tion: for Henry foon after appearing with a confider-
3 G able
FRA [ 41S ] FRA
France. able army, the dauphin fled at his approach ; while
' " v many of the places, which held out for the dauphin
in the neighbourhood of Paris, furrendered to the con¬
queror. In this manner, while Henry was every where
viftorious, he fixed his refidence at Paris; and while
Charles had a fmall court, he was attended with a
very magnificent one. On Whitfunday 1421, the two
kings and their two queens with crowns on their heads
dined together in public ; Charles receiving apparent
homage, but Henry commanding with abfolute autho¬
rity. -
In the mean time, the dauphin was chafed beyond
the Loire, and almoft totally difpofiefled of all the
northern provinces. He was even purfued into the
fouth, by the united arms of the Englilh and Burgun¬
dians, and threatened with total deftrudlion. In this
exigence, he found it neceffary to fpin out the war, and
to evade all hazardous aftions with a rival who had
been long accuftomed to vi&ory. His prudence was
every where remarkable ; and, after a train of long
perfecutions from fortune, he found her at length will-
^ ing to declare in his favour, by the death of the king
Death of of England.
Henry and Charles VI. died a fhort time after; and Charles VII.
Charles. fucceeded his father to a nominal throne. Nothing
could be more deplorable than, the fituation of that
monarch on affuming his title to the crown. The Eng-
Hfh were mafters of almoft, all Erance; and Henry VI.
though yet but an infant, was folemnly invefted with
regal power by legates from Paris. The duke of Bed¬
ford was at the head of a numerous army, in the heart
of the kingdom, ready to oppofe every infurreftion ;
while the duke of Burgundy, who had entered into a
firm confederacy with.him, ftill remained ftedfaft, and
feconded his claims. Yet. notwithftanding thefe fa-
100 vourable appearances, Charles found means to break
Defperate the leagues formed againft him, and to bring back hia
firnation of fubje£ts to their natural interefts and their duty.
arlesVJI. However, his firft attempts were totally dellitute of
fuccefs. Wherever he endeavoured to face the enemy
he was overthrown, and he could featcely rely on the
friends next his perfon. His authority was infulted
even by his own fervants; advantage after advantage
was gained againft him; and a battle fought.near Ver-
neuil, in which he was totally defeated by the duke of
^edford, feemed to render his affaiis altogether defpe¬
rate. But from the impoffibility of the Englifh keep¬
ing the field without new fupplies, Bedford was obli¬
ged to retire into England; and in the mean time, his
vigilant enemy began to recover from his late confter-
nation. Dumois, one of his generals, at the head of
jooo men, compelled the earl of Warwick tp raife
the fiege of Montargis; and this advantage, flight as
it was, began to make the French fuppofe that the
101 Englifh were not invincible.
The French. But they foon had ftill greater reafon to triumph in
affairs re- their change of fortune, and a new revolution was pro-
trieved by (juced by means apparently the moft unlikely to be at-
cfXhleans tended w’1** fuccefs. In the village of Domremi, near
Vaucouleurs, on the borders of Lorrain, there lived a
country-girl, about 27 years of age, called Joan de
Arc. This girl had been a fervant at a fmall inn ; and
in that humble ftation had fubmitted to thofe hardy
employments which fit the body for the fatigues of
war. She was of an irreproachable life, and had hi¬
therto teftified none of thofe enterprizing qualities Francer
which difplayed themfelves foon after. She content- —v—-
edly fulfilled the duties of her fituation, and was re¬
markable only for her modefty and love of religion.
But the miferies of her country feemed to have been
one of the greateft objedts of Jier compaflion and re¬
gard. Her mind, inflamed by thefe objedts, and brood¬
ing with melancholy ftedfaftnefs upon them, began to
feel feveral impulfes, which (he was willing to miftake
for the infpirations of heaven. Convinced of the rea¬
lity of her own admonitions, the had recourfe to one
Baudricourt, governor of Vaucouleurs, and informed
him of her deftination by heaven to free her native
country of its fierce invaders^* Baudricourt treated
her at firft with negledt : but her importunities at
length prevailed; and willing to make a trial of her
pretenfions, he gave her fome attendants, who con-
dufted her to the court, which at that time refided at
Chinon.
The French court were probably fenfible of the
weaknefs of her pretenfions; but they were willing to
make ufe of every artifice to fupport their declining
fortunes. It was therefore given out, that Joan was
adtually infpired; that ftie had been able to difeover
the king among the number of his courtiers, although
he had laid afide all the diftindlions of his authority ;
that ftie had told him fome fecrets, which were only
known to himfelf; and that fhe had demanded, and
minutely deferibed, a fword in the church of St Ca¬
tharine de Fierbois, which (he had never feen. In this
manner, the minds of the vulgar being prepared for
her appearance, flie was armed cap-a-pee, and fhown
in that martial drefs to the people. She was then
brought before the dotftors of the univerfity; and they,
tin&ured with the credulity of the times, or willing to
fecond the impofture, declared that ftie had actually
received her commiflion from above.
When the preparations for her million were com¬
pletely blazoned, the next aim was to fend her againft
the enemy. The Englilh were at that time befieging
the city of Orleans, the laft refource of Charles, and
every thing promifed them a fpeedy furrender. Joan
undertook to raife the fiege ; and to render herfelf ftill
more remarkable, girded herfelf with the miraculous
fword, of which Ihe before had fuch extraordinary no¬
tices. Thus equipped, Ihe ordered all the foldiers to
confefs themfelves before they fet out; fhe difplayed in
her hand a confecrated banner, and aflured the troops
of certain fuccefs. Such confidence on her fide foon
raifed the fpirits of the French army ; and even the
Englilh, who pretended to- defpife her efforts, felt
themfelves fecretly influenced with the terrors of her
million. A fupply of provifions was to be conveyed
into the town; Joan, at the head of fome French
troops, covered the embarkation, and entered Orleans-
at the head of the convoy which Ihe had fafely pro-
tefted. While Ihe was leading her troops along, a dead
filence and aftonilhment reigned among the Englilh;
and they regarded with religious awe that temerity,
which they thought nothing but fupernatural afiiftance
could infpire. But they we re foon rouzed from their
ftate of amazement by a fally from the town; Joan led
on the befieged, bearing the facred tlandard in her hand,
encouraging them with her words and actions, bring¬
ing them to the trenches, and overpowering the befie-
jgera
FRA- [ 4'9 1 . F R. A
France, gers in their own redoubts. In the attack of one of remainder only waited a convenient opportunity to fol- France.
(~~'v—— the forts, the was wounded in the neck with an arrow; low the example.  v—-
but inftantly pulling out the weapon with her own An accident enfued foon after, which, though it pro¬
hands, and getting the wound quickly drefled, fhe ha- mifed to promote the Englilh caufe in France, in the
ftened back to head the troops, and to plant her vifto- end ferved to render it odious, and conduced to the
rious banner on the ramparts of the enemy. Thefe fuc- total evacuation of that country. The duke of Bur-
cefles continuing, the F.nglifh found that it was impof- gundy, at the head of a powerful army, had laid fiege
fible to refill troops animated by fuch fuperior energy ; to Cornpeign ; and the Maid of Orleans had thrown
and Suffolk, who conducted the attack, thinking that herfelf into the place, contrary to'the wilhes of the
it might prove extremely dangerous to remain any governor, who did not defire the company of one
longer in the prefence of fuch a courageous and viftq- whole authority would be greater than his dwn. The
rious enemy, raifed the fiege, and retreated with all garrifon, however, were rejoiced at her appearance,
imaginable precaution. and believed themfelves invincible under her protec-
From being attacked, the French nowin turn be- tion. But their joy was of Ihort duration ; for Joan Maid of
came the aggreffors. Charles formed a body of 6000 having the day after her arrival headed a fally, and Orleans
men, and lent them to befiege Jergeau, whither the twice driven the enemy from their intfenchmenU', fhe talcen pri-
Englilh, commanded by the earl of Suffolk, had re- ' was at lait obliged to retire, placing herfelf in the rear, ^'one^,
tired, with a detachment of his army. The city was to protedl the retreat of her forces. But in the end
taken ; Suffolk yielded himfelf a prifoner; and Joan attempting to follow her troops into the city, fhe found
marched into the place in triumph at the head of the the gates fhut, and jjie bridge drawn up by order of
army. A battle was foon after fought near Patay, the governor, who is faid to have long wifhedTor an
where the Englifh were worfled, as before; and the opportunity of delivering her up to the enemy,
generals Scales and Talbot were taken prifoners. Nothing could exceed the joy of the befiegers, in
The railing of the fiege of Orleans was one part of having taken a perfon who had been fo long a terror
the maid’s promife to the king of France ; the crown- to their arms. The fervice of Te Deum was publicly
ing him at Rheims was the other. She now declared celebrated on this occafion ; and it was hoped, that the
that it was time to comolete that ceremony ; and capture of this extraordinary perfon would reflore the
Charles, in purfuance of her advice, fet out for Rheims Englifh to their former vidtories and fucceffes. The
at the head of 12,000 men. The towns thro’ which duke of Bedford was no fooner informed of her being
he paffed opened their gates to receive him; and Rheims taken, than he purchafed her of the count Vendome,
fent him a deputation, with its keys, upon his ap- who had made her his prifoner, and ordered her to be
proach. The ceremony of his coronation was there committed to clofe confinement. The credulity of
performed with the utmoft folemnity ; and the Maid both nations was at that time fo great, that nothing
of Orleans (for fo fhe was now called) feeing the com- was too abfurd to gain belief that coincided with their
pletion of her miffion, defined leave to retire, alleging, paffions. As Joan but a little before, from her fuccef-
that fhe had now accomplifhed the end of her calling, fes, was regarded as a faint, fhe was now, upon her
But her fervices had been fo great, that the king captivity, confidered as a forcerefs, forfaken by the dae-
couldnot think of parting with her; he preffed her to flay mon who had granted her a fallacious and temporary
fo earneftly, that (he at length complied with his requefl. affiftance. Accordingly it was refolved in council to
A tide of fucceffes followed the performance of fend her to Rouen to be tried for witchcraft: and the
this folemnity ; Laon, Soiffons, Chateau-Thierri, Pro- bifhop of Beauvais, a man wholly devoted to the Eng-
vins, and many other fortreffes in that neighbourhood, lifh interell, prefented a petition againft her for that
fubmitted to him on the firft fummons. On the other purpofe. The univerfity of Paris was fo mean as to
hand, the Englifh, difcomfited and difpirited, fled on join in the fame requefl. Several prelates, among
every quarter ; not knowing whether to afcribe their whom the cardinal of Winchefter was the only Englifh-
misfortunes to the power of forcery or to a celeflial man, were appointed as her judges. They held their
influence; but equally terrified at either. They now court in Rouen, where Henry then refided ; and the
found themfelves deprived of the conquefls they had Maid, clothed in her former military apparel, but load-
gained, in the fame manner as the French had former- ed with irons, was produced before this tribunal. Her
ly fubmitted to their power. 'Their own divifions, behaviour there noway difgraced her former gallantry ;
both abroad and at home, unfitted them entirely for Ihe betrayed neither weaknefs nor womanifh fubmif-
carrying on the war; and the duke of Bedford, not- fion ; but appealed to God and the pope for the truth
withflanding all his prudence, faw himfelf divefted of of her former revelations. In the iffue, fhe was found
his ilrong-holds in the country, without being able to guilty of herefy and witchcraft; and fentenced to be
flop the enemy’s progrefs. In order, therefore, to re- burnt alive, the common punifhment for fuch offences.
Ioa vive the declining Hate of his affairs, he refolved to But previous to the infliftion of this dreadful fen-
Henry VI. have Henry crowned king at Paris, knowing that the tence upon her, they were refolved to make her abjure
crowned"*1 nat^ves wou^ ke allured to obedience by the fplgndor of her former errors; and at length fo far prevailed upon
king of' t^ie ceremony- In 1430, Henry was accordingly her, by terror and rigorous treatment, that her fpirits
France. crowned, all the vaffals that {till continued under the were entirely broken by the hardfhips the was obliged
Englifh power fwearing fealty and homage. But it to fuffer. Her former vifionary dreams began to va-
was now too late for the ceremonies of a coronation to nifh, and a gloomy ditlrufl to take place of her late in-
give a turn to the affairs of the Englifh ; the genera- fpirations. She publicly declared herfelf willing to
lity of the kingdom had declared againft them, and the recant, and promifed never more to give way to the
3 G 2 vain
FRA r 4
France, vain delufion5 which had hitherto mifled her, and im-
^   pofed on the j>eople. This was what her oppreffors
defired v and willing to fhhw fome appearance of mer¬
cy, they changed her fentence into perpetual imprifon-
ment, and to be fed during life on bread and water.
But the rage of her enemies was not yet fatiated. Su-
fpe&ing that the female drefs, which fhe had confent-
ed to wear, was difagreeable to her, they purpofely
placed in her apartment a fuit of mens apparel, and
rvatched for the eifeA of their temptation upon her.
Their cruel artifices prevailed. Joan, ftruck with the
fight of a drefs in which (he had gained fo much glo¬
ry, immediately threw off her penitent’s robes, and
put on the forbidden garment. Her enemies caught
her equipped in this manner ; and her imprudence was
IC. confidered as a relapfe into her former tranfgreffioos.
And cruel- No recantation would fuffice, and no pardon vyould
ly put to be granted. She was condemned to be burnt alive in
death. tbe market-place of Rouen; and this infamous fentence,
was accordingly executed with molt brutal feverity.
One of the firft misfortunes vchich the Englifh felt
after this punifhment, wag the defeaion of the duke
of Burgundy ; who had for fome time feen the error
of his conduct, and wilhed to break an unnatural con-
neftion, that only ferved to involve his country in ruin.
A treaty was therefore begun and concluded between
him and Charles, in which the former agreed to a hi It
him in driving the Englifh out of France. This was
a mortal blow to their caufe ; and fuch was its effe&s
upon the populace of London when they were inform¬
ed of it, that they killed feveral of the duke of Bur¬
gundy’s fubjefts, who happened to be among them at
tbe time. It might perhaps alfo have haftened the
duke of Bedford’s death, who died at Rouen a few
days after the treaty was concluded ; and the earl of
Cambridge was appointed his fucceffor to the regency
. of France.
Affairs of From this period, the Englifh affairs became totally
the Englifh irretrievable. The city of Paris returned once more
totally iuin- to a fenfe 0f its duty. Lord Willoughby, who com-
cJ’ manded it for the Englifh, was contented to ftipulate
for the fafe retreat of his troops to Normandy. Thus
ground was continually, though flowly, gained by the
French ; and notwithftanding their fields were laid
wake, and their towns depopulated, yet they found
protection from the Weaknefs and divifions of the Etig-
bfh. At length both parties began to grow weary
of a war, which, though carried on but feebly, Was yet
a burden greater than either could fupport. But the
terms of peace infilled upon by both were fo wide of
each other, that no hopes of an accommodation could
quickly be expefted. A truce, therefore, for twetity-
two months, was concluded in 1443, which left every
thing on the prefeht footing between the parties. No
fooner was this agreed upon, than Charles employed
himfelf with great induftry and judgment in repairing
thofe numberlefs iHs to which his kingdom, from the
continuance of wars both foreign and domeftic, had
fo long been expofed. He eftablifhed difeipline a-
mong his troops, and julike among his _ governors.
He revived agriculture, and repreffed faction. Thus
being prepared once more for taking the field, he took
the firft favourable occafion of breaking the truce; and
Normandy was at the fame time invaded by four
powerful armies; one commanded by Charles hrmfelf,
o ] FRA
a fecond by the duke of Brittany, a third by the count France,
of Alenqon, and a fourth by the count Dunois, Every
place opened its gates almoft as foon as the French
appeared before them. Rouen was the only one that
promifed to hold out a fiege ; but the inhabitants cla¬
moured fo loud for a furrender, that the duke of So- N
merfet, who commanded the garrifon, was obliged to
capitulate. The battle, or rather the fkirmifh, of
Fourmingi, was the laft Hand which the Englifh made
in defence of their French dominions. However, they
were put to the rout, and above a thonfand were {lain.
All Normandy and Guienne, that had fo long acknow¬
ledged fubjeftion to England, Were laft in the fpace
of a year; and the Englifh fjjw •fcrnfelves entirely dif-
pofTefTed of a country which for above three centuries
they had confidered as annexed to their native domi¬
nions. Calais alone remained of all their conquefts ;
and this was but a fmall compenfation for the blood
and treafure which had beeri lavifhed in that country,
and only ferved to gratify ambition with a tranfient ap-
plaufe.
Thus, in the year 1450, the power of the Englifh
in France was entirely deftroyed ; and Charles defer-
vedly obtained the furname of ViStorious, on account of
the vigour he had fhown in driving out the invaders of
his country. His fatisfa&ion, however, was now I06
greatly diminifhed by domeftic misfortunes. The dau- Domefti*
phin, forgetting the allegiance and filial duty he owed miaf?rtuPel
to his father, had already impeded his conquefts by his ^harle^ 10
feditious intrigues. He had ufed every endeavour to
thwart the ddigns of his minifters, and it was fuppo-
fed that he had deftroyed Agnes Soreille his father’s
favourite miftrefs by poifon. He had married Char¬
lotte daughter to the duke of Savoy; which Charles
had refented by a declaration of war againft the duke,
but had been perfuaded to recall it in order to profe-
cute the war againft Guieriiie, which made part of the
dominions of the Englifh'. At laft, weary of the dif-
obedience of his fon, he commanded him to be arrefted;
but Louis, informed of his defign, withdrew to Franche
Comte, and afterwards to Brabant; of which the duk«j:
of Burgundy (at this time foveteign of the country)
was no fooner apprifed, than he ordered him to be
fupplied with every neceffary, and treated with all
imaginable refpedt. He refufed to fee him, however,
Until he fhould obtain the approbation of his father ;
on which Louis, having in vain attempted to draw the
duke into a participation of his crimes, employed him-
felf in fowing diffenfion betwixt his betiefaftor and his
fon the cotint of Charolois, at the very time that he
himfelf was receiving a penfion of 12,060 crowns an¬
nually from the father. Thus he at laft deftroyed the
domtftic peace of his benefaftor, while his unnatural
behaviour created continual fiifpicions in the mind of
his father. Charles was repeatedly informed that his.
own domefticsj alon« with his undutiful fan, were in
a confpiracy againfthls life. The miferable monarch,
therefore, in continual fear of being poifoned, and ha¬
ving none in whom he could repofe any confidence,
obftinately refufed for fome days to take arty nourifh-
ment; and when at laft prevailed upon by the impor¬
tunities of his attendants to do fo, his llotnach had
become incapable! of receiving food, fo that he died
for want of fuftenance in the year 1461. His body,,
neglefted by his unnatural fon, was interred at the exi¬
gence
Formidable
confederacy
FRA [ 431 ] FRA
pence of Tannegui de Chattel, who had been his faith- was foon augmented to more than jco,ooo ment they France,
ful companion. were unable to make themfelves matters of the city. ' J
On the death of Charles, his fon Louis fucceeded to At laft a treaty was fet on foot betwixt Louis and the pea^°^ Jn
the throne, to which he had fo long afpired. He count of Charolois; by which the latter obtained the ciuje(i.
was reckoned one of the greateft politicians that ever towns which had been formerly ceded, with the di-
exifted ; though his character was not on that account ftridts of Boulogne, Guifne, Peronne, Mondidior, and
the more amiable ; oft the contrary, there are few Roye, as a\ perpetual inheritance for himfelf. By
princes whofe hiftory appears in a more deteftable light, granting favours to the other confederates,- the league lro
So deftitute was he of natural affedtion, that he did was broken ; and the moment that Louis found him- Treachery
not even attempt to conceal his joy at his father’s felf freed from danger, he protetted againtt the whole of Louis,
death. He pretended much friendfliip for the treaty in prefence of fome confidential members of
count of Charolois, fon to the duke of Burgundy, on parliament, as contrary to the interefts of the crown ;
account of the protedlion he had received at his fa- and therefore waited the firft favourable opportunity
ther’s court; and even conferred upon him a penfion to crulh one by one thofe who had been ready by their
of 1 2,cqo crowns annually: but all this fhow of affec- united efforts to deftroy himfelf. The duke of Bour-
tion foon degenerated into a mortal averfion on both 'bon, one of the moft able of the confederates, was
tides. Some differences which took place between the gained over, by beftowing upon him in marriage Jane
courts of France and Caftile produced an interview the natural daughter of Louis himfelf, with the dowry
betwixt the two monarchs, Louis, and Henry fur- of Uffon in Auvergne; together with Moras, Beaure-
named the Impotent. They met at Mauleon on the paire, and Cormillon in Dauphiny; while, by the dif-
confines of Navarre : but their negociations came to contents betwixt the dukes of Brittany and Normandy,
nothing, and they parted with a mutual contempt of he was enabled to fecure the neutrality of the former,
each other ; Henry defpifing the mean and fordid ap- and to recover from the latter fome territories which
pearance of Louis, as he in his turn did the gaudy he had unwillingly ceded t(? him.
magnificence of Henry. In his negociations with the In 1467, Philip duke of Burgundy, from his amiable
duke of Burgundy, Louis proved more fuccefsful; per- qualities furnamed The Good, died, and left bis domi-
fuading him to reftore fome towns on the river Somme, nions to his fon Charles count of Charolois. That
which had been ceded by Charles VII. and by the fiery and impetuous prince, jealous of the growing
poffeflion of which the duke was in effett matter of power of France, and an implacable enemy of Louis,
Picardy. This ceffion was oppofed by the count of had entered into a fecret treaty with Francis; but
Charolois; but Louis, by corrupting John de Croy Louis had driven the Bretons from the polls they oc-
the duke’s minifter, obtained his end; and for the fum cupied in Normandy before the duke of Burgundy
of 400,000 crowns the cities were delivered to him. could pafs the Somme. The king, however, alarmed
By this tranfa&ion he effeftually enfured the hatred of at the power of the confederates, concluded a peace ,
Charolois: and even in that very tranfadlion the dupli- with Brittany; and, confiding in his talents for nego-
city of Louis was eminently difplayed ; for though he ciation, determined to have a perfonal interview with
had agreed to retain in thofe towns the officers ap- the duke of Burgundy. ITr
pointed by the duke, he was no fooner in poffeffion of This memorable interview took place in the year Louis im-
them than he difplaced them all, and nominated others 1468 ; and Perpnne, a city of Picardy, but belong- priioiied by
in their {lead. ing to the duke of Burgundy, was appointed as the t'tlarie3i
The duchy of Brittany was at this time governed place of rendezvous. To this place the politic Louis
by Francis, a weak but generous prince, and whofe repaired with a /lender train, and attended only by
defedl of capacity was fupplied by the abilities of his Cardinal Balue, the duke of Bourbon, and the count
minitters. Him Louis intuited in the moft grievous de St Pol, conftable of France ; feemingly without re¬
manner ; and as Francis found himfelf unable to op- fledling that he was entering an hottile city, where he
pofe fuch a powerful adverfary alone, he joined in a might be confined for any length of time, or treated at
dole alliance with the duke of Burgundy and the the pleafure of the duke, who was his mortal enemy,
count of Charolois ; the latter having been grrevoufly Indeed he had not long been in the place when he be-
offended with Louis, and even accufed him of attempt- gan to fee the error of his condu£t; and by the daily
ing his life. The confpiracy was joined by feveral of concourfe of Burgundian lords and other perfons of
the principal French nobility, who had been oppref- rank, who were his avowed enemies, he became
fed by the king ; and though the fecret was confided alarmed for his perfonal fafety. His fear now fug-
to upwards of 500 perfons, not one of them ever di- gelled to him a worfe meafure than even the former ;
vulged it. Louis finding matters become very critical, and he requdted apartments in the cattle, where it
marched with an army towards the capital, which the was in the power of his rival in a moment to make him,
count of Charolois already infulted. A battle cnfued, a clofe prifoner. This event accordingly took place,,
in which both princes exerted themfelves to the ut- and that through the arts and machinations of Louis
moft, though their valour was but ill feconded by himfelf. His defign had been from the beginning to
the bravery of their troops. About 1500 periffied on keep the duke of Burgundy conftantly employed in
each fide; but the count of Charolois remained matter domeftic wars. For this purpofe he had, before his
of the field of battle. Louis, however, after this en- interview with Charles, excited the inhabitants of
gagement, entered the capital; where he endeavoured, Liege, who were fubjerft to the duke of Burgundy, to
by every kind of cotrceflion he could think of, to con- revolt. It is moft probable, that he did not imagine
ciliate the affection of his fubjefls; in which he fuc- the effedls of this treachery would fo foon begin to
ceeded fo well, that though the army of infurgents appear. At the very time, however, that Louis was
FRA [ 422 I FRA
France. Jn the cattle of Peronne, the people of Liege revolted',
-1    feized the bhhop and governor ; and having rnaflacred
great numbers of the adherents of Charles, retired
with the prifoners they had made to the capital.
Charles was foon informed of this maffacre, with the
additional circumftance, that the ambaffadors of Louis
were feen animating the infurgents to their work of
deftru&ion. He then flew into a tranfport of rage 5
commanded the gates of the cattle to be fnut and
Hi idly guarded; denouncing the fevereft vengeance
on the perfidious monarch who had fo often deceived
him. Louis, however, though greatly, and no doubt
veryjuftly, alarmed, did not negled to take the pro¬
per methods for fecuring himfelf. |Ie diftributed large
fums of money among thofe officers to whom he ima¬
gined the duke .was moil inclined to pay any regard,
irj and by fplendid promifes and prefents endeavoured to
A treaty allay the refentment of his other enemies. At laft the
between refentment of Charles having fubfided, he entered into
•Charles a treaty with the king, and concluded it upon much
the fame terms as thofe which had been agreed upon
before. His refentment, however, ilill manifefted it-
felf fo far, that he infifted upon Louis being prefent
at the puniffiment he inflicled upo/i the inhabitants of
Liege for the mafl'acre they had committed, and of
which we have already taken notice. This was agreed
to: the two princes formed the fiege of the city in
conjundlion ; and, notwithilanding the obftinate de¬
fence of the people, it was at lail taken by ftorm, and
the inhabitants maffacred. It was not long, however,
before the new alliance was diflblved. A confederacy
againft Louis, whom neither promifes nor treaties
could bind, was formed betwixt his own brother the
duke of Normandy and the duke of Burgundy ; but
before their meafures were ripe for execution, Louis
had already commenced hoftilities. The duke of Bur¬
gundy, as a peer of France, was fummoned to parlia¬
ment ; and on his refufal, the conttable St Pol made
himfeif matter of St Quintin. Several other cities
were foon after reduced ; and Baldwin, the natural
brother of Charles, corrupted by Louis, deferted his
caufe; and the haughty fpirit of the duke was thus at
laft obliged to condefcend to folicit a peace. This,
however, was of no long duration. Charles, encou¬
raged by the fuccefs of Edward IV. of England his
brother-in-law, began once more to league againft
Louis with the dukes of Brittany and of Guienne; the
latter being the king’s brother, formerly duke of Nor¬
mandy, but who had exchanged that duchy for the
territory of Guienne. But while the affairs of the
confederates feemed to be in a profperous way, their
profpedls were fuddenly overcaft by the death of the
duke of Guienne, which was univerfally fuppofed to
have been occafioned by poifon, and Louis was as uni¬
verfally looked upon as the author. The abbot of St
Joan d’Angeli was fixed upon as the immediate perpe¬
trator of the deed: but on the day appointed for his
trial he was found ftrangltd in his cell; and this alfo
was with great probability fuppofed to have been the
deed of Louis, u ho after the death of his brother in-
ftantly feized on the territory of Guienne, and.annexed
it to the dominions of France.
By this unheard of condudl of the French monarch,
Charles was exafperated to fuch a degree, that he vow-
,^d the moil dreadful vengeance againft the unhappy
people of France, and threatened to facrifice to the France.'
memory of the duke of.Guienne every one who now fell
inro his hands. The citizens of Nefie were maffacred
without dulindlion of fex or age ; Beauvis refitted his vafion of
attacks; after which Charles wreaked his fury on other France by
places. Having entered the country of Caux, he re- Charles of
duced the cities of Eu and St Valery, burnt Longue- a‘SU11 /“.J
ville, and watted the whole country as far as Rouen.
Louis, on the other hand, fleady and conftant in his
defigns, determined to diffolve the league between the
duke of Brittany and Edward IV* of England. Ac¬
cordingly he encamped with his army on the frontiers
of Brittany ; while the duke, not meeting with the
affiftance promifed by Edward, was obliged to cdnfent
to a truce for a year; and the duke of Burgundy him¬
felf was obliged to follow his example, having com¬
mitted fuch devaftations as deprived him of all means
of fubiiftence in the country, fo that he could neither
advance nor retreat. In a very little time, however,
he again began to confpire with the king of England
againft Louis, and a powerful invafion was determined Ir4
upon. Edward was to crofs the fea with an army ofinvafionby
10,coo men, while Charles affembled all his forces to EdwardIV.
join him. The former was alfo to fet up a claim to
the crown of France, and at leall to obtain the pro¬
vinces of Normandy and Guienne ; the duke was to
have Champagne with fome adjacent diftrids; to free
his dominions from homage; and neither party was
to make peace without the confent of the other. It
was fuppofed that the duke of Brittany would na¬
turally accede to the confederacy ; and the count de
St Pol, conilable of France, had engaged to deliver
up the town of St Quintin and others which he oc¬
cupied on the river Somme. Louis, however, ftill
had the good fortune to avoid the ftorm. „ Charles,
inftead of advancing to the affiftance of Edward, who
had entered France at the head of 15,000 archers and
1500 men at arms, laid fiege to the city of Nuiz on
the Rhine ; while the conftable St Pol, inilead of
delivering up the towns as he had promifed, deceived
his allies, and enabled Louis to diffolve a confederacy,
which, had it been vigoroufly maintained, might have
involved him in the greateft difficulties. To procure
the departure of Edward, however, he was obliged to
confent to a tribute of 75,000 crowns, as well as toLoujj5
fettle on the king himfelf 50,000 crowns for life ; be- agrees to
trothing alfo the dauphin to the eldeft daughter of pay an an-
the king of England. 'The duke of Burgundy ex' flon to JSi,
claimed loudly againft this treaty: but Edward per-
filled in his refolution ; and it was accordingly ex¬
ecuted at a place called Pecquigny, neat Amiens ; but
in fuch a manner as ftiowed the little confidence the
two fovereigns repofed in each other. A grated bar¬
rier was eredted in the middle of the bridge of Pec-
quigny, between the barriers of which only a man’s
arm could pafs: the two princes appeared on the op-
pofite fides of it; and having conferred privately, and
confirmed the treaty between them, parted with many
proteftations uf friendffiip ; in which, probably, neither
party was very fincere. A power was referred by Ed¬
ward, for the duke of Burgundy to accede to the
treaty ; but the latter haughtily replied, that he was
able to fupport hirnfelf without the affiftance of Eng¬
land ; and that he would make no- peace with Louis
till three months after the return of Edward to his own
l country.
FRA [ 42
France, country. To tins refolution he adhered; but no foon-
 er was the term expired, than he concluded a truce
with Louis for nine years. The ilipulations publicly
agreed upon betwixt thefe two princes confifted only
in fome articles for the mutual advantage of their fub-
jeds ; but privately they had figneu others of a dif¬
ferent nature. The conltable St Pol having rendered
himfelf obnoxious to all parties by his complicated
treachery, fled to Mons in Hainault ; but the duke
of Burgundy had already confented to deliver him up
on condition of receiving his eftates and moveables as
the price of his treachery.
Thus was Louis, without apy other remarkable qua¬
lification than the mere arts of falfehood and dupli-
■ city, got rid of all his enemies except the duke of Bur¬
gundy, whofe growing power rendered him a conllant
objed of jealoufly and terror. His own imprudence
Charles en-atld tafhnefs, however, foon_ proved hi* ruin. Having
ga^es in a raflily engaged in a war with the Swifs, he was de-
war with feated in the firft engagement with that martial nation,
the Swifs. tyjC Qf }j;s m;]itary cheft and baggage, with
his plate anti jewels, fuppofed to be the richell in Eu¬
rope. His difappointment on this occafion was fo
great, that he was feized wuth a fevere ficknefs, from
which he had hardly recovered when he refumed his
mad fcheme of conquering the Swufs. Another battle
cnfued ; in which, after an obftinate difpute, Charles
was defeated with the lofs of 18,000 men, himfelf
efcaping with great difficulty. This difafter was fol¬
lowed by the defedion of moft of his allies : the duke
of Lorrain recovered the city of Nancy and great part
of his dominions which Charles had feized ; while the
latter, overwhelmed with fiiame and difappointment,
fpent his time in fohtude and inadivity. From this
he was at laft roufed by the misfortunes which fell up¬
on him in fuch quick fucceffion. He now invefted
the city of Nancy; and in this, as well as in every
other inftance, he aded againft the advice of his belt
officers; and the confequences were ftill more fatal
than before. The duke of Lorrain advanced wuth a
ftrong body of Germans to the relief of the city, while
Charles had fcarcely 4000 men to oppofe him. His
troops were therefore eafily defeated, and himfelf, not-
withllanding the moft heroic efforts of valour, hurried
away in the crowd. The count de Campobaffo, an
Italian nobleman in whom he put a great deal of con¬
fidence, but who was in reality a traitor, had deferted
with about 80 men in the beginning of the engage-
He is affaf- ment. He left 12 or 15 men about the duke’s per-
finated. fon, with Arid orders to affaffinate him in the tumult;
and this order they punctually complied with ; the
body of Charles being found two days after the battle,
pierced with three wounds.
The news of Charles’s death was received, with the
moft unfeigned joy by Louis, whofe foie objed now
iji was to unite the territories of the duke of Burgundy
If Conqucftofto own. This might be done in two ways; one
jj’. Burgundy by a match betwixt the dauphin and Mary the heirefs
||) by Louis, of Burgundy ; the other, by marrying her to the duke
of Angouleme, a prince of the royal blood of France,
and on whom Mary had ftibwn fome inclination to be¬
llow herfelf. The king, however, to whom duplicity
and falfehood feem to have been abfolutely neceffary,
chofe a third method, more agreeable to his charader.
The match with the dauphin was attended with fuch
3 1 F R A
circumftances as rendered it evidently imprafticable. France.
The difparity of age w^as very great, the dauphin be- '~~v—
ing only eight years old, and the princefs twenty ; the
Flemings were befides very much averfe from fubmit-
ting to a prince whofe powerful refources would enable
him to opprefs their liberties : but, notwithftanding
theie infurmountable difficulties, Louis chofe to infill
upon the match, at the fame time that he endeavoured
to make hrmfelf mailer of her dominions by force of
arms. He addreffed circular letters to the principal
cities of Burgundy; reprefenting, that the duchy had
been given by king John to the male heirs of his fon
Philip ; and that now', when thefe were extind by the
death of Charles, the territory reverted of courfe to
the crown. To render this argument more effectual,
he corrupted the governors of fome towns, feduced
the inhabitants of others to rife againft their gover¬
nors; whilll he himfelf, at the head of an army, pre¬
pared to enforce obedience from thofe who could*not
be worked upon by other methods. Thus the pro¬
vince of Burgundy was entirely reduced ; but Flanders
could not be brought under fubjeCtion either by fair
means, force, or fraud. In his conduft for this pur-
pofe, indeed, Louis difplayed the moft deteftable as
well as the meaneft treachery and falf^hood. To ren¬
der Mary odious to her fubje&s, he negociated with
her minifters, and prevailed upon them to difclofe to
iiim fome of the moft important ftate fecrets; after
which he communicated their letters to the ftatts of
Flanders. This double treachery, however, did not
at prefent anfwer his purpofe. The two minifters
whom he had betrayed w'ere indeed put to death with¬
out mercy, and that even in the prefence of their fo-
vereign : but Mary herfelf was thus induced to be¬
llow herfelf upon the emperor Maximilian ; and Louis
had the mortification to find that all his arts had con¬
tributed only to aggrandize a rival power, whom he
had already fufficient caufe to dread. To remedy this
overfight, he entered into an alliance with Edward IV.
of England, whom he had infpired with a jealoufy of
his brother Clarence, in order to prevent a match be¬
twixt that nobleman and the princefs Mary, which had
alfo been in agitation. Thus a peace was concluded
between the two monarchs, to continue during the
life of each, and for a year after.
The marriage of Mary with Maximilian effeftually
fecured the independence of Flanders; while the re¬
turn of the prince of Orange to the party of that
princefs extended the flames of war once more to the
cities of Burgundy. The French w'ere on the point
of being totally expelled from that country^ when
Maximilian unexpectedly made propofals of peace. A
truce was on this concluded between the two princes;
but without any term limited for its duration, or with¬
out any conditions ftipulated in favour of the Bur¬
gundians ; fo that the whole country was quickly after
reduced by Louis.
The king now, freed from the apprehenfion of fo- Tyranny
reign enemies, turned his vindidlive difpolition againft an.I cruelty,
his own fubjedls ; over whom, under pretence of for-
mer rebellions, he exercifed the moft infupportable ty¬
ranny. The principal victim to his fanguinary difpo-
fition on this occafion was James d’Armagnac duke of
Nemours, one of the firft noblemen in the kingdom,
but who had formerly appeared a zealous confederate
FRA [ 424 ] FRA
Trance, agalnft kim in the league in which Edward and Charles
were concerned. The unfortunate nobleman, know¬
ing that vengeance was determined againft him, fled to
a fortrefs named Carlat, futuated among the mountains
of Auvergne. Here he was befieged by the Seigneur
de Beaujeu, who had married Anne the daughter of
Louis. The place, however, was almoll impregnable
to any force ; fo that his enemies were obliged to make
the moft folemn promifes of fafety in order to induce
him to furrender himfelf. By thefe he was at laft per-
fuaded to truft himfelf in the hands of the faithlefs
tyrant ; who no fooner had him in his power than he
ihut him up in the Baftile in an iron cage, and repri¬
manded the judges becaufe they had releafed him from
this clofe confinement during the time of his examina¬
tion. The judges reluftantly condemned him to be
beheaded : but the king’s cruelty extended beyond the
lentence ; and he ordered the two young fons of the
duke, though yet in early childhood, to be placed di-
redlly under the fcaffold, that they might .be covered
with the blood of their father. Four thoufand per-
fons are fuppofed to have perifhed upon this occafion
without any form of trial : and were it not for the
concurrent teftimony of the hiftorians of that age, the
inhumanities and barbarities of this monarch are fcarce
to be credited. By thefe he broke the fpirits of the
French nobility, and gradually extended the power of
the crown beyond all bounds ; fo that at laft it was li¬
mited only by the fovereign’s pleafure. Amidft all
the perfidy and cruelty, however, for which this mo¬
narch is fo juftly to be detefted, we may on fame oc-
cafions remark a kind of magnanimity and generofity,
which we cannot but applaud. An inftance of this
was his fupporting the houfe of Medici againft pope
Sextus, whom he obliged to defift from his attacks,
and to recall his fentence which he had fulminated
no againft them.
Burgundy Jn 1479, the emperor Maximilian, who had lightly
?"jUc.cefs* abandoned the duchy of Burgundy when he might
<ded'by " reduced it, now renewed his claims when it was
Maximi- no longer in his power to enforce them. After a va-
han. riety of aftions of leflfer note, and the deftruclion of'
cities on both fides, a decifive battle was fought at
Guinegate. Here the Flemings were routed ; but as
the French purfued with too great ardour, the infantry
of the enemy rallied, and the battle was renewed with
great (laughter on both fides. A more decifive advan¬
tage was afterwards gained by the capture of 80 Fle-
miih velfels, which induced that commercial people to
think of peace. In the mean time, however, Louis,
after a lire fpent in continual deceit, hypocrify, and
cruelty, received warning of his approaching end by
•a fit of apoplexy with which he was feized in the
year 1480. He lay fpeechlefs and motionlefs for two
days; after which he recovered in fome degree, but
never completely regained his health and / ftrength.
His illnefs, however, neither prevented him from pur-
fuing the fchemes of his ambition, nor .from ufing the
fame methods as before to attain them. He feized,
■without any pretence, the eftates of the duke of Bour¬
bon, the only nobleman in the kingdom whofe power
could give him any caufe of fufpicion ; yet, notwith-
ftanding his affiduity for the intereft of the dauphin,
he kept him a kind-of piifoner in the caftle of Am-
fooife, permitting none but his own fervants, or per-
N° 131. 5
fons of the meaneft rank, to have accefs to him. He Frauen,
baniftied his own confort, the mother of the dauphin, "—v-—'
to Savoy, and endeavoured to infpire the prince with
averlion towards her. By the death of Charles, the
titular king of Naples, and the laft of the fecond houfe
of Anjou, he became matter of the county of Pro¬
vence ; but his fatisfaftion on this occafion was mar¬
red by a fecond ftroke of apoplexy. Still, however,
he revived, and, with his recovery, again began to pur-
fue his ambitious intrigues. The death of Mary of
Burgundy, who periflied by a fall from her horie, in-
fpired him with new views ; and he betrothed his fon
to the infant daughter, of the emperor. Thus he of¬
fended Edward IV. of England^whofe eldeft daugh¬
ter Elizabeth had been previouily contracted to the
dauphin ; and a war .would have undoubtedly enfued,
had it not been for the death of the king of England.
This was followed in no long time after by that of n.ath^f
Louis himfelf, who had in vain exhaufted the (kill of Louis XI.
the phyfician, and wearied the clerical order with pray¬
ers and proceffions to avert the impending ftroke. He
expired in the year 1483, after a reign of 23 years ;
d-uring which he was detefted by his fubjefts, whom
he had continually opprefted ; and equally dreaded and
hated by his neighbours, whom he had conftantly de¬
ceived ; notwithftanding which he obtained the title
of Moft Chrl/iian from his holinefs, which his fuccef-
fors have ever after retained.
Notwithftanding the dark character of this prince,
it is undoubtedly to be allowed, that he laid the foun¬
dations of the future greatnefs of France. By his
arts he deprived the common people of their liberty,
depreffed the power of the nobility, eftabliftied a Hand¬
ing army, and even induced the ttates to render many
taxes perpetual, which formerly were only temporary,
in order to fupport the army which was to keep them-
felves in llavery. From this time the people were ac-
cuftomed to fubmit entirely to the voice of their fo-
■vereign as their only legiflator ; and being always obe¬
dient in matters of the greateft confequence, they
cheerfully.contributed whatever fums were required to
fulfil the king’s pleafure. I24
Charles VIII. who fucceeded his father Louis XI. Reign of
in 1483, was only 14 years of age at the time of his cha. VI*I*
father’s death : but though he might, even at that
age, have afeended the throne without any material
violation of the laws of France, yet it was judged ne-
ceflary to have a regent on account of the king’s de¬
licacy of conftitution and want of education. Three
competitors appeared as candidates for this important
truft, toz. John duke of Bourbon, a prince of the
blood, and who had, till the age of 60, maintained
the moft unblemiihed chara&er; Louis duke of Or¬
leans, prefumptive heir to the’crown, but who from
his being only 20-years old himfdf, feemed incapaci¬
tated on that account from undertaking fuch an im¬
portant office : the third competitor was Anne, the
eldeft daughter of Louis, to whom the latter had in
the laft moments of his life committed the charge of
the kingdom, with the title of g'overnefs. The claim l21
of this lady was fupporftd by the affembly of the Regency of
ftates-general at Tours; and though (he was only en- the Lady
tered into the 22d year of her age, it appears that the Beauieu*
office could not have been more properly beftowed.
Being married to Peter of Bourbon, fire of Beaujeu,
her
FRA r 425 1 FRA
France her prefent title was the Lady of Beaujeu ; but (lie ap-
v'~' pears to have adltd entirely independent of her huf-
band, who was but of a moderate capacity, and in¬
deed had been recommended to her by Louis on ac-
count-cf his {lender abilities, left by any other match
the houfe of Bourbon Ihould be too much aggran¬
dized. Her fir ft ftep was to ingratiate herfelf with
the people by fome popular a£b ; among which one
was to punifh the inftruments of her father’s cruelties.
One of thefe, named Olivier le Dain, who, from the
ftation of a barber, had raifed himfelf to the'confi¬
dence and favour of the king, and had diftingui/hed
himfelf by the invention of new modes of torture,
was publicly hanged. Another, named Jean Doyac,
who by continual afts of violence and rapacity had
oppreffed the people, was condemned, after being
whipped in all the open places or fquares of Paris, to
have one of his ears cut off, and his tongue pierced
with a hot iron ; after which he was conveyed to his
native city of Montferrand, where he was again whip¬
ped, and his other ear cut off; after which his eftates,
as well as thofe of Olivier, were confifcated. Jacques
Coitier, the phyfician of Louis, who had availed him¬
felf of the terror of death with which the king was
ftrongly influenced, to extort great fums of money
from him, was ordered to anfwer for the immenfe
wealth he had acquired ; but he averted the danger
by paying a fine of 50,000 crowns.
Thus the lady de Beaujeu gained the affeftion of
the people at large ; and was equally fuccefsful in gain¬
ing over thofe who were averfe to her government.
The duke of Bourbon was made conftable, an office
which be had long defired ; but the duke of Orleans
behaved in fuch a manner as to exclude all hopes of
favour. Incenfed at the determination of a trifling
difpute at tennis againft him, by the lady Beaujeu, he
exclaimed, that whoever had decided it in that manner
“ was a liar if a man, or a (trumpet if a woman.” Af¬
ter this furious declaration he fled to the caftle of Beau-
jency, where, however, he was foon forced to furrender.
He then applied to Henry VII. of England, who had
newly afcended the throne of England; but that prince,
naturally flow and cautious, did not pay much attention
,24 to his prOpofals ; on which he next made his applica-
Orleans tl'°ri to the court of Brittany. Here he was received
flies to Brit-whh great marks of efteem, and began to entertain
tany. hopes of marrying the daughter of the duke ; but be¬
ing looked upon with a jealous eye by the nobility,
they entered into fecret negoCiations with Anne, and
even folicited her to invade the country. In thefe ne-
gociations, however, they ftipulated that only a certain
number of troops fhould enter the province, and that
no fortified place fhould remain in the hands of the
French; wLich conditions were indeed agreed to by
^ the regent, though (he determined to keep them no
That conn- longer than it anfwered her purpqfe. In purfuance of
tryinva- this refolution, Brittany was invaded at once by four
Frenchthe artI“es> eac^ °f them fuperiorto the ftipulated number,
who quickly made themfelves mafters of the moft im¬
portant places in the country ; while the troops of
the duke retired in difguft, leaving them to purfue
their conquefts as they pleafed. Finding at laft, how¬
ever, that the entire fubjedlionof their country was de¬
termined upon, the nobility began to exert themfelves in
defence of it; and, inflamed by the enthufiafm of liber*
Vol. VII. Part II.
ty, they raifed an army of 60,000 men. By thefe the France.
French were compelled to abandon the fiege of Nantz: *~~mm
but this proved only a tranlierlt gleam of fuccefs. Anne
perfevered in her defign of completing the conqueft of
the-country, and the ftate of Europe at that time fa¬
voured the defign. Of all the European ftates. Eng¬
land alone was then capable of affording any effectual
affiftance ; and the flow caution of Henry prevented
him from giving the affiftance which for his own inte-
reft he ought to have done. Thus the Bretons were
left to defend themfelves the Left way they could ; and
having ventured a battle, they were entirely defeated,
and moft of their leaders taken prifoners. A frhall bo¬
dy of Engliflr, under the command of lord Woodville,
who affifted them, were entirely cut in pieces. The
duke foon after died by a fall from his horfe, leaving
his dominions to his daughter Anne, at that time only
1 3 years of age. A marriage was negociated betwixt
this princefs and Maximilian king of the Romans, who
had been married to Mary of Burgundy ; but by rea-
fon of the poverty of that prince it was never com-
pleted. The lady Beaujeu, then, finding that the ab- Marriage
lolute conqueft of Brittany w-ould ftill be a difficult between
matter, determined to conclude a marriage betwixt‘belong
the young king of France and the duchefs, though thfc^F^ce
former had already been married to Margaret of Auff chefs cf
tria, the daughter of Maximilian. This marriage in- Brittany,
deed had not been confummated by reafon of the ten¬
der age of the princefs ; but ftie had been fent to Paris
for her education, and had for feveral years been treat¬
ed as queen of France. In 1491, however, Margaret
was fent back to her father: Anne of Brittany fur a
long time refufed to'violate the engagements into which
fhe had entered 5 but at laft, fimling herfelf diftreffed
on all fides, and incapable of refifting the numerous
forces of France with which fhe was preffed, fhe re-
lu6fantly confented to the match, and the nuptials
were celebrated the fame year at Langeais in Tou-
raine.
Maximilian, whofe poverty had prevented him from
giving any affiftance to his bride, or even from coming
to fee her, enraged at the double difgrace he bad fuf*
Fred, began, when too late, to think of revenge.
France was now threatened with an invafion from the
united forces of Auftn'a, Spain, and England. But
this formidable confederacy was foon diffipated.
Henry, whofe natural avarice had prevented him from
giving the neceffary affitlance, was bought off with mo¬
ney : the immediate payment of 745,000 crowns, and
the promife of if,000 annually ever after, perfuaded
him to retire into his own country. Ferdinand king
of Spain had the counties of Rouffillon and Cerdagne
reftored to him; while Maximilian was gratified by the
ceffion of part of Artois, which had been acquired by
Louis XL
The young king of France agreed to thefe terms His expedl.’
the more readily, that he was impatient to undertake tion into
an expedition into Italy, in order to conquer the king- Italy>. and
dom cf Naples, to which he claimed a right. Moft
his counfellors were againfl the expedition ; but the
king was inflexible, even though Ferdinand king of
Naples offered to do homage for his kingdom, and pay
him a tribute of 50,000 crowns a-year. He appointed
Peter duke of Bourbon regent in his abfence; after
which he fet out on his expedition with very few
3 H troops
France.
FR A. [ 426 ] FRA
troops and' very little money. By tlie way he fell ill duke of Brittany, had fpent a very confiderable time France.
' of the fmall-pox, but in a fhort time recovered, and en¬
tering Italy with only 6coo horfe and 12,000 foot, he
was attended with the moft furptifing fuccefs, traver-
fmg the whole country in fix weeks, and becoming
mailer of the kingdom of Naples in lefs than a fort¬
night. Such extraordinary good fortune feemed mi¬
raculous;, and he was reckoned an inllrument raifed up
by God to deftroy the execrable tyrants with which
Italy was at that time infefted. Had Charles made
ufe of this prepoffelfion in his favour, and a&ed up to
the charafter generally given him, he might have rai¬
fed his name as high as any hero of antiquity. His be¬
haviour, however, was of a very different nature. He a-
mufed himfelf with feafts and fiiows ; and leaving his
power in the hands of favourites, they abandoned it to
whoever would purchafe titles, places, or authority, at
the rates they impofed ; and the whole force he pro-
pofed to leave in his new conquered dominions amount¬
ed to no more than 4000 men..
But while Charles was thus lofing his time, a league
was concluded againft him at Venice ; into which en¬
tered, the pope, the emperor Maximilian, the archduke
Philip, Ludowic Sforza, and the Venetians. The con¬
federates affembled an army of 40,000 men, command¬
ed by Francis marquis of Mantua; and they waited
for the king in the valley of Farnova, in the duchy of
Parma, into which he defcended with 9000 men. On
the 6th of July >495 he attacked the allies ; and/not-
withftanding their great fuperiority, defeated them, with
the lofs of only 80 of his own men. Thus he got
fafe to France ; but his Italian dominions were loft
almoft as foon as he departed. Some fchemes were
_ 128 propofed for recovering thefe conquefts ; but they were
S3;s death. ngver pUt in execution, and the king died of an apo¬
plexy in 1498.
The premature death of this monarch, in the 28th
year of his age, was fuppofed to have been owing to his
irregular life, and particularly his attachment to wo¬
men; which had for fome time impaired his health,
and brought on evident fymptoms of his approaching
diffolution. At laft he relinquifbed his irregularities,
and retired with the queen to the caftle of Ambloife.
Here in pafiing through a low door he ftruck his head
with violence againft the top. No unfavourable fymp-
tom appeared at the time ; but foon afterwards, as he
converfed with his conftffor, and avowed his defign of
obferving the nuptial fidelity he owed to the queen,
he fuddenly fell backward in a fit of apoplexy. He
recovered his voice three times, and uttered fome ex-
prefiions of devotion ; but inftantly relapfed, and in a
fhort time expired, notwithftanding every affiftance
that could be given. He was greatly celebrated for
his fweet temper and agreeable difpofition, which pro¬
cured him the furnames of the Affable and Courteous.
Two of his domeftics are faid to have died of grief
after his death, and his widow abandoned hcrfelf to
the moft pungent forrow for two days.
By the death of Charles VIII. the throne of France
paffed from the direft line of the houfe of Valois, and
Louis duke of Orleans fucceeded to the throne. At
the time of his accedfion he wHs in his 36th year, and
had long been taught prudence in the fchool of ad-
verfity. During the adminiftration of the Lady Beau-
Jeu, he had been, as we have already obferved, con-
ftantly in difgrace; and after his connexions with the
jn pnfon; and though afterwards fet at liberty by
Charles, he had never poffeffed any fhare of that mo¬
narch’s confidence or favour. Towards the conclu-
fion of that reign, he fell under the difpleafure of the
queen ; and had afterwards continued at his caftle of
Blois till he was called from thence to the poffefiion of
the kingdom. He had been married in early life, and
againft his will, to Jane the youngeft daughter of
Louis XI. aprincefs of an amiable difpofition, but de¬
formed in her perfon, and fuppofed to be incapable of
bearing children. Afterwards he entertained thoughts
of having this marriage diffolved, and was fuppofed to
poffefs the affeXion of the duchejs of Brittany before
fhe became queen of France. After the death of her
hufband, that princefs retired to Brittany, where file
pretended to affume an independent fovereignty ; but
Louis having got his marriage wdth Jane diffolved by
Pope Alexander VI. quickly after made propofals to
the queen-dowager, which on her part were accepted
without hefitation; though it was ftipulated, that if
fhe fhouid have two fons, the younger fhould inherit
the duchy of Brittany.
As Louis, while duke of Orleans, had fome preten-
fions to the kingdom of Naples, he inftantly fet about
realizing them by conqueft. On his acceflion, he
found matters in that country much more favourable
to his defigns than formerly. The pope, Alexander VI*
was very much in his interefts, from the hopes of get¬
ting his fon Csefar Borgia provided for: he had con*
ciliated the friendfhip of the.Venetians by promifing
them a part of the Milanefe; he concluded a truce
with the archduke Philip ; and renewed his alliances
with the crowns of England, Scotland, and Denmark. IJ9
He then entered Italy with an army-of 20,000 men ; Expedition
and being affifted by the Venetians, quickly conquered of Louis
one part of the duchy, while they conquered the other, mt0
the duke himfelf being obliged to fly with his family U y'
to Infpruck. He then attacked Ferdinand of Spain
with three armies at once, two to aX by land, and one
by fea ; but none of thefe performing any thing re¬
markable, he was obliged to evacuate the kingdom of
Naples in 1504.
In 1506, the people of Genoa revolted; . drove out
the nobility; chofe eight tribunes; and declared Paul-,
Nuova, a filk-dyer, their duke : after which, they ex¬
pelled the French governor, and reduced a great part
of the Riviera. This occaffoned Louis’s return into
Italy; where, in 1507, he obliged the Genoefe to fur-
render at diferetion : and, in 1508, entered into the
league of Cambray, with the other princes who at
that time wanted to reduce the overgrown power of
the Venetians. Pope Julius II. who had been thefirft
contriver of this league, very foon repented of it; and
declared, that if tlie Venetians would reftore the cities
of Faenza and Rimini, which had been unjuftly taken
from him, he would be contented. This was refufed;
and in 1509, the forces of the republic received fuch an
entire defeat from Louis, that they agreed to reftore
not only the two cities demanded by pope Julius, but
whatever elfe the allies required..
The pope now, inftead of executing his treaties with
his allies, made.war on the king of France without the
leaft provocation. Louis called an affembly of his
clergy;. where it was determined, that in fome cafes it
was lawful to make war upon the pope; upon.which
a. the.
FRA [ 437 ] FRA
•fraref, tlie king declared war agalnfl: him, and committed the Milanefe alfo made their way back again as well a* France.
  care of his army to the Marihall deTrivulce. He foon they could. Henry VIII. under the influence of car- y—
obliged the pope to retire into Ravenna; and in 1511, dinal Wolfey, refolved not to opprefs the oppreffed :
Gallon de Foix, duke of Nemours, gained a great he therefore allured the regent that Ihe had nothing to
vidlory at Ravenna, but was himfelf killed in the en- fear from him ; and at the fame time advifed her not
gagement. After his death the army dilbanded for to confent to any treaty by which France was to be
want of pay ; and the French affairs in Italy, and every difmembered. To the emperor, however, he ufed an-
v here elfe, fell into great confufion. They recovered other language. He told him, that the time was now
the duchy of Milan, and loll it again in a few weeks, come when this puilfant monarchy lay at their mercy ;
Henry VIII. of England invaded France, and took and therefore, that fo favourable an opportunity Ihould
Terruenne and Tournay; and the Swifs invaded Bur^ not be let flip : that, for his part, he Ihould be con-
gundy with an army of 25,000 men. In this defpe- tent with Normandy, Guienne, and Gafcony, and
rate lituation of affairs the queen died, and Louis put hoped the empire would make no fcruple of owning
an end to the oppofition of his moll dangerous enemies him king of France : adding, that he expefted the
by negociating marriages. To Ferdinand of Spain emperor would make a right ufeof his vi&ory, by en-
he offered his fecond daughter for either of his grand- tering Guienne in perfon ; in which cafe he was ready
fons, Charles or Ferdinand ; and to renounce, in fa* to bear half the expences of the war. He forefaw
13o vour of that marriage, his claims on Milan and Genoa, what fell out: the emperor was alarmed at thefe con-
His mar- This propofal was accepted 5 and Louis himfelf mar- ditions, and did not care to have him for a neighbour;
t-isgc with r;ed the princefs Mary, filler to Henry VIII. of Eng- for which reafon he agreed to a truce with the regent
Je Pn”fcefsland. This marriage he did not long furvive, but died for fix months. In Picardy the Flemings were repul-
E inland on the 2d of January 1514 ; and was fucceeded by fed; and the count de Guife, with the duke of Lor-
and death. Francis I. count of Angoulefme, and duke of Bretagne rain, had the good fortune, with a handful of troops,
I^I and Valois. to defeat and cut to piepes the German peafants.
The new king was no fooner feated on the throne, In the mean time, Francis was detained in captivity Francis L'
than he refolved on an expedition into Italy. In this in Italy : but being wearied of his confinement in that carr'ed to
he was at firll fuccefsful, defeating the Swifs at Marig- country, and the princes of Italy beginning to Cabal
nano, and reducing the duchy of Milan. In 1518, the for his deliverance, be was carried to Madrid; where, fijrns a
emperor Maximilian dying, Francis was very ambitious on the 14th of January 1525, he figned a treaty, theadvama-
bf being his'fucceffbr, and thereby relieving to France principal articles of which were, That he Ihould refign t;eoustrea-
fuch a fplendid title, which had been fo long loll. But to the emperor the duchy of Burgundy in full fove-tjrj
Maximilian, before his death, had exerted himfelf fo reignty; that he Ihould defill from the homage which
much in favour of Charles V. of Spain, that Francis the emperor owed him for Artois and Flanders; that
found it impoffible to fucceed ; and from that time an he Ihquld renounce all claim to Naples, Milan, Alii,
irreconcileable hatred took place between the two mo- Tournay, Lille, and Hefdin, &c.; that he Ihould per-
narchs. In 1521, this ill-will produced a war; which, fuade Henry d’Albret to refign the kingdom of Na-
however, might perhaps have been terminated, if Fran- varre to the emperor, or at leall Ihould give him no af-
cis could have been prevailed upon to-rellore the town fillance; that within 40 days he Ihould reftore the
of Fontarabia, which had been taken by his admiral duke of Bourbon and all his party to their ellates;
Bonivet: but this being refufed, hollilities were re- that he Ihould pay the king of England, 500,000
newed with greater vigour than ever; nor were they crowns which the emperor owed him ; that when the
concluded till France was brought to the very brink emperor went to Italy to receive the Imperial crown,
of deflrudlion. The war was continued with various he Ihould lend him 12 galleys, four large ihips, and a
fuccefs till the year 1524; when Francis having in- land-army, or inftead of it 200,000 crowns,
defeated Vaded Italy, and laid liege to Pavia, he was utterly de- AH thefe articles the king of France promifed on
and taken feated before that city, and taken prifoner on the 24th the word and honour of a prince to execute ; or, in
■Jprifoner. of February. cafe of non-performance, to return prifoner into Spain.
This difafter threw the whole kingdom into the ut- But, notwithftanding thefe profeffions, Fmncis had al-
rtroft confufion. The Flemifh troops made continual ready protelled before certain notaries and witneffes in
inroads; many thoufand boors affembled in Alface, in whom he could trull, that the treaty he was about to
Francis k
invades
Italy.
order to make an invafion from that quarter; Hen¬
ry VIII. had affembled a great army, and threatened
the kingdom on that fide alfo; and a party was form¬
ed in the kingdom, in order to difpoffefs the duchefs
of the regency, and confer it upon the duke de Ven-
dofme. This prince, however, who, after the conllable,
was the head of the Houfe of Bourbon, went on pur-
pofe to Lyons, where he allured the regent that he
had no view but for her fervice, and that of his coun¬
try ; upon which Hie formed a ^council of the ableft
men of the kingdom, and of this file made him prefi-
dent. The famous Andrew Doria failed with the
fign was againll his will, and therefore null and void.
On the 2 ill of February, the emperor thought fit to
releafe him from his prifon, in which he had been
clofely confined ever fince his arrival in Spain; and
after receiving the ftrongell affurances from his own
mouth, that he would literally fulfil the terms of the
treaty, fent hirn under a ftrong gaurd to the frontiers,
where he was exchanged for his two eldeft. fons, who
were to remain as hoftages for his fidelity.
When the king returned to his dominions, his firll And breaks
care was to get himfelf abfolved by the Pope from the it.
oaths he had taken j^after which he entered into a
French galleys to take on board the remains of the league with the pontiff, the Venetians, the duke of
French troops under the duke of Alva, whom he land- Milan, and the king of England, for preferving - the
ed fafely in France. Thofe who efcapcd out of the peace of Italy. In the month of June, he publicly
3 H 3 re-
FRA [ 428 ] FRA
Prance-, received remonftrances from the dates of Burgundy ; upon as a jud equivalent, they undertook that it fliould Frarce.
' |n which they told him, without ceremony, that by be raifed for his fervice. When the ambafladors de-
the treaty of Madrid he had done what he had no right livered their propofitions, Charles treated the Englifh
to do, in breach of the laws and his coronation-oath ; herald with refpeft, and the French one with con-
adding, that if he perfifted in his refolution of throw- tempt; which produced a challenge from Francis to
Jng them under a foreign yoke, they muft appeal to the emperor*. All differences, however, were at lafl ‘ S’6®
the General States of the kingdom. At thefe remon- adjufted; and a treaty was concluded at Cambray, onTre^ ^
finances the viceroy of Naples and the Spanifh mi- the 5th of Auguft 1528. By this treaty, in dead of Cambray.
aiders were' prefent. They perceived the end which the pofTeflion, the emperor contented himfelf with re¬
tire king aimed at, and therefore expodulated with ferving his rights to the duchy of Burgundy, and the
him in pretty warm terms. At lad the viceroy told two millions of crowns already mentioned. Of thefe
him, that he had now nothing left but to keep his royal he was to receive 1,200,000 in ready money : the
word in returning to the cadle of Madrid, as his pre- prince’s lands in Flanders belonging to the houfe of
* deceffor John had done in a like cafe. To this the Bourbon were to be delivered up ; thefe were valued
king replied, that king John affed rightly; that he at 400,000 more : and the remauring 400,000 were
returned to a king who had treated him like a king; to be paid by France in difeharge of the emperor’s
but that at Madrid he had received fuch ufage as debt to England. Francis was likewife to difeharge
would have been unbecoming to a gentleman: that he the penalty of 500,000 crowns which the emperor
had often declared to the emperor’s minifters, that the had incurred, by not marrying his niece the princefs
terms they extorted from him were unjuft and imprac- Mary of England ; and to releafe a rich jieur de lys
ticable: but that he was ftill willing to do all that was fit which had been many years before pawned by the houfe
and reafonable; and to ranfom his funs at the rate of two of Burgundy for 50,000 crowns. The town and caftle
millions of gold, in lieu of the duchy of Burgundy. of Hefdin were alfo yielded; together with the fove-
Hitherto the treaty for the tranquillity of Italy had reignty of Flanders and Artois, and all the king’s pre-
been kept fecret, in hopes that fome mitigation of the tenfions in Italy. As for the allies of France, they
treaty of Madrid would have been obtained; but now were abandoned to the emperor’s mercy, without the
it was judged expedient to publifh it, though the vice- leaft ftipulation in their favour ; and Francis himfelf
roy of Naples and the Spanifti lords were ftill at the . protefted againft the validity of the treaty before he
French court; and the emperor was to be admitted ratified it, as did alfo his attorney-general before he
into it, provided he accepted the king’s offer of two regiftered it in parliament; but both of them with the
millions for the releafe of his children, and left the greateft fecrecy imaginable.
duke of Milan and other Italian princes in quiet pof- Nothing farther of much confequence happened du-
feffion of their dominions. It is the common misfor- - ring the remainder of the reign of Francis I. The war
tune of all leagues, that the powers who enter into them was foon renewed with Charles, who made an invafion
keep only their own particular interefts in view, and into France, but with very bad fuccefs; nor was peace
thus defeat the general intention of the confederacy, fully eftablilhed but by the death of Francis, which
This was the cafe here. The king’s great point was happened on the 3d of March, 1547. He was fuc-Francis dies
to obtain his children upon the terms he had propo- ceeded by his foij Henry II. who afeended the throne an^ is fue¬
led; and he was deftrous of knowing what hopes there that very day on which he was 29 years of age. In.^^
were of that, before he afted againft the monarch who the beginning of his reign, an infurre&ion happened ‘ y
had them in his power. Thus the duke of Milan and in Guienne, owing to the oppreffive condudt of the
the Pope were both facrificed. The former was ob- officers who levied the fait tax. The king difpatched
liged to furrender to the duke of Bourbon, and the againft the infurgents two bodies of troops ; one corn-
latter was furprifed by the Colonnas ; both of which manded by the duke of Aumale fon to the duke of
difafters would have been prevented if the French fuc- Guife, the other by the conftable. The firft behaved
eours had entered Italy in time. See Italy. with the greateft moderation, and brought back the
According to an agreement which had been made people to their duty without making many examples:
between Francis and Henry, their ambaffadors went the other behaved with the utmoft haughtinefs and
into Spain, attended each of them by a herald, in or- cruelty; and though the king afterwards remitted many
der to fummon the emperor to accept the terms which of his puniihments, yet from that time the conftable
had been offered him; or, in cafe of refufal, to declare became odious to the people, while the family of Guife
war. It feems the emperor’s anfwer was forefeen in were highly refpedled.
the court of France ; and therefore the king had pre- In 1548, the king began to execute the edi&s which 137
vioufly called together an affembly of the notables; had been made againft the f’roteilants with the ut> cutest he"
that is, peifons of the feveral ranks of his people in moft feverity ; and, thinking even the clergy too mild pI0teftant&
whom he could confide. To them he propoftd the in the profecution of herefy, erefted for that purpofe
great queftion, Whether he was bound to perform the a chamber compofed of members of the parliament of
treaty of Madrid? or. Whether, if he did not perform Paris. At the queen’s coronation, which happened
it, he was obliged in honour to return to Spain ? To this year, he caufed a number of Proteftants to be
both thefe queftions, the affembly anfwered in the ne- burned, and was himfelf prefent at the fpedlacle. He
gative : they faid, that Burgundy was united to the was, however, fo much Ihocked, that he could never
crown of France, and that he could not feparate it by forget it; but complained, as long as he lived, that,
his own authority; that his perfon alfo was the pro- at certain times, it appeared before his eyes, and
perty of the public, of which'therefore he could not • troubled his underftanding.
difpofe ; but for the two millions, which they looked In 15491 a peace being concluded with England, tire
king
FRA [ 429 ] F R A
France, king purchafed Boulogne from the latter, for the fum
U—v—^ of 400,090 crowns; one half to be paid on the day
Advanta reft‘tution» and the other a few months after,
geoustreaty was included in the treaty, and the Englifh
with Eng reftored fome places they had taken there. This was
land. the moil; advantageous peace that France had hitherto
made with England ; the vaft arrears which were due
to that crown being in effect remitted; and the pen-
fion which looked fo like tribute, not being mentioned,
was in fa£t extinguiihed. The earl of Warwick him-
felf, who had concluded the peace, was fo fenfible of
the difgrace fuffered by his nation on this occallon,
that he pretended to be Tick, in order to avoid fetting
his hand to fuch a fcandalous bargain.
This year, an edi£t was made to reftrain the extra¬
vagant remittances which the clergy had been in ufe
of making to the court of Rome, and for correcting
fome other abufes committed by the papal notaries.
With this ediCt Pope Julius III. was highly difpleafed;
and the following year (1550), war was declared by
the king of France again!' the pope and the emperor.
The pretence was, that Henry protected Octavio Far-
nefe duke of Parma, whom the pope was defirous of
depriving of his dominions. In this war the king was
threatened with the cenfures of the church, more ef-
pecially when it was known that he had entered into
an alliance with the Turks, andaTurkifh fleet entered
the Mediterranean, where they threatened the Ifle of
Gozo, and made defeents upon Sicily. ' Henry, how¬
ever, ftrongly denied any fuch connection, and infilled
that the emperor had given them fufficient provoca¬
tion : but, be this as it will, the emperor foon found
himfelf in fuch danger from thefe new enemies, that
he could not fupport the pope as he intended, who on
*39 that account was obliged to fue for peace. After
fiiccetsa t^‘s’ t^e continued the war againll the emperor
gain;! the with fuccefs; reducing the cities of Toul, Verdun,
tmperur. and Metz. He then entered the country of Alface,
and reduced all the fortrefles between Hagenau and
Wiflenburg. He failed, however, in his attempt on
Strafburgh : and was foon after obliged by the Ger¬
man princes and the /Swifs to defift from farther con*
quells on that fide. This war continued with very
little interruption, and as little fuccefs o-n the part of
the French, till the year 1557, when a peace was
140 concluded; and foon' after, the king was killed at a
He is killed tournament by one count de Montgomery, who was
at a tourr.a-reckone(j ene Gf the ftrongell knights in France, and
nient* who had done all he could to avoid this encounter with
the king.
The reign of his fucceflfor Francis II. was remarkable
only for the perfecution of the Protellants; which be¬
came fo grievous, that they were obliged to take up
arms in their own defence. This occalioned feveral
CiviVwars wars, the lirll of which commenced in the reign of
with the Charles IX. who fucceeded to the throne in 1560. This
Proteftants. fird war continued till the year 1562, when a peace
was concluded, by which the Protellants were to have
a free pardon, and liberty of confcience. In 1565,
the war broke out anew, and was continued with very
little interruption till 1569, when peace was again
concluded upon very advantageous terms for the Pro¬
tellants. After this, king Charles, who had now ta¬
ken the government into his hands, carefled the Pro-
tdlants in an extraordinary manner. He invited to
3
court the admiral Coligni, who was the head of the France.
Protellant party ; and cajoled him fo, that he was  v—
lulled into a perfect fecurity, notydthftanding the
many warnings given him by his friends, that the
king’s fair fpeeches were by no means to be trailed :
but he had foon reafon to repent his confidence. On
the zzd of Augnll 1571, as he was walking from the
court to his lodgings, he received a Ihot from a win¬
dow, which carried away the fecond finger of his
right hand, and wounded him grievoufly in the left
arm. This he himfelf aferibed to the malice of the
duke of Guife, the bead of the. Catholic party. Af¬
ter dinner, however, the king went to pay him a vilit,
and amongll others made him this compliment ; “ You
have received the wound, but it is 1 who fuffer
defiring at the fame time, that he would order his
friends to quarter about his houfe, and promiling t®
hinder the Catholics from entering that quarter after >
it was dark. This fatisfied the admiral of the king’s
lincerity; and hindered him from complying with
the defires of his friends, who would have carried him
away, and who were llrong enough to have forced a
palfage out of Paris if they had attempted it.
In the evening, the queen-mother, Katharine de£)readfui
Medicis, held a cabinet-council to fix the execution of maffacreof
the maflacre of the Protellants, which had been longue Prote-
meditated. The perfons of which this council wasftaat3,-‘
compofed, were, Henry duke of Anjou, the king’s bro¬
ther ; Gonzagua duke of Nevers; Henry of Angou-
lefme, grand prior of France, and ballard brother of
the king; the marlhal de Tavannes ; and Albert de
Gondi, count de Rhetz. The dire&ion of the whole
was given to the duke of Guife, to whom the ad-
minillration had been entirely confided during the
former reign. The guards were appointed to be in
arms, and the city-officers were to difpofe the militia
to execute the king’s orders, of which the lignai was
the ringing of a bell near the Louvre. Some fay, that
when the hour approached, which was that of mid¬
night, the king grew undetermined : that he expref-
fed his horror at Ihedding fo much blood, efpecially con-
fidering that the people whom he was going to deltroy
were his fubje£ts, who had come to the capital at his
command, and in confidence of his word; and parti¬
cularly the admiral, whom he had detained fo lately
by his carefles. The queen-mother, however, re¬
proached him with his cowardice, and reprefented to
him the great danger he was in from the Proteftants;
which at laft. induced him to cohfent. According to
others, however, the king himfelf urged on the maf-
facre; and when it was propofed to him to take off
only a few of the heads, he cried out, “ If any are
to die, let there not be,one left to reproach me with
breach of faith.”
As foon as the fignal was given, a body of Swifs
troops, of the Catholic religion, headed by the duke
of Guife, the chevalier d’Angoulefme, accompanied by
many perfons of quality, attacked the admiral’s houfe *
Having forced open the doors, the foremoll of the af»
faffins rulhed into his apartment; and one of them afle-
ed if he was Coligni? To this he anfwered that he was;
adding, “ Young man, refpeft thefe grey hairsto
which the affaffin replied by running him through the
body with his fword. The duke of Guile and the
chevalier, growing impatient befow flairs, cried out to
know
FRA ( C 430 ] ( FRA
France, know if tlie bufinefs was done; and being told that it favourable to the Proteftanta, but to which they never Prance,
was, commanded that the body fhould be thrown out trailed* —
at the window. As foon as it fell on the ground, the This year the duke of Anjou was elected king of
chevalier, or (as fome fay) the duke of Guife, wiping Poland, and foon after fet out to take poffefiion of his
the blood off the face, kicked it with his foot. The new kingdom. The king accompanied him to the fron-
body was then abandoned to the fury of the populace; tiers of the kingdom ; but during the journey was fei-
who, after aferiesof indignities, dragged it to the com- zed with a flow fever, which from the beginning had
mon gallows, to which they chained it by the feet, the a very dangerous appearance. He lingered for fome 143
head being cutoff and carried to the queen-mother; time under the mod terrible agonies both of body and Death of
who, it is faid, caufed it to be embalmed and fent to mind; and at laft died on the 30th of May 1572, ha-c*lar*e3D*”
Rome. The king himfelf went to fee the body hang ving lived 24 years, and reigned 13. It is faid, that
, upon the gibbet; where a fire being kindled under it, after the dreadful maflacre abovementioned, this prince
part was burnt, and the reft fcorched. In the Louvre had a fiercenefs in his looks and a colour in his cheeks
the gentlemen belonging to the king of Navarre and which he never had before. He flept little, and never
the prince of Gonde were murdered under the king’s found. He waked frequently in agonies, and had foft
eye. Two of them wounded, and purfued by the af- mufic to compofe him again to reft. i44
faflins, fled into the bed-chamber of the queen of Na- During the firft years of the reign of Henry III. Henry lH.
varre, and jumped upon her bed, befeeching her to fave who fucceeded his brother Charles, the war with the
their lives; and as fhe went to afk this favour of the Proteftants was carried on with indifferent fuccefs on
queen-mother, two more, under the like circumtlances, the part of the Catholics. In 1575, a peace was
rufhed into the room, and threw themfelves at her feet, concluded, called by way of eminence the EdiB of Pa-
The queen-mother came to the window to enjoy thefe cifcation. It confifted of no fewer than 63 articles;
dreadful foenes; and the king, feeing the Proteftants the fubftancc of which was, that liberty of confcience,
who lodged on the other fide of the river, flying for and the public exercife of religion, were granted to the
their lives. Called for his long gun, and fired upon them, reformed, without any other reilridion than that they
In the fpace of three or four days, many thoufands fhould not preach within two leagues of Paris or any
■were deftroyed in the city of Paris, by the moft cruel other part where the court was: Party chambers were
deaths which malice itfelf could invent. Peter Ramus, eredted in every^ parliament, to confift of equal num-
profeflbr of philofophy and mathematics, after being bers of Catholics and Proteflants, before whom all
robbed of all he had, his belly being firft ripped open, judgments were to be tried : The judgments againft the
was thrown out of a window. This fo much affedled admiral, and, in general, all who had fallen in the war
Denis Lambin the king’s profeflbr, that, though a or been executed, were reverfed; and eight cautionary
zealous Catholic, he died of terror. The firft two days, towns were given to the Proteftants.
the king denied it w*as done by his orders, and threw This edict gave occafion to the Guifes to form an Catholic
the whole blame on the houfe of Guife: but, on the affociation in defence, as was pretended, of the Ca-kagHC
.28th of Auguft, he went to the parliament, avowed it, tholic religion, afterwards known by the name of theiolulc *
-was complimented upon it, and directed a procefs a- Catholic League. In this league, though the king was
< .gainft the admiral, by wdiich he was ftigmatked as a mentioned with refpeft, he could not help feeing that
traitor. Two innocent gentlemen fuffered as his ac- it ftruck at the very root of his authority : for, as the
complices in a pretended plot agaiuft the life of the Proteftants had already their chiefs, fo the Catholics
-king, in order to fet the crown on the head of the were, for the future, to depend entirely upon the
prince of Conde. They were executed by torch-light; chief of the league ; and were, by the very words of
and the king and the queen-mother (with the king of it, to execute whatever he commanded, for the good of
■Navarre and the prince of Conde by force) were fpec- the caufe, againft any, without exception of perfons.
tators of this horrid fad ; and they alfo affiHed.at the The king, to avoid the bad effeds of this, by the ad-
jubilee to-thank God for the execution of fuch an infa- vice of his council declared himfelf head of the league ;
mous defign. and of confequence recommenced the war againft the
This maffacre was not confined to the city of Paris Proteftants, which was not extinguifhed as-long as he
dlone. On the eve of St Bartholomew, orders had lived.
-been fent to the governors of provinces to fall upon The fadion of the duke of Guife, in the mean time,
the Proteftants themfelves, and to let loofe the people took a refolution of fupporting Charles cardinal of
■upon them: and though an edid was publilhed before Bourbon, a weak old man, as prefumptive heir of the
the end of the week, affuring them of the king’s pro- crown. In 1584 they entered into a league with
tedion, and that he by no means defigned to extermi- Spain, and took up arms againft the king : and tho’
nate them becaufe of their religion, yet private orders peace was concluded the fame year, yet in 1587 they
were fent, of a nature diredly contrary; in confequence again proceeded to fuch extremities, that the king was
of which, the maflacre, or (as, in allufion to the Sici- forced to fly from Paris. Another reconciliation was
eijee Slaty ban vefpers*, it was now fly led) the Matins of Parist foon after effeded; but it is generally believed that
were repeated in Meaux, Orleans, Troyes, Angers, the king from this time refolved on the deftrudioa
Tholoufe, Rouen, and Lyons ; fo that in the fpace of of Guife. Accordingly, finding’that this nobleman
two months 30,000 Proteftants were butchered. The ft ill behaved towards him with his ufual infidence,
next year Rochelle, the only ftrong fortrefs which the the king caufed him to be ftabbed, as he was coming
-Proteftants held in France, was belkged, but was not Into his prefence, by his guards, on the 23d of De*
taken without the lofs of 24,000 of the Catholics who cember 1587. The king himfelf did not long fur-
iiefieged it. After this a pacification enfued on terms vive him ; being ftabbed by one James Clement, a Ja-
cobine
FRA [ 431 ] FRA
Cobine monk, on the firft of Auguft 1588. His wound Sicily to the Venetians ; Milan to the duke of Savoy, France,
at firft was not thought mortal: but his frequent who, by this acquifition, was to become king of Lorn- ~v—
fwooning quickly difcovered his danger ; and he died bardy ; the Auftrian Low Countries were to be added
r.next morning, in the 39th year of his age, and i6th to the Dutch republic; Franche Compte, Alface, and
i of his reign. the country of Trent, were to be given to the Swifs.
Before the king’s death, he nominated Henry Bour- With a view, it is now thought, ofexecuting this grand
bon king of Navarre for his fucceflbr on the throne projeft, but under pretence of reducing the exorbitant
of France ; but as he was a Proteftant, or at leaft power of the houfe of Auftria, Henry made immenfe
one who greatly favoured their caufe, he was at firft preparations both by fea and land; but if he really
owned by very few except thofe of the Proteftant party, had fuch a defign, he was prevented by death from
Fie met with the moft violent oppofition ’from the attempting to execute it. He was ftabbed in his^*^^-
members of the Catholic league; and was often re- coach by one Ravilliac, on the 12th of May 1608. dered.
duced to fuch ftraits, that he went to people’s houfes On the death of Henry IV. the queen-mother af-
under colour of vifits, wdien in reality he had not a fumed the regency. Ravilliac was executed, after fuf-
dinner in his own. By his activity and perfeverance^ fering horrid tortures. It is faid that he made a con-
however, he w-as at laft acknowledged throughout the feffion, which was fo written by the perfon who took
whole kingdom, to which his abjuration of the Pro- it down, that not one word of it could ever be read,
teftant religion contributed not a little. As the king and thus his inftigators and accomplices could never
of Spain had laid claim to the crown of France, Hen- be difcovered. The regency, during the minority of
ry no fooner found himfelf in a fair way of being firm- Louis XIII. was only remarkable for cabals and i-n_ L6Ufs5y;jjJ
trigues of the courtiers. In 1617, the king, alfumed
the government himfelf, banifhed the queen-mother to
Blois, caufed her'favourite marlhal d’Ancre to be killed,
and chofe for his minifter the famous cardinal Rich-
lieu. In 1620, a new war broke out between the
ly feated on the throne, than he formally declared wra'
againft that kingdom ; in which he at laft proved fuc-
cefsful, and in 1597 entered upon the quiet poffeffion
of his kingdom.
The kixg’s firft care wras to put an end to the
148
Editfl of
149
The king
pvopofts to
new-model
the Euro-
powcrs.
religious difputes which had fo long diftradled the Catholics and Proteftants, which was carried on with
kingdom. For this purpofe, he granted the famous the greateft fury on both fides ; and we may judge of
edift, dated at Nantes, April 13. 1598. It re- the fpirit wdiich aftuated both parties, by what hap-
eftablilhed, in a moft folid and effedtual manner,' all pened at Negreplilfe, a town in Quercy. This place
the favours that had ever been granted to the reformed was befieged by the king’s troops, and it was refolved
by other princes; adding, fome which had not been to make an example of the inhabitants. The latter,
thought of before, particularly the allowing them a however, abfolutely refufed to furrender upon any
free admilfion to all employments of truft, profit, and terms. They defended themfelves, therefore, moll
honour ; the eftablilhing chambers in which the mem- defperately; and the city being at laft taken by ftorm,
bers of the two religions were equal; and the per- they were all maffacred, without refpedt of rank, fex,
mitting their children to be educated without con- or age, except ten men. When thefe were brought
ftraint in any of the univerfities. - Soon after, he con- into the king’s prefence, he told them they did not
eluded peace with Spain upon very advantageous deferve mercy : they anfwered, that they would not
terms. This gave him an opportunity of reftoring receive it; that the only favour they alked, was to be
order and juftice throughout his dominions; of repair- hanged on trees in-their own gardens; which was
ing all the ravages occafioned by the civil war; and granted, and the place reduced to alhes. Both par-
abolifhing all thofe innovations which had been made, ties foon became w^eary of fuch a deftrutftive war; and
either to the,prejudice of the prerogatives of the a peace was concluded in 1621, by which the edift of
crown or jhe welfare of the people. His fchemes ' Nantes was confirmed. This treaty, however, was of no
of reformation, indeed, he intended to have carried be- long duration. A new war broke out which lafted till
yond the boundaries of France. If we may believe the year 1628, when the edidf of Nantes was again con-
the duke of Sully, he had in view no lefs a defign than firmed ; only the Proteftants were deprived of all their
the new-modelling of all Europe. He imagined that cautionary towns, and confequently of the power of de-
the European powers might be formed into a kind of fending themfelves in time to come. This put an end
Chriftian republic, by rendering them as nearly as pof- to the civil wars on account of religion in France,
fible of equal ftrength ; and that this republic might Fliftorians fay, that in thefe wars above a million of
be maintained in perpetual peace, by bringing all their men loft their lives; that 150,000,000 livres were fpenfc
differences to be decided before a fenate of wife, dif* in carrying them on ; and that 9 cities, 400 villages,
interefted, and able judges: and then he thought it 2000 churches, 2000 monafteries, and jo,000 houfes,
would be no difficult matter to overturn the Ottoman were burnt or otherwife deftroyed during their conti-
empire. The number of thefe powers was to be 15 ; nuance. The next year, the king was attacked with a
•viz. the Papacy ; the empire of Germany; France; flow fever which nothing could allay, an extreme de-
Spain; Hungary; Great Britain; Bohemia; Lombardy; preffion of fpirits, and prodigious fwelling in his fto-
Poland; Sweden; Denmark; the republic of .Venice; mach and belly. The year after, however, he recover-
the States-General ; the Swifs Cantons; and the Ita- ed, to the great difappointment of his mother, who
lian commonwealth, which was to comprehend the had been in hopes of regaining her power. She was -
ftaus of blorence, Genoa, Lucca, Modena, Parma, arrefted ;-but found means to efcape into Flanders,
Mantua, and Monaco. In . order to render the ftates w here fire remained during the reft of this reign. Rich -
equal, the empire w as to be given to the duke of Ba- lieu, by a mafterly train of .politics, though himfelf
varia; the kingdom cf Naples to the pope; that of was next to an enthufiaft for popery, fupported the
Proteftants
F R A . [ 43
fnnie PrOtcJlar.ts of Germany and Guflavus Adolplius againft
tbe houfe of Auftria ; and after quelling all the rebel¬
lions and confpiracies which had been formed again(1
him in France, he died fome months before Louis X1IL
in 1643.
LouZ/xlV Louis XIV. furnamed le Grand, fucceeded to the
throne when he was only five years of age. During
his minority, the kingdom was torn in pieces under
the adminiftration of his mother Anne of Auftria, by
the fadlions of the great, and the divifions between
the court and parliament, for the moft trifling caufes,
and upon the moft despicable principles. The prince
of Cond6 flamed like a blazing ftar ; fometimes a pa¬
triot, fometimes a courtier, and fometimes a rebel.
He was oppofed by the celebrated Turennre, who from
a Proteftant had turned Papift. The nation of France
was involved at once in civil and domeftic wars; but
the queen-mother having made choice of cardinal Ma¬
zarine for her firft minifter, he found means to turn
the arms even of Cromwell againft the Spaniards, and
to divide the domeftic enemies of the court fo tffedlu-
ally among themfelves, that when Louis affumed the
reins of government into his own hands, he found
himfelf the moft abfolute monarch that had ever fat
upon the throne of France. He had the good for¬
tune, on the death of Mazarine, to put the domeftic
adminiftration of his affairs into the hands of Colbert,
who formed new fyftems for the glory, commerce, and
manufaftures of France, all which he carried to a
furpiifing height. The king himfelf, ignorant and
vain, was blind to every patriotic duty of a king, pro¬
moting the interefts of his fubje&s only that they
might the better anfwer the purpofes of his greatnefs :
and by his ambition he embroiled himfelf with all his
neighbours, and wantonly rendered Germany a difmal
fcene of devaftation. By his impolitic and unjuft re¬
vocation of the edift of Nantes in the year >685, with
•See Dra- the dragooning* the proteftants that followed it, he
gaming. obliged them to take ihelter in England, Holland, and
different parts of Germany, where they eftablifhed the
filk manufaftories, to the great prejudice of their own
country. He was fo blinded by flattery, that he ar¬
rogated to himfelf the divine honours paid to the pa¬
gan emperors of Rome. Fie made and broke treaties
for his conveniency : and in the end he raifed againft
himfelf a confederacy of almoft all the other princes
of Europe; at the head of which was king William III.
of England. He was fo well ferved, that he made
head for fome years^againft this alliance ; and France
feemed to have attaif. the higheft pitch of military
glory, under the conduft of thofe renowned generals
Conde and Turenne. (See United Provinces.) At
length, having provoked the Englifti by his repeated
infidelities, their arms under the duke of Marlborough,
and thofe of the Auftrians under prince Eugene, ren¬
dered the latter part of Louis’s life as miferable as the
beginning of it was fplendid. His reign, from the year
1702 to 1711, was one continued feries of defeats and
calamities ; and he had the mortification of feeing
thofe places taken from him, which, in the former
part of his reign, werfe acquired at the expence of
many thoufand lives. (See Britain, n° 342, &c.)—
Juft as he was reduced, old as he was, to the defperate
refolution of collefting i.is people and dying at their
head, he was faved by the Englifti Tory miniftev de-
N° 131.
2 J FRA
ferting the eaufe, withdrawing from their allies, and France,
concluding the peace of Utrecht in 1713. See Bri- ——v—
tain, n° 371, &c.
The laft years of Louis XIV. were alfo embittered
by domeftic calamities; which, added to thofe he had
already endured of a public nature, imprefledhim with
a deep melancholy. He had been for fome time af¬
flicted with a fiftula ; which, though fuccefsfully cut;
ever afterwards affefted his health. The .year before
the peace, his only fon, the duke of Burgundy, died,
together with the duchefs and their eldeft fon; and the
only remaining child was left at the point of death.
The king himfelf furvived till the month of Septem¬
ber 1715 ; but on the 14th «of that month expired,
leaving the kingdom to his great-grandfon Louis, then
a minbr. _ ,5T
By the laft will of Louis he had devolved the re-Louis, XV.
gency, during the minority of the young king, upon
a council, at the head of which was the duke of Or-
leans. That nobleman, however, difgufted with a Admini-
difpofition which gave him only a calling vote, appeal- ^rat!on
ed to the parliament of Paris, who fet afide the will Orieal^
of the late king, and declared him foie regent. His
firft a6ts were extremely popular, and gave the moft
favourable ideas of his government and charaiker. He
reftored to the parliament the right which had been
taken from them- of remonftrating againft the ediits
of the crown, and compelled thofe who had enriched
themfelves during the calamities of the former reign
to reftore their wealth. He alfo took every method
to efface the calamities occafioned by the unfuccefsful
wars in which his predeceffor had engaged ; promoted
commerce and agriculture ; and, by' a clofe alliance with
Great Britain and the United Provinces, feemed to
lay the foundation of a lading tranquillity. This hap¬
py profpeft, however, was foon overcaft by the in¬
trigues of Alberoni the Spanifti minifter, who had
formed a defign of recovering Sardinia from the em-
eror, Sicily from the duke of Savoy, and of efta- '•
liftiing the Pretender on the throne of Britain. To
accomplifti thefe purpofes, he negociated with the Ot-
tomanPorte, Peter theGreat of Ruffia, andCharlesXII.
of Sweden ; the Turks intending to refume the war
againft the emperor ; the two latter to invade Great
Britain. But as long as the duke of Orleans retained
the adminiftration of France, he found it impoffible
to bring his fchemes to bear. To remove him, there¬
fore, he fomented divifions in the kingdom. An in-
furrebtion took place in Brittany ; and Alberoni fent
fmall parties in difguife into the country, in order to
fupport the infurgents, and even laid plots to feize the
regent himfelf. All of a fudden, however, the Spa-
nilh minifter found himfelf difappointed in every one
of his fchemes. His partifans in France were put to
death ; the king of Sweden was killed at Frederick-
fhall in Norway ; the Czar, intent on making new' re¬
gulations, could not be perfuaded to make war upon
Britain ; and the Turks refufed to engage in a war
with the emperor, from whom they had lately fuffer-
ed fo much. The cardinal, fieverthelefs, continued
his intrigues ; which quickly produced a war betwixt
Spain on the one part, and France and Britain on the
other. The Spaniards, unable to refill the union of
two fuch formidable powers, were foon reduced to the
neceffity of fmng for peace ; and the terms were dic¬
tated
F R A
F.arcc. tated by the regent of France :
v'" ' niifilon of Alberoni the Spanifh minifter was one. A
doable marriage was nqw fej on foot: the duke of
Orleans gave his own daughter, Mademoifelle Mont-
penfier, to Don Lewis prince of Afturias, while the
infanta of Spain was betrothed to her coufin the king
of France. From this time the houfe of Bourbon
continued united ; both princes being convinced, that
it was their intereft not to wade their ftrcngth in wars
againft each other.
Beftrurtive The fpirit of conqueft having now in a great meafure
project of fubfided, and that of commerce taken place through-
John Law. out the world in gene' al, France became the fcene of
433 ] V 11 A.
and of thefe the dif- birth of a prince foon after their marriage removed all
the fears of the people concerning the fucceffion.
Cardinal Fleury continued the pacific fchemes pur-
fued by his predeceffors; though they were fomewhat
interrupted by the war which took place in the year
1733. Notwithftanding the connexion betwixt that
monarch and the French nation, however, Fleury was
fo parfimonious in his affiftance, that only .1500 fol-
diers were fent to relieve Dantzic, where Staniflaus
himfelf refided, and who at that time was befieged by
the Ruffians. This pitiful reinforcement was foon
overwhelmed by a multitude oFRuffians ; and Stanifiaus
at laft obliged to renounce all thoughts of the
as remarkable a project in the commercial way as ever crown of Poland, though he was permitted to retain
s known in any country. One John Law, a Scotf-
man, having been obliged to fly from his own country
for murder, laid the plan of a company which might
by its notes pay off the debt of the nation, and reim-
burfe itfelf by the profits. Law had wandered through
various parts of Europe, and had fucceffively endea¬
voured to engrofs the attention of various courts. The
propofal was made to Viftor Amadeus king of Sicily ;
Vut he difmilTtd Law with a reply, that “ he was not
rich enough to ruin himfelfbut in France it was
looked upon in a more favourable light; the nation be¬
ing at this time involved in a debt of 200 millions,
and the regent, as well as the people in general, very
fond of embarking in new fchemes. The bank, thus
the title of king : and that this title might not be
merely nominal, the king of France confented to be¬
llow upon him the duchies of Bar and Lorrain ; fp
that, after the death of Staniflaus, thefe territories
were indiflblubly united to the dominions of France.
Fleury fteadily purfued his pacific plans, and the dif-
putes between Spain and England in 1737 very little
afledted the peace of that kingdom ; and it mull be
remembered to his praife, that inllead of fomenting
the quarrels betwixt the neighbouring potentates, he
laboured incefiantly to keep them at peace. He re¬
conciled the Genoefc and Corficans, who were at war ;
and his mediation was accepted by the Ottoman Porte,
who at that time carried on a fuccefsful war with the
cltablilhed, proceeded at firft with fome degree of emperor of Germany, but made peace with him at
The king
lakes the
caution ; but having by degrees extended their credit
to more than 86 times their real flock, they foon be¬
came unable to anfwer the demands made upon them ;
fo that the company was diflblved the very fame year
in which it had been inflituted’’. The confufion into
which the kingdom was thrown by this fatal fcheme,
required the utmoft exertions of the regent to put a
• flop to it; and fcarcely was this accomplilhed when
the king, in 1723, took the government into his owm
hands. The duke then became minifter; but did not
long enjoy this pod. His irregularities had broken
his coni’rilution, and brought on a number of ma¬
ladies, under which he in a fhort time funk, and
was fucceeded in his adminiftration by the duke of
Bourbon Conde. The king, as we have already
the interceffion of the cardinal. All his endeavours
to preferve the general peace, however, proved at lail
ineffedtual. The death of the emperor Charles VI. in
1740, the laft prince of the houfe of Auftria, fet ajl
Europe in a flame. The emperor’s eldeft daughter,
Maria Therefa, claimed tlie Auftrian fucceffion, which
comprehended the kingdoms of Hungary and Bohe¬
mia, the duchy of Silefia, Auftrian Suabia, Upper
and Lower Auftria, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola ; the
four foreft towns ; Burgaw ; Brifgaw ; the Low Coun¬
tries ; Friuli ; Tyrol; the duchy of Milan ; and the
duchies of Parma and Placentia. Among the many
competitors who pretended a right to lhare, or wholly
to inherit, thefe extenfive dominions, the king of
France was one. But as he wufiied not to awaken the
marked, had been married, when very young, to the jealoufy of the European princes by preferring direct-
infanta of Spain, though by reafon of his tender years
the marriage had never been completed. The prin-
cefs, however, had been brought to Paris, and for
ly his own pretentions, he chofe rather to fupport thofe
of Frederic III. who laid claim to the duchy of Sile
fia. This brought on the war of 1740 ; and of which
fome time treated as queen of France 5 but as Louis an account is given under the articles Britain and
i«f7 grew up, it was eafy to fee that he had contrafted an
The Infanta inveterate hatred againft the intended partner of his
lent b^ck ke<3- The minifter, therefore, at laft; confented that
the princefe (hould be fent back ; an affront fo much
refented by the quern her mother, that it had almoft
produced a war betwixt the two nations.
The diffoltitien of the marriage of Louis was the
laft aft of Conde’s adminiftration ; and the procuring
of a new’ match was the fiift a€l of his fucceffor Car¬
dinal Fleury. Tl>e princefs pitched upon was the
daughter of Staniflaus Lefczinflti, king of Poland,
7( g who had been depofed by Charles XII. of Sweden,
'vfarriape The prineefs was deftitute of perfonal charms, but of
yiyith the an amiable difpofition ; and though it is probable that
never poffeffed the love of her huiband, her excel-
kirg of Po- knt qualities could not but extert his efteem j and the
land. Vol. VII. Part II.
Prussia. It was terminated in 1748 by the treaty
of Aix-la-Chapelle ; -but to this Louis, who fecretiy
meditated a fevere vengeance againft Britain, only con¬
fented, that he might have time to recruit his fleet
and put himfelf fomewhat more upon an equality with
that formidable power. But while he meditated great
exploits of this kind, the internal tranquillity of the
kingdom was difturbed by violent diiputes betwixt the rrj}
clergy a,nd parliaments of France. In the reign ofDJfpute^bfc-
Louis. XIV. there had been violent con tells betwixt twixt the
the Janfeniils and Jefuits concerning free-wiiland other F-riiantents
obfeure points of theology; and the opinions of thtrx^ clergl«
Janfeniils had been declared heretical by the celebra¬
ted papal bull named Umgenitus ; the reception of which
was enforced by the king, in oppofition to the parlia¬
ments, the archbifliop of Paris, and the body of the
3 ^ people.
Parliament
of Paris ba-
Hilhed.
twixt the
hing and
parliamtnt.
■ ■ FRA [ 434 ] F- R A
people. The arclibifhop, with rj other prelates,protefted gulfhed themfelves by their oppofition to his will. He Franc*-
againft it as an infringement of the rights of the Gsllican commanded the bull Unigenitus to,be refpefted, and ~ ^ 1
.church, of the fttws of the realm, and an infult on the prohibited the fecular judges from ordering the admi-
rightS'of the people themfelyes. The duke of Orleans niftration of the facraments. On this 15 counfellors
favoured the bull by inducing the bifhpps to fubmit to of the great chamber refigned their offices, and 124.
it; but at the fame time Hopped a perfecution which was members of the different parliaments followed their
going on againft its opponents. Thus matters paffed example ; and the moft grievous difcontents took place
. over 'fpF the’ccpclufion. of the peace ; a fhort time af- throughout the kingdom. An attempt was made by
ter'winch the jealoufy of the clergy was awakened by a fanatic, named Damien, to affaffinate him ; and the
an attempt of the minider of ftate to inquire into the king was actually wounded, though flightly, between
wealth of individuals of their order. To prevent this, the ribs, in the prefence of his fon and in the midil
they revived the cpnteft about the bull Unigenitus ; of his guard's. The affaffin was put to the mod ex-
2ncHt ,yvas refolved, that confeffional notes ihould be quifite,tortures; in the midft of which he perfitted,
obtained of dying perfons ; that thefe notes fhould be in the moft obftinate manner, to declare that he had
figned by priefts who maintained the authority of the no intention to kill the king ; but that his delign was
bull; and that, without fuch notes, no perfon could only to wound him, that God might touch his heart,
obtain a viaticum, or extreme undlion. On this oc- and incline him to reftore peace to his dominions, Sec,
,cafton the new archbifhop of Paris, and the parliament Thefe expreffions, which undoubtedly indicated infa-
of that city, took oppoftte fides; the latter imprifon- nity, had--no effedt on his mercilefs judges, who con¬
ing fuch of the clergy as refufed to adminifter the fa- figned him to one of the moft horrid deaths the inge-
craments excepting in the circumftances above men- nuity or cruelty of man could invent. This attempt,
tioned. Other parliaments followed the example of however, feems to have had feme effedt upon the king,
that of Paris ; and a war was inftantly .kindled be- as he foon after banifhed the archbiftiop of Paris, who
twixt the civil and ecclefiaftical departments of the had been recalled, and accommodated matters with his
ftate. In this difpute the king interfered, forbad the parliament once more.
parliaments to take cognizance of ecclefiaftical pro- The unfortunate event of the war of 1755 bad Fan ily
ceedings, and commanded them to fufpend all profs- brought the nation to the brink of ruin, when Louis compruft
cutions relative to the refufal of the facraments : but implored the affiftance of Spain ; and on this occafion p®'we^na
inftead of acquiefcing, the parliament prefented new the celebrated Family CompaQ was figned ; by which, Sp“.^ee|^"_
remonftrances, refufed to attend any ether bufinefs, with the Angle exception of the American trade, the blifhed.
and refolved that they could not obey this injun&ion fubje&s of France and Spain are naturalized in both
without violating their duty as well as their oath. They kingdoms, and the enemy of the one fovereign is in¬
cited the bilhop of Orleans before their tribunal, and variably to be looked upon as the enemy of the other,
ordered all writings, in which its jurifdiftion was dif- At that time, however, the affiftance of Spyu'n avail-
puted, to be burnt by the executioner. By the af- ed very little ; both powers were reduced to the low-
fiftance of the military, they enforced the adminiftra- eft ebb, and the arms of Britain were triumphant in
tion of the facraments to the fick, and ceafed to dif- every quarter of the globe. See the article Britain.
tribute that juftice to the fubjeft for which they had The peace concluded at Paris in the year 1765,
been originally inftituted. The king, enraged at their though it freed the nation from a moft deftru&ive and
obftinacy, arrefted and imprifoned four of the mem- bloody war, did not reftore its internal tranquillity,
hers who had been moft obftinate, and baniftied the The parliament, eager to purfue the vidtory they had ,5,
remainderto Bourges, Poiftiers, and Auvergne; while, formerly gained over their religious enemies, now di-Expulfionof
to prevent any impediment from taking place in the refled their efforts againft the Jefuits, who had obtain-the Jeiuits.
adminiftration of juftice by their abfence, he iffued let- ed and enforced the bull Unigenitus. That once
ters patent, by which a royal chamber for the profecu- powerful order, however, was now on the brink of de-
tion of civil and criminal fuits was inftituted. The ftruflion. A general deteftation of its members had
counfellors refufed to plead before thefe new courts ; taken place throughout the whole world. A confpi-
and the king, finding at laft that the whole nation was racy formed by them againft the king of Portugal,
about to fall,into a ftate of anarchy, thought proper and from which he narrowly efcaped, had roufed the
to recall the parliament. The banifhed members en- indignation of Europe, and this was ftiil farther in-
teredParis amidft the acclamations of the inhabitants ; flamed by feme fraudulent praflices of which they had
and the archbifhop, who ftiil continued to encourage been guilty in France. Le Valette, the chief of their
the priefts in refilling the facraments, was banifhed to miffionaries at Martinico, had, ever fince the peace of
his feat at Conflans ; the bifhops of Orleans and Troyes Aix-la Cbapelle, carried on a very extenfive commerce,
were in like manner banifhed, and a calm for the pre- infomuch that he even afpired at monopolizing the
Lent reftored to the kingdom. whole Weft India trade when the war with Britian com-
The tranquillity thus eftabliihed was of no long du- menced in 1755. Leonay and Gouffre, merchants at
ration. In the year 1756, the parliament again fell Marfeilles, in expeftation of receiving merchandize to
under the difpleafure of the king by their imprudent the value of tvVo millions from him, had accepted of
perfecution of thofe who adhered to the bull Unige- bills drawn by the Jefuits to the amount of a million
nitus. They proceeded fo far in this oppofition as to and an half. Unhappily they were difappointed by
refufe to regifter certain taxes abfolutely neceffary for the vaft number of captures made by the Britifh;, in
the carrying on of the war. By this Louis was fo confequence of which they were obliged to apply to
provoked; that he fuppreffed the fouith and fifth cham- the Society of Jefuits at large : but they, either igno-
teers of inquefts, the members of which had diflin- rant of their true intereft, or too flow in giving affift-
6 anqe.
FRA L 435 1 FRA
France, ance, fuffered the merchants to flop payment; and thus
not only to bring ruin upon themfelves, but to in¬
volve, as is ufual in fuch cafes, a great many others
in the fame calamity. Their creditors demanded in¬
demnification from the fociety at large ; and on their
refufal to fatisfy them, brought their caufe before the
parliament of Paris. That body, eager to revenge
themfelves on fuch powerful adverfaries, carried on the
moll violent perfecutions every where againft them.
In the courfe of thefe, the volume containing the con-
llitution and government of the order itfelf was ap¬
pealed to, and produced in open court. It then ap¬
peared, that the order of Jefuits formed a diftind body
in the Hate, fubmitting implicitly to their chief, who
alone was abfolute over their lives and fortunes. It
was likevvife difcovered that they had, ^fter a former
expulfion, been admitted into the kingdom upon con¬
ditions which they had never fulfilled ; and to which
their chief had obftinately refufed to fubfcribe ; con-
fequeotly that their exigence at that time in the na¬
tion was merely the effedt of toleration. The event
was, that the writings of the Jefuits were pronounced
to contain dodlrines fubvcrfive of all civil government,
and injurious to the fecurity of the facred perfons of
fovereigns; the attempt of Damien againft the king
was attributed to them, and every thing feemed to prog-
nofticate their fpeedy diflblution. In this critical mo¬
ment, however, the king interfered, and by his royal
mandate fufpended all proceedings againft them for a
year; a plan of accommodation was drawn up, and
lubmitted to the pope and general of the order : but
the latter, by his ill-timed haughtinefs, entirely over¬
threw' the hope of reconciliation. The king withdrew
his protedion, and the parliament redoubled their ef¬
forts agaiiift them. The hulls, briefs, conftitutions,
and other regulations of the Society, were determined
to he encroachments on authority, and abufes of go¬
vernment ; the Society itfelf was finally diflblved, and
its members declared incapable of holding any clerical
or municipal offices ; their colleges w'ere feized ; their
164 effects confitcated ; and the order annihilated ever fmce.
Contend- The parliament, having gained this vidory, next
^,s ^5tw,xt made an attempt to fet bounds to the power of the
and hb par himfelf. They now refufed to regifter an edid
liaments. which Louis had iffued for the continuance of fome
taxes which flrould have ended with the war, and like-
wife to conform to another by which the king was en¬
abled to redeem bis debts at an inadequate price. The
cotuy attempted to get the edids regiftered by force,
but the parliaments every where feemed inclined to re¬
fill to the lall. In 1766, the parliament of Brittany
refufed the crowm a gift of 700,000 livres ; in confe-
quence cf which they were fingled out to bear the
v eight of royal vengeance : but while matters were on
the point of coming to extremities, the king thought
proper to drop the procefs altogether, and to publifh a
gential amnefty. 'ihe parliaments, however, now af-
ftded to defpife the royal clemency ; which exafperated
the king to fuch a degree, that he ordered the counfel-
lors of the parliament of Brittany (who had refilled
to refume the fundions of which he deprived them)
. to be included in the liu of thefe who were to be
drafted for militia ; and tbofe upon whom the lot fell
jrtre immediately obliged to join their refpedive regi¬
ments ; the reft being employed in forming the city- France,
guard. The parliament of Paris remonftrated fo free-
ly upon this condud of the king, that they alfo fell
under his cenfure ; and Louis in the moft explicit
manner declared, that he would fuffer no earthly power
to interfere with his will ; and the parliaments were
for the prefent intimidated into fubmiffion.
The interval of domeftic tranquillity which now took
place, was employed by the king in humbling the pride
of the pope, who refufed to recal a brief he had pub-
lilhed againll the duke of Parma. On this the French
monarch reclaimed the territories of Avignon and Ve^
naiffin ; and while the pontiff denounced his unavailing
cenfureS againft him, the marquis de Rochecouart, with
a Angle regiment of foldiers, drove out the troops of
the pope, and took poffeffion of the territories in quef-
tion. _ _ l6f
A more formidable oppofition was made by the na- Ifland of
lives of the. fmali ifland of Corfica ; the fovereignty of Cor!'Ica !S-
which had been transferred to France by the Genoefeduce<1*
its former mailers, on condition that Louis ffiould re-
inftate them in the poffeffion of the illand of Capraia,
which theCorficans had lately reduced. Thefe iflanders
defended themfelves with the molt defperate intrepidi¬
ty ; and it was not till after two campaigns, in which
feveral thonfands of the braveft troops of France were
loft, that they could be brought under fubjd&ion. ^
The fatisfa&ion which this unimportant conquell
might afford to Louis, w'as clouded by the diltrefs of (late of the
the nation at large. The Fall India Company had to-nation,
tally failed, and moft of the capital commercial houfes
in the kingdom were involved in the fame calamity.
The minifter, the due de Choifeuil, by one defperate
ftroke, reduced the intereft of the funds to one half,
and at the fame time took away the benefit of the fur-
vivorffiip in the tontines, by which the national credit
was greatly affe&ed ; the altercation betwixt the king
and his parliaments revived, and the diffenfions became
worfe than ever. The due de Choifeuil attempted in
vain to conciliate the differences ; his efforts tend¬
ed only to bring misfortunes upon himfelf, and in 1771
he was banilhed by the king, who fufpedled him of fa¬
vouring the popular party too much ; and this was foon
after followed by the banifliment of the whole parlia¬
ment of Paris, and that by the banilhment of a num¬
ber of others; new parliaments being every where cho-
fen in place of thofe who had been expelled. The
people were by no means difpofed to pay the fame re¬
gard to thefe new parliaments that they had done to
the old ones; but every appearance of oppofition was
at laft filenced by the abfolute authority of the king.
In the midft of this plenitude of power, however, which
he had fo ardently defired, his health daily declined,
and the period of his days was evidently at no great
diftance. As he had all along indulged himfelf in fen-
fual pleafures to the greateft excefs, fo now they pro¬
ved the immediate means of his deftru£lion. His fa¬
vourite miftrefs, Madame de Pompadour, who for a
long time governed him with an abfolute fway, had
long fince been dead, and the king had for fome time
been equally enflaved by the charms of Madame du
Barre. At laft even her beauty proved infufficient to
excite defire ; and a fucceffion of miftreffes became ne-
ceffary to roufe the languid appetites of the king. One
3 I J of
FRA
- r 436 ]
FRA
France, of thefe, who was infe&ed with ths fmall-pox, commit-
nicated the difeafe to the king ; who in a (hort time
,, l,67 died of it, notwithftandinff all the afliftance that Could
Louis XV. t* given him by the phyficians.
!63 The nev/ king Louis XVI. grandfon to the former,
Reign of afcended the throne in the year 1774, in the 20th year
Louis XVI. 0£ jds age ; and to fecure hirnfelf againd the difeafe
which had proved fatal to his predeceffor, fubmitted
to inoculation, with feveral others of the royal family.
Their quick and eafy recovery contributed much to
extend that pra&ice throughout the kingdom, and to
remove the prejudices which had been entertained a-
gainft it.
The king liad no fooner regained his health, than he
applied himfelf diligently to extinguifh the differences
which had taken place betwixt his predeceffor and
the people. He removed thofe from their employ¬
ments who had given caufe of complaint by their
arbitrary and oppreffive conduft; and he conciliated
the affe&ion of his fubje&s by removing the new parlia¬
ments and recalling the old ones.
But though the prudence of Louis had fuggefted
to him thefe compliances, he endeavoured Hill to pre-
ferve pure and entire the royal authority. He explain¬
ed his intentions by a fpeech in the great chamber
of parliament. “ The flep that he had taken to en-
fure the tranquillity and happinefs of his fubjedts, ought
not (he obferved) to invalidate his own authority ; and
he hoped, from the zeal and attachment of the prefent
alfembly, an example of fubmiffion to the reft of his
fubjeds. Their repeated reliftance to the commands
of his grandfather had compelled that monarch to
maintain his prerogative by their banifhment; and they
were now recalled, in the expectation that they would
quietly exercife their fun&ions, and difplay their gra¬
titude by their obedience.” He concluded with de¬
claring, “ That it was his defire to bury in oblivion all
paft grievances ; that he fhould ever behold with ex¬
treme difapprobation whatever might tend to create
divifions and difturb the general tranquillity ; and that
his chancellor wrnuld read his ordinance to the affem-
bly, from which they might be affured he would not
fuffer the fmalleft deviation to be made.” That ordi¬
nance was conceived in the moil explicit terms, and
was immediately regiftered by the king’s command.
The articles of it limited within very narrow bounds
the pretenfions of the parliament of Paris : The mem¬
bers were forbidden to look upon themfelves as one
body with the other parliaments of the kingdom, or
to take imy ftep, or affume any title, that might tend
towards, or imply, fuch an union : They were enjoin¬
ed never to relinquifh the adminiftration of public juf-
tice, except in cafes of abfolute neceffity, for which
the firft prefident was to be refponfible to the king;
and it was added, that on their difobedience the Grand
Council might replace the parliament, without any
new editt for the purpofe. They were ftill however
permitted to enjoy the right of remonftratrng before
the regiftering of any edi&s or letters patent which
they might conceive injurious to the welfare of the
people, provided they preferved in their reprefentations
the refpedl due to the throne. But thefe remonftrances
were not to be repeated ; and the parliament, if they
proved inefFe6lual,^were to regifter the edict objefted
to within a month at fartheft from the firft day of its
being published . They were forbidden to ifTue any atf France.
rets which might excite trouble, or in anv manner re- 1 5
tard the execution of the king’s ordinances; and they
were affured by the king himfelf, at the conclniion of
this code for their future condudt, that as long as they
adhered to the bounds preferibed, they might depend
upon his countenance and proteftion. In ihort, the
terms on which Louis confented to re-eftablilh the par¬
liaments were fuch, that they were reduced to mere
cyphers, and the word of the king ftill continued to be
the only law in the kingdom. The archbifhop of Pa¬
ris, who had likewife prefumed to raife fome commo¬
tions with regard to the bull Unigenitus, was obliged
tofubmit; and feverely threftened if he Should after¬
wards interfere in fuch a caufe.
The final conqueft of the Corficans, who, provoked
by the oppreffien of their- governors, had once more
attempted to regain their former liberty, was the firft
event of importance which took place after this refto-
ration of tranquillity: but the kingdom was yet filled
with disorder from other caufes. A fcarcity of corn 1775.
happening to take place juft at the time that fome
regulations had been made by M. Turgot the new fi¬
nancier, the populace rofe in great bodies, and com¬
mitted fuch outrages, that a military force became ab-
folutely neceffary to quell them ; and it was not till
upwards of 500 of thefe miferable wretches were de-
flroyed that they could be reduced. The kino-, how¬
ever, by his prudent and vigorous cGriducl on this oc-
cafion, foon put a Hop to all riots, and eminently dif-
played his clemency as well as prudence in the me¬
thods he took for the reftoration of the public tran¬
quillity.
The humanity of Louis was next ftiown in an Humane
edidt which he caufcd to be regifteted in parliament, edidt in fa-
fentencing the defert’ers from his army in future to vour of de"
work as (laves on the public roads, inftead of punilhing iertei*‘
them as formerly with death; and with equal attention
to the general welfare of his fubjefts, he leized the mo¬
ment of peace to fulfil thofe promifes of economy which
on his accefllon he had given to his people. Various Su
regulations took place in confequence; particularly the 0f'!he Mu£-
fupprdlion of the Mufquetaires and fome other corps, quetaires.
which being adapted more to the parade of guarding
the royal perfon than any real militaryvfervice, were
fupported at a great expence, without any adequate re¬
turn of benefit to the ftate.
Particular attention was alfo paid to tire ftate of the
marine; and the appointment of M. de Sartine in
1776 to that department did honour to the penetra¬
tion of the fovereign. That minifter, fruitful in re-
fources, and unwearied in his application, was incef-
fantly engaged in augmenting the naval ftrength of
his country; and the various preparations that filled
the ports and docks created no fmajl uneafinefs to the
Britilh court.
The next appointment made by the king was equal- Appc nt-.
ly happy, and in one refpeft fingular and unpre-ment M*
cedented. M. Turgot, though pofleffed of integrity
and induftry, had not been able to command the pub- 0f ti*e
lie confidence. On his retreat, M. Clugny, intendant- finui.ee;.
general of Bourdeaux, had been elevated to the vacant
poll: but he dying in a very fhort fpace, M. Taboureau
des Reaux was appointed his fucceffor ; and the king
foon after affociated with him in the management of
the
FRA [ 437 ] *' R A
Franc, the finances M, Necker, by birth a Swifs, and by re-
——ligion a Proteihnt. That gentleman, in the prece¬
ding reign, had been chofen to adjuft fome differences
between the Eaft India company and the crown; and
had difeharged his truft in a manner which gained
the approbation of both parties. Poffeffed of diftin-
guifhed abilities, his appointment would have excited no
furprife, had it not been contrary to the conftant po¬
licy of France, which had carefully excluded the aliens
of her country and faith from the control of her re¬
venue. It now flood forward as a new inflance of en¬
largement of mind and liberality of fentiment; and
■will to pofterity mark the prominent- features of the
reign of Louis XVI.
Although the French monarch was of a pacific dif-
pofition, and not deilitute of generofity of fentiment;
yet his own and the public exultation had been openly
and conflantly proportioned to the fucCefs of the Ame-
The French ricans in their conteft with Britain: the princes of the
privately blood and the chief nobility were eager to embark in
aihft the A- £Upp0rt 0f the caufe of freedom ; and the prudence of
thdreonteft k’"ng and his mofl confidential miniftera alone re-
vmh Bri- ft rained their ardour. The fatal events of the former war
tain; were ftill impreffed on the mind of Louis; and he could
not readily confent to expofe his infant marine in a con-
tefl with a nation who had fo frequently afferted the
dominion of the feas, and fo lately broken the United
flrength of the houfe of Bourbon. ^Atthe fame time,
,he was fenfible that the opportunity of humbling thofe
haughty ifianders fhould not be entirely negledted, and
that fome advantages fhould be taken of the prefent
commotions in America. Two agents from the Uni¬
ted States, Silas Deane and Dr Benjamin Franklin,
had fucceffively arrived at Paris; and though all audi¬
ence was denied them in a public capacity, ftill they
were privately encouraged to hope that France only
waited the proper opportunity to vindicate in arms
the independence of America. In the mean while,
•the American cruizers were hofpitably received into
the French ports ; artillery and all kinds of warlike
ftores were freely fold or. liberally granted to the
diitrefs of the colonifts; and French officers and en¬
gineers, with the connivance of government, entered
into their fervice.
Some changes were about this time introduced into
the different departments of flate. The condudl of M.
! Necker in the finances had been attended with univer-
fal approbation ; and M. Taboureau des Reaux, his col¬
league, had refigned his fituation, but flill retained the
dignity of counfellor of ftate. To afford full fcope to
the genius of M. Necker, Louis determined no longer,
to clog him with an affociate ; but, with the title of
Dire&or-general of the Finances, fubmitted to him the
entire management.of the funds and revenue of France.
In the enfuing year, the count de St Germains, fecre-
tary at war, died ; and the prince de Montbare.y, who
had already filled an inferior fituation in that depart:
ment, was now appointed tofucceed him.
In the mean time, Louis’s negociations with foreign
courts were not neglefted. He concluded a new trea¬
ty of alliance with Switzerland ; . vigilantly obferved
the motions of the different princes of Germany on the
death of the elector of Bavaria ; and when elofely
queftioned by the Englifh ambaffador Lord Stormont,
refpedting the various warlike preparations which were
diligently continued through the kingdom, lie replied, France.
That at a time when the feas were covered with Englifh ——^
fleets and American cruizers, and when fuch armies
were fent to the New World as had never before ap¬
peared there, it became prudent for him alfo to arm
for the fecurity of the colonies and the protedlion of
the commerce of France. The king was not ignorant
at the fame time, that the remonflrances of Great Bri¬
tain, and the importunities of the agents of the United
States, would foon compel him to adopt fome decifive
line of conduct. This was haflened by a new event
difaftrous to Britain ; the failure of general Burgoyne’s
expedition, and the capture of his army. The news 173
of that event was received at Paris with unbounded And at laft
exultation. M. Sartine, the marine fuperintendant,,c*
was eager to meafure the naval flrength of France th^inde-^
with that of Great Britain ; the queen, who had longpendence
feconded the applications of the American agents, °f d16 Un‘*
now efpoufed their caufe with frefh ardour; andtei*StateSv'
the pacific inclinations of Louis being overborne by
the fuggellions of his minifters and the influence of
his queen, it was at length determined openly to ac¬
knowledge the independence of the United States.
Dr Franklin and Silas Deane, who had hitherto
afled as private agents, were now acknowledged as
public ambaffadors from .thofe ftates to the court of
Verfailles ; and a treaty of amity and commerce was
figned between the two powers in the month of Febru¬
ary 1778. The duke of Noailles, ambaflador to the
court of London, was in the month of March in-
ftrudted to acquaint that court with the above treaty.
At the fame time he declared, that the contra&ing
parties had paid great attention not to llipulate any
txelulive advantages in favour of France, and that the
United States had referved the liberty of treating with,
every nation whatever on the fame footing of equality
and reciprocity. But this ftipulation was treated by
the Britifh with contempt; and the recal of Lord
Stormont, their ambalfador at Verfailles, was the fig-
nal for the commencement of hoftilities.—The events
produced by this war are related under the articles
America, Britain, and Indostan. Here our
chief bufinefs is with domeftic tranfadlions, the mea-
fures of the cabinet, and the internal economy of the
ftate.
In the year 1780. new changes in the French mi-
niftry took place. M Bertin had refigned the office
of fecretary of ftate ; the prince de Montbarey haft
retired from the poll of fecretary at war, and was fuc-
ceeded by the marquis de Segur. But the moll im-^
portant removal was that of M. Sartine, who had for vi.^Tsar-
feveral years prefided over the marine department, and tine,
wlrofe unwearied application and ability had raifed the
naval power of France to a height that aftonilhed Eu¬
rope : but bis colleagues in the cabinet loudly accufed
a profufion, which would have diverted into one chan¬
nel the whole refources of the kingdom; and his re¬
treat opened a road to the ambition of the marquis de
Caftries, who was appointed to fupply his place.
This year, the king fixed on the anniverfary of his
birth-day to render it memorable by a new inftance of
humanity ; and he abolifhed for ever the inhuman cuf-
tom of putting the quejiion, as it was called, by torture;.
a cuftom which had been fo eftabliflred by the practice
of ages,. thaU it Lcmcd to be an infeparable part of
the-
FRA [ 438 ] FRA
Franc:, the conflitution of the courts of juftice in France. At
* the fame time, tp defray the charges cf war, he con¬
tinued to diminiih his own expenditure; and facrificing
his magnificence to the eafe of his fubjefts, difmiffed
j75 lit once above 400 officers belonging to his court.
DUmiffion Unhappily, however, the populai difcontents were
of M. Ntc- exc;ted next year by the difmifiion of their favourite
minifter M. Necker. He had conceived the arduous
but popular projett of fupporting a war by loans with¬
out taxes; and the rigid economy which he had intro¬
duced into all the departments of the royal houfehold,
and the various refources that prefented themfekes tohis
fertile genius, had fupported him amidit the difficulties
that attended this fyftem. But his aufterity of temper
had not rendered him equally acceptable to the fovereign
and his fubjefts; and the repeated reforms he had re¬
commended were reprefented as inconfiftent with the
dignity of the crown ! he was therefore in 1781 dif-
rniffed from his office of ^comptroller-general; and M.
Joli de Fleuri, counfellor of ilate, was appointed to
that important department. The defeat of the count
de Graffe happened next year, and impreffed the king¬
dom with general ^rief and confternation. Immenfe
preparations were, however, made for the operations
of 1783; and in conjundtion with the courts of Madrid
and the Hague, Louis w'as determined this year to
make the moft powerful efforts to bring the war to a
conclufion. But in the midll of thefe preparations,
176 the voice of peace was again heard; and Louis was
Feacc con- induced to liften to the proffered mediation of the
eluded. two fp-ft potentates in Europe, the emperor of Ger¬
many and the emprefs of Ruffia. The count de
Vergennes, who flill occupied the pofl of fecretary of
foreign affairs, was appointed to treat with Mr Fitz-
herbeit the Britiflr minifter at Bruffcls, but who had
lately proceeded to Paris to conduct this important
negoeiation. The way was already fmoothed for the
reftoration of the public tranquillity, by provisional ar¬
ticles figned at the conclufion of the laft year be¬
tween the States of America and Great Britain, and
w hich were to conftitute a treaty of peace finally to be
concluded when that between Fiance and Great Britain
took place. Preliminary ai tides were accordingly
agreed upon and figned at Verfailles : thefe were foou
after fucceeded by a definitive treaty ; and France,
throughout her extenfive dominions, beheld peace once
more eftablifhed. Though the late war had been at¬
tended by the moft brilliant fuccefs, and the independ¬
ence of America feemed to ftrike deep at the fource of
her rival’s power, yet France herfelf had not been entire¬
ly free from inconvenience. The retreat of M. Necker
had, as we have already obferved, diminiffied the pub¬
lic confidence; three different pevfons who had lince
tranfiently occupied his poft, increafed the jealoufies of
Of tk>7 the people; and the failure of the celebrated Caiffe
Cailte d’£f- d’Efcompte completed the univerfal confternation.
tempre. That bank had been eftablifhed in the year 1776.
The plan of it was formed by a company of private
adventurers, and its capital was fixed at L.500,600
Sterling. The profeffed defign of the Company was
to dilcount bills at fhort dates, at the rate of four per
cent, per annum: bpt as this intereft could never be an
equivalent for the capital funk by the proprietors, they
[were uitrufted with the additional power of iffuing
[notes to the amount of their capital, which, as they
were capable at any time of being converted into fpe- France,
cie, might be often voluntarily taken by their cuflom-l——y—J
ers from mere convenience. The reputation of the
bank foon caufed its flock' to fell above par ; and its
credit was ftill at the higheft, when to the aftonifhment
of the nation it fuddenly flopped payment on the 2d
of Oftober 1783. The caufe affigned was an uncom¬
mon fcarcity of fpecie But the public fufpedled that
the failure arofe from a loan fecretly made to go¬
vernment ; and what confirmed the fufpicion was, that
government about the fame time flopped payment of
the bills drawn upon them by their army in America.
Whatever was the caufe of this event, the king was
prevailed on to extend his prote&ion to the company.
By four fucceffive edidts the banks in Paris were
ordered to receive the notes of the Caifle d’Efcompte
as currency ; and a lottery with a flock of one million
Sterling, redeemable in eight years, being eftablifhed,
the tickets were made purchafable in notes of the Caiffe
d’Efcompte. By thefe expedients the public con¬
fidence in that bank was revived, its bufinefs in¬
creafed, and its flock rofe to above double the origi¬
nal fubfeription; the bills from America were at the
fame time put in a train of payment, and public cre¬
dit was rellored throughout the kingdom. Some
compenfation alfo for the expences that had been
incurred during the late war, was drawn from a treaty
with the United States of America. Thefe engaged
to reimburfe France in the fum vof 18 million of livres,
which had been advanced in the hour of their diftrefs ;
and Louis confented to receive the money, as more
convenient to the States, in the fpace of 12 years, by
1 2 equal and annual payments.
The general peace was foon after followed by a par¬
ticular treaty between France and Holland, which was 178
effected with great addrtfs by the Count de Vergennes. Treaty be¬
lt included all the principles which can ferve to ce- an<j
ment in the cloftfl union diftintft nations under diftindl Holland,
governments; and by which they may mutually parti¬
cipate, in peace or in war, of good or of evil; and in.
all cafes adminifter the moft perfedl aid, cqunfel, and
fuccour to each other. It alfo preferibed, if their
united good offices for the prefervation of peace fhould
prove ineffedtual, the affiftance they were to afford
each other by fea and land. France was to furnifh
Holland with 10,000 effedlive infantry, 2000 cavalry,
with 12 Chips of the line and 6 frigates. Their High
Mightineffes, on the other fide, in cafe of a marine
war, or that France fhould be attacked by fea, were to
contribute to her defence fix ffiips of the line and three
frigates ; and in cafe of an attack on the territory of
France, the States-general were to have the option of
furnifhing their land contingent either in money or
froops, at the eftimate of 5000 infantry and xooe ca¬
valry. Further, if the llipulated fuccours fhould be
infufficient for the defence of the party attacked, or
for procuring a proper peace, they engaged to affift
each other with all their forces, if neceffary ; it being
however agreed that the contingent oftroopstobe fur-
nifhed by the States general fhould not exceed 20,000
infantry and 4000 cavalry. It was further added,
that neither of the contradling powers fhould difarm,
of make or receive propofals of peace or truce, with- *
out the confent of the other: they promifed alfo not
to contrail any future alliance or engagement what-
France.
FRA [ 4,59 ] FRA
querce
from her
ever, direiHy or indirectly, contrary to the prcfent
treaty ; and on any treaties or negociations being pro-
pofed which might prove detrimental to their joint in-
tereft, they pledged their faith to give notice to each
other of fuch propofals as foon as made.
Thus was Holland now cenveited into the firm ally
of that power againft whofe encroaching fpirit fhe had
formerly armed the moft powerful kingdoms of Eu¬
rope; while France having afierted the independence
of America againft Great Britain, afid having con¬
verted an ancient and formidable foe into an ufeful
friend, feemed to have attained an Influence over the
nations of the earth that ihe had never before been
pofiefled' of.
But however exalted her prefent fituation might ap¬
pear, the feeds of future commotion were already ap¬
parent to an attentive obferver. The applaufe that
had attended the parliament of Paris in their ftruggles
with the late king might be confidefed as the firft dawn
of freedom ; the language of that aflembly .had boldly
inculcated to their countrymen their natural rights,
and taught them to look with alefs enraptured eye on
the luftre that encompafled the throne. The war in
America had contributed to enlarge the political ideas
of the French : they had on that occafion flood forth
as the champions of liberty, in oppoiition , to regal
terfere^ce”' power; and the officers, who had a died on that confpi-
between cuous theatre, aceuftomed to think and fpeak without
Britain and reftraint, on their return imparted to the provinces of
fer colonies. France the flame of freedom which had been kindled in
the wilds of America. From that moment the French,
inftead of filently acquiefcing under the edidts of their
fovereign, canvafled each adtion with bold and rigid im¬
partiality; while the attachment of the army, wdrich
has ever been confidered as the foie foundation of de-
fpotifm, gave way to the noble enthufiafm of liberty.
We have already noticed the public diflatisfadtion
that had attended the difmiffion of M. Necker; his tran-
fient fucceffor, M. de Fleury, had retired from the
management of the finances in 1783, and the more
traniient adminiftration of M. d’Ormeflbn had expired
in the fame year that gave it birth. On his retreat,
M. de Calonne, who had fucceffively filled with acknow-
tne"? ^ f^ged reputation the office of intendant of Mentz, and
MVca- afterwards °f t^ie provinces of Flanders and Artois, was
lonne. nominated to the poll of comptroller-general. This
gentleman, flexible and infinuating, eloquent in con-
verfation and poliftied i;> his manners, fertile in refour-
ces and liberal in the difpofal of the public money,
foon rendered himfelf acceptable to the fovereign. But
he did not enter upon his new and arduous ftation fa¬
voured by the breath of popularity : he was reported
to be more able than confiftent, and not to have tem¬
pered the ardour of his fpirit by the feverity of deep
refearch; arid the people, amidft repeated loans, re¬
gretted that fevere fimplicity which had charafterifed
the adminiftration of M. Necktr.
It was the bold and judicious meafures of Calonne,
however, that reftored credit to the Caifle d’Efcompte,
which had flopped payment a few weeks before his ac-1
ceffion. His next meafure, in 1784, the eftablifhment
of the Caifle d’Amortiflement or finking fund, was in-
titled to a ftill higher degree of applaufe. The plan
©f that fund was fimple and moderate : It was to pay
annually by government, into the hands of a board fift
180
apart for that purpofe, the entire intereft of the na* France,
tional debts, whether in flock or annuities, together ——ir"—
with an additional fum of L. 1 20,000. The annuities
that would be extinguifhed every year were eftimated
at L. 50,000 ; and in that proportion, the fum fet a-
part for the redemption, of the national debt would an¬
nually increafe. The operation of this new fund was
limited to the term of 25 years; and during that term
the annual receipt of the Caifle d’Amortiflement is de¬
clared unalterable, and incapable of being diverted to
any other objedf.
The principal mcafure of the next year was the efta-
bliflrment of a new Eaft India Company, the conftitu-
tions of which have been already detailed in a preceding
volume of this work, under the article Company ; fee
Vol. V. p. 247, 248 : A meafure'not equally commend¬
able with the preceding, and which did not fail to excite
violent complaints. The time, however, was now
approaching, when the neceffities of the ftate would
compel him to meafures ftill more unpopular, and de-
ftined tp undergo a feverer ferutiny. Although peace
had been re-eflabliihed throughout Europe for three
years, yet the finances of France feemed fcarce affedted
by this interval of tranquillity, and it was found requi-
fite to clofe every year with a loan. The public ex¬
penditure of 1785 might probably feem to fandb’on this
meafure. It had been thought proper to fortify
Cherbourg upon a large and magnificent fcale ; the
claim of the emperor to the navigation of the Scheldt,
had obliged the French to increafe their land forces,
either to form a refpedtable neutrality, or to affift ef¬
fectually their Dutch, allies; and the marquis de Ca-
ftries, fond of war and profufe in his defigns, had not
fuffered the navy, which M. Sartine had furrendered
into his hands, to decline during the interval of peace.
The treaty of commerce concluded in‘the year 1786
with Great Britain was a new fource of difeontent.
Though regarded by the Englilh manufacturers as far
fiom advantageous, it excited in France flill louder
murmurs. It was reprefented as likely to extinguifli
thofe infant eftablifhments, which were yet unable to
vie with the manufa£lures of England that had attain¬
ed to maturity ; and the market that it held out for
the wines and oils of France was palled over in filence,
while the diftrefs of the artifan was painted in the moft
ftriking colours. But when the edi£t for regiftering
the loan at the conclufion of the laft year, and which
amounted to the fum of three million^ three hundred
and thirty thoufand pounds, was prelfnted to the par¬
liament of Paris, the murmurs of the people, through,
the remonftrances of that aflembly, alfumed a more le¬
gal and formidable afpe£t. The king however figni-
fied to the feleA deputation that were commiflioned
to convey to him their remonftrances, that he ex¬
pedited to be obeyed without farther delay. The ce¬
remony of the regiftering accordingly took place on.
the next day; but it was accompanied with a refolu-
tion, importing, “ that public economy was the only
genuine fource of abundant revenue, the only means
of providing for the necelfities of the ftate, and resto¬
ring that credit which bomnving had reduced to the
brink of ruin.”
The king w’as no foorier informed of this fte*', than
he commanded the attendance of the grand deputa¬
tion of parliament; when he erafed from their records
the
F R A
f 44° ]
FRA
' the refolution that had been adopted ; and obferved,
“ that though it was his pleafure that the parliament
fhould communicate, by its refpedtful reprefentations,
whatever might concern the good of the public, yet
he never would allow them fo far to abufe his clemency
as to eredt themfelves into the cenfors of his govern¬
ment. At the fame time, more ftrongly to mark his
difpleafure at their expoilulations, he fuperfeded one
of their officers, who had appeared moft adtive in for¬
warding the obnoxious refolution.
M. de Calonne, however, though gratified by the
approbation of his fovereign, could not but feel him-
felf deeply mortified by .the oppofition of the par¬
liament. His atempts to conciliate that afiembly had
proved ineffedfual ; and he experienced their inflexible
averfion at the critical jimdlure when their acquiefcence
might have proved of the moft eflential fervice. An
anxious inquiry into the ftate of the public finances
had convinced him that the expenditure by far exceed¬
ed the revenue. In this fituation, to impofe new taxes
was impradticable ; to continue the method of borrow¬
ing was ruinous; to have recourfe only to economical
reforms, would be found wholly inadequate ; and he he-
fitated not to declare, that it would be impoffible to
place the finances on 'a folid bafis, but by the reforma¬
tion of whatever was vicious in the conftitution of the
ftate.
To give.weight to this reform, M. de Calonne was
fenfible that fomething more was necefiary than the
royal authority ; he perceived that the parliament was
neither a fit inftrurnent for introducing a new order
into public affairs, nor would fubmit to be a paffive
machine for fan&ioning the plans of a minifter, even
if thofe plans were the emanations of perfeft wifdom.
ber of perfons from all parts of the kingdom, chiefly
felefted from the higher orders of the ftate, and no- -
minated by the king himfelf. This afiembly had been
convened by Henry IV. again by Louis XIII. and
was now once more fummoned by the aothority of the
prefent monarch.
The writs for calling tht m together were dated on
the 29th of December 1786 ; and they were addreffed
to feven princes of the blood, nine dukes and peers of
France, eight field-marefchals, twenty-two nobles, eight
counfellors of ftate, four mafters of requefts, eleven
archbifhops and bifnops, thirty-feven of the heads of
the law, twelve deputies of the pay d’etals, the lieute¬
nant civil, and twenty-five magiftrates of the different
towns of the kingdom. The number of members was
144 ; and the 29th of January 1787 was the period ap¬
pointed for their meeting.
Upon the arrival of the Notables at Paris, however,
the minifter found himfelf yet unprepared to fubmit
his fyftem to their infpeftion, and poftponed the
opening of the council to the 7th of February. A
fecond delay to the 14th of the fame month was oc-
cafioned by the indifpofition of M. de Calonne him¬
felf, and that of the count de Vergennes prefident of
the council of finance and firft fecretary of ftate ; and
a third procraftination was the neceffary refult of the
death of the count on the day previous to that fixed
for the opening of the meeting. He was fucceeded
in the department of foreign affairs by the count de
Montmorin, a nobleman of unblemilhed character.
But his lofs at this critical junfture was feverely felt
by M. de Calonne ; he alone, of all the minifters, ha¬
ving entered with warmth and lincerity into the plans
of the comptroller-general. The chevalier de Mira*
Though originally a body of lawyers, indebted for mefnil, keeper of the feals, was avowedly the rival and
their appointments to the king, there was not an at¬
tribute of genuine legiflative affembly but what they
feemed defirous to engrofs to themfelves ; and they had
enemy of that ftatefman. The marefchal de Caftries,
fecretary for the marine department, was perfonally at¬
tached to M. Necker ; and the baron de Breteuil, fe-
beeh fupported in their pretenfions by the plaudits of cretary for the houfehold, was the creature of the
Affembly
of the No¬
tables.
the people, who were fenfible that there was no other
body in the nation that could plead their caufe againft
royal or minifterial oppreffion. To fupprefs, there¬
fore, the only power of control that remained, and
to render the government more arbitrary, was deemed
too perilous a meafure : yet to leave thq parliament in
the full poffefiion of their influence, an influence that
the minifter was convinced would be exerted againft
him, was at once to render his whole fyftem abor¬
tive.
In this dilemma, the only expedient that fuggefted
itfelf was to have recourfe to fome other affembly, more
dignified and folemn in its chara&er, and which fliould
in a greater degree Confift of members from the vari¬
ous orders of the ftate and the different provinces of
the kingdom. This promifed to be a popular mea-
fure ; it implied a deference to the people at large,
and might be expected to prove highly acceptable.
But the true and legitimate affembly of the nation, the
ftates-general, had net met fince the year I'6l4 ; nor
could the minifter flatter himfelf with the hope of ob¬
taining the royal affent to a meeting which a defpotic
fovereign could npt but legard with fecret jealoufy*
Another affembly had occafionally been fubftituted in
the i-oom of the ftates-general: this was diftinguifhed
by the title of the Nctahks ; and confiRed of a num-
NJ 131.
queen, and deeply engaged in what was called the Au-
ftrian fyftem. . '
It was under thefe difficulties that M. de Calonne, Splendid
on the 22d of February, firft met the affembly of theprojeft cf
Notables, and opened his long expedled plan. He !VI- de
began by ftating, that the public expenditure had forlonne*
centuries paft exceeded the revenue, and that a very
confiderable deficiency had of courfe exifted ; that the
Mi'ffiffippi fcheme of 1720 h'.J by no means, as might
ha^e been eXpefted, reftored the balance ; and that
under the economical adminiltration of cardinal Fleury
the deficit ftill exifted ; that the progreft of this de¬
rangement under the laft reign had been extreme ; the
deficiency amounting to three millions fterling at the
appointment of the abbe Terray ; who, however, re¬
duced it to one million fix hundred and feventy-five
thoufand pounds; it decreafed a little under the fliort
adminiilrations that followed, but rofe again in con-
fcquence of the war, under the adminiftration of
M. Necker; and at his own acceffion to office, it was
three millions three hundred and thirty thoufand
pounds.-
In order to remedy this growing evil, M. Calonrie
recommended a territorial impoft, in the nature of the
England land-tax, from which no rank or order of
men were to be exempted; and an enquiry into the
4 pofftffionS
FRA [ 441 ] FRA
France, pofleffions of the clergy, which hitherto had been place on the x 2th of April, but foon after retired to France.
,v— facre'd from their proportion of the public England from the ftorm of perfecution. v——J
burdens: the various branches of internal taxation In the midfl. of thefe tranfa&ions at home, Louis’s l85
were alfo to undergo a ttri£t examination ; and a con- attention was alfo called to the dale of affairs in the re- wych
deferable refource was prefented in mortgaging the de- public of Holland, his new and clofe ally. The prince of de Calonna
mefne lands of the crown. Orange had been dripped of all authority by the arido-reiigns.
The very neceffity for thefe reforms was combated cratic party; and, retiring from the Hague, maintained
with a degree of boldnefs and force of reafoning that the fhadow of a court at Nimeguen. Elis brother-in-law, 186
could not fail of deeply impreffing the. affembly ; and however, the new king of Pruffia, exerted his endea-
indead of meeting with a ready acquiefcence, the vours to promote the intereds of the dadtholder ; andj^®din Hoi*
comptroller-general was now lanched into the bound- having offered, in concert with France, to undertake
lefs ocean cf political controverfy. M. Necker, pre- the arduous talk of compoling the differences which
vious to his retirement, had publifhed his Compte ren- diffradted the republic, the propofal was received with
du au Roi, in which France was reprefented as pof- apparent cordiality by the court of Verfailles. At the
fefiing a clear furplus of 425,000 pounds derling : fame time it could fcarce be expected that France would
183 this performance had been read with avidity, and pro- become the indrument of redoring the prince of Orange
©ppefed by babiy contributed to effrange from the author the royal to that (hare of power which he had before.occupied,and
andthe bi couutenance > ^ut t^ie of it was ably vindicated thus abandon one of the longed and mod favourite
fliop of hy M. de Brienne archbifhop of Thouloufe. objecls of her policy, the edablidting a fupreme and
Thouloufe; M. de Calonne met with a dill more formidable adver- permanent controul in the affairs of Holland. In fadf, ""
fary in the count de Mirabeau. Tljf? extraordinary man, the conditions which were framed by the Louvedein
redlefs in his difpofition,--licentious in his morals, but fadtion, as the bafis of reconciliation, were fuch as
bold, penetrating,and enterprifmg,had occafionally vilit- plainly indicated their defign to reduce the Influence
ed every court in Europe. He had been admitted at one and authority of the dadtholder within very narrow
time to the confidence of the minider ; and had been di- limits. On his renouncing his right of filling up the
redied, though in no odenfible charadfcer, to obferve occafional vacancies in the town fenates, he was to be
at Berlin the difpofition of the fuccefibr of the great redored to the nominal office of captain-general: but
Frederic : in this capacity he was frequently expofed he was to be redrained from marching the troops into
to negledf and difappointment; his letters were often or out of any province, without leave from the refpec-
lefr unanfwered ; difgud fucceeded to admiration ; and tive provinces concerned ; and he was alfo to fubferibe
he who had entered the Pruffian court the intimate to a refolution paffed fame time before by the fenate of
friend, returned to Paris the avowed enemy, of M. de Amderdam, that the command diould at all times be
Calonne : While the archbilhop arraigned the under- revocable at the pleafure of the dates. Had the prince
Handing, the count impeached the integrity, of the acquiefced in thefe preliminaries, France would have
comptroller-general. completely attained the objeft of her long negocia-
The eloquence of M. de Calonne, however, might have tions, and by means of the Louvedein faction have
fuccefsfully vindicated his fydem and reputation againff acquired the afcendency that die had repeatedly fought
the calculations of Brienne, and the inve&ives of Mi- in the councils of Holland. But under the difficulties
rabeau; but he could not fupport himfelf againd the that furrounded him, the prince of Orange was aS-
o inffuence of the three great bodies of the nation, mirably fupported and affiffed by the genius, the fpirit,
And by the The ancient nobility and the clergy had ever been and the abilities of his confort: die firmly reje&ed e-
principai free f:om all public aflefiments; and had the evil very meafure tending to abridge any'rights that had
nobility, gone no farther, it might have been ftill perhaps borne been attached to the office of ftadtholder ; and M. de
c^> anawith patience; but through the fhameful cuftom of Rayneval, the French negociator, having in vam en-
ftrates. felling patents of nobility, fuch crowds of new nobleffe deavoured to overcome her refolution, broke off the
ftarted up, that every province in the kingdom was correfpondence between the Hague and Nimeguen,
filled with them. The firft objedt with thofe who had and returned to Paris about the middle of January-
acquired fortunes rapidly, was to purchafe a patent; 17.87.
which, befides gratifying their vanity, afforded an ex- The events that enfuCd wall be found detailed under
emption to them and their pofterity from contributing a fubfequent article. It is only neceffary to obferve
proportionably to the exigencies of the ftate ; the ma- in this place, that the republican party were totally
giilracies likewife throughout the kingdom enjoyed difappointed in their hopes from France The court o,
their (hare of thefe exemptions; fo that the whole of Verfailles had indeed long trufted to the natural Attempt*
weight of the taxes fell on thofe who were leaft able ftrength of the republican party, and had been affiduous of the-
to bear them. during the whole fummer in endeavouring to fecond French to
The minifter’s defign, then, of equalizing the pub- them by every fpecies of fuccours that could be pri-<J*1t7jt the
lie burdens, and by rendering the taxes general di- vately afforded. Crowds of French officers arrived party,
minifhing the load borne by the lower and moft ufeful daily in Holland ; and either received commiffions in
claffes of people, though undoubtedly great and pa- the fervice of the ftates, or a&ed as volunteers in their
triotic, at once united againit him the nobility, the troops. Several hundreds of tried and experienced
clergy, and the migillracy ; and the event was fuch as foldiers were feledted from different regiments ; and
might be expefted : the intrigues of thofe three bodies being furnffhed with money for their journey, and af-
raifed againft him fo loud a clamour, that finding it furances of future favour, were difpatched in fmall
impoffible to ftem the torrent, he not only refigned his parties to join the troops, and help to difeipline the
Vol. VII. Part II. 3 K burghers
FRA [ 442 ] FRA
France, burghers and volunteers. A confiderable corps of en-
gineers were alfo dire&ed to proceed fdently and in
difguife towards Amilerdam, and to afil'.t in iirength-
ening the works of that city. Thefe aids, which might
have proved effeftual had the conteil been confined
to the ftates of Holland and the ftadtholder, were over¬
whelmed in the rapid invalion of the Prtifiians ; and
the court of Berlin had taken its meafures with fo
much celerity, and the fituation of the republicans was
already become fo defperate, that it was doubtful whe¬
ther their affairs could be rdlored by any aifittance that
France was capable of immediately adminiliering. Yet
on Great Britain fitting out a ftrong fquadron of men
of war at Portfmouth to give confidence to the opera¬
tions of the king of Prtiffia, the court of Verfailles
alfo fent orders to equip 16 fail of the dine at Breft,
and recalled a fmall fquadron which had been commif-
fioned on a fummer’s cruife on the coaft of Portugal.
But in thefe preparations Louis feemed rather to re¬
gard his own dignity, than to be adduated by any
hopes, of effedfually relieving his allies. All oppofition
in Holland might be already confidered as extinauifh-
ed. The ftates affemhle'd at the Hague had officially^
notified to the court of Verfailles, that the difputes
between them and the ftadtbolder were now happily
terminated.; and as the circumftances which gave oc-
cafion for their application to fhat court no longer
exifted, fo the fuccours which they had then requefted
would now be unneceffary.
Under thefe circumftances, France could only wifli
to extricate herfelf from -her prefent difficulty with
honour. She therefore readily liftened to a memorial
from the Britifh minifter at Paris; who propofed, in
order to preferve the good underftanding between the
two crowns, that all warlike preparations fhould be
difcontinued, and that the naveys of both kingdoms
fhould be again reduced to the footing of a peace
eftabliftiment. This was gladly acceded to by the court
of Verfailles ; and that harmony which had been tran-
fiently interrupted between the two nations was re-
188 ftored.
Domeftic Though the French king could not hut fen Ably feel
concerns of tbe mortification of thus relinquiftiing the afcendency
France. which he had attained in the councils of Holland, the
ftate of his own domeftic concerns and the internal fi-
tuation of his kingdom furniftied matter for more fe-
rious reflection. The difmifiion of M. de Calonne had
left France without a minifter, and almoft without a
fyftem ; and though the king bore the oppofition of
the Notables with admirable temper, yet the difap-
pointment that he had experienced funk deep into his
mind. Without obtaining any relief for his moft ur¬
gent necefiities, he perceived too late that he had
opened a path to the reftoration of the ancient confti-
tution of France, which had been undermined by the
crafty Louis XI. and had been nearly extinguifhed by
the daring and fanguinary counfels of Richlieu under
Louis XIII. The Notables had indeed demeaned
thenffelves with refpeft ‘and moderation, but at the
189 fame time they" had not been deficient in firmnefs.
Affembfr The appointment of the archbifttop of Thouloufe, the
tables dif" v'Sorous adverfaty of M. de Calonne, to the office of
Lived. comptroller-general, probably contributed to preferve
the appearance of good humour in that affembly ; yet
5
the propofed territorial impoft, or general land tax, France,
which was an objedt fo ardently coveted by the court,
was rejected. Louis, therefore, deprived of any far¬
ther hope of rendering the com ention fubfervient to his
embarraffments, determined to diffolve .the affembly,;
which he accordingly did, with a very moderate and
conciliatory fpeech to the members on their dtfmilfitm. :90
Thus diiappointed of the advantage which he had Refufal of
flattered himielf he would have drawn from the aequi- the parlia-
efcence of the Notables, the king was obliged no,v to1”^^®*
recur to the ufual mode'of railing money' by the royal newrtuxcs
edicts ; among the meafures propofed for which pur-
pofe were the doubling of the poll-tax, the re-eftablilh-
ment of the third twentieth, and a ftamp-duty. But
the whole was ftrongly difapproved by the parliament
of Paris ; and that affetobly, in the moft polltive terms,
refufed to regifter the ediifr. Louis was obliged to
apply, as the laft refort, to his abfolute authority; and,
by holding what is called a bed of jujiice, compelled
them to inroll the impoft.
The parliament, though defeated, were far from
fubdued ; and on the day after the king had held his
bed of juftice, they entered a formal proteft again!! the
edi6I; declaring, “ that it had been regiftered againit
their approbation and confent, by the king’s exprefe
command ; that it neither ought nor fhould have any
force ; and that the firft perfon who fhould prefume
to.attempt to carry it into execution, fhould be ad¬
judged a traitor, and condemned to the galleys.
This fpirited declaration left the king no other alter¬
native, than either proceeding to extremities in fupport
of his authority, or relinquifhing for ever after the
power of raifing money upon any occafion without the
confent of the parliament. Painful as every appearance
of violence muft have proved to the mild difpofition of
Louis, he could not confent to furrender, without a
ftruggle, that authority which had been fo long exer-
cifed by his predeceffors. Since the commencement
of the prefent difeontents, the capital had been gra¬
dually filled with confiderable bodies of troops ; and
about a week after the parliament had entered the
proteft, an officer of the French guards, with a party
of foldiers, went at break of day to the houfe of each
individual member, to lignify to him the king’s com¬
mand, that he fhould immediately get into his carri>ge,.
and proceed to Troyes, a city of Champagne, about 70
miles from Paris,- without writing or fpeaking to any
perfon out of his own houfe before his departure. t9I
Thefe orders were ferved at the fame inllant; and be- The mem*,
fore the citizens of Paris were acquainted with thebers ba-
tranfafftion, their magiftrates were already on the road
to their place of banifhment.
Previous to their removal, however, they had pre-
fented a remonftrance on the late meafures of govern¬
ment, and the alarming ftate of public affairs. Fn da¬
ting their opinions on taxes, they declared, that nei¬
ther the parliaments, nor any other authority, except¬
ing that of the three eftates of the kingdom colle6tive-
ly affembled, could warrant the laying of any perma¬
nent tax upon the people ; and they ftrongly enforced
the renewal of thofe national affemblies, which had
rendered the reign of Charlemagne fo great and illu-
ftrioiis.
This requifition of the parliaments to re-eftablifh
the
FRA [ 443 J FRA
•France the national council, or ftates-general, was the more
' honourable, as the former affemblies muft have funk
under the influence of the latter, and returned to their
original condition of mere regiflers and courts of law.
The confidence and attachment of the people of coilfe-
quence rofe in proportion to this inftance of difinter-
eilednefs; their murmurs were openly expreffed in the
ftreets of the capital, and the general diflatisfadlion
was augmented by the flop that was put to public bu-
fmefs by the exile of the parliament.
The cabinet at the fame time was apparently weak,
difunited, and flu&uating ; and continual changes took
place in every department of the ftate. Louis, averfe
to rigorous counfels, wifhed to allay the growing dif-
content by every conceffion that was confiftent with
his dignity ; but it was generally believed, that the
queen ftrongly difluaded him from any ftep that might
tend to the diminution of the royal authority. The
influence of that princefs in the cabinet was undoubt¬
edly great: but the popularity which once had accom¬
panied her was no more ; and feme imputations of pri¬
vate levity, which had been rumoured through the ca¬
pital, were far from rendering her acceptable to the
majority of the people ; while the count d’Artois, the
king’s brother, who had exprtfled himfelf in the molt
unguarded terms againft the conduit of the parliament^
Hood expofed to alf the confequences of popular
hatred.
Nor was it only in the capital that the flame of li¬
berty once more burlt forth 5 it blazed with equal
ftrength in the provincial parliaments. Among various
inftancts of this nature, the parliament of Grenoble
• palled a decree againft kttres de cachet, the molt odious
engine of arbitrary power; and declared the execution
of them within their jurifdiftion, by any perfon, and
under whatever authority, to be a capital crime.
The king had endeavoured to foothe the Parifians^
by new regulations of economy, and by continual re¬
trenchments in his houfehold: but thefe inftances of
attention, which once would have been received with
the loudeft acclamations, were now difregarded under
their affliftion for the abfence of their parliament. His
majefty, therefore, in order to regain the affeftions of
Recalled Gbjtfts, confenttd to reftore that aflembly ; aban¬
doning at the fame time the ftamp-duty and the terri¬
torial impoft, which had been the lources of difpute.
Thefe meafures were, howeVer, infufficient to eftablilh
harmony between the court and the parliament. The
uecelikies of the ftate Hill continued; nor could the
deficiency of the revenue be fupplied but by extraor¬
dinary refources, or a long courfe of rigid frugality.
About the middle of November 1787, in a full meet¬
ing of the parliament, attended by all the princes of
the blood and the peers of France, the king entered
the affembly, and propofed two edifts for their appro¬
bation : one was for a new loan of 450 millions^ near
19 millh ns fterling : the other was for the re eftabhlh-
ment of the Proteftants in all their ancient civil rights;
a meafure which had long been warmly recommended
by the parliament, and which waf probably now intro*
duced to procure, a better reception to the loan.
On this occalions the king delivered himfelf in a
fpeech of uncommon length, filled with profeffions of
regard for the people, but at the fame time ftrongly
exprefiive of the obedience he expe&ed to his edicts.
Louis probably imagined, that the dread of that ba* Frsnce.
nifhment from which the members had been fo lately
recalled, would have enfured the acquiefcefice of the
aflembly 5 but no fooner was permiflion announced for
every member to deliver his fentiment, than he was
Convinced that their fpirits remained totally unfubdued.
An animated debate took place, and was continued
for nine hours; when the king, wearied by perpetual Q ^
oppofition, and chagrined at fome freedoms ufed in
their debates, fuddenly rofe, and commanded the edi&ioan.
to be regiftered without further delay. This meafure
was moll unexpectedly oppofed by the duke of Or¬
leans, firft prince of the blood ; who, confidering it as
an infringement of the tights of parliament, protefted
againft the whole proceedings of the day as being
thereby null and void. Though Louis could not con¬
ceal his aftonilhment and difpleafure at this decifivc
ftep, he contented himfelf with repeating his orders ;
and immediately after, quitting the aflembly, retired
to Vevfailles. On the king’s departure, the parliament
confirmed the proteft of the duke of Orleans; and de¬
clared, that as their deliberations had been interrupted,
they confidered the whole bufinefs of that day as of no
effed.
It was not to be fuppofed that Louis would fuffer
fo bold an attack oil his power with impunity. Ac¬
cordingly a letter was next day delivered to the duke
of Orleans, commanding him to retire to Villars Cot-
terel, one of his feats about 15 leagues from Paris,
and to receive no company there except his own fami¬
ly; at the fame time the Abbe Sabatiere and M. Fre- ^
teau, both members of the parliament, and who had Duke of ,
diftinguifhed themfelves in the debate, were feized °r^ean3
under the authority of lettres de cachet, and conveyed,and V™
the firft to the cattle of Mont St Michel in Normandy, banfthed!
the laft to a prifon in Picardy; This ad of defpotifm
did not fail immediately to roufe the feelings of the *95
parliament. On the following day they waited on the
king, and expreffed their aftonifhment and concern of the"
that a prince of the blood royal had been exiled, and parliament,
two of their members imprifoned, for having declared
in his prefence what their duty and'confciences dida-
ted, and at a time when his majefty had announced
that he came to take the fenfe of the affembly by a
plurality of voices. The anfwer of the king was re-
feryed, forbidding, and unfatisfadory ; and tended to
iticreafe the refentment of the parliament. At the
fame time, it did not prevent them from attend¬
ing to the exigencies of the ftate; and convinced of
the emergency, they confented to regifter the loan for
450 millions of livres, which had been the fource of
this unfortunate difference. This edneeffion contri¬
buted to foften the mind of the king, and the fen-
tence of the two magiftrates was in confequence chan¬
ged from imprifonment to exile; M Frcteau being
fent to one of his country-feats, and the Abbe Saba¬
tiere to a convent of Benedidines.
The parliament however was not to be foothed by
that meafure to give up the points againft which they
had originally remonftrated. in a petition conceived
with freedom, and couched in the moft animated lan¬
guage, they boldly reprobated the late ads of arbitrary
violence, and demanded the entire liberation of the per-
fons againft whom they had been exerted. We have
already noticed the fiuduating counfels of the court of
3 Ka Verfailles j
FRA [ 444 1 FRA
France. Verfailles ; and that Louis, as often as he was left to
purfue his own inclinations, adopted meafures of recon¬
ciliation. On the prefent occafion, in the beginning
, of the year 1788, he recalled the duke of Orleans to
court, who foon after obtained leave to retire to Eng¬
land ; and he permitted the return of the abbe Sabatiere
and M. Freteau to the capital.
The parliament however had not confined their de¬
mands to the liberation of thofe gentlemen ; but had
alfo echoed the remonllrances of the parliament of
Grenoble, and had loudly inveighed againft the execu¬
tion of lettres de cachet. Thefe repeated remonftrances,
mingled with perfonal reflexions, feconded mod pro-
N bably the fuggellions of the queen, and Louis was once
monftran- lnore infligated to meafures of feverity. Meff. d’Ef-
ptemevil and Monfambert, whofe bold and pointed
harangues had prefled moft clofely on the royal digni¬
ty, were doomed to experience its immediate refent-
rnent. While a body of armed troops furrounded the
hotel in which the parliament were convened, Colonel
Degout entered the affembly, and fecured the perfons
of the obnoxious members, who were inftantly conduX-
ed to different prifong. This new inftance of arbitrary
violence occafioned a remonftrance from parliament,
which in boldnefs far exceeded all the former reprefen-
tations of that aflembly. They declared they were
new more ftrongly confirmed, by every proceeding, of
the entire innovation which w'as aimed at in the con-
ftitution. “ But, fire,” added they, “ the French
nation will never adopt the defpotic meafures to which
you are advifed, and whofe effeXs alarm the mofl. faith¬
ful of your magillrates ; we fhall not repeat all the un¬
fortunate circumftances which affliX us ; we fhall only
reprefent to you with refpeXful firmnefs, that the fun¬
damental laws of the kingdom mujl. not be trampled
upon, and that your authority can only be efteemed fa
long as it is tempered ‘with jufliceV
t ( ^ Language fo pointed and decifive, and which aflert-
f the No- ed the coutrolling. power of the laws above the regal
authority, could not fail of ferioufly alarming the king ;
and with a view to diminifh the influence of parliament,
it was determined again to convene the Notables. Ac¬
cordingly, about the beginning of May, Louis appear¬
ed in that aflembly ; and after complaining of the ex-
ceffes in which the parliament of Paris had indulged
themfelves, aud which had drawn down his reluXant
indignation on a few of the members, he declared his
refolution, inllead of annihilating them as a body, to
recal them to their duty and obedience by a falutary
reform. M. de la Moignon, as keeper of the feals,
then explained his majeily’s pleafure to eftablifh a cour
pleniere or fupreme aflembly, to be compofed of princes
of,the blood, peers of the realm, great officers of the
crown, the clergy, marefchals of France, governors of
provinces, knights of different orders, a deputation of
one member from every parliament, and two members
from the chambers of council, and to be fummoned as
often as the public emergency, in the royal opinion,
fliould render it requifite.
If the affembly of the Notables liftened in filent de¬
ference to the projeX of their fovereign, the parliament
n of Paris received it with every fymptom of averfion.
That body ftrongly protefted againft the eftabliff.ment
kind’s pro-cf any other tribunal; and declared their final refolu-
b°—’• tioix not to-affift at any deliberations in the fupreme
19S
A !Temb'y
of the N
tables.
Oppofiti
affembly which his majefty prepared to inllitute. A France,
more unexpeXed mortification occurred to the king ini
the oppofition of feveral peers of the realm : thefe ex-
preffed their regret at beholding the fundamental prin¬
ciples of the conftitution violated ; and while they were
lavifh in their profeffiona of attachment to the perfon
of their fovereign, concluded with apologizing for not
entering on thofe funXions affigned them in the ple¬
nary court, as being inconfiftent with the true interefts
of his majefty, which were Infeparable from thofe of
the nation.
The flame quickly fpread throughout the more di-
ftant provinces; at Rennes in Brittany, and Gre¬
noble in Dauphine, the people Jjroke out into aXs of
the moft daring outrage. In the latter city feveral
hundreds of the inhabitants perilhed in a confliX with
the military ; they yet maintained their ground again It
the regulars and the commanding officer, at the in¬
treaties of the firft prefident, readily withdrew his troops
from a conteft into which he had entered with reluc¬
tance. The different parliaments of the kingdom at
the fame time expreffed their feelings in the moft glow¬
ing language ; and ftrongly urged the neceffity of call¬
ing together the ftates-general, the lawful council of the
kingdom, as the only means of reftoring the public
tranquillity.
Louis now plainly faw, that a compliance with the
public wilhes for- the re-eftablilhment' of the ftates-ge¬
neral was abfolutely neceffary, in order to avoid the
calamities of a civil war which impended upon his re-
fufal. In that event he muft have expeXed to have
encountered the majority of the people, animated by
the exhortations and example of their magiftrates:
the peers of the realm had exprefled the ftrongeft dif-
approbation of his meafures; nor could he even depend
any longer on the fupport of the princes of his blood
but what afforded moft ferious matter of alarm was the
fpirit lately difplayed among the military, who, during
the difturbances in the provinces, had reluXantly been
brought to draw their fwords againft their countrymen
and many of vvhofe officers, fo recently engaged in
eftabliftiing the freedom of America, publicly declared
their abhorrence of defpotifm.
It was not, however, till after many a painful ftruggle
that Louis could refolve to reftore an affembly, whole
influence muft naturally overfhadow that of the crown,,
and whofe jurifdiXion would confine within narrow
limits the boundlefs power he had inherited'from his
predeceffor. In the two preceding reigns, the ftates-
general had been wholly difeontinued ; and though,
the queen-regent, during the troubles which attended
the minority of Louis XIV. frequently expreffed her
intention of calling them together, fne was conftantly
diffuaded by the repreientations of Mazarin. It is
probable that the prefent monarch full flattered him-
felf with the hope of being able to allure the members
of that affembly to the fide of the court; and having
employed them to eftablifh fome degree of regularity
in the finances, and to curb the fpirit of the parlia¬
ments, that he would again have diiiniffed them to ob-
feurity.
Under thefe imprdfions an arret was iffued in Au- Arr*°°or
guft, fixing the meeting of the flates general to thefumm,)a_
firft of May in the enfuing year; and every ftep was mg the
taken to fecure the favourable opinion of the public^^s-g60**
1 • during’ak
FRA [ 445 ] FRA
Fiance, during the interval. New arrangements took place in
—* the adminiflration ; and M. Necker, whom the con¬
fidence of the people had long followed, was again
introduced into the management of the finances ; the
torture, which by a former edidf had been reftrifted
in part, was now entirely abolifhed ; every perfon ac-
cufed was allowed the affittance of counfel, and per¬
mitted to avail himfelf of any point of law; and it was
decreed, that in future fentence of death Ihould not
be palled on any perfon, unlefs the party accufed
fhould be pronounced guilty by a majority at leaft of
three judges.
. The time appointed for the convention of the ftates-
general was now approaching 5 and the means of af-
fembling them formed a matter of difficult deliberation
in the cabinet. The laft meeting, in 1614, had been
convened by application to, the bailiwicks. But this
mode was liable to feveral llrong objections; the
bailiwicks had been increafed in number and jurifdic-
tion, feveral provinces having fince that period been
united to France ; and the numbers and quality of the
members were no lefs an objeCt of ferious attention:
it was not till the clofe of the year, therefore, that
the propofal of M. Necker was adopted, which fixed
the number of deputies at 1000 and upwards, and or¬
dained that the reprefentatives of the third eftate or
commons-lhould equal in number thofe of the nobility
and clergy united.
The eyes of all Europe were now turned on the
llates-general; but the moment of that affembly’s
meeting was far from aufpicious: The minds of
the French had long been agitated by various ru¬
mours ; the unanimity that had been expeCled from the
different orders of the Hates was extinguilhed by the
jarring pretenfions of each r, and their mutual jealou-
fies were attributed by the fufpicions of the people to
the intrigues of the court, who were fuppofed already
to repent of the haftyaffent which had been extorted. A
dearth that pervaded the kingdom increafed the general
difeontent; and the people, prefied by hunger, and in¬
flamed by refentment, were ripe for revolt. The fo-
vereign alfo, equally impatient of the obftacles he con¬
tinually encountered, could fiot conceal his chagrin ;
while the influence of the queen in the cabinet was a-
gain eftablifhed, and was attended by the immediate
removal of M. Necker. The difmiffion of that mini-
Ir furrec fler> f° long the favourite of the public, was the lignal
trinsTand of open infurrection : the Parifians afiembled in my-
revolution. riads; the guards refufed to oppofe andftain their arms
with the blood of their fellow-citizens ; the count
d’Artois and the mofl. obnoxious of the nobility
thought themfelves happy in eluding by flight the fury
of the infurgents; and in a moment a revolution was
accomplifhed, the mofl remarkable perhaps of any re¬
corded in hiftory.
But that we may not take up room with an im-
perfedt or dubious narration, we muft defer giving any
detail of particulars till fome future opportunity,
when the tide of innovation and reform now prevailing
in that kingdom (hall have fubfided, and the govern¬
ment in on; fliape or another have attained a foot¬
ing that promifes to be durable. The objeCts of the
revolution are many and arduous : and it is impoifible
to fay, whether we may have yet to record their en¬
tire confummatiun ; or to recount a new train of events
tending to fliake the novel fabric, and to reftore the F ance-.
puiffance and the fplendor of royalty, though the feeptre —v 1
of clefpotifm fhould be fwayed no more. In fliort, it is
wifhed to have an opportunity, not only of detailing
the progrefs, but of furveying the final iffue, of the
event in queflion. Such an opportunity may perhaps
be afforded by the time we arrive at the article Revo¬
lution, where there will be occafion to advert to.the
principal events which under that denomination have
formed eras in the hiftory of dift'erent nations, and
when of courfe this great era in the annals of France
will claim a ffiare of attention proportioned to its mag¬
nitude and importance.
The air in France is pure, healthy, and temperate.
The kingdom is fo happily feated in the middle of the
temperate zone, that fome make it equal to Italy, with
regard to the delightfulnefs of the landfcapes, and the
fertility of the foil: however, it is certainly much more
healthful. The foil produces corn, wine, oil, and flax, in
great abundance; and they have very large manufactures
of linen, woollen, filk, and lace. They have a foreign
trade to Spain, Italy, Turkey, and to the Eaft and
Weft Indies. They themfelyes reckon that the num¬
ber of the inhabitants is 20,000,000. The kingdom'
is watered by a great number of rivers; of which the
four principal are, the Loire, the Seine, the Rhone,
and the Garonne or Gironde. The monarchy was
abfolute before the late revolution; and the fubje&s
were extremely devoted to their prince even under the
greateft a&s of oppreffion. The parliaments, for a
long feries of years paft, had little or no ffiare in the
government; and their bufinefs was confined to the
palling and regiftering the arrets or laws which the
king was pleafed tq fend them: however, they did not
always pay a blind obedience to the king, and we have
had frequent inftances of their making a noble ftand. In
civil caufes thefe parliaments were the laft refort, pro¬
vided the court did not interpofe. That of Paris was.
the moft conliderable, where the king ufed often ta
come in perfon to fee his royal a&s recorded. It con-
fifted of the dukes and peers of France (when dukes
and peers exifted), befides the ordinary members, who
purchafed their.* places; and they only took cogni¬
zance of caufes belonging tq the crown. The revenues
of the crown arofe from the taille or land-tax, and the
aids which proceed from the cuftoms and duties on all
merchandize, except fait, the tax'upon which com¬
modity is called thegabelles*: befides thefe, there were, Nowa*.
other taxes; as, the capitation or poll-tax ; the tenthsb0i;(hed.
of all eftates, offices, and emoloyments ; befides the 15th See Gabd.’
penny, from which neither"the uvbi'itv nor clergy were
exempted. Add to thefe, the tenths a: a free-gifts of
the clergy, who were allowed to tax them felvies ; and,
Lilly, crown-rents, fines, and forfeitures, which brought ■
in a conflderable fum. All thefe' are laid to have a-
mounted to 15,000,000 Sterling a-year. But the
king had other refources and ways of raifing money,
whenever neceffity obliged him. The army, in time
of peace, is faid to conlift of 200,000 men, and in
t,ime of war of 4.00,000; among whom are manyi
Swifs, Germans, Spots, Irifti, Swedes, and Danes.
There was till lately no religion allowed in France but
the Roman Catholic, ever fince the revocation of the
edibt of Nantz in 1685 ; though they are not fo de¬
voted to the pope as other nations of that communion,
nor. ’
FRA [ 446 1 FRA
France nor had they ever any inquifition among them. The
Franchife ^-ornan Catholic is itill the eitablifned religion ; but
. with ample toleration to the Proteftants, who are now
k even not excluded from places of the higheit truft^in
the date.
IJle of' France, a province of France, fo called,
becaufe it was formerly bounded by the river Seine,
Marne, Oife, Aifne, and Ourque. It comprehends,
belides Paris, the Beauvofis, the Valois, the county of
Senlis, the Vexin, the Hurepois, the Gatinois, the
Multien, the Goele, and the Mantois. Paris is the
capital.
FRANCESCA (Peter), an eminent Florentine
painter of night-pieces and battles, was employed- to
paint the Vatican. He alfo painted portraits, and
wrote on arithmetic and geometry. ,He died in 1458.
FRANCFORT on the Main,•an Imperial and Han*
featic town of Franconia in Germany, where the em¬
perors were formerly eledted. It is ahandfome, ftrong*
and rich place, and has a great deal of commerce.
Here the golden bull is preferred, which is the original
of the fundamental laws of the empire. It is feated
in a fine fertile plain ; and well fortified with a double
ditch, ballions, redoubts, and ravelins. The ftreets
are remarkably wide, and the houfes handfomely buiit.
It has great conveniency for carrying on an extenfive
trade with the other parts of Germany, by means of
the navigable river which runs throughout it. The
fuburbs is called Saxon-haufen, and joined to the town
by a Itone bridge built over the Main. E. Long. 8. 40.
N. Lat 49.55.
Franceort, on the Oder, a rich and handfome town
of Germany, in the middle Marche of Brandenburg,
formerly imperial, but now fubject to the king of
Pruffia. E. Long. 15. o. N. Lat. 52. 20.
FRANCHE-compte, a province of France, bound¬
ed on the fouth and welt by Champagne and Burgun¬
dy; on the north by Lorrain ; and to the eail by the
earldom of Mumplegard, and Switzerland. It is in
length from north to fouth about 3oieagues; in breadth
about 20. It is partly flat and partly hilly. The
flat country is fruitful in grain, wine, hemp, and pa-
fture; and the hilly country abounds in cattle, produ¬
cing alfo fome wine and corn, copper, lead, iron, and
filver ores, mineral waters, and quarries of done, marble,
and alabalter.
FRANCHISE, in law. Franchife and liberty are
nfed as fynonymous terms ; and their definition is, “ a
royal privilege, or branch of the king’s prerogative,
fubfilting in the hands of a fubjeCt.” Being therefore
derived from the crown, they mult arife from the king’s
grant; or, in fome cafes, may be held by preferip
tion, which, as has been frequently faid, pre.uppofes
a grant. The kinds of them are various, and almqll
infinite. We fhall here briefly touch upon fome of the
principal; premifing only, that they may be veiled in
either natural perfons or bodies-politic ; in one man,or
in many : but the fame identical franchife, that has be¬
fore been granted to one, cannot be bellowed on ano¬
ther, for that would prejudice the former grant.
To be a county-palatine, is a franchife veiled in a
number of perfons. It is likewife a franchife for a
number of perfons to be incorporated and fubfill as a
body-politic ; with a power to maintain perpetual luc-
ceffion, and do other corporate afts: and each indivi¬
dual member of fuch corporation is alfo faid to have a Franchifs
franchife or freedom. Other franchifes are, to hold a H
court-leet: to have a manor or lordlhip~; or, at lead, Fr,,”c*s‘ .
to have a lordlhip paramount: to have waifs, wrecks,
eftrays, treafure-trove, royal fifh, forfeitures, and deo-
dands : to have a court of one’s own, or liberty of
holding pleas and trying caufes : to have the cogni¬
zance of pleas; which is a Hill greater liberty, being
an exclufive right, fo that no other court lhall try cau¬
fes arifing within that jurifdi&ion : to have a bailiwick,
or liberty exempt from the Iherilf of the county; where- «
in the grantee only, and his officers, are to execute all
procefs: to have a fair or market; with the right of ta-
kiog toll, either there or at any other public places, as
at bridges, wharfs, or the like ; which tolls mull have
a reafonable caufe of commencement (as in confide-
ration of repairs, or the like), elfe xhe franchife is ille¬
gal and void : or lallly, to have a foreft, chafe, park,
warren, or fiihery, endowed with privileges of royalty.
See Chase, Forest, &c.
Franchise is alfo ufed for an afylum or fandluary,
where people are fecure of their perfons, &c.v Churches
and mona'teries in Spain are franchifes for criminals ;
fo were they anciently in England, till they were abu-
fed to fuch a degree that there was a neceffity for abo-
lifhing the cullom. One of the moll remarkable ca¬
pitulars ma le by Charlemagne in his palace of Heri-
ilal, in 779, was that relating to the franchifts of
churches. The right of frauchife was held fo facred,
that even the lefs religious kings obferved it to a de¬
gree of fcrupuloufneis ; but to fuch excefs in time was
it carried, that Charlemagne refolvcd to reduce it. Ac¬
cordingly he forbad any provilio.n being carried to cri¬
minals retired .into churches for refuge.
Franchise of Quarters, is a certain fpace or dillridl
at Rome, wherein are the houfes of the ambafladors
of the princes of Europe ; and where fuch as retire
cannot be arrdted or ftized by the Ibirri or ferjeants,
nor profecuted at law. The people of Rome look
on this as an old ufurpation and a fcandalous privilege,
which ambaffadors, out of a jealonfy of their power,
carried to a great length in the 15th century, by en-
larging inftnlibly tlie dependencies of their palaces ot*
houfes, within which the right of franchife was an¬
ciently confined. Several of the popes, Julius III.
Pius XIV. Gregory XIII. and Sixtus V. publilhed
bulls and ordinances againll this abufe; which had
refeued fo confiderable a part of the city from their
authority, and rendered it a retreat for the moll aban¬
doned perfons. At length Innocent XI. expfefsly re¬
filled to receive any more ambafladors but fuch as
would make a formal renunciation of the franchife of
quarters.
FRANCIA (Francefco), a celebrated Bolognefe
painter, .born in 1450. He was firll a goldfmith or
jeweller, afterwards a graver of coins and medals; but
applying at iall to painting, obtained great reputation
by his works, particularly by a piece of St Sebaitian,
whom he had drawn bound to a tree wutfi his hands
tied over his head. He pinei himielf into a Confump-
tion, by defpairing to equal Raphael; and died in 15 1 8.
FRANCIS I. king of France, the rival of the em¬
peror Charles V. and the reltorer of learning and po-
litenefs in France. See [Hijiory of) France.
Francis (Philip), a very ingenious writer, of Iriih
ex-
I
IMaf e.
—
FRA [ 447 ] FRA
c’lf- extradlion, if n6t born in that kingdom. His father
s- was a dignified clergyman in Ireland, being dean of
— fome cathedral; and our author,, his fon, was alfo
bred to the church, and had a do&ot’s degree confer¬
red on him. He was more diitinguifhed as a tranfla-
tor than as an original writer. His veriions of Horace
and Demoflhenes have be.en juilly valued : the former
is accompanied with notes, and is perhaps as complete
and ufeful a work of its kind as hath yet appeared.
He was alfo a eonfiderable political writer; and in the
beginning of the prefent reign is fuppofed to have
been employed by the government : for which fer-
vice, he was promoted to the redory of Barrow in
Suffolk, and to the chaplainfhip of Chelfea hofpital.
He was alfo the author of two tragedies, Eugenia,
and Conftantia ; but, as a dramatic writer, not very
fuccefsful. He died at Bath in March 1773 ; leaving
a fon, who was then one of the fupreme council at
Bengal.
FRANCISCANS, in ecclefiaftical hiflory, are re¬
ligious of the order of St Francis, founded by him in
the year 1209. Francis was the fon of a merchant of
Affiii, in the province of Umbria, who, having led a
diffolute life,' was reclaimed by a fit of ficknefs, and
afterwards fell into an extravagant kind of devotion,
that looked lefs like religion than alienatiort of mind.
Soon after this, viz. in the year 1208, hearisg the
paffage repeated, Matt. x. 9, 10. in which Chrift ad-
dreffes his apoftles, Provide neither gold, nor fther, See.
he was ltd to confider a voluntary and abfolute pover¬
ty as the effence of the.gofpel, and to preferibe this
poverty as a facred rule both to himfelf and to the few
that followed him. This new fociety, which appeared
to Innocent III. extremely adapted to the prefent Hate
of the church, and proper to reitore its declining cre¬
dit, was folemnly approved and confirmed by Hono-
rius III. in 1223, and had made a confiderable pro-
grefs before the death of its founder in 1226. Francis,
through an exceffive humility, would not fuffer the
monks of his order to be called fratres, \. e. brethren
or friars, but fratererdi, i e. little brethren, or friars-
minor, by which denomination they Hill continue to
be difiinguifhed. They are alfo called grey friars, on
account of the colour of their clothing, and cordeliers,
&c. The Francifcans and Dominicans were zealous
and aftive friends to the papal hierarchy, arid, in re¬
turn, were diitinguifiied by peculiar privileges and ho¬
nourable employments. The Francifcans, in particu¬
lar, were inverted with the treafure of ample and ex-
tenfive indulgences; the dirtribution of which was com¬
mitted to them by the popes, as a means of fublirtenee,
and a rich indemnification for their voluntary poverty.
In confequence of this grant, the rule of the founder,
which abfolutely prohibited both perfonal and collec¬
tive property, fo that neither the individual nor the
community were to polfefs either fund, revenue, or any
worldly goods, was confidered as too Arid and fevere,
and difpenfed with foon after his death. In 1231,
Gregory IX. publiftied an interpretation of this rule,
mitigating its rigour ; which was farther confirmed by
Innocent IV. in 1245, and by Alexander IV. in 1247.
Thefe milder alterations were zealoufiy oppofed by a
branch of the Francifcans called the fpiritual; and their
complaints were regarded by Nicolas III. who, in
1279, publirtted a famous conftitution, confirming the
rule of St Francis, and containing an elaborate expli¬
cation of the maxims it recommended, and the duties
it preferibed. In 1287, Matthew of Aqua Sparta,
being elefted general of the order, difeouraged the
ancient difeipline of the Francifcans, and indulged his
monks in abandoning even the appearance of poverty ;
and this conduct inflamed the indignation of the fpiri¬
tual or aurterer Francifcans; fo that from the year 1290,
feditions and fchifms arofe in an order that had been fo
famous for its pretended difinterertednefs and humility.
Such was the enthufiaftic frenzy of the Francifcans,
that they impioufly maintained, that the founder of
their order was a fecond Chrift, in all rcfpedls fimilat
to the firft; and that their inftitution and difeipline
were the true gofpel of Jefus. Accordingly, Albizi,
a Francifcan of Pifa, publilhed a book in 1383, with
the applaufe of his order, in t itled, The Book of the
Conformities of St Francis with Jefus Chrift. In the
beginning of this century, the whole, Francifcan or¬
der was divided into two parties ; the one, embracing
the fevere difeipline and abfolute poverty of St Fran¬
cis, were called fpirituals ; and the other, who infifted
on mitigating the auftere injundtions of their founder,
were denominated brethren of the community. Thefe
wore long, loofe, and good habits, with large hoods ;
the former were clad in a ftrait, coarfe, and ftiort drefs,
pretending that this drefs was enjoined by St Francis,
and that no power on earth had a right to alter it.
Neither the moderation of Clement V. nor the violence
of John XXII. could appeafe the tumult occafioned
by thefe two parties: however, their rage fubfided
from the year 1329. In 1368 thefe two parties were
formed into two large bodies, comprehending the whole
Francifcan order, which fubfift to this day ; viz. the
conventual brethren, and the brethren of the obfervance or
obfervation, from whom fprung the capuchins and re-
colleSts. The general opinion is, that the Francifcans
came into England in the year ,1224, and had their
firft houfe at Canterbury, and their fecond at Lon¬
don ; but there is no certain account of their being
here till king Henry VII. built two or three houfes
for them. At the difiblution of the monafteries, the
conventual Francifcans had about 55 houfes, which
were under feven euftodies or wardenfhips; viz. thofe of
London, York, Cambridge, Briftol, Oxford, New-
callle^and Worcefter.
FRANCONIA, a circle of the German empire,
lying bet ween Bohemia on the eaft, and the deflo¬
rate of Mentz on the weft. Its capital is Nm-emhurg 5:
and from this country the Franks, who conquered and
gave name to the kingdom of France, are faid to have
come.
FRANGULA, in botany. See Rhamnus.
FR ANK language, Lingua Franca, a kind of
jargon fpoken on the Mediterranean, and particularly
throughout the coafts and ports of the Levant, com-
pofed of Italian, Spanilh, French, vulgar Greek, and
other languages.
Frank, or Franc, an ancient coin, either of gold
or filver, ftruck and current in France. The value of
the gold franc was fomething more than that of the
gold crown; the filv'er franc was a third of the gold
one : this coin has been long out of ufe, tho’ the term
is ft ill retained as the name of a money of account; ire
which fenfe it is equivalent to the livre, or 20 fols.
FRA [ 448 ] FRA
Frank, or Franc, meaning literally free from charges
and impofitions, or exempt from public taxes, has va¬
rious fignifications in the ancient Englifh cuftoms.
Frank Almoigne, (libera eleemofyna), or “ free
aims;” a tenure of a fpiritual nature, whereby a re¬
ligious corporation, aggregate or foie, holdeth lands
of the donor to them and their fucceffors for ever. The
fervice which they were bound to render for thefe
lands was not certainly defined : but only in general to
pray for the fouls of the donor and his heirs, dead or
alive; and therefore they did no fealty (which is in¬
cident to all other fervices but this), becaufe this divine
fervice was of a higher and more exalted nature. This
is the tenure by w'hich almoft all the ancient monalle-
ries and religious houfes held their lands; and by
which the parochial clergy, and very many ecclefiafti-
cal and eleemofynary foundations, hold them at this
*lay; the nature of the fervice being upon the reforma¬
tion altered, and made conformable to the purer doc¬
trines of the church of England. It was an old Saxon
-tenure ; and continued under the Norman revolution,
through the great refpeft that was ihown to religion
and religious men in ancient times. This is alfo the
reafon that tenants in frankalmoign were difcharged of
all other fervices except the trinoda neceffitas, of repair¬
ing the highways, building caftles, and repelling inva-
ifions; jult as the druids, among the ancient Britons,
had omnium rerum immunitatem. And even at pre-
fent, this is a tenure of a very different nature from all
others; being not in the lead feodal, but merely fpi¬
ritual. For, if the fervice be negletted, the law gives
no remedy by dillrefs, or otherwife, to the lord of
whom the lands are holden ; but merely a complaint to
the ordinary or vifitor to correct it.
FuANK-Chace is defined to be a liberty of free chace,
■whereby perfons that have lands within the compafs of
the fame, are prohibited to cut down any wood, &c.
out of the view of the forefter.
pRANK-Fee, fignifies the fame thing as holding
lands and tenements in fee-fimple; that is, to any
perfon and his heirs, and not by fuch fervice as is re¬
quired by ancient demefne, but is pleaded at common
law. See Fee.
pRANK-Law, a word applied to the free and com¬
mon law of the -land; or the benefit a perfon has
by it.
He that for any offence lofeth this frank-law, incurs
thefe inconveniences, viz. He may not be permitted
to ferve on juries, nor ufed as an evidence to the
truth ; and if he has any thing to do in the king’s
court, he muft not approach it in perfon, but appoint
his attorney; his lands, goods, and chattels, fhall be
feized into the king’s hands ; and his lands be eflrea*
ted, his trees rooted up, and his body committed to
cuftody.
pRANK-Marriage, in law, is where tenements are
given by one man to another, together with a wife,
who is the daughter or coufin to the donor, to hold in
frank-marriage. By fuch gift, though nothing but
the word frank-marriage is expreffed, the donees fhail
have the tenements to. them,, and the heirs of their two
bodies begotten ; that is, they are tenants in fpecial
tail. For this one word, franlmarriage, denotes, ex vi
i/ermini, not only an inheritance, like the. word frank-
almoigne, but likewife limits that inheritance; fupply -
Nc 132.
ing, not only words' of defcent, but of procreation al¬
fo. Such donees in frank-marriage are liable to no
fervice but fealty for a rent referved therein is void
until the fourth degree of confanguinity be paft be¬
tween the iffues of the donor and donee.
Prank-Pledge, in law, fignifies a pledge orfurety for
the behaviour of freemen.
According to the ancient cuftom of England, for the
prefervation of the public peace, every free-bom man,
at the age of fourteen, except religious perfons, clerks,
knights, and their eldeft fons, was obliged to give fe-
curity for his truth and behaviour towards the king and
his fubje&s, or elfe be imprifoned. Accordingly, a
certain number of neighbours became interchangeably
bound for each other, to fee each perfon of their pledge
forthcoming at all times, or to anfwer for the offence
of any one gone away: fo that whenever any perfon
offended, it was prefently inquired in what pledge he
was, and there the perfons bound either proouced the
offender in 31 days, or made fatisfa&ion for his of¬
fence.
pRANK-Penement. See Tenure.
FRANKED letters. The privilege of letters
coming free of poftage to and from members of par¬
liament was claimed by the houfe of commons in 1660,
when the firft: legal fettlement of the prefent poll-office
was made ; but afterwards dropped, upon a private af-
furance from the crown, that this privilege fhould be
allowed the members. And accordingly a warrant was
conftantly iffued to the poftmalter-general, diredting
the allowance thereof to the extent of two ounces in
weight: till at length it was exprefsly confirmed by
4 Geo. III. c. 24. which adds many new regulations,
rendered neceffary by the great abufes crept into the
pradtice of franking ; whereby the annual amount of
franked letters had increafed from L. 23,600 in the
year 1715, to L. 170,700 in the year 1763 Further
regulations have fince taken place; in particular, franks
muft be dated (the month written at length), and put
into the office the fame day ; notwithftanding which,
the revenue ftill lofes by this privilege above L. 80,000
per annum.
FRANKEN (Francifcus), commonly called Old
Frank, a famous Flemifh painter, fuppofed to have
been born about the year 1544; but tho’ his works
are well known, very few of the circumftances of his
life have been tranfmitted to pofterity. This mailer
painted hillorical fubjedls from the Old and New Tef-
taments; and was remarkable for introducing a great
number of figures into his compofitions, which he had
the addrefs to group very diftindlly. Vandyck often
commended his works, and thought them worthy of a
place in any colledlion.
Franken (Francifcus), diftinguifhed by the name
of Toung Frank, was the fon of the former, born in the
year 1580. He was inllrudled by his father; whofe
flyle he adopted fo clofely, that their works arc fre¬
quently mlftaken. When he found himfelf fufficiently
Ikilled at home, he travelled into Italy for improve¬
ment in colouring; and, on his return, his works were
much coveted. The moft capital performance of this
painter are, a fcriptural performance in the church of
Notre-dame at Antwerp; and an excellent pi&ure, in a
fmall fize, of Solomon’s idolatry. Young Frank died
in 1642.
FRANK-
FRA [ 449 ] FRA
Frankem!al FRANKENDAL, a ftrong town of Germany, in
II the dominions of the Eleftor Palatine. It was taken
. ra‘1; in' by the Spaniards in 1623, by the Swedes in 1632, and
burnt by the French in 1688. E. Long. 8. 29. N.
Lat. 49. 28.
FRANKENIA, in botany : A genus of the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to the hexandria clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
1 7th order, Calycanthemn. The calyx is quinquefid,
and funnel-fhaped ; the petals live; the ftigma fex-
partite ; the capfule unilocular and trivalvular.
FRANKINCENSE. See Incense.
FRANKLIN (Thomas), D,D. chaplain in ordi«
nary to his majefty, was the fon of Richard Franklin,
well known as the printer of an anti-minifterial paper
called The Craftfman; in the conduct of which he re¬
ceived great afliftance from Lord Bolingbroke, Mr
Pulteney, and other excellent writers, who then op-
pofed Sir Robert Walpole’s meafures. By the advice
of the fecond of thefe gentlemen, young Franklin was
devoted to the church, with a promife of being pro¬
vided for by the patriot; who afterwards forgot his
undertaking, and then entirely neglefted him He
was educated at Weftminfter-fchool; from whence he
went to the univerfity of Cambridge, where he be¬
came fellow of Trinity college, and was fome time
Greek profeffor. In Dec. 1758, he was inllituted
vicar of Ware and Thundridge ; which, with the
le&urelhip! of St Paul, Covent-Garden, and a chapel
in Queen-ftreet, were all the preferments he held till
he obtained the redlory of Brafted in Kent. This
< gentleman was poffellcd of no inconfiderable {hare of
learning and poetical abilities, and was long a favourite
in the literary world. His tranflations of Phalaris,
Sophocles, and Lucian, equally evince his learning
and his genius, as they are not more diftinguifhed for
fidelity in the verfion, than congeniality with the fpi-
rit of the admirable originals. Dr Franklin, like Mr
Foote, fuffered a tranflation from the French to be
printed in his name; but the Oreftes and Eleftra are
fuppofed to be all that were really by him. It was a
tranflation of Voltaire’s works, to which alfo Dr Smol-
kt’s name appears. His own dramatic compofitions,
of which the principal are the tragedies of The Earl
of Warwick and Matilda, are univerfally known, and
defer vedly efteemed by the public ; fo that his death,
which happened March 15. 1784, may be confidered
as a lofs to the republic of letters.
Franklin (Dr Benjamin), one of the moll cele¬
brated philofophers and politicians of the prefent age,
was born at Bofton in North America in the year
1706. His father was a tallow-chandler; whofe houfe
he quitted before the age of 14, in order to go to Phi¬
ladelphia, where he was introduced to the only printer
eftabliflied in that city. This perfon, being {truck
with his appearance and manner, took him into his
houfe, and inftrudted him in his art; and Franklin, by
his difpofition, genius, and diligence, foon deferved
and increafed the favourable opinion that had been
entertained of him by his mailer. Nor was he lefs
agreeable to thofe who vifited the pi inting-houfe out
of curiofity : for the typographical art being then
altnoft unknown in thofe parts, great numbers were
attra&ed by the myftery ; and were fo well pleafed
with the {kill, activity, and communicative manner
Vol. VII. Part II.
of our young operator, that they feldortl went away franklin,
without leaving him fome marks of their liberality.—
Here he foon began to manifeft that love'of learn¬
ing and third; after knowledge for which he was fo
remarkable : and as it wras difficult to procure books
from England, young Franklin entered into a fociety
with fome others of his own age ; among whom it was
agreed, that they ffiould bring fuch books as they had
into one place, in order to form a common library.
This refource, however, w^as found fo defe&ive, that
the fociety, at Franklin’s perfuafion, refolved to con¬
tribute a fmall fum monthly towards the purchafe of
books for their ufe from London. Thus their ftock
began to increafe rapidly ; and the inhabitants of
Philadelphia, being defirous of having a Ihare in their
literary knowledge, propofed that the books {hould
be lent out on paying a fmall fum for the indulgence.
Thus in a few years the fociety became rich, and pof-
fefled more books than were perhaps to be found in
all the other colonies ; the colledtion was advanced in¬
to a public library ; and the other colonies, fenfible of
the advantages refulting from thence, began to form
fimilar plans; whence originated the libraries at Bo¬
fton, New York, Charleftown, See. that of Philadel¬
phia being now inferior to none in Europe.
Mr Franklin, notwithftanding all the advantages
he could derive from his fituation in Philadelphia, was
not yet fatisfied. He came over to England therefore
in the year 1724 or 1725 ; and worked as a journey¬
man printer with one Mr Watts. By him he was
greatly efteemed; and treated with fuch kindnefs, that
it was always remembered with gratitude by our phi-
lofopher. Mr Watts often predicted that his young
American compoficor would one day make a confider-
able figure in the world; and he lived to fee his pre-
diftion fulfilled with regard to his philofophical difeo-
veries, though not as to the part he a&ed in political
matters.
Having ftaid fome time in London, Mr Franklin
returned to Philadelphia, where he perfuaded the print¬
er with whom he formerly refided to fet up a newf-
paper ; which was attended with fuch benefit, that
his mailer admitted him as a partner in the bufinefs,
and gave him his daughter in marriage. Having thus
eftablilhed himfelf as a printer, and acquired fome for¬
tune, Mr Franklin was left at liberty to follow the
natural bent of his genius. Being much addicted to
the ftudy of natural philofophy, and the difeovery of
the Leyden experiment in eledlricity having rendered
that fcience an objeft of general curiofity, Mr Frank¬
lin applied himfelf to it, and foon began to diftinguifti
himfelf eminently in that way. He is particularly
remarkable for being the firft who thought of fecuring
buildings from lightning; and he is generally thought
to have been the inventor of the electrical kite, though
fome aferibe this invention to another. His theory
of pofitive and negative ele&ricity has alfo received
the fanftion of public approbation ; though, when ri-
goroufly inveftigated, it does not feem capable of fup-
porting itfelf *. His theories were at firft oppofed by • See Eln-
the members of the Royal Society in London ; but in tricity, SedK
1755, when he returned to that city, they voted him v’ail<*v**
the gold medal which is annually given to the perfon
who prefents a memoir on the moil curious and inte-
refting fubject. He was likewife admitted a member of
3 L th*
FRA [ 45o 1 FRA
FrankHn. the Society, and had the degree of do&or oflaws confer-
red upon him by one of the univerfities: but at this time,
by reafon of the war which broke out between Britain
and France, he returned to America, and began to
take a lhare in the public affairs of that country.
Having planned the different polls throiigh the con¬
tinent of America, he was made poftmalter-general
for that country ; but as in the fubfequent difputes he
took always the popular fide, he was afterwards remo¬
ved from that employment. In the year 1767, he
was examined before the houfc of commons concern¬
ing the ftamp-a£t. In 1773, having been appoint¬
ed agent for the province of Pen fyIvan ia, he came over
to England at the time when the difputes between
Great Britain and America were on the point of co¬
ming to extremities j when he attra&ed the public at¬
tention by a letter on the duel betwixt Mr Whatley
and Mr Temple concerning the publication of gover¬
nor Hutchinfon’s letters. On the 29th January next
year, he was examined before the privy-council on
a petition he had prefented long before as agent for
Mafiachufets Bay againft Mr Hutchinfon; but this
petition being dilagreeable to miniftry, was precipi¬
tately rejedted, and Dr Franklin was foon after remo¬
ved from his office of poftmafter-general for America.
He was now looked upon by government with fuch a
jealous eye, that fome thoughts were entertained of
. having him arrefted as a fomenter of rebellion. The
Do&or, however, being on his guard, departed for
America in the beginning of the year 1775 with fuch
privacy, that he had left England before it was fuf-
pedted that he entertained any defign of quitting it.
Being named one of the delegates to the continental
congrefs, he had a principal Ihare in bringing about the
revolution and declaration of independency on the part
of the colonies. In 1776 he was deputed by congrefs
to Canada, to negociate with the people in that coun¬
try, and to perfuade them to throw off the Britilh
yoke ; but the Canadians had been fo much difgufted
with the hot-headed zeal of the New Englanders, who
had burnt fame of their chapels, that they refufed to
liften to the propofals, though enforced by all the ar¬
guments Dr Franklin could make ufe of. On his re¬
turn to Philadelphia, congrefs, fenfible how much he
.was efteemed in France, fent him thither to put a fi-
nifhing hand to the private negociations of Mr Silas
Deane } and this important commiffion was readily ac¬
cepted by the Dodtor, though then in the 71 ft year
of his age. The event is well known; a treaty of
alliance and commerce was figned between France and
America ; and M. le Roi afferts, that the Doftor had
a great lhare in the tranfaclion, by ftrongly advifing
M. Maurepas not to lofe a fingle moment, if he wiihed
to fecure the friendlhip of America, and to detach it
from the mother-country. He likewife informs us,
that no man could be more rejoiced than Dr Franklin
was on the day that the Britilh ambaffador, Lord Stor¬
mont, quitted Paris on account of the rupture betwixt
the two nations. In 1777 he was regularly appointed
plenipotentiary from Congrefs to the French court ;
but obtained leave of difmiffion in 1780. Having at
laft feen the full accompliffiment of his wilhes by the
conclufion of the peace in 1783, which gave indepen¬
dency to America, he became defirous of revifiting his
native country. He therefore requefted to be recalled;
and, after repeated folicitations, Mr Jefferfon was ap- FranW'n.
pointed in his room. On the arrival of his fucceffor, u—
he repaired to Havre de Grace, and crofting the Channel,
landed at Newport in the Me of Wight; and, after a
favourable paffage, arrived fafe at Philadelphia in the
month of September 1785. He was received amidft the
acclamations of a vaft multitude who flocked from all
parts to fee him, and who conducted him in triumph to
his own houfe. In a few days he was vifitedby the mem¬
bers of the congrefs and the principal inhabitants of Phi- v
ladelphia. He was afterwards twice chofen piefident of
the affembly of Philadelphia ; but his increafing infir¬
mities obliged him to alk permiffion to retire, and to
fpend the remainder of his lifaAn tranquillity; which,
was granted.
During the greateft part of his lifetime the Dodlor
had been very healthy. In the year 1 735, indeed, he was
attacked by a pleurify, which ended in a fuppuration
of the left lobe of the lungs, fo that he was almoft:
fuffocated by the quantity of matter thrown up. But
from this, as well as from another attack of the
fame kind afterwards, he recovered fo completely, that
his breathing was not affeAed afterwards in the leaft.
As he advanced in years, however, he became fubjeCt
to fits of the gout, to which in the year 1782 a ne¬
phritic colic was fuperadded. From this time he be¬
came fubjeft to the ftone as well as.the gout, and for
the laft twelve months of his life thefe complaints almoft
entirely confined him to his bed. Notwithftanding hi*
diftreffed fituation, however, neither his mental abili¬
ties nor his natural cheerfulnefs ever forfook him. His
memory was very tenacious to the very laft; and he
feemed to be an exception to the general rule, that at
a certain period of life the organs which are fubfervient.
to memory become callous ; a remarkable inftance of
which is, that he learned to fpeak French after he
had attained the age of 70. About 16 days before
his death, lie was feized with a feverifh diforder;
which, about the third or fourth day, was attended
with a pain in the left bread. This became at laft
very acute, and was accompanied with a cough and
laborious breathing. Thus he continued for five days,
when the painful fymptoms ceafed at once, .and his
family, began to flatter themfelves with hopes of his
recovery. But a new impofthume had now taken
place in the lungs; which fuddenly breaking as the
others had done, he was unable to expeftorate the
matter fully. Hence an oppreffion of the organs
of refpiration and a lethargic difpofition came on ?
which gradually increafing, he expired on the 17th of
April .1790, about 11 at night.—He left one fon,
governor William Franklin, a zealous loyalift, who
now refides at London ; and a daughter, married to
Mr William Bache merchant in Philadelphia. This
lady was his greateft favourite, and waited upon him
during his laft illnefs. Three days before he. died, he
begged that his bed might be made, that he might die
in a decent manner; to which Mrs Bache anfwered,
that (he hoped he would recover and live many years
longer: but he replied, “ I hope not.”
With regard to the chara.fter of Dr Franklin, he was
faid to be fententiou&but not fluent in fociety; rather in¬
clined to liften than to talk; an informing rather than a
pleafing companion ; very impatient, however, qf inter¬
ruption j fo that fee would frequently mention the cultom
3 ©f
FRA I 45i J FRA
'-!frsnk» fif t’he Indians, w’no keep filenca for feme time before
' ' :f| they anfwer a cjue'ftion which they have heard with at-
'■yrafer- tention. With regard to religion, he was a firm be*
. * liever in the Scriptures 5 and his fentiments on death
may be gathered from a letter written about 35 years
ago to Mifs Hubbard on the death of her father-in-law
Mr John Franklin. “ We are fpirits (fays he): That
todies fhould be lent us while they can afford us plea-
fure, affift us in acquiring knowledge, or doing good
: to our fellow creatures, is a kind and benevolent adt of
God. When they become unlit for thefe purpofes,
and afford us pain inftead of pleafure; inftead of an aid
they become an incumbrance, and anfwer none of the
intentions for which they were given: it is then equally
kind and benevolent, that a wayis provided by which we
may get rid of them. Death is that way.—Our friend
•and we are invited abroad on a party of pleafure that
is to laft for ever. His carriage was firft ready, and
he is gone before us; we could not all conveniently
ftart together ; and why fhould you and I be grieved
at this, fince we are foon to follow, and know where
-to find him ?” The Dodfor was author of many tradls
on eledtricity, and other branches of natural philofophy,
as well as on politics and mifcellaneous fubjedis.
FRANKS, Francs, Frankis, or Franquis, a
name which the Turks, Arabs, Greeks, &c. give to
all the people of the weftern parts of Europe. The
appellation is commonly fuppofed to have had its rife
in Afia, at the time of the croifades; when the French
made the moft confiderable figure among the croifl’ees:
-from which time the Turks, Saracens, Greeks, Abyf-
linians, See. ufed it as a common t_erm for all the Chri-
ftians of Europe; and called Europe itfelf Frankijlan.
The Arabs and Mahometans, fays M. d’Herbelot, ap¬
ply the term Franks not only to the French (to whom
the name originally belonged), but alfo to the Latins
and Europeans in general.
But F. Goar, in his notes on Condinus, cap. 5. n. 43.
furnifhes another origin of the appellation Franks, of
greater antiquity than the former. He obferves, that
the Greeks at firft confined the name to the Fraud,
i e. the German nations, who had fettled themfelves
in France or Gaul; but afterwards they gave the fame
name to the Apulians and Calabrians, after they had
been conquered by the Normans; and at length the
name was farther extended to all the Latins.
In this fenfe is the word ufed by feveral Greek wri¬
ters; as Comnenus, &c. who, to diftinguilh the French,'
call them the •wejlern Franks. Du-Cange adds, that
about the time of Charlemagne, they diftinguifhed
eaftern France, weftern France, Latin or Roman
France, and German France, which was the ancient
France, afterwards called Franconia.
FRASCATI, or Frescati. See Frescati.
FRASERSBURGH, a fmall fea-port town in the
county of Aberdeen, fttuated in a cheap and populous
country, on the point of land called Kinnaird's Mead,
which is the fouthern extremity of the Murray firth.
It has a fmall good harbour, made and kept up at a
confiderable expence by the proprietor and the town,
and well adapted for building of fmall vefiels. Ac¬
cording to the tide, there are 11 to 15 feet water
within the harbour, and 20 feet immediately without
at fpring-tides: without is a tolerable road for fhip-
ping, in a bay nearly a league in length and half a
league in depth, with good anchorage in a fandy hot- FratemT,
tom. Vefftis of about 200 tons burden enter the bar- Fraternity.^
hour at prefent. Fraferiburgh contains about 1000 ’ ^
inhabitants, and is well fituated for trade with the
eaft coaft of Europe. The town has lately advanced-
confiderabij, and requires only encouragement to ren¬
der it a port of fome confequence on the coaft of Scot¬
land. At prefent it carries on a fmall trade to the
eaft fea, feveral manufactories are forming in its neigh¬
bourhood, and the port is well adapted for building of
fmall vefiels.
FRATERNAL, fomething belonging to the rela¬
tion of brother.
Fraternal jijfection is the love and attachment fub-
fiiting among, or due to one another by, children of
the fame family.
Though all mankind fprung from the fame head,
and are bound to cultivate a mutual good-wall to each
other ; yet this duty is not fo obvious and ftriking as
that which is incumbent on thofe who belong to the
fame family. Nothing can approach nearer tofelf-love
than fraternal affection: and there is but a fhort remove
fromour own concerns and happinefs, totheirs who come
from the fameftock, and are partakers of the fame blood.
Nothing, therefore, can be more horrible than difeord
and animoiity among members fo allied; and nothing
fo beautiful as harmony and love.
This relation is formed by nature, not by choice ;
and though it has many things in common with, yet it
is prior to, the obligations of frxendftiip: confequently
nature and reafon didlate that there ftiould be a pecu¬
liar affeftion between brethren. We are not obliged,
however, to make a brother or After an intimate or
bofom friend in preference to one who is not akim
Diverfity of temper, and want of fuitable qualifica¬
tions, may render it unfafe and improper. But where
friendihip and fraternity meet in the fame perfons, fuch
a eonjun&ion adds a luftre to the relation.
Among brethren, an hearty benevolence, an ardent
concern for each other’s welfare, a readinefs to ferve
and promote it, are the peculiar offices of this relation;
and though friends are to have their ffiare, yet the
claim of kindred is firft and ordinarily ftrongeft. “ Ne-
ceflaria praefidia vitae debentur iis maxime (fays Ci¬
cero), quos ante dixi(i. e. propinquis); vita autem, vic-
tufque communis, concilia, fermones, &c. in amicitiis
vigent maxime.” De OJfuiis.
FRATERNITY, brotherhood, the relation or;
union of brothers, friends, partners, afibciates, &c.
Fraternity, in a civil fenfe, is ufed for a guild,
afibciation, or fociety of perfons, united into a body,
for fome common intereft or advantage. See Com¬
pany and Guild.
Fraternity, in the Roman Catholic countries, fig-
nifies a fociety for the improvement of devotion. Of
thefe there are-feveral forts ; as, 1. The fraternity of
the rofary, founded by St Dominic. It is divided in¬
to two branches, called the common rofary, and the per*
petual rofary; the former of whom are obliged to con-
fefs and communicate every firft Sunday in the month,
and the latter to repeat the rofary continually. 2. The
fraternity of the fcapuiary, whom the blefled Virgin,
according to the fabbatine bull of pope John XXII.
has promifed to deliver out of hell the firft Sunday af¬
ter their death. 3. The fraternity of St Francis’s gir-
3 L 2 die
FRA [ 452 ] FRA
Fratres die are clothed with a fack of a grey colour, which
li they tie with a cord ; and in proceffions walk bare-
Fnitricelli. f00t:ej} carrying in their hands a wooden crofs. 4. That
' "' v of St Auftin’s leathern girdle, comptehends a great
many devotees. Italy, Spain, and Portugal, are the
countries where one fees the greateft num^J r of thefe
fraternities, fome of which affume the name of arch-
fraternities. Pope Clement VII. inftituted the arch¬
fraternity of charity, which diftributes bread eveiy
Sunday among the poor, and gives portions to 40
poor girls on the feaft of St Jerom their patron. The
fraternity of death, buries fuch dead as are abandoned
by their relations, and caufes maffes to be celebrated
for them.
FRATRES arvales. See Arvales.
FRATRIAGE, the partition among brothers, or
coheirs, coming to the fame inheritance or fucceflion.
FRATRICELLI, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, an en-
thufiaftic feft of Francifcans, which rofe in Italy, and
particularly in the marquifate of Ancona, about the
year 1294. The word is an Italian diminutive, figni-
fying fraterculi, or “ little brothers and was here
ufed as a term of derifion, as they were moft of them
apoilate monks, whom the Italians call fratelli, or fra-
tricelli. For this reafon the term fratricelli, as a nick¬
name, was given to many other fefts, as the Catha-
rifts, the Waldenfes, &c. however different in their
opinions and in their condudl. .But this denomination
applied to the auftere part of the Francifcans was con-
fidered as honourable. See Franciscans.
The founders were P. Maurato, and P. de Fofibm-
broni, who having obtained of pope Celeflin V. a per-
miffion to live in folitude, after the manner of her¬
mits, and to obferve the rule of St Francis in all its ri¬
gour, feveral idle vagabond monks joined them, who,
living after their own fancies, and making all perfec¬
tion to confift in poverty, were foon condemned by
pope Boniface VIII. and his fucceffor, and the inquili-
tors ordered to proceed again!! them as heretics: which
commiffion they, executed with their ufual barbarity.
Upon this, retiring into Sicily, Peter John Oliva de
Serignan had no fooner publilhed his Comment on the
Apocalypfe, than they adopted his errors. They
held the R.omi!h church to be Babylon, and propofed
to eftablifh another far more perfect one : they main¬
tained, that the rule of St Francis was the evangelical
rule obferved by Jefus Chrift and his apoftles. They
foretold the reformation of the church, and the refto-
ration of the true gofpel of Chrift, by the genuine fol¬
lowers of St Francis, and declared their affent to al-
moft ail the do&rines which were ^ublifhed under the
name of the abbot Joachim, in the “ Introduction to the
everlafting Gofpel,” a book publifhed in 1250, and ex¬
plained by one of the fpiritual friars whofe name was
Gerhard. Among other enormities inculcated in this
book, it is pretended that St Francis was the angel
mentioned in Rev. xiv. 6. and had promulgated to the
world the true and everlafting gofpel of God ; that the
gofpel of Chrift was to be abrogated in 1260, and to
give place to this new and everlafting gofpel, which
was to be fubftituted in its room 5 and that the mini-
fters of this great reformation were to be humble and
bare-footed friars, deftitute of all worldly employ¬
ments. Some fay they even ele&ed a pope of their
church; at leaft they appointed a general, with fupe-
riors, and built monafteries, &c. Befide thfe opinions Fratricide
of Oliva, they held, that the facraments of the church 11
were invalid ; becaufe thofe who adminiftered them, Fraxil,ns-
had no longer any power or jurifdiAion. They were ‘
condemned afrefti by pope John XXII. in confequence
of whofe cruelty they regarded him as the true anti-
chrift ; but feveral of them returning into Germany,
were Iheltered by Lewis, duke of Bavaria, the em¬
peror.
There are authentic records, from which it appears,
that no lefs than 2000 perfons were burnt by the inqui-
fition, from the year 13/8 to the time of Innocent VI.
for their indexible attachment to the poverty of St
Francis. The feverities againft them were .again revived
towards the clofe of the 15th century by pope Nico¬
las V. and his fucceflors. However, all the perfecu-
tions which this feft endured were not fufficient to ex-
tinguifti it; for it fubfifted until the times of the refor¬
mation in Germany, when its remaining votaries adopt¬
ed the caufe and embraced the do&rine and difcipline
of Luther. And this has led Popilh writers to charge
the Fratricelli with many enormities, fome of which are
recoimted by M. Bayle, art. Fratricelli.
The Fratricelli had divers other denominations: they
were called fratricelli, according to fome, becaufe they
lived in community, in imitation of the primitive Chri-
itians, or rather through the humility of the founder of
the Francifcan order, to which the Fratricelli originally
belonged ; dulcini, from one of their doftors ; Bizochi,
Beguinsy and Beghardi.
FRATRICIDE, the crime of murdering one’s bro¬
ther. See Parricide.
FRAUD, in law, fignifies deceit in grants, or
conveyances of lands, &c. or in bargains and fales of
goods, &c. to the damage of another perfon.
A fraudulent conveyance of lands or goods to de¬
ceive creditors, as to creditors is void in law. And a
fraudulent conveyance in order to defraud purchafers,
is alfo to fuch purchafers void ; and the perfons jufti-
fying or putting off fuch grants as good, (hall forfeit a
year’s value of the lands, and the full value of the
goods and chattels, and likewife lhall be imprifoned.
See Cheating.
FRAUSTADT, a town of Silefia, on the fron¬
tiers of Poland, remarkable for a battle gained by the
Swedes over the Saxons in 1706. E. Long. 15. 50.
N. Lat. 51. 45.
FRAXINELLA, in botany. See Dictamnus.
—It is remarkable of this odorous plant, that, when
in full bloffom, the air which furrounds it in a ftili
night, may be inflamed by the approach of a lighted
candle. Dr Watfon doubts whether this inflammabi¬
lity proceeds from an inflammable air which is exhaled
by the plant, or from fome of the finer parts of the
effential oil of the plant being diffolved in the common
atmofpherical air. The latter is the moft probable
fuppofition ; for were it the pure inflammable air, as
Mr Cavallo obferves, it would, on account of its fmall
fpecific gravity, leave the plant as foon as it was pro¬
duced. Conamon air acquires the property of becoming
inflammable, by being tranfmitted through feveral ef¬
fential oils.
FRAXINUS, the Ash : A genus of the dioecia or¬
der, belonging to the polygamia clafs of plants ; and
in the natural method ranking under the 44th order,.
Sfiarix,.
F R E L 453 1 F II E
Fray Seplaria. There is no hermaphrodite calyx, or it is
quadripartite; and there is either no corolla, or it is
Freats. tetrapetalous: there are two ftamina ; one piftil; one
——y—— lanceclated feed; and the piftil of the female is lanceo-
lated. There are fix fpecies ; of which the moft ufe-
ful is the common afti, which is fo veell known, that it
needs no defcription. If a wood of thefe trees is right¬
ly managed, it will turn greatly to the advantage of
the owner: for, by the underwood, which will be
fit to cut every eight or ten years, there will be a
continual income, more than fufficient to pay the rent
of the ground and all other charges ; and ftill there
•will be a flock preferved for timber, which in a few
years will be worth 40s. or 50s. per tree. This tree
flourifties beft in groves, but grows very well in rich
foil in open fields. It bears tranfplanting and lopping.
In the north of Lancaftiire they lop the tops of thefe
trees to feed the cattle in autumn when the grafs
is on the decline ; the cattle peeling off the bark as
food. The wood hath the Angular property of being
nearly as good when young as- when old. It is hard
and tough, and is much ufed to make the tools em¬
ployed in hufbandry. The aflres of the wood afford
very good potafh. The bark is uftd in tanning calf-
fkin. A flight infufion of it appears of a pale yel-
lowifh colour when viewed betwixt the eye and the
light ; but when looked down upon, or placed be¬
twixt the eye and an opake objecff, appears blue. This
bluenefs ie deftroyed by the addition of an acid, but
recovered by alkalies. The feeds are acrid and bitter.
In the church-yard of Loch'aber in Scotland, Dr Wal¬
ker meafured the trunk of a dead afh tree, which at five
feet from the furface of the ground was 58 feet in cir¬
cumference.—Horfes, cows, fheep, and goats eat it ;
but it fpoils the milk of cows, fo that it fhould not be
planted in dairy farms.
FRAY literally fignifies to fret; as cloth or fluff
does by rubbing, or over-much wearing.
Among hunters a deer is faid to fray his head, when
he rubs it againft a tree, to caufe the fkins of his new
horns to come off.
FREA, or Frigga, the wife of Odin, was, next
to him, the moft revered divinity among the Heathen
Saxons, Danes, and other northern nations. As Odin
was believed to be the father, Frea was efteemed the
mother of all the other gods. In the moft ancient
times, Fiea was the fame with the goddefs Herthus,
or Earth, who was fo devoutly worfhipped by the
Angli and other German nations. But when Odin,
the conqueror of the north, ufurped the honours due
only to the true Odin, his wife Frea ufurped thofe
which had been formerly paid to mother Earth. She
was worftiipped as the goddefs of love and pleafure,
who bellowed on her votaries a variety of delights,
particularly happy marriages and eafy child-births. To
Frea the fixth day of the week was confecrattd, which
ftill bears her name.
FREAM, a name given by farmers to ploughed
lands worn out of heart, and laid fallow till it recover.
FREATS, or Freits, a term ufed in Scotland for
ill omens, and fometimes denoting accidents fuperna-
turally unlucky. King James VI. in his Damonvlogie,
MS. pen, Edit. B. I. IIII. p. 13. “ But-I pray
you forget not likeways to tell what are the Devill’s
rudimentis ? E. His rudimeatis I call firft in general!
all that quhilk ’is called vulgairelie the virtu of Freckle*
woode, herbe, and ftaine ; quhiik is ufed by unlaw- II
full charmis w ithout natural caufis. As lykeways all Frw 'ckk
kynd of prattiques, freitis, or uther lyk extraordinatr ac~ * * ' -
lions, quhilk cannot abyde the trew twiche of natarall rai-
fon.” It occurs again in the fame fenfe in /. 14. marg.
note; and in /. 41. fpeaking of Sorcerers : “ And in
generall that naime was gevin thaime for ufing of fic
chairmis and freitis, as that craft teaclus thaime.”
IRECKLES, lentigines, fpoils of a yellowifh
colour, of the bignefs of a lentile-feed, fcattered over
the face, neck, and hands. Freckles are either natural,
or proceeding accidentally from the jaundice or the
a&ion of the fun upon the pait. Heat, or a hidden
change of the weather, will often caufe the fkin to ap¬
pear of a darker colour than natural; and thereby pro¬
duce what is called tan, funburn, and morphenv, which
feem to differ only in degree ; and ufually difappear in
winter.
Perfons of a fine complexion, and fuch whofe hair is
red, are the moft fubjeft. to freckles, efpecially in thofe
parts which they expofe to the air.
To remove freckles, put juice of lemons in a glafs-
vial, and, mixing it with fugar and borax finely pow¬
dered, let it digeft eight days, and then ufe it. Plom-
berg propofes bullock’s gall mixed with alum, and, af¬
ter the alum has precipitated, expofed three or four
months to the fun in a clofe vial, as one of the beft re¬
medies known for the removing of freckles.
FREDBERG, a rich, ftrong, and fine town of
Germany-, in Mifnia, remarkable for its mines, and for
being the burying place of the princes of the houfe of
Saxony. It is a delightful place, featod on the river
Multa. E. Long. 13. 40. N. Lat. 51. 2.
FREDERICA, a town of North America, in
Georgia, feated at the mouth of the river Alatamaha,
lately built and fortified by general Oglethorpe. The
ifland it Hands upon is called St Simons’s; and is about
13 miles in length, and 4 in breadth. W. Long. 3i.
35. N. Lat. 31. o.
FREDERICK II. the Great, of Pruflia, one of
the greateft warriors the prefent age has produced, was
the fon of Frederiek-William then hereditary prince
of Brandenburg, and Maria Dorothea a princefs of
the houfe of Bmnfwick. He was born in 1712, the
year before his father Frederick I. mounted the throne
of Pruflia. The latter was fo far from being a patron
of literature, that lie regarded nothing but what rela¬
ted to the military art; and moft of his generals, what¬
ever their merits in their own line might be, fcarce knew
how to fign their names. So great indeed was the ig¬
norance of the monarch himfclf, that he banilhedfrom
his dominions a philofopher of the name of Wolf, mere¬
ly becaufe he maintained the dodlvine .of pre-eitablifhed
harmony; upon which a theologian named Lange afferted,,
that on fuch principles his majefty’s grenadiers were
nut culpable when they deferted, it being only the nts-
ceffary confequence of the impulfe their machine had
received from their Creator. His fon was of a difpo-
fition the very reverfe of his father. Being put from,
his birth under the care of Val de Recoule a French
lady of great merit and underftanding, he acquired, in.
his early years, not only a tafte for literature in ge¬
neral, but a predile&ion for the French language^
which was not obliterated throughout his whole life.
S fc
F R E [ 454 1 F U E
Ff<?Hcriclr. It i s not to be fuppofed that a prince of the difpofi- Kat!” and inftantly fainted away. During the re-
w—t;on a^,ove mentjonecj} would fuffer his fon to be long mainderofhis life he confidered capital punhhments with
engaged in literary purfuits. At feven years of age, a great degree of horror, and they were rare through-
young Frederick was taken out of the hands of Madame out the Pruflian dominions while he continued to
de Recoule, and put under the care of military tutors, reign. When the emperor had fuceeeded in preventing
General Count de Finkeftein, an-old warrior, was ,ap- the execution of Frederick, the king remarked,, that
pointed his governor; his fub-governor was Colonel de “ Auftria would one day fee what a ferpent (he had
Kalkftein, an officer renowned for his courage and ex- nouriihed in her bofom.” The royal prifoner remain-
perience ; he was taught mathematics and fortification ed a year at Cuftrin ; during which time his father
by Major Senning; Han de Jendun, a Frenchman, in- wifhed that he ffiould learn the maxims of government
ftrufted him in other branches of knowledge ; and a and finance. For this purpofe M. de Munchow, pre-
cadet of the name of Kenzel, taught him his exercife. fident of the chamber of domains and finances, was
At eight years of age he was furnifhed with a fmall ordered to make him affift at all their aflemblies, to
arfenal ftored with all forts of arms proportioned to his confider him as a fimple counfdlor, to treat him as
age and ftrength, of which his father left him abfolute fuch, and make him work like others. The young
mafter. In a ffiort time he was named captain and counfdlor, however, though he affifted at their meet-
chief of the corps of cadets; and the young prince per- ings, did not trouble himfelf with reading a£ts or
formed every day, in miniature, with his little fol- copying decrees. Infiead of this, he amufed himfelf
diers, all the evolutions with which his .father exer* fometimes with reading French pamphlets, and at
cifed his giants. At laft he received the command of others with drawing caricaturas of the prefident or
a company in his father’s regiment famous throughout members of the affembly. M. Munchow himfelf was
all Europe, and which was compofed of men of whom likewife very favourable to the prince at this time, by
fcarce one was ftrort of feven French feet. furnifiu'ng him books and other articles of amufement.
Born, however, with a talte for the arts, he devoted notwithftanding the exprefs prohibition of his father :
rto their cultivation every moment he could efcape the though in this he certainly ran a great riik ; for the
vigilance of his guardians. He was more particularly old king, who fet but a very light value on human life,
fond of poetry and mufic, and when he could find a mo- would undoubtedly have put him to death had he received
ment’s leifure, he read French authors, or played on the intelligence of his complaifance.
flute; but his father, as often as he furprifed him playing Frederick, after palling the time above mentioned
or reading, broke his flute and threw his books into in confinement, was recalled to Berlin, on pretence
the fire. The prince, chagrined at fuch injurious of being prefent at the celebration of his eldelt filler’s
treatment, and having a great defire to vifit Germany, marriage with the hereditary prince of Bareith ; but
England,-France, and Italy, defired permiffion to tra- the true reafon was, that the king had now prepared a
vel. This, however, his father would not allow, but match for the prince himfelf. This was the princefs
permitted him to accompany himfelf in the little jour- Elizabeth Chriltina of Brunfwick, niece to the em-
neys he made from time to time into Germany ; and, prefs. Frederick, who was not only totally indiffe-
in 1728, took him to Brefden to fee the king of Po- rent to the fair fex in general, but particufarly pre¬
land. By thefe little expeditions the defire of the judiced again!! this princefs, made fome objections-;
-prince to vifit other countries was only the more in- his father, however, overcame all obftacles with “ his
flamed, fo that at lalt he formed a delign of fetting ufual arguments (fays the author of the life of Frede-
out without his father’s knowledge. The defign was rick), viz. his cane, and a few kicks.”
intrufted to two of the prince’s young friends named T he coldnefs which Frederick at this time fhowed for
Kat and Kelt ; money was borrowed for the occafion, the fair fex, appears not to have been natural; for as early
smd the day of their departure fixed, when unluckily as the year 1723, though then only in the 11th year
the whole projed! was difeovered. The old king, im- of his age, he is faid to have fallen in love with the
placable in his refentment, and confidering his fon as princefs Anne, daughter of George II. Even at this
a deferter, determined to put him to death. He was early period he entered into vows to refufe every other
fliut up in the fortrefs of Cuftrin; and it was with the hut her for his confort; nor were thefe ever broken, as
utmoft difficulty that the count de Seckendorf, fent far as depended on himfelf. The marriage perhaps
for the purpofe by the emperor Charles VI. was able would have taken place, had it not been for fome dif-
to alter the king’s refolution. Certain vengeance, ferences which arofe between the courts of Pruffia and
however, was ^determined on both the intended affo- Hanover about a few acres of meadow-land, and two
dates in Frederick’s journey. Keit efcaped the dan- or three Hanoverians enlifted by the Pruffian recruit-
•ger by flying into Holland; but Kat had not that ers. It is fuppofed alfo, that it was intended at one
good fortune. The king firft diredted that he fhoujd time to marry him to Maria 1'herefa of Auftria; bur,
be tried by a court-martial; but as they, contrary to as in that cafe it would have been necefiary to change
his expeftation, only fentenced the criminal to per- his religion, Frederick derived from thence a plaulible
petual imprifonment, the revengeful monarch by an pretence for refufing the match. The princefs whom
unheard of exercife of the royal prerogative caufed he efpoufed had a large ftiare of beauty ; and, what was
him to be beheaded. The execution was performed ftill better, an excellent heart : but Frederick is faid
under the windows of the prince royal, whofe head to have fuffered fo much in his former amours, that
■was held towards the fcaffold by four grenadiers; but certain natural and unfurmountable impediments re-
-no fooner did he approach the window and fee his mained to the completing of his marriage with any
ifriend in the hands of the executioner, than he ftretch- woman. Scarcely therefore was he in bed with his
ed out his arms towards him, crying out “ .Kat 1 young fpoufe, when a cry of Fire! was raifed by hi*
friends.
F R E
Frederick, friends. Frederick got up to fee where the conflagra-
- t;on was. jjyj. fln(];ng {t to be a falfe alarm, he fent
meffengers to compofe the princefs ; but neither that
night, nor any. other, did he think proper to difturb
her reft.
On occafion of this marriage, Frederick received
from his father the county of Rupin. He refided in
the capital of this county, named alfo Rupin, for fome
time;.but afterwards chofe Rheinfberg for his place
r „i irrR* : 1*^1- 4. r i
t 4J5 ]
F R E
ceeded each other, and had each its Hated period. The Fredericks
prince palled the greateft part of the day in his library; v'—^
and the remainder in the fbeiety of a feledt company
of agreeable and learned men. The principal of thefe
were Chafot, a French officer; Kayferling, a gentle¬
man of Courland, on whom the prince bellowed the
name of Cafarion; Jordan, a French refugee; and
Knobelfdorf, director of the buildings and gardens; but
who could converfe on all the arts of defigning with as
of abode. This is a little town built in the fands, on much talle as judgement.—In thefe meetings, gaidty
the confines of MecklenSurg, and at that time con¬
taining only iooq inhabitants; but it was foon greatly
improved by Frederick. Having put over the great
gate of the caftle, however, the following infcription,
Frederico Tranquillitatem Colenti, his father
was difpleafed with it, and therefore hurried him from
his peaceful retreat into the noife and tumult of war.
At this time, the fueceffion to the crown of Poland
had kindled a general war throughout Europe, and
the king of Pruffia was to fend 10,000 auxiliaries
to the imperial army, then commanded by prince Eu¬
gene. The king conducted his troops in perfon,
and refolved to take this opportunity of giving his Ion
an idea of war. At this time, however, he learnt but
little ; apd only faw, as he himfelf exprelfes it, the Iha-
dow of the great Eugene. That confummate general,
neverthelefs, did not overlook his merit; but predicted
that he would one day be a great captain. Frederick
having gone to reconnoitre the lines at Thilipfburg, in
his return through a very open wood, was expofed to
the cannon of the lines, which thundered inceflantly.
The balls broke a number of branches on every fide
generally prefided ; there were generals to fpeak of
war, muficians to form concerts, and excellent paint¬
ers to decorate the apartments. Whilft Knobelfdorf
was executing landfcapes and laying out the gardens,
Pefne was imortalizing himfelf by his cielings, and du
Buiflbn by his pictures of flowers. The two Grauns
compofed excellent mufic, or diredled the orcheftra $
and Benda, one of the firft violins of Europe, accom¬
panied the prince who played extremely well on the
flute. The morning was ufually dedicated to ftudy ;
gaiety and agreeable converfation prevailed at every
repaft ; and every evening therg was a little concert.—-
In this retreat Frederick conceived that ardent paffion
for military glory and the aggrandifement of his king¬
dom for which he became at laft fo remarkable; and here
he is fuppofed to have formed the moft fublime and
daring projedb. He was fired with a defire of imitating
the celebrated heroes of antiquity, of whom he read
in the ancient authors, and for which he fet apart fome
hours every day. Amongft the works which he read
almoft every year, were Herodotus, Thucydides, Xe¬
nophon, Plutarch, Tacitus, Salluft, Livy, Quintus
©f him : notwithftanding which, he never caufed his Curtius, Cornelius Nepos, Valerius Maximus, Poly-
horfe move quicker ; nor did his hand which held.the
bridle ever alter its motion even for a moment. He
continued to converfe quietly with the generals who
bins, Casfar, Vegetius, &c. He never fpoke but with
enthufiafm of the great warriors of Greece and Rome;
and when feated on the throne, thought he could ne-
attended him, and never {bowed the fmaileft fign of ver diftinguilh an able foldier in a more honourable
apprehgnfion. Being one night at fupper with field-
marlhal Grumkow, the converfation turned on the
young .prince Eugene who died on the Rhine; and
he was alked whether that prince would ever have be¬
come a great man? Frederick decided in the negative,
on accouct of young Eugene’s not having known at
any period of his life how to choofe a friend who dared
to tell him the truth.
During this campaign the health of the old
king was fo much impaired, that he was obliged
to leave the army ; and Frederick, on his return, was
for fome time intrufted with figning all the orders
in his father’s name. On the king’s recovery the
prince was fent to Stetten, under the care of the prince
of Deflau, that he might fee the fortifications of that
town. He was afterwards permitted to go to Konig-
fberg to fee the unfortunate Staniflaus, who had ta¬
ken refuge .in that place, and who was no lefs remark¬
able for his philofophy and conftancy than for his tuis, Algarotti, Voltaire,
manner than by conferring on him a Roman furname.
Hence he diftinguifhed, by the name of Quintus Ici-
lius, M. Guichard who had written fome treatifes on the
military art of the ancients ; giving him at the fame
time a free battalion. This name of Quintus Icilius
was retained by M. Guichard as long as he lived.
In his purfuit of glory Frederick found that it was
not improper to cultivate the fnendfhip of celebrated
poets, philofophers, and others of the literary clafs ;
for which purpofe he flattered, commended, and com¬
plimented all the moft celebrated' literati of Europe at
tha?time. “ The philofophers (fays the author of
his life) anfwered him as a mad lover writes to his mif-
trefs. They wrote to him that he was a great poet,
a great philofopher, . the Solomon of the north. All
thefe hyperboles were printed ; and Solomon was not
forry for it, though he had too much underftanding to
believe in them. Wolf, Rollin, Gravefande, Mauper=
misfortunes. With him Frederick remained for fome
weeks, and contra&ed a friendfliip which was not dif-
folved but by the death of Staniflaus. At laft he was
allowed to return to his peaceful manfiorrat Rhein-
: honoured with his cor-
refpondence^ The laft efpecially, accuftomed to offer
up incenfe to the idol of the day were it tranfported
from the dunghil to the altar, did not fail to exalt as
the firft man of the :univerfe, a prince who.was in ex-
Iberg, where he remained till the death of his father, pe&ancy of * the throne, and who affured him that he
In this place his time was occupied alternately by the was the greatell philofopher of the age, and the firfl:
ftudy of the fciences, the .cultivation of the arts, and
the pleafures of friendffiip. Philofophy, hiftory, poli-
4its, the military art, poetry and mufic, agreeably fuc-
poet in the world.
That Frederick might keep up his charadler with,
the literati, or perhaps from a real prediledlion for his
principles^
F R E [ 456 ] F R E
FredericTt. principles, he patronifed the Apology of Wolf, and had
his principal treatifes tranflated into French. He even
prevailed upon his father to relax a little in favour of
that philofopher. A commiffion of refornaed and Lu¬
theran theologians was appointed in 1736, to examine
into the tenets of that unfortunate philofopher. Wolf
was declared innocent, and a letter was fent to him at
Marpourg containing an invitation to return 5 but the
philofopher did not think proper to make his appear¬
ance till the year 1740, when his protestor was feated
on the throne.
During his refidence at Rheiniberg, Frederick com-
pofed his refutation of the principles of Machiavel, un¬
der the title of Anti Machiavel; of which he fent the
manufcript to Voltaire to correft, and to get printed.
The old king, now almoit worn out with infirmity,
faw with regret the prediledtion his fon entertained for
men of letters; and, in his peevifit fits, often threaten¬
ed the whole fociety with confinement in the fortrefs
of Spandau. Thefe threats frequently occafioned a
violent alarm among the joyous company at Rheinfberg,
which it required all the eloquence of Frederick to
quiet. Their apprehenfions on this account, however,
were foon removed. At the commencement of the
year 1740, the king’s diforder increafed to a great de¬
gree, and in the month of May his cafe became defpe-
rate. He lived, however, till the 31ft of that month,
when he expired, and left the throne to his fon Frede¬
rick II.
The acquifition of a kingdom did not abate Frede¬
rick’s paffion for literature, though to this he was now
obliged to fuperadd the qualities and labours of a great
king. A confideration of his tranfadlions in this charac¬
ter falls under the article Prussia, to which we refer :
thefe, indeed, fo totally engroffed the remaining part of
his life, that little more remains to be faid under this ar¬
ticle, than to relate fome anecdotes by which we may
be in fome meafure able to trace the character of this
great and fingular perfonage.
It has already been mentioned, that in the early part
of his life, Frederick had conceived a great inclination
to travel. This paffion feems not to have been extin-
guifhed by the fplendor of his new fituation ; for ha¬
ving, foon after his acceffion,gone into Pruffia and Weft-
phalia to receive the homage of the inhabitants, he
formed a refolution of proceeding incognito as far as
Paris. Being difcovered at Strafbourg, however, he
laid afide the defign of proceeding to Paris, and went
to fee his hates in Lower Germany. Here he wrote
the celebrated Voltaire, that he fhould come incognito
to vifit him at Bruffels ; but being feized with an in-
difpofition in the little palace of Meufe, two leagues
from Cleves, he wrote again to that philofopher, in¬
forming him that he expe&ed he fhonld make the firft
•advances. The following curious account is given by
him of his reception, &c. “ The only guard I found
at the gate was one foldier. The privy-counfellor,
Bambonet, was cooling his heels in the court: he had
large ruffles of dirty linen; a hat full of holes; and an old
magifterial peruke, one end of which defcended as low
as his pockets, and the other fcarcely reached his ffloul-
der. 1 was conduced into his majefty’s apartment,
where there was nothing but bare walls. I perceived
in a cabinet, by the glimmering of a taper, a truckle
bed, two feet and an half wide, on which lay a little
N° 132.
man muffled up in a night-gown of co'arfe blue cloth. Frederick.’
This was the king, in a ftrong perfpiration, and even  v—
trembling under a wretched blanket in a violent fit of
the ague. I bowed to him ; and began by feeling his
pulfe, as if I had been his firft phyfician. The fit over,
he drefled himfelf and fat down to table. Algarotti,
Kayferling, Maupertuis, the king’s minifter to the
States General, and myfelf, were of the party ; where
we converfed profoundly on the immortality of the foul,
on liberty, and the androgynes of Plato.”
This rigid economy, and contempt of every luxury
with regard to his ow n perfon, was maintained by Fre¬
derick as long as he lived. The following account, ta¬
ken likewfife from Voltaire, will give an idea of his man¬
ner of living. “ He rofe at five in the morning in
fummer, and fix in winter. A lacquey came to light
his fire, and drefs and (have him; and indeed he almoft
wholly dreffed himfelf. His room was not inelegant.
A rich baluftrade of filver, ornamented with little cu-
pids, feemed to enclofe an alcove bed, the curtains of
which were vifible ; but behind them, inftead of a bed,
there was a library: the king fiept on a truckle bed
with a (light mattrefs concealed behind a fereen. Mar¬
cus Aurelius and Julian, thofe apoftles of Stoicifm,
did not deep in a more homely manner. At feven his
prime minifter arrived with a great bundle of papers un¬
der his arm. This prime minifter was no other than a
clerk who had formerly been a foldier and valet de cham-
bre. To him the fectetaries fent all their difpatches, and
he brought extra&s of them, to which the king wrote
anfwers in two words on the margin : and thus the af¬
fairs of the whole kingdom were expedited in an hour.
Towards eleven the king put on his boots, reviewed
his regiment of guards in the garden, and at the fame
hour the colonels were following his example in their
refpeiffive provinces. The princes his brothers, the
general officers, and one or two chamberlains, dined at
his table ; which was as good as it could be in a country
where there is neither game, tolerable butcher’s meat,
nor a pullet, and where the very wheat is brought from
Magdebourg. After the repaft he retired alone into
his cabinet, where he made verfes till five or fix o’clock.
Then came a young man named D’Arget, formerly
fecretary to Valory the French envoy, who read to
him. A little concert began at feven, in which the
king played on the flute with as much (kill as the firft
performer ; and pieces of his compofition were fre¬
quently executed. Supper was ferved in a little hall,
the fingular and ftriking ornament of which was a
picture the defign of which he had given to Pefne, one
of our belt colourifts. It was a fine pidture of Priapus.
Thefe repafts were not in general the lefs philofcphic
on that account. Never did men converfe in any part
of the world with fo much liberty refpedting all the
fuperftitions of mankind, and never were they treated
with more pleafantry and contempt. God was refpedt-
ed ; but none of thofe who had deceived men in his
name were fpared. Neither women nor priefts ever
entered the palace. In a word, Frederick lived with¬
out a court, without -counfel, and without religious
worftrip.”
As Frederick had efpoufed his princefs entirely con¬
trary to his inclination, it was imagined that on his ac-
ceffion to the throne he would embrace the .opportuni¬
ty of fetting himfelf free from engagements fo'difagree-
able
F R E C 457 1 ERE
Frederick, able to himfelf. The queen was not without fufpicions
of this kind, infomuch that (he was on the point of
fainting away when he made his firft vifn to her. To
the furprife of all parties, however, he made her a very
affettionate fpeech, apologizing for his indifference, and
inviting her to participate with him the throne of which
(he was fo worthy. In the firft year of his reign he
reftored the academy of fciences at Berlin which had
been founded in 1700 ; but he foon became difgufted
with its members, whom he endeavoured at all times to
ridicule rather than encourage. His war with the
queen of Hungary, however, which took place almoft
immediately after his acceffion, for fome time prevent¬
ed him from taking fuchan attivepart in literary mat¬
ters as he was naturally inclined to do. After the
peace, being at liberty to follow his inclination,
he gave full fcope to his pafiion for literature ; and
in the interval betwixt the conclufion of the firft war
and'beginning of that of 1756, l16 compofed moft of
the works which are now afcribed to him. At this
time he wrote his Hijlory of my own Time, afterwards
announced among his pofthumous works. In writing
hiftory he acquired a tafte for hiftorians'; and juftly gave
the preference to the ancients, the moft celebrated of
whofe works he perufcd every year. Voltaire was his
principal literary correfpondent, whom he invited to
refide with him. Afraid of lofing his liberty, however,
that philofopher hefitated, excufed himfelf, and entered
into pecuniary treaties, firft for himfelf, and afterwards
for his niece Madam Dennis, whom he wiihed to ac¬
company him. At laft he was determined by feeing
a poem from Frederick to M. D’Arnaud, in which the
latter was compared to the rifing, and Voltaire to the
fetting, fun. By this Voltaire was fo much piqued,
that he fet out for Berlin without delay, and arrived
there in June 1750. He was received in the moft
magnificent and affe&ionate manner, and for fome time
his fituation was very agreeable ; but the difputes and
rivalfhip which took place betwixt him and Maupertuis
foon threw every thing into confufion. In thefe the
king interfered in fuch a manner as was certainly be¬
low his dignity ; and he often exercifed himfelf in ma¬
king a jeft of the other men of letters in a way exceed¬
ingly diigufting, and which induced many of them to
leave him. The fquabbles with Voltaire were fome-
times very diverting ; an account of fome of which is
given under the article Voltaire. They ended at
laft in a final quarrel with that wit, and his departure
from the kingdom. The reftlefs difpofition of Frede¬
rick fhowed itfelf after his departure, by his attempts
to provoke the literal! who remained at his court to
quarrel with him as Voltaire had been accuftomed to
do. But they were of too paffive a difpofition to gra¬
tify him in this refpedt, choofing rather to fuffer the
moft mortifying ftrokes of raillery, or to leave the king¬
dom altogether, than to contend with him. This
proved fo uneafy to the king, that he one day exclaim¬
ed, “ Shall we have no more quarrels then,?” The
breaking out of the war in 1756, however, put a flop
to this diverfion, and afforded him as many enemies as
he could wilh. The exploits he performed during the
feven years which this unequal conteft lafted, are al-
* SeePru/. moft increcible * ; and it is amazing how the fortitude
and refolution of any perfon could enable him to fuf-
tain the difficulties which during this period he had
Vol.VII. Part II.
to encounter. In one fatal moment, indeed, even the Frederick,
refolution of Frederick was on the point of giving way'. ——
This happened after the battle of Colin, when his af¬
fairs feemed altogether defperate, before they were re¬
trieved by the viftory at Rolbach. At this time he
wrote to his fifter at Bareith, that he was on the point
of putting an end to his own life; but as this refolu¬
tion did not extinguilh in him the love of glory, he
wiflied to have it faid that he made verfes on the brink of
the grave. With this view he wrote a long poetical
epiftle to the marquis d*Argens, in which he commu¬
nicated to him his defign, and bade him farewell.
Happily, at laft, the king’s affairs took a better
turn, and fuch defperate thoughts were laid afide. His
conftitution, however, was irreparably injured by the
exceffive fatigues he had fuftained. Soon after the
conclufion of the peace, his body began to bend, and
his head to incline to’ the right fide : by degrees he be¬
came very infirm; he was tormented with the gout,
and fubjeft to frequent indigeftions. All his dillem-
pers, however, were borne with invincible patience; and,
till a very ftiort time before his death, he never ceafed
to attend his reviews, or vifit the different provinces of
his dominions. He has been known to review his
troops, and gallop through all the ranks, as if he felt no
pain, notwithftanding that an abfcefs which had bro¬
ken out upon him, and approached to a fuppuration,
frequently, upon fuch occafions, touched the faddle.
In Auguft 1785 he impaired his health ftill farther by
affifting at a review, where he was expofed without even
a cloak to a heavy rain for four or five hours. On his
return to Potzdam he was feized with a fever ; and, for
the firft time, became unable toaffift at the military ex-
ercifes of Potzdam, which take place in September.
His malady, however, did not prevent him from dila¬
ting the difpofition of thefe exercifes during the three
days they lafted, and he always gave the word in pre¬
fence of his generals and the foreigners of diftinftion
then at Potzdam. About the end of autumn the fever
left him, but was fucceeded by a violent cough ; and
he continued free from the gout which had ulually at¬
tacked him at this feafon. He was greatly weakened
by the cough, which prevented him from fleeping ; but
this did not in the leaft interrupt him in the execution
of bufinefs. Every morning, at four or five o’clock,
he ordered the three cabinet fecretaries to enter his
apartment, where he di&ated anfwers to their papers.
It was not till after the difpatch of all his affairs that
he faw a furgeon, or fometimes a phyfician, though he
had a bad opinion of the phyficians in general, whom
he confulted on his diftemper. In the evening he a-
mufed himfelf from five to eight with fome of his fo-
ciety ; and after that hour he paffed the remainder of
the time before he went to reft, in hearing fome an¬
cient authors read to him ; and thus he continued to
employ himfelf till the very day before he died. On
the 17th and 18th of May 1786, he was unable to af-
fift at the ordinary reviews, but ftill he hoped to be
prefent at thofe of Silefia. He feveral times attempt¬
ed to mount his horfe to go to the parade at Potzdam;
but finding his powers infufficient, he was obliged to
return, after having proceeded a few paces. He made
other attempts, but with as little fuccefs ; and at laft
his diforder terminated in a dropfy. Being now no
longer able to remain in bed, he fat day and night in
F R E [ 458 ] F R E
Frederick, an arm chair with fprings which could be moved at
pleafure: For near a month before his death the fwel-
ling of his feet gave him violent pain, fo that he wifh-
ed an incifion to be made ; but the furgeon refufed to
perform the operation, fufpe&ing that it might haden
his death. Nature, however, accomplifhed his defires;
his right leg opened, and difeharged fuch a quantity
of matter, that he was greatly relieved ; and thofe un¬
acquainted with the medical, art began to entertain
hopes of his recovery, The phyfieians, however, were
of a very different opinion ; and the event juftified their
apprehenfions. On the 16th of Auguft 1786 his
throat began to rattle violently, and his attendants ex¬
pected every moment that he would breathe his laft. In
this fituation his three fecretaries entered the room for
the dtfpatch of bufinefs as ufual. Even then Frederick
made an effort to colledf his force, giving them a fign
to wait, as if he would fpeak with them in a fhort time.
This, however, was the laft he could make: For he
foon after fell into aftupor; though from this he reco¬
vered fo far as to be able to fpeak. In the evening he
tifked what o’clock it was ? and on being anfwered
that it was nine, he faid, “ Well then, I am going to
reft,” His rdpiration and voice became gradually
more feeble ; and he expired on Thurfday at 19 mi¬
nutes after two in the morning, without any convul-
fion or fymptom of pain.
This great monarch was of the middle fize, had
large blue eyes and a piercing look. He fpoke Ger¬
man incorrectly, and in a very rough manner; but
talked French very fluently, and his voice was then
mild and agreeable. His coriftitution was naturally
feeble, but he had greatly improved it by his adtivity
and laborious life. Fie had the art of relieving every one
from that embarraffment which frequently occurred in
accofting fuch a celebrated monarch ; and it feetns pro¬
bable that he himfelf confide,red on what hefliould fay to
any illuftrious perfon who happened to come to his court.
His univerfal knowledge enabled him to cbhverfe on
all fubjefts ; and thus he talked of war with military
men, of verfes with the poet, of agriculture with the
farmer, jurifprudence with the lawyer,, commerce
with the merchant, and politics with the Engliihman.
He had a very retentive memory ; was fond of foli’tude
and gardening; and likewife took great pleafure in
dogs, of which animals he conftantly kept a number
abdut him, giving them little* balls covered with leather
to play with. In company, he was fond of alking
queftions and jelling ; in which laft he proceeded
fuch lengths as undoubtedly were unbecoming in
a fuperior towards his inferiors, who would not have
failed to refent fuch jokes from perfons more on
an equality with them. In military affairs he was
exceflively fevere, not to fay cruel; of which the fol¬
lowing anecdote may ferve as an inftance. In the firft
war of Silefia, wilhing to make fome alterations in his
camp during the night, he forbade every perfon, under
pain of death, to keep, after a certain hour, a. fire or
other light in his tent. He himfelf went the founds ;
and in palling the tent of a captain Zietern he per¬
ceived a light. Entering the tent, he found the cap¬
tain fealing a letter to his wife, for whom he had a
great affeftion. “ What are you doing there ? (fays
the king:) Do you not know the order?” The cap¬
tain fell on his knees and alked pardon, but did not -at¬
tempt to make any excufe. “ Sit down (fays Fredc- Frederick,
rick), and add a few words I am going to dictate to Fr£derickf-
you.” Zietern obeyed ; and the king dictated, “ To- rg~ f
morrow I ftiall perifh on a fcaffold.” The unfortunate
man wrote them, and next day was executed. In
matters of domeftic legiflation, he was more arbitrary
than juft ; of which we have a notable example in the
famous cafe of Arnold the miller. The man had refu¬
fed to pay the rent of the mill he ‘pofftffed, on pre¬
tence that the ftream which turned it had been divert¬
ed into a filh-pond. This was evidently a frivolous
excufe; becaufe the water which ran into the pond al-
fo ran out of it into the fame channel as before, fo that
nothing could be loft except what'evaporated from the'
furface of the fifh-pond. The judges therefore gave
fentence againft the miller; but the king not only re-
verfed their fentence, but difgraced them. For this
he was celebrated through all the news-papers in
Europe ; and yet he was in the wrong, and afterwards
even acknowledged himfelf to have been fo : but, not-
withftanding he knew his error, he not only made
no reparation to the parties he had injured, but al¬
lowed them to lie in prifon at Spandau all his life¬
time, fothat they were not releafed till the commence¬
ment of the prefent reign. He entertained certain and
almoft unaccountable prejudices againft certain places
and perfons, which neither conduct nor merit could
eradicate. One of thefe unfortunate places wasWeft-
phalia, on which he never conferred any bounty : .and
one day a native of that country, a man of reat me¬
rit, being propofed to him for a place, he refufed, 'ay-
ing, “ He is a Weftphalian ; he is good for nothing.”
Voltaire accufes him of ingratitude to the Count de
Seckendorf; who, as we have already feen, faved his
life, and againft whom he afterwards conceived the
moft implacable hatred. His indifference towards
thofe who afforded him the moft effential fervicc, was
evident: when a robuft butcher prevented him from fall¬
ing, horfe and all, over a precipice, where both would
have undoubtedly been killed ; the king, fenfible of
the afliftance that had been afforded him, turned a-
bout, and faying, “ Thank you, friend,” rode off
vvithout ever inquiring farther about the perfon who
had juft preferved him from deftrutlion.
With regard to the literary merits of this monarch.
We certainly cannot pronounce them extraordinary.
Voltaire boafts of having corrected his works, and o-
thers of having furnilhed him with materials for his
hiftory. He has been accufed of borrowing whole
hemiftichs of poetry from Voltaire, Boileau, Rouffeau,
and others ; nor does the charge appear to be at all
void of foundation. Such of his verfes as appear to
have undergone no correction, are very indifferent,
fior .indeed can we pronounce any of his poetic woiks
to be of the firft rate. In the former patt of his life
he entertained a great partiality for the French learn¬
ing and language ; but as he advanced in years, he en¬
tirely loft this predileftidn, and inclined much more to
favour the Englifli and Germans. Towards the end of
his life, indeed, he affe&ed a contempt for the French,
without whom it is faid he would fcarce ever have made
any figure except in the military line.
FREDERICKSBURG, a fort and colony of
Brandenburg, on the gold-coaft of Guinea, in, Afri¬
ca, near Cape-Three-points, and about 75 miles from .
Cape-:
FRA C 459 3 FRA
Frederick- Cape Coaft. It mounts 46 pieces of cannon on four
batteries ; and formerly belonged to the Pruffians, bdt
i! is now fubieft to Denmark. W. Long. 1. 1 e. N. Lat.
Free-Stone.   J
■ 4. 30.
' FREDERICKSHALL, or Frederickstaot, a
ftrong town of Norway, in the prefecture of Ager-
huys, where Charles XII. king of Sweden was killed
by a mulket-ball in 1718, when he was befieging this
town. It is feated on the coaft of the Catagate, in
E. Long. 10. 45. N. Lat. 59. 2.
FREDERICKSODE, a town of Denmark, in Jut¬
land, taken by the Swedes in 1657, but now fubjeft
to Denmark. It is feated near the fea, in E. Long.
10. o. N. Lat. 55. 42.
FREDERICKSTADT, a town of Denmark, in
South Jutland, built in 1621. It is feated on the ri¬
ver Eyder, in E. Long. 9. 23. N. Lat. 55. 32.
Frederickstadt, a town of Norway, in the pro¬
vince of Agerhuys, feated on a bay of the fea, near
the frontiers of Sweden, in E. Long. 1 j . 6. N. Lat.
S9\}2'
rREE, in a general fenfe, is ufed in oppofition to
whatever is conftrained or neceffitated. When applied
to things endowed with underftanding, it more pecu¬
liarly relates to the liberty of the will.
Free-Bench, fignifies thateftate in copy-hold which
the wife, being efpoufed a virgin, has after the de-
ceafe of her hufband for her dower, according to the
cuftom of the manor.
In regard to this free-bench, different manors have
different cufloms : and in the manor of eaft and weft
Enbourne in the county of Berks, and in other parts
of England, there is a cuftom, that when a copyhold
tenant dies, the widow fhall have her free-bebch in all
the deceafed hufband’s lands, dum fola iff cajla fuerit,
whilft fhe lives Angle and chafte but if fire is found
to be guilty of incontinency, fhe fhall forfeit her eftate.
Keverthelefs, upon her coming into the court of the
manor riding backwards on a black ram, with his tail
in her hand, rehearfing a certain form of words, the
fteward is bound by cuftom to reftore her to her free-
bench. The words are,
Here I am,
Ridin” on a black Ram,
I,ike a whore af lam;
And for my crincum crancum
Have toft my bincunt bancum,
H ive done this worldly ftiame ;
Therefore, pray Mr Stewa; d, let me have my land again
Free or Imperial Cities in Germany, are thofe not
fubjeff to any particular prince ; but governed, like
republics, by their own magiftrates.
There were free cities, (libera civitates), even un¬
der the ancient Roman empire : fuch were thofe to
fvhom the emperor, by the advice or confent of the
fenate, gave the privilege of appointing their own ma¬
giftrates, and governing themfelves by their own laws.
See City.
Free Fijhery. See Free Fishery.
Free Warren. See Warren.
■ pREE-Mafon. See Mason.
pRE.R-Stone, a whitifh ftone, dug up in many parts
of Britain, that works like alabafter, but is more
hard and durable ; being of excellent ufe in build¬
ing, &c. It is a kind of the grit ftone, but finer Free-Stdfte
fanded and fmoother j and is called free, from its be- II
ing of fuch a conftitution as to cut freely in any di- Freeho^-j
rcftion. ——y—w
The qualities of the feveral kinds of free-ftones ufed
in the different parts of Europe are very differept.
They all agree in this general property indeed, that
they are fofter while in the quarry, than when they
have been fome time expofed to the air : but even this
general property differs greatly in degree. They have
a fort of grey free-ftone in ufe at Paris (of which we
do not yet feem to have met with any in this country),
which has the abovementioned quality in fo great a de¬
gree, that the expence of working it is in a great mea-
fure faved.
This ftone lies every-where on the fouth-fide of the
river Seine, and is of a coarfe and large grit. It is fo
foft when newly taken out of the ftrata, that they fa-
fhion it very conveniently with a fort of broad ax, and
form as many ftones for building in this manner in an
hour, as an equal number of our people do in a day or
two. Though this ftone is as foft as dry clay when
firft taken up, it is found to harden fo confiderably in
the air, that it becomes more than equal to our ordi¬
nary free-ftone.
Our Portland ftone of the fineft kind, which is
white, and of a clofe grit, is very fit for hewing and
carving; but it will neither refift water nor fire,
which is a very Angular inftance in fo denfe a ftone ;
while the free ftone of Kent, which is lefs beautiful to
the eye, and is of a greyifh colour, and confiderably
clofe, though of a larger grain, refills the air and wa¬
ter very well. The free-ftone of Derbyfnire, on the
other hand, is fo brittle as to be unfit for any fine
working ; and fo coarfe and open in its texture, that
it lets water through : yet it bears the fire extremely
well, and is fit for ovens, hearths, &c.
FREEBOOTER, or Flibuster, a name given to
the pirates who fcour the American feas, particularly
fuch as make war againft the Spaniards. See Buca-
neer.
FREEDOM, in general, the ftate or quality of be¬
ing free. See Liberty. •
Freedom of a Corporation, the right of enjoying all
the privileges and immunities belonging to it. See
Corporation.
The freedom of cities, and other corporations, is re¬
gularly obtained by fervirig an apprenticeftiip ; but it
is alfo purchafed with money, and fometimes conferred
by way of compliment.
Freedom of Confcience. See Toleration.
Freedom of the'Will, that power or faculty of the
mind, whereby it is capable of afting or not afting,
choofing or rejecting whatever it judges proper f. Off See Me*
this every man muft be feftfible, who finds in himfelftaphyfcs.
a power to begin or forbear, continue or end feve¬
ral actions, barely by a thought or preference of the
•mind.
FREEHOLD, FRAiNK Tenement, {fiberutn tene-
■mentum), island, or tenement, which a man holds in
fee-fimple, fee-tail, or for term of life. See Fee and
Tail.
Freehold is of two kinds, in deed and in law.
The firft is the real poffeffion of land or tene-
3 M z ment
F R E [ 460 ] F R E
Freehold ment in fee, fee-tail, or for life : the other is the right
!1 a man has to fuch land or tenement before his entry or
.Free"!;/. feizure.
? ’ * A freehold, by the common law, cannot commence
in future ; but it muft take elfeft prefently, either in
polfeilion, reverfion, or remainder. Whatever is part
of the freehold goes to the heir ; and things fixed
thereto may not be taken in diftrefs for rent, or in ex¬
ecution, &c. No man fhall be difleifed of his freehold
by flat. Magna Charta, cap, 29. but by judgment of
his peers, or according to the laws of the land : nor
fhall any diftrain freeholders to anfwer for. their free¬
hold, in any thing concerning the fame, without the
king’s writ. Freehold eftates, of certain value, are re¬
quired by flatutes to qualify jurors, electors of the
knights of the {hire in parliament, &c.
Freehold is likewife extended to fuch offices as a
man holds in fee, or for life.
Freehold is alfo fometimes taken in oppofition to
villenage.
Lambard obferves, that land, in the Saxons time,
was diftinguifhed into bockland, i. e. holden by book
or writing ; and folkland, held without writing. The
former, he fays, was held on far better condition, and
by the better fort of tenants, as noblemen and gentle¬
men ; being fuch as we now call freehold: the latter
was moflly in poffeffion of peafants; being the fame
with what we now call at the ’will of the lord.
In the ancient laws of Scotland, freeholders are
called mililes, “ knights.” In Reg. Judicial, it is ex-
prefied, that he who holds land upon an execution of a
flatute merchant, until he hath fatisfied the debt, tenet
ut liberum tenementum fibi et ajjignatis fuis ; and the fame
of a tehant per eligit : the meaning of which feems to
be, not that fuch tenants are freeholders, but as free¬
holders for the time, till they have received profits to
the value of their debt.
FREETHINKER. See DeisT.
FREEZE, Frieze, or Frize, in commerce. See
Frize.
Freeze, in archite&ure, that part of the enta¬
blature of columns, between the architrave and cor-
« niche.
The freeze is properly a large flat face, or member,
Separating the architrave from the corniche.
The ancients called it zoophorus,*(luofnpos,) becaufe it
was ufually enriched with figures of animals ; and our
denomination freeze has a like origin, being formed of
the Latin phrygio, “ an embroiderer,” becaufe it is
commonly adorned with fculptures in baffo-relievo,
imitating embroidery.
FREEZING, in philofophy, the fame with conge¬
lation. See Congelation, Frost, and Ice.
Freezing Rainy or Raining Ice, a very uncommon
kind of fhower, which fell in the weft of England, in
Pecember 1672 ; whereof we have divers accounts in
the Philofophical Tranfadlions.
This rain, as foon as it touched any thing above
ground, as a bough or the like, immediately fettled
into ice ; and by multiplying and enlarging the icicles,
broke all down with its weight. The rain that fell on
the fnow immediately froze into ice, without finking
in the fnow at all.
It made an incredible deftruftion of trees, beyond
any thing in all hiftory. “ Had it concluded with
fome guft of wind (fays a gentleman on the fpot), it
rftight have been of terrible confequence. I weigh¬
ed the fprig of an afh tree, of juft three-quarters
of a pound ; the ice on which weighed 16 pounds.
Some were frighted with the noife in the air ; till
they difeerned it was the clatter of icy boughs,
dafhed againft each other.” Dr Beale obferves, that
there was no confiderable froft obferved on the ground
during the whole ; whence he concludes, that a troft
may be vety intenfe and dangerous on the tops of fome
hills and plains; while in other places it keeps at two,
three, or four feet diftance .above the ground, rivers,
lakes, &c. and may wander about very furious in fome
places, and remifs in others not.far off. The froil was
followed by glowing heats, and a wonderful forward-
ne'fs of flowers and fruits.
FREIGHT, in navigation and commerce, the hire
of a fhip, or a part thereof, for the conveyance and
carriage of goods from one port or place to another;
or the fum agreed on between the owner and the mer¬
chant, for the hire and ufe of a veffel. See Maritime
Laws.
FREIND (John), a moft learned Englifli phyfician
and writer in the 18th century, was born at Croton,
Northamptonfhire, in 1675. In 1696, he publiflied, in
conjundlion with Mr P. Foulkes, an edition of two
Greek orations, one of JEfchines againft Ctefiphon,
and the other of Demofthenes de Corona, with a new
Latin verfion. In 1699, he wrote a letter to Dr Sloane
concerning an Hydrocephalus, publifhed in the Philo-
fophical Tranfadlions; and another letter in Latin to
the fame gentleman, De fpafmis rarior. hijloria, print¬
ed in the fame Tranfadlions. In 1703, his Emmena-
logia appeared ; which gained him great reputation.
In 1704, he was chofen profeffor of chemiftry in the
univerfity of Oxford. In 1705, he attended the earl
of Peterborough to Spain, as phyfician to the army
there; and upon his return in 1707, publiftied an
account of the earl’s expedition and condudl. la
1709, he publifhed his Chemical Le£lures. In 1712,
he attended the duke of Ormond in Flanders, as his
phyfician. In 1716, he was admitted a fellow of the
college of phyficians in London. This year he pub¬
lifhed the firfl and third books of Hippocrates De mor-
bis popularibus, with a Commentary on Fevers, writ¬
ten by himfelf. He fat a member for the borough of
Launceilon in Cornwall in 1722, where he diftinguifh¬
ed himfelf by his oppofition to the adminiftration.
March 1722, he was committed to the tower on a
charge of high-treafon : and while he was under con¬
finement, he wrote a Latin epiflle to Dr Mead, Ds
quibufclam variolarum generibus ; and began his Hiftory
of Phyfic, the firft part of which was publifhed in
1725,.and the fecond in 1726. Upon the accelfion of
George II. to the throne, he was appointed phyfician
in ordinary to the queen, who fhowed the utmoft rer
gard and efteem for him. He died at London in 1728.
His works were publifhed together in Latin at Lon¬
don, 1733, in folio, and dedicated to the queen.
FRE1NSHEMIUS, a learned and elegant author,
born at Ulm in 1608. He made Supplements to i.ivy,.
Tacitus, and Q^Curtius, in 60 books, printed at Straf-
burg in 1654. He wrote likewife Notes upon Q^Cur?
tins, Floras, Tacitus,, and. fome other. Latin authors 5
and died in i66q.
FREIT&
F R E [ 4^1 ] F R E
Freits, FREITS. See Freats.
French. FRENCH, in general, fomething belonging- to
■—v  France: thus we fay, the French language, French
cuftoms, polity, &c,
The French language, as it now (lands, is n« origi¬
nal or mother language, but a medley of feveralp Thofe
that prevail moil, and which are, as it were/the bafis
thereof, are, 1. The Celtic; whether that yere a par¬
ticular language itfelf, or whether it werdponly a dia¬
led of the Gothic, as fpoke in the wey and north.
2. The Latin, which the Romans carrirfa with them
into Gaul, when they made the co/queft thereof.
And, 3. The Teutonic, or that diale/t of the Teuto¬
nic fpolce by the Franks, when theyipafled the Rhine,
and eftablifhed themfelves in Gaulf Of thefe three
languages, in the fpace of about thirteen hundred
years, was the prefent French formed, fuch as it is now*
found. Its progrefs was very flow; and both the Ita¬
lian and Spaniili were regular languages long before
the French.
Pafquier obferves, it was under Philip de Valois,
that the French tongue firit began to be polifhed; and
that, in the regiiler of the chamber of accounts of
that time, there is a purity feen almoft equal to that
of the prefent age. However, the French was ftill a
very imperfeft language till the reign of Francis I.
the cuftom of fpeaking Latin at the bar, and of wri¬
ting the public a6ts and inftruments of the courts of
j-uilice in that language, had made them overlook the
French, their own language. Add, that the prece-
ding ages had been remarkable for their ingorance,
which was owing, in good meafure, to the long and
calamitous wars which France had been engaged in :
whence the French nobleffe deemed it a kind of merit
not to know any thing; and the generals regarded
little whether or no they wrote and talked politely,
provided they could but fight well.
But Francis I. who was the reilorer of learning,
and the father of the learned, changed the face of
things; and after his time, Henry Stevens printed his
book, De la Precellence du Langage Frangois. The
change was become very confpicuous at the end of the
16th century;, and under Henry IV. Amyot, CoefFe-
teau, and Malherbe, contributed towards bringing it
to its perfection ; which the Cardinal De Richelieu
completed, by the eftablilhment of the French acade¬
my ; an affembly, wherein the moll dillinguilhed per-
fons of the church, the fword, and the gown, have
been members. Nor did the long reign of Louis XIV.
contribute a little to the improvement of the language:
the perfonal qualities of that prince, and his tafte for
the fine arts, and that of the princes of the blood, ren¬
dered his court the politell in Europe. Wit and mag¬
nificence feemed to vie ; and his- generals might have
difputed with the Greeks, Romans, &c. the glory of
writing well, if they could not that of. fighting. From
court, the elegance and purity of the language foon
fpread itfelf into the provinces ; and now there is fcarce
any body there who does not write and 1'peak good
French.
One of the charaders of the French language is, to
be natural and eafy. The words are ranged in it much
in the fame order as the ideas in our minds; in which
it differs exceedingly from the Greek and Latin, where
the inverfion of the natural, order of words is reputed a
beauty. Indeed the Hebrew furpalfes even the French F/encJ*,
in this point; but then it comes (hort of it in copiouf- , Fl<:f:ati-a
nefs and variety. e—-y—
It mull be added, however, that as to the analogy
of grammar, and the fimplicity wherewith the moods
of verbs are formed, the Englilh has the advantage not
only over the French, but over all the known languages-
in the world ; but then the turns, the expreffiens, and
the idioms, of the Englilh, are fometimes fo quaint
and extraordinary, that it lofes a good deal of the ad¬
vantage which its grammatical limplicity gives it over
the reft.
The French has but few compound words; where¬
in it differs widely from the Greek, High Dutch, and
Englifh. This the French authors own a great difad-
vantage'in their language ; the Greek and Dutch de-
riving a great part of their force and energy from the
compofition of words, and frequently exprelling that
in one founding word, which the French cannot ex-
prefs but by a periphralis. The diminutives in the
French are as few as the compounds; the greatelfc
part of thofe remaining in ufe having loft their dimb
nutive fignification ; but what diftinguilh the French
moll, are its juftnefs, purity, accuracy, and flexibility.
French is the moll univerfal and extenftve language:
in Europe. The policy of Hates and courts -has ren¬
dered it neceffary for the minifters of princes, and
their officers, &c. and the tafte of arts and fciences has
had the fame elfedl with regard to the learned. In
Germany, and elfewhere, the princeffes and perfons
of diftindlion value themfelves on underllanding French;
and in feveral courts of Europe, French is almoft as
much known as the language of the country.
FRESCATI, or Frascati, a fmall town, fituated-
on the bi-ow of a hill, about twelve miles to the call-
ward of Rome. It derives its name from the coolnefs
of the air, and fr<.jh. verdure of the fields around. It
is built on the ruins of the ancient Tufculum; and the
Tufculan villa where Cicero wrote his famous quellions
is at a place how called Grotta Ferrata, about two
miles dillant. E. Long. 11. 43. N. Lat. 41.48. There
is a very fine profpeft from this town into the neigh¬
bouring country, which abounds with the feats of car¬
dinals and other nobility. It is the fee of a bilhop,
who is one of the fix fenior cardinals, and is furround-
ed by fome of the moll beautiful villas in Italy ; the-
principal of which are the villa Aldrobandini, belong¬
ing to prince Pamfili; the villa Taberna, belonging
to prince Borghefe;, and villa Ludovifi, to the family
of Colonna. The villa Aldobrandini,. called alfo Bel¬
vedere from its beautiful profpedft, is the moll remark--
able, on account of its fine iituation, extenfive gar¬
dens, airy terraces, its grottos, cafcades, and water¬
works. Over a faloon, near the grand cafcade, is the.,
following infeription :
Hue ego migravi mufti cpmitatus Apollo ;
Hie. Delphi, hk Helicon, hie mihi Delos erif.
The walls are adorned with a reprefentation.of Apollo
and the mufes; and fome of that god’s adventures are-
painted in frefco by Domenichino. The villa Taber--
na is one of the fined and bed furnilhed of any in ther
neighbourhood of Rome. From this you afeend thro*
gardens to Monte Dracone, another palace on a more-
lofty fituation, belonging alfo to that prince, and de¬
riving its name from the arms of his family. . Fronjs
hencse
F R E [ 462 ] ERE
Fnifco. hence you may fee Rome, and the whole extent of the
Ul" i ' plain : it has a noble afcent, with a broad paved walk;
and among other curiofities there is a hall adorned with
the pi&ures of a vatl number of eminent men for
learning and arms- The gardens, laid out by Vignola,
contain three miles in compafs; and have many de¬
lightful walks, with curious water-works. Near this
place are the monks of Camaldoli and the capuchins ;
and higher up are ruins of the ancient Tufculum.
Afcending towards the plain, two miles on the right-
hand, you find the famous abbey of Grotta Ferrata,
belonging to the monks of St Bafil, and fituated on
the ruins of Cicero’s houfe. The virgin Mary of the
great altar is an ancient Greek pi&ure ; in the chapel
the pi&ures of St Nilus and St Bartholomew the ab¬
bot, are by Annibal Caracci; and all the paintings in
frefco of this chapel are by Domenichino. Villa Lu-
dovifia has a charming walk going up to it, where you
fee the ruins of Lucullus’s palace. The houfe is fmall;
but the gardens are large, embellifiied with a great
variety of walks and fountains, and a beautiful caf-
cade.
FRESCO, a method of painting in relievo on walls,
fo as to endure the weather. It is performed with
water-colours on frelh plafter, or on a wall laid with
mortar not yet dry. This fort of painting has a great
advantage by its incorporating with the mortar, and
drying along with it, becomes very durable. The
Italians, from whom we borrow the term, call it frefco;
becaufe it is frequently ufed for walls, alcoves, and
other buildings in the open air. Vitruvius, hb. vih
•cap. 4. calls it udo leEtorio.
Painting in frefco is very ancient, having been prac-
tifed in the earlieft. ages of Greece and Rome. It is
chiefly7 performed on walls and vaults, newly plaftered
with lime and fand ; but the plafter is only to be laid,
in proport on as the painting goes on ; no more being
to be done at once than the painter can difpatch in a
day, while it dries. Before he begins to paint, a car¬
toon or deligu is ufually made on paper, to be calked,
an transferred to the wall, about half an hour after
the plafti r is applied.
The ancients painted on ftucco 5 and we may re¬
mark in Vitruvius what infinite care they took in ma¬
king the incruftation or plaftering of their buildings
to render them beautiful and lailing; though the mo¬
dern painters find a plafter made of lime and fand pre¬
ferable to it; both as it does not dry fo haftily, and as
being a little brownifh, it is fitter to lay colours on,
than a ground fo white as ftucco.
In this kind of painting, all the compound and ar¬
tificial colours, and almoft all the minerals, are fet afide,
and fcarce any thing£is ufed but earths; which are ca¬
pable of preferving their colour, defending it from the
burning of the lime, and refifting its fait, which Vi¬
truvius calls its bitternefs.
For the work to come out in all its beauty, the
colours mull be laid on quick, while the plafter is yet
moilt; nor fhould they ever be retouched, dry, wuth
colours mixed up with the white of an egg, or fize, or
gum, as fome wmikmen do ; becaufe fuch colours grow
blackifti; nor do any preferve themfelves, but only
fuch as were laid on haftily at firft.
The colours ufed are white made of lime flaked
long before, and white marble dull; ochre, both red and
yellow ; verditer; lapis lazuli; fmalt; black chalk, &c. Frcfh
All which are only ground, and worked up with wa- A
ter ; and moft of them grow brighter and brighter as rt ‘
the frefco dries.-
The brufhes and pencils for this work ought to be
long and foft, otherwife they will rake and raife the
painting. The colours fhould be full, and flowing
from the brufti; and the defign perfeft : for in this
work you cannot alter or add upon any colour.
FRESH-water, is that not tin&ured or impreg¬
nated with fait or faline particles, enough to be dif-
coverable by the fenfe. Such generally is that of
fprings, tains, wells, lakes, &c.
The dulcifying or making of fait water frelhis a fecret
that has been long fought with great attention. For
an account of the principal attempts that have beert
made with this view, fee Sea-Water*
Fresh Wind fignihes ftrong, but not violent; hence
when the gale increafes, it is faid to freflten.
FRESHES, in fea-language, denotes the impetuo-
fity of an ebb-tide, increafedby heavy rains, and flow¬
ing out into the fea, often difcolouring it to a confi¬
de rable diftance, and forming a line that feparates the
two colours, and which may be diltinftly perceived for
a great length along the coaft.
Freshes, a local term fignifying annual inunda¬
tions, from the rivers being fwollen by the melted
fnows and other f -lh waters from the up'ands, as is
the Nile, &c. from periodical or tropical rain.. As a
failor’s term, it is oppofed to ma.ine or fait water
floodings, tides, &c. The word is of common ufe in
America, where the inundations fo called are of great
fervice. They bring down the foil to the intervals
below, and form a fine mould, producing corn, grain,
and herbage, in the moft luxuriant plenty. They alfo
afford another benefit, in regard to many rivers in
America, toss, in equalizing the furface of the ftream
(where rapid falls, or cafcades, obftruCt the navi¬
gation), fo that rafts of timber and other grofs pro¬
duce are then floated down to the fea-ports in great
quantities.
FRESNOY (Charles Alphonfe du), an excellent
poet and painter, was born at Paris in 1611. Fie was
inftrudted there by Perrier and Simon Vouet in paint¬
ing : but he did not long adhere to Vouet’s manner of
colouring; for as foon as he fixed himfelf at Rome*
he made the works of Titian the models for his imita¬
tion. He was, however, more celebrated as a poet
than as a painter ; and gave more attention to thfc
theory than to the pradlice of the pencil. According- -
ly* he is better known by his incomparable poem De
arte graphical than by his performances on the canvas:
and on this poem he bellowed 'fo much pains, that he
died in 1665, before it was publifhed. It was printed
afterward with a French profie tranflation and notes by
M. de Piles; and was tranflated into Englilh by
Mr Dryden, who prefixed to it an original preface
containing a parallel between painting and poetry.
FRET, or Frette, in architedlure, a kind of knot
or ornament, confifting of two lifts or fmall fillets va-
rioufly interlaced or interwoven, and running at paral¬
lel diitances equal to their breadth.
Fret, in heraldry, a bearing compofed of fix bars,
croffed and varioufly interlaced. Some call it the true-
lover’t knot. See Heraldry.
Fret,
F R I r 46.? ] F R I
Fret, in mufic, fignifies a kind of ftop on fome in- mixture of houfes, rocks, thickets, and meadows, va- Friburg
ftruments, particularly bafs-viols and lutes. Frets con- rying inllantly from wild to agreeable, from the buftle Fr;^jon
fift of firings tied round the neck of the inftrument, at of a town to the folitude of the deepeft retirement. _ ‘1
" certain diftances, within which fuch and fuch notes are The Sane winds in fuch a ferpentine manner as to form
to be found. in its courfe, within the fpace of two miles, five ob-
pRET-Workt that adorned with frets. It is feme- tufe angles, between which the intervening parts of
times ufed to fill up and enrich flat empty fpaces; but the current are parallel to each other. On all fides
it is moftly 'praClifed in roofs, which are fretted over the defeent to the town is extremely fleep : in one
with plafler work. place the ftreets even pafs over the roofs of the houfes.
FRETTS, in mineralogy, a term ufed by our miners Many of the edifices are railed in regular gradation
to exprefs the worn fide of the banks of the rivers in like the feats of an amphitheatre ; and many overhang
mine-countries, where they fearch for the fhoad {tones the edge of a precipice in fuch a manner, that on look¬
er grewts walked down from the hills, in order from ing down, a weak head would be apt to tum giddy,
thence to trace out the running of the flioad up to the But the molt extraordinary point of view is from the
mJne. Pont-neuf. To the north-weft, part of the town
' Fretts, Freats, or Frcits. See Freats. ftands boldly on the fides and the piked back of an
FRIABLE, among naturalills, an appellation gi- abrupt ridge; and from tall to weft a femicircle of
ven to bodies that are eafily crumbled to pieces: fuch high perpendicular rocks is feen, whofe bafe is walked
are pumice and all calcined Hones. and undermined by the winding Sane^ and whofe tops
FRIAR, or Frier, by the Latins called frater, the and fides are thinly fcattered with fllrubs and under-
Italians fra, and the French frere, that is, brother : a wood. On the higheft point of the rocks, and on
term common to the monks of all orders; founded on the very edge of the precipice, appears, half-hanging
this, that there is a kind of fraternity or brotherhood in the air, the gate of the town called Bourgutllon :
prefumed between the feveral religious perfons of the a ftranger Handing on the bridge would compare it to
fame convent or monaftery. Laputa, or the Flying Ifland in Gulliver’s Travels;
Friars are generally diftinguilhed into thefe four and would not conceive it to be accefiible but by means
principal branches, w*. x. Minors, grey friars, or fran- of a cord and pulleys. The houfes, conftructed with
eifeans. 2. Auguftines. 3. Dominicans, or black a" grey fand-ftone, are neat and well built; and the
friars. 4. White friars or carmelites. From thefe public edifices, particularly the cathedral, are extreme-
four the reft of the orders defeend. See Franciscans, ly elegant. The inhabitants are Roman Catholics, as
Augustines, &c. are thofe of the wRole canton. The bifhop of Lau-
Friar, in a more peculiar fenfe, is reftrained to fuch fanne, called here the bifhop of Friburg, refides in
monks as are not priefts; for thofe in orders are ufually this city. He is appointed by the pope, ufually at
dignified with the appellation of father. the recommendation of the French court; and his re-
Friars Obfervant (fratres obfervantes), vftrz * branch venues, including a fmall peniion from France, and
of the Francifcans; thus called, becaufe not combined from the abbey of Hauterive, of which he was abbot,
together in any cloy tter, convent, or corporation, as amount to about b,. \oo per annum. His diocefe ex-
the conventuals are; but only agreed among them- tends over the whole canton, and part of that of So-
felves to obferve the rules of their order, and that more leure. In all his a&s and deeds he figns himfelf bifhop
ftriftly than the conventuals did, from whom they fe- and count of Laufanne, and prince of the German'
parated themfelves out of a fingularity of zeal, living empire. The fovereign power refides in the great
in certain places of their own choofing. council of two hundred ; comprifing the two advoy-
FRIBURG, a large town of Germany, and capital ers, the chancellor, the grand fautier, the fenate or
of Brifgaw ; remarkable for the fteeple of the great little council of twenty-four, the fixty, from which
church, which, next to that of Strafburg, is the fineft body are chofen the bannerets and principal magiftrates,
in Germany ; and for its univerfity. The inhabitants and the remaining hundred and twelve members, who
are famous for polifliing cryftal and precious Hones. It are {imply denominated burghers.”
has been feveral times taken and retaken ; particularly Friburg (the canton of), and one of the 13 repub-
by the French in 1744, who demolilhed the fortifica¬
tions. It is feated on the river Trif r, ten miles eaft
of Briftch, and 30 fouth of Stralburgh. E. Long.
7. 57. N. Eat. 48. 4. -
Friburg, a town of Swiflerland, and capital of the
canton of the fame name, feated on the river Sane,
lies of Switzerland. It is furrounded.on all fides by
the canton of Bern. The land is fertile in corn, fruits,.
and paftures ; and it is fa id the canton can fend 18,000 >
men into the field. This canton is entirely catholic.
FRICASSEE, a difti or mefs haftily dreffed in a
frying-pan, and feafoned with butter, oil, or the like.
Ccx's Tra¬
vels in Swii
Vol 11.’
p. 166.
in E. Long. 7. 5. N. Lat. 46. jo, Its fituation is The word is French, formed of the Latin frixatura,
moft Angular and pifturefque ; “ It'Hands partly “frying.” Others will have fricaflTee formed in imita-
-in a fmall plain, partly on bold acclivities on a tion of the noife made by butter, or other fat, when -
ridge of rugged rocks, half encircled by the river melted in the pan. We fay a fricaflee of pullets, of
Sane; and is fo entirely concealed by the circum- rabbits, of tench, of tripe, of frogs, of eggs, of peas,-,
jacent hills, that the traveller fcarcely catches the &c.
ftnalleft glimpfe, until he biirfts upon a view of the FRTCENTI, an epifcopal town , of Italy, in the
whole town from the overhanging eminence. The kingdom of Naples, and in the farther principato, near"
fortifications, which confift of high ftone-vvalls and the river Tripalto, in E. Long. 14. 13. N. Lat. 40. 59.
towers, inclofe a circumference of about four miles ; ' FRICTION, the aft of rubbing or grating the:
withinr which fpace. the eye comprehends a lingular furface of one body againft that of .another, called.
4v aik ’
Tsriflrlon.
F R I [ 464 ] F R I
a!fo attrition. The phenomena arifing upon the friftion
of divers bodies, under different circumftances, are
very numerous and confiderable. Mr Hawkfbee gives
us a number of experiments of this kind ; particular¬
ly of the attrition or fri&ion of glafs, under various,
circumfiances, the refult of which was, that it yield¬
ed light and became eledtrical. All bodies by fridtion
are brought to conceive heat; many of them to emit
light ; particularly a cat’s back, fugar, beaten ful-
phur, mercury, fea-water, gold, copper, &c. but,
above all, diamonds, which, when brifkly rubbed againfl
glafs, gold, or the like, yield a light equal to that of a
live coal when blowed by the bellows. See Electrics
and Electricity.
Friction, in mechanics, denotes the refiftance a
moving body meets with from the furface on which it
moves. Fridlion arifes from the roughnefs or afperity
of the furface of the body moved on, and that of the
body moving : for fuch furfaces confifting alternately
of eminences and cavities, either the eminences of the
one muft be raifed over thofe of the other, or they
mufl be both broke and worn off; but neither can hap¬
pen without motion, nor can motion be produced
without a force impreffed. Hence, the force applied
to move the body is either wholly or partly fpent on
this effedl ; and confequently there arifes a refiftance
or friclion, which will be greater, cteteris paribus, as
the eminences are the greater and the fubftance the
harder : and as the body, by continual fridlion, be¬
comes more and more poliflied, the fri&ion diminifhes.
See Mechanics.
Friction, in medicine afid furgery, denotes the aft
of rubbing a difeafed part with oils, unguents, or other
matters, in order to eafe, relieve, and cure it. Fric¬
tions are much ufed of late in venereal cafes. They
prefer the applying of mercury externally by way of
friftion, to that of giving it internally, to raife a fa¬
ll vation.
There are alfo friftions with the flelh-brulh, a linen
cloth, or the hand only. Thefe frjftions are a fort of
exercife which contributes greatly to health ; as they
excite and ftir up the natural warmth, divert defluxions,
promote perfpiration, open the pores of the flun, and
carry off ftagnant humours.
The flefh-brufti (Dr Cheyne obferves) is an exercife
extremely ufeful for promoting a full and free perfpi-
ration and circulation. Every body knows the effeft
of currying horfes; that it makes them fleek, gay,
lively, and aftive ; fo as even to be judged equivalent
to half the feeding. This it can no otherwife effeft, but
by affifting nature to throw off the recrements of the
juices, which flop the free circulation, and, by con-
ilant friftion, irritation, and ftimulation, to bring the
blood and fpirits to the parts moft diftant from the
feat of heat and motion ; and fo plump up the fuper-
licial mufcles. And the fame effeft it would have in
other creatures, and man himfelf, if managed in the
fame manner, and with the fame care and regularity.
Perfons, therefore, of weak nerves and fedentary lives,
would do well to fupply the want of other exercife
with fpending half an hour, morning and night, in
currying and rubbing their whole body, efpecially their
limbs, with a flelh-brulh. But this means of health
is moft advantageoufly ufed when the prime vie are
moft empty.
N° 132.
FRIDAY, the fixth day of the week ; fo named of Friday
Freya, a Saxon deity. By the Romans it was called ||
dies Veneris. See Frea. Friendly
Good Friday. See Good Friday. Iflanda.
FRIDBURG, an imperial town of Germany, in ’' -
Wetteravia. It is feated on a mountain, in E. Long.
8. 50. N. Lat. 50. 14. It was formerly much more
confiderable than at prefent.
FRIDSTOL, mentioned, in our ancient writers, a-
mong the immunities granted to churches, fignifies a
feat, chair, or place of peace and fecurity, where cri¬
minals might find fafety and proteftion : of thefe there
were many in England; but the moft famous were that
at Beverly, and that in St Peter’s church at York,
granted by charter of king Henry I.
FRIENDLY islands, a clufter of iflands in the
Pacific Ocean, fo named by Captain Cook in the year
1773, on account of the friendihip which appeared to
fubfift among the inhabitants, and from their courteous
behaviour to ftrangers. Abel Janfen Tafman, an e-
minent Dutch navigator, firft touched here in 1643,
and gave names to the principal iflands. Captain Cook
laborioufly explored the whole dufter, which he found
to confift of more than 60. The three iflands which
Tafman faw he named Nevo Amjlerdam, Rotterdam, and
Middleburgh. The firft is the largeft, and extends
about 21 miles from eaft to weft, and about 13 from
north to fouth. Thefe iflands are inhabited by a race
of Indians, who cultivate the earth with great indu-
ftry. The ifland of Amfterdam is interfefted by ftraight
and pleafant roads, with fruit-trees on each fide, which
provide (hade from the fcorching heat of the fun. The
chief iflands are Annamooka, Tangataboo (the refi-
dence of the fovereign and the chiefs), Lefooga, and
Eooa. Lefooga is about 7 miles long, and in fome
places not above two or three broad. It is in many
refpefts fuperior to Annamooka. The plantations
are both more numerous and more extenfive ; and in-
clofed by fences which, running parallel to each other,
form fine fpacious public roads, which would appear
beautiful in countries where rural conveniences have
been-carried to the greateft perfeftion. They are, in
general, highly cultivated, and well-ftocked with the
feveral roots and fruits which thefe iflands produce ;
and Captain Cook endeavoured to add to their num¬
ber by planting Indian corn, and the feeds of melons,
pumpkins, and the like. Eooa, when viewed from
the (hip at anchor, formed one of the moft beautiful
profpefts in nature, and very different from the others
of the Friendly Ides ; which being low and perfeftly
level, exhibit nothing to the eye but the trees which
cover them : whereas here, the land rifing gently to
a confiderable height, prefents us with an extenfive
profpeft, where groves of trees are only interfperfed
at irregular diftances, in beautiful diforder, and all the
reft is covered with grafs, except near the (hores, where
it is entirely covered with fruit and other trees; amongft
which are the habitations of the natives. In order to
have a view of as great a part of the ifland as pof-
fible, Captain Cook and fome of his officers walk¬
ed up to the higheft point of the ifland. From
this place they had a view of almoft the whole ifland,
which confided of beautiful meadows of prodigious ex¬
tent, adorned v/ith tufts of trees, and intermixed with
plantations. * While I was furveying this delightful
6 pro-
£ R I r 465 1 F R I
Friendly profpefl (fays Captain Cook), I could not help flatter-
IfUnds. jng myfelf with the pleafing idea that fome future na-
^ vigator may, frotn the fame flation, behold thefe mea¬
dows ftocked with cattle, brought to thefe iflands by
the fhips of England 5 and that the completion of this
fingle benevolent purpofe, independent of all other con-
fiderations, would fufficiently mark to pofterity, that
our voyages had not been ufelefs to the general in-
terefts of humanity. '* The next morning’, fays our be¬
nevolent commander, ‘ I planted a pine-apple, and
lowed the feeds of melons and other vegetables itt
Taoofa’s plantation. 1 had indeed fome encourage-
h.ent to flatter myfelf that my endeavours of this kind
alto would not be fruitlefs; as I had this day a difh of
turnips ferved up at my dinner, which was the produce
of feeds I left here in my former voyage.’
The natives of thefe iflands feldom exceed the com¬
mon ftature; but are very ttrong and well made, efpe-
cially as to their limbs. They are generally broad a-
bout the {boulders ; and though the mufcular difpofi-
tion of the men, which feems a confequence of much
aftion, rather conveys the appearance of ftrength than
of beauty, there are feveral to be feen who are really
handfome. The women are not fo much diftinguiflied
from the men by their features as by their general
form, which is for the moft part defl.itnte of that
ftrong flefhy firainefs that appears in the latter. Tho’
the features of fome are fo delicate, as not only to be
a true index of their fex, but to lay claim to a eon-
fiderable (hare of beauty and expreffion, for the bodies
and limbs of mod of the females are well proportion¬
ed ; and fome abfolutely perfect models of a beautiful
figure. But the mbft remarkable diftin&ion in the
women, is the uncommon fmallnefs and delicacy of
their Angers, which may be put in competition with
the fined in Europe. The general colour is a caft
deeper than the copper brown; but feveral of the men
and women have a true olive complexion ; and fome
of the lad are even a great deal fairer. Their coun¬
tenances very remarkably exprefs the abundant mild-
nefs or good-nature which they poflefs; and are en¬
tirely free from that favage keennefs which marks na¬
tions in a barbarous date. They are frank, cheerful,
and good-natured.
There are, upon the whole, few natural defeats or
deformities to be found amongd thefe people. The moft
common is the tetter or ring-worm, that feems to af-
feft almoft one half of them, and leaves whitifh fer-
pentine marks everywhere behind it; but this is of
lefs confequence than another which is very frequent,
and appears on every part of the body. Captain Cook
had the mortification to learn that all the care he took,
when he firft vifited thefe iflands, to prevent the vene¬
real difeafe from being communicated to the inhabi¬
tants, had proved ineffeftual. What is extraordinary,
they do not feem to regard it much ; and as there ap¬
peared few figns of its deftroying effedbs, probably the
climate, and the way of living of thefe people, great¬
ly abate its virulence. There are two other complaints
frequent amongft them; one of which is an indolent firm
fwelling, that affe&s the legs and arms, and increafes
them to an extraordinary fifce in their whole length. The
other is a tumor of the lame fort in the tefticles,
which fometimes exceeds the fize of the two lifts. But
in other refpe&s they may be confidered as uncom¬
monly healthy.
Vol.VII. Part. II.
Their hair is in general ftraight, thick, and ftrong, Friendly
though a few have it bufliy or frizzled. The natural
colour is black ; but the greateft part of the men, and
fome of tire women, have it Sained of a brown of
purple colour, and a few of an orange caft. llrey
wear it varioufly cat. Some have it cut off on one
fide of the head only ; others have it entirely cut dff
except a fiftgle lock; the women in general wear it
fhort. The men have their beards cut ftiort; and both
men and women ftrip the hair from t he arm-pits. The
men are ftained from about the middle of the belly
to about half-way down the thighs with a deep blue
colour. The women have only a few fmall lines or
fpots thus imprinted oh the infide of their hands. Their
kings, as "a mark of diftindlion, are exempted from
this cuftom.
The men are all circumcifed, or rather fopercifed,
as the operation confifts in cutting off only a fmall.
piece of the forefldn at the upper part; which by that
means is rendered incapable ever after of covering the
glans. This is all they aim at, as they fay the opera¬
tion is praftifed from a notion of cleanlinefs.
The drefs of both men and women are the fame ;
and confifts of a piece of cloth or matting (but moftly
the former) about two yards wide and two and a
half long; at leaft fo long as to go once and a half
round the waift, to which it is confined by a girdle or
cord. It is double before, and bangs down like a
petticoat, as low as the middle of the leg. The upper
part of the garment above the girdle is plaited into
feveral folds ; fo that, when unfolded, there is cloth
fufficient to draw’ up and wrap round the {boulders ;
which is very feldom done. The inferior fort are fa-
tisfied with fmall pieces; and very often wear nothing
but a covering made of leaves of plants, or the maro,
which is a narrow piece of cloth or matting like a
fafh. This they pafs between the thighs and wrap
round the waift; but the life of it is chiefly confined
to the men. The ornaments worn by both fexes are neck¬
laces, made of the fruit of the pandanus, and various
fwt-et-fmelling flowers, which go under the general
name of huhulla. Others are compofed of fmall {hells,
the wing and leg bones of birds, fliark’s teeth, and
other things ; all which hang loofe upon the breaft ;
rings of tortoife fhells on the fingers ; and a number
of thefe joined together as bracelets on the wrifts.
The lobes of the ears (though moft frequently only
one) are fometimes perforated with two holes, in which
they wear cylindrical bits of ivory about three inches
long.
Cleanlinefs induces them to bathe in the ponds, which
feem to ferve for no other purpofe. They are fenfible
that fait water hurts their {kin ; and when necelfity ob¬
liges them to bathe in the fea, they commonly have
fome cocoa-nut {hells filled with frefti water poured
over them to wafli it off. People of fuperier rank
ufe cocoa-nut oil, which improves the appearance of
the {kin very much.
The employment of the women is of the eafy kind,
and, for the moft part, fuch as may be executed in the
houfe. The manufafturing their cloth is wholly con-
figned to their care; as is alfo that of their mats, which
are efteemed both for their texture and their beauty.
There are manyother articles of lefs note that employ the
(pare time of their females ; as combs, of which they
makcvaft numbers, and little balkets with fmall beads;
3 N but
F R I [ 466 1 F R I
Friendly but all finiftied with fuch neatnefa and tafte in the dif-
lHands pofition of the various parts, that a ftranger cannot
help admiring their affiduity and dexterity.
The province allotted to the men, as might he ex-
pefted, is far more laborious and extenfive than that
of the women. Agriculture, archite&ure, boat-build¬
ing, fifhing, and other things that relate to naviga¬
tion, are the objefts of their care. Cultivated roots
and fruits being their principal fupport, this requires
their conftant attention to agriculture, whicli they
purfue very diligently, and feem to have brought almoil
to as great perfe&ion as circumftances will permit.
In planting the plaintains and yams, they obferve fo
much exaftnefs, that, whichever way you look, the
rows prefent themfelves regular and complete. The
cocoa-nut and bread fruit trees are fcattered about
without any order, and feem to give them no trouble
after they have attained a certain height.
The houfes of the lower people are poor huts, and
very fmall; thofe of the better fort are larger and more
comfortable. The dimenfions of one of a middling
fize are about 30 feet long, 20 broad, and 12 high.
Their houfe is, properly fpeaking, a thatched roof or
(hed, fupported by polls and rafters, difpofed in a
very judicious manner. The floor is raifed with earth
fmoothed, and covered with llrong thick matting,
and kept very clean. A thick ftrong mat, about two
and a half or three feet broad, bent into the form of
a femicircle, and fet upon its edge, with the ends
touching the fide of the houfe, in fliape refembling the
fender of a fire hearth, inclofes a fpace for the mailer
and miftrefs of the family to deep in. The reft of the
family fleep upon the floor, wherever they pleafe to
lie down ; the unmarried men and women apart from
each other : Or if the family be large, there are fmall
huts adjoining, to which the fervants retire in the
,/iight ; fo that privacy is as much obferved here as
one could expeft. The clothes that they wear in
the day ferve for their covering in the night. Their
.whole furniture confifts of a bowl or two, in which
they make kava; a few gourds; cocoa-nut fhells;
and fome fmall wooden ftools, which ferve them for
pillows.
They difplay much ingenuity in the building of their
canoes, as well as in the navigating them.
The only tools which they ufe to conllruft them,
which are very dexteroufly made, are hatchets, or ra¬
ther thick adzes, of a fmooth black Hone that abounds
at Toofoa; augres, made of lhark’s teeth, fixed on
fmall handles, and rafps of a rough Ikin of a filh, fall-
ened on flat pieces of wood, thinner on one fide, which
alfohave handles. The cordage is made from the fibres
of the cocoa-nut hulk, which, though not more than
nine or ten inches long, they plait, about the fize of
a quill, or lefs, to any length that they pleafe, and
roll it up in balls, from which the larger ropes are
made by twilling feveral of thefe together. The lines
that they filh with are as ftrong and even as the bell
cord we make, refembling it almoft in every refpedl.
Their other fifhing implements are large and fmall
hooks made of pearl-lhell. Their weapons are clubs
of different forts (in the ornamenting of which they
fpend much time), fpcars, and darts. They have alfo
bows and arrows ; but thefe feemed to be defigned
only for amufement, fuch as fhooting at birds, and
not for military purpofes. The ftools are about two Friendly
feet long, but only four or five inches high, and near Iflaad«*
four broad, bending downward in the middle, with v—*
four ftrong legs, and circular feet; the whole made
of one piece of black or brown wood, neatly poli/hed,
and fometimes inlaid with bits of ivory.
Yams, plantains, and cocoa-nuts, compofe the great-
eft part of their vegetable diet. Of their animal food,
the chief articles are, hogs, fowls, fifh, and all forts of
fliell fifh ; but the lower people eat rats. The two
firft vegetable articles, with bread-fruit, are what may
be called the bafis of their food, at different times df
the year, with fifh and fhell fifh ; for hogs, fowls, ami
turtle, feem only to be occalional dainties, referved for
their chiefs. Their food is generally dreffed by ba¬
king, and they have the art of making, from different
kinds of fruit, feveral difhes which moft of us efteemei
very good. The generality of them lay their victuals
upon the firlt leaf they meet with, however dirty it
may be; but when food is ferved up to the chiefs, it
is'commonly laid upon green plantain leaves. The
women are not excluded from eating with the men ;
but there are certain ranks or orders amongft them
that can neither eat nor drink together. This diftinc-
tion begins with the king ; but where it ends could
not be learnt. They feem to have no fet time for
meals. They go to bed as foon as it is dark, and rife
with the dawn in the morning.
Their private diverfions are chiefly finging, dancino-,
and mufic, performed by the women. The dancing ot
the men has a thoufand different motions with the
hands, to which we are entire flrangers; and they are
performed with an eafe and grace which are not to be
defcribed but by thofe who have feen them.
Whether their marriages be made lading by any
kind of folemn contract, our voyagers could not deter¬
mine with precifion ; but it appeared that the bulk of
the people fatisfied themfelves with one wife. The
chiefs, however, have commonly feveral women ; tho*
it appeared as if one only was looked upon as the
miftrefs of the family.
When any perfon of confequence dies, his body is
waflred and decorated by fome woman or women, who
are appointed on the occalion ; and thefe women are
not, by their cuftoms, to touch any food with their
hands for many months afterwards ; and it is remark¬
able, that the length of the time they are thus pro-
fcribed, is the greater in proportion to the rank of the
chief whom they had wafhed.
The concern of thefe people for the dead is moffi
extraordinary. They beat their teeth with ftones*
llrike a ftiark’s tooth into the head until the blood
flows in Itreams, and thruft fpears into the inner part
of the thigh, into their fides below the ai m-pits, and
through the cheeks into the mouth. All thefe ope¬
rations convey an idea of fuch rigorous difcipline, as
muft require either an uncommon degree of affec¬
tion, or the groffeft fuperftition to exadl. It fliould
be obferved, however, that the more painful operations
are only pra£lifed on account of the death of thofe
moft nearly connedled.
Their long and general mourning proves, that they
confider death as a very great evil. And this is con¬
firmed by a very odd cuftom which they pra&ife to
avert it. They fuppofe that the Deity will accept
1 &f
F R I [ 467 ] F R I
•Friendly of the little finger, as a fort of facrifice efficacious
Iflands. enough to procure the recovery of their health. They
v" » cut it off with one of their ftone hatchets. There ap¬
peared fcarcely one in ten of them who was not thus
mutilated in one or both hands. According to^Captain
King, it is common alfo for the inferior people to cut
off a joint of their little finger on account of the fickncfs
of the chiefs to whom they belong.
They feem to have little conception of future pu-
, nifhment. They believe, however, that they are juftly
puniihed upon earth ; and confequently ufe every me¬
thod to render their divinities propitious. The Su¬
preme Author of all things they call Kallafootonga;
who, they fay, is a female refiding in the Iky, and di-
redting the thunder, wind, rain, and in general all the
changes of weather. They believe that when (he is
angry with them, the productions of the earth are
blafted ; that many things are deftroyed by lightning;
and that they themfelves are afflicted with ficknefs and
death as well as their hogs and other animals. When
this anger abates, they fuppofe that every thing is re-
ftored to its natural order. They alfo admit a plura¬
lity of deities, though all inferior to Kallafootonga.
They have lefs abfurd fentiments about the immate¬
riality and the immortality of the foul. They call it
life, the living principle; or, what is more agreeable to
their notions of it, Otooa; that is, a divinity or invi-
fible being.
Of the nature of their government no more is known
than the general outline. According to the informa¬
tion received, the power of the king is unlimited, and
the life and property of the fubjeft are at his difpofal;
and inftances enough were feen to prove that the lower
order of people have no property, nor fafety for their
perfons, but at the will of the chiefs to whom they re-
fpeCtively belong. When any one wants to fpeak with
the king or chief, he advances and fits down before
him with his legs acrofs ; which is a pofture to which
they are fo much accuftomed, that any other mode of
fitting is difagreeable to them. To fpeak to the king
ftanding would be accounted here as a ilriking mark
of rudenefs.
Though fome of the more potent chiefs may vie
with the king in point of aCtual poffeffions, they fall
very ftiort in rank and in certain marks of refpedt,
which the collective body have agreed to pay the mo¬
narch. It is a particular privilege annexed to his fo-
vereignty, not to be punCtured nor circumcifed, as all
his fubjeCts are. Whenever he walks out, every one
whom he meefs muft fit down till he has paffed. No
one is allowed to be over his head ; on the contrary all
mult come under his feet; for there cannot be a great¬
er outward mark of fubmiffion than that which is paid
to the fovereign and other great people of thefe illands
by their inferiors. The method is this ; the perfon
who is to pay obeifance fquats down before the chief,
and bows the head to the foie of his foot; which,
when he fits; is fo placed that it cannot eafily be come
at; and having tapped or touched it with the under
and upper fide of the fingers of both hands, he rifes
up and retires. The hands, after this application of
them to the chief’s feet, are in fome cafes rendered
ufelefs for a time ; for, until they be walked, they mull
not touch any kind of food. When the hands are in
this Hate, they call it taboo rema. Taboo, in general.
fignifies “ forbidden,” and rema is their word for Fnendfit'p.
“ hand.” Their great men are fond of a Angular —v-—*
piece of luxury ; which is, to have women fit befide
them all night, and beat on different parts of their
body until they go to lleep ; after which they relax a
little of their labour, unlefs they appear likely to
awake ; in which cafe they redouble their drumming
until they are again fall afleep. t
FRIENDSHIP maybe defined, a mutual attach-Definition
meat fubfilling between two perfons ; and arifing, not of friend-
merely from the general principle of benevolence, from
emotions of gratitude for favours received, from views
of intereft, nor from inftinftive affe&ion or animal
paffion, but from an opinion entertained by each of
them, that the other is adorned with fome amiable or
refpe&able qualities.
The objedt of the general principle of benevolence * .
is mankind, not any particular individual. Gratitude of theabave
regards the perfon from whom he who feels its emo- definition,
tions has received a favour, whether that perfon be a
virtuous or a vicious, a refpedtable or a contemtible,
charadter: it prompts the perfon obliged to make a fuit-
able return to his benefadtor, but not to enter into
any particular intimacy with him, merely on account
of the favours which he has received. Many connec¬
tions are formed, and dignified with the name offriend-
Jhip, upon no other principle but the fordid hope which
one or perhaps each of the parties entertains of ac-
complifhing fome felfifh purpofe through the affiftance
of the other: but fuch a connedtion is fo bafe in its
nature, and fo tranfitory in its duration, as to render
it unneceffary for us to fpend time in demonftrating it
to be unworthy of the name of friendihip. The in-
ftindtive affedtion which a parent entertains for his
child, as well as that which the child feels for his pa¬
rent, feem intended by nature to form an union between
the perfons thus related to each other : but the union
between parents and children, when fupported by no
other principle but inftindt, is different from friend-
fhip ; it extends no farther than to caufe the parent
to provide for his child during his helplefs years, and
the child to look up to his parent for protection and
fupport. We need not mention that appetite which
is the foundation of love, and is the provifion which
nature has made for the continuation of our fpecies.
This appetite alone, and unaffifted by fome nobler prin¬
ciple, cannot give rife to any connedtion worthy of an
honourable name.
After excluding thefe principles, we can refer the
origin of friendfhip only to “an opinion entertained
by each of the parties between whom it fubfifts, that
the other is adorned with fome amiable or refpedtable
qualities.” A connedtion founded on different prin¬
ciples we cannot honour with the name of friendfhip;
but that which flows from this pure fource mufl be
noble and virtuous. When two perfons of virtue and
abilities contemplate each the other’s charadter and
condudt, they cannot but view them with complacency
and efleem. Habits and adtions difplaying prudence,
fortitude, moderation, integrity, benevolence, and piety,
naturally command the approbation of the impartial
fpedtator, and even affedt him with delight. But as
we are difpofed to revifit a landfcape the beauties of
which we have contemplated with rapture^ and read
with frequent delight a poem in which genius has
3 N 2 faith-
V R l [ 468 ] F R I
■Fipehtf&ip. fully-del'iaeated fame of the moft enchanting fcenea
1 v—or the ipoft i»terefting events in nature ; fp we alfo be¬
come defirous to, enjoy frequent opportunities of Con¬
te in plating a. character dhtlnguifhed for eminent abi--
lilies and illidlrious virtues. The fbciety of fuch a
perfon is preferred to his who is difgtaced by the op-,
pofite qualities. Hence! whenever men of truly re-
fpeclable charafters enjoy opportunities of mutual in-,
teiconrfe, an attiaebmeat naturally takes place between
them ; entirely diiinteveiled,, and founded folely on,
the approbation with which the one- cannot avoid re¬
garding the condact of the other. The efteem which
the one is thus induced to entertain for the other will
Ifcad them to feek. frequent opportunities of enjoying
each, other's fociety, mutually to a(1-5 and Men to ad->
vice, to tvuft their moft fecrct and, important pnrpofta
to each other’s confidence, and to be no lefs concern¬
ed each of them for the other’s hifcerell and honom
than for hi? own. This, and this alone, is genuine
friendlhip ; founded on virtue, and on that approba¬
tion which virtue never fails to command : it is a na¬
tural confequence of intercourfe between virtuous men.
Where it is once etlablilhed, it cannot die, while thole
virtues to which it owes ita origin continue to adorn
the perfons between whom it fubllfts.
Circum- But, perhaps, fuch a pure and fublime attachment
ftanccs fa* can fcarce be expected; to exilt among beings of fb
vourableto and imperfect a character as mankind. The
contlnu-and man ltle ancient Stoics, or the Chriftian who
ante of* faithfully obeys, the precepts and follows the Heps of
friendfliip. his Saviour, might be capable of it; but, unfortunately,
humanity never reaches fuch. perfection. Virtue and
vice are fo blended together in every human character,
that while none is fo worthlefs as to excite no other
fentiment but abhorrence, there is fcarce any fo uni¬
formly virtuous as to command unvaried elleem. or ad¬
miration. Even the pureft and molt difinterefted of
thofe friendlhips which prevail among men, owe their
origin to other meaner principles, as well as to that
which has been mentioned as the principle of genuine
friendihip. There are certain circumltanccs favourable,
and others adverfe, to the formation and continuance
of friendfiiip. Thefe, making amends, as it were, for
the imperfection of human virtue and human know¬
ledge, lead men to, overlook each other’s faults and fol¬
lies, and to unite in the bonds of friendlhip ; a friend-
Ihip which, though lefs folid, lefs generous, and lefs
lading, than that which we have above deferibed, is
yet attended with effeCts favourable to the happinefs
of individuals, and to the inteteft&of fociety in general.
Equality of age is favourable to friendlhip. Infancy,
manhood, and old age, differ fo confiderably from each
other in their views, paffions, and purfuits, that the man
will feldom be difpofed to affociate with the boy or the
youth, in preference to one who has had equal experience
in the world with himfelf; and the old man will generally
wilh for the company of fome ancient friend with
•whom he may fpeak of “ the days of former years.”
They who cultivate the fame trade or QrafeJJion, en¬
joy opportunities favourable to the formation of friend¬
lhip. Being engaged among the fame objeCfs, and
acquiring Ikill in the fame arts, their knowledge, their
fentiments, and habits, are nearly the fame : they can¬
not avoid frequent intercourfe with each other; they
naturally enter into each other’s prejudices and views,
and therefore cannot but take pleafure in each other’s FriemMhijr.
converfat ion and fociety. Phyficians, lawyers, and
divines, form each of them a diflincl body; and the
members of each of thofe bodies affociate with one
another more readily than with men of a different pro-
feffion. It is related by Swift or Addifon, that, in
the beginning of the prefent century, there was a par,
ticular coffee-houfe in Londoa which clergymen tiled
to frequent, and that a fon of the church fcarce ever
ventured to (how his head in any other. In the days
of Dryiien, poets, and all who pretended to, poetical
genius or taile, refovted to Wid's, as to another Par-
uaffus, to lip cups of coffee, .and now and then per¬
haps to drink of fame more iflipiring liquor, iid-lead
of the waters of the fountain Hippoerene.
Equality of rank and fortune is allb favourable t<j
friendihip. Seldom will a man of fortune be able to
gain the fincere friendlhip of any of his dependants.
Though he treat them with the moft obliging conde-
feenfion, and load them with favours ; yet Hill, either
the fepfe of dependence, or refeutment for imaginary
injuries, or impatience of the debt of gratitude, or
fome other fimilar reafon, will be likely to prevent
them from regarding him with cordial affedtioa. Ser¬
vants are but rarely faithful even to the moft indul¬
gent mafter: Shakefpeare’s old Adam is a very amiable,
but a very uncommon charadfer. Indeed you may as
foon expedl to find the virtues and the generous cou¬
rage of the chevalier Bayard among our military men
of the prefent age, as to find an old Adam among the
prefent race of fervants. It is no lefs vain for the poor
man to hope to acquire a fincere friend among his fu-
periors in rank and fortune. The fuperior is generally
difpofed to exatt fuch profound deference, fuch gra¬
titude, fuch refpedl, even from the inferior whom he
admits into his intimacy, that the equal amicable in¬
tercourfe of friendlhip can fcarce ever take place be¬
tween them. Among the letters of the younger Pliny,
we are pleafed to find many monuments of the good-
nefs of his heart. A number of his epiftles addreffed
to friends in meaner circumftances, appear to have been
accompanied with very confiderable prefents, which
by his opulence he was well enabled to bellow. But
he takes care to let thofe humble friends know the
weight of the obligations which he conferred, and the
vaftnefs of the debt of gratitude which they owed to
him, in fuch plain, nay even indelicate terms, that
though they might receive his favours with gratitude
and regard him as their benefa&or, yet they eould
never regard him as a man with whom they might
cultivate the free eaiy intercourfe of friendlhip. Some
one or other of the Greek writers mentions a Angular
inftance of cordial friendlhip fubfiftiog between two
perfons in unequal circumftances. One of them dying
before the other, and leaving a wife and daughter to
whom he had no fortune nor even means of fubiiftence
to bequeath, enjoined his rich friend, in his will, to
take the charge of them on himfelf, and to fupport
them in a liberal manner : nor did he intreat this from
his humanity, but demanded it from his friendlhip.
He had made a fure provifion for his family. His
rich friend delayed not to comply with his dying in-
jun&ion. He readily took upon himfelf the charge
of the wife and daughter of his deceafed friend, treated
them with kiadnefs, and at laft. divided his whole fortune
equally
F R I
Friendflifp.equally between his own only daughter and the child
t“—~v' ‘ -- of his friend. Thia is an agreeable inftance of the
power of friendtfiip : hut fuch inftances are not to be
[ 4?9 1
F R I
{he yirtue of fuch a chara&er may be regarded as pro- Friendfhip.
blematical. It may be alleged, that while fuch inve-
terate dilfenlions arofe amoug his friends, the neutra-
expe&ed to qccur frequently in ordinary life, any move lity which he preferved was inconliftent with integrity'.
than the ftoic virtue of Cato, or the modeft piety of a
Melfon,
Similarity of tajle and temper will generally he found
favourable to friendlhip. Two petvifh men, indeed,
will not long endure each other’s company with much
fatisfa&ion ; hut two perfons of mild, humane dii'po-
luiqns will naturally take delight in each other’s fo-
ciety and conyerfation. They who are charmed with
the buttle of a gay and active life, avoid the haunts of
the indolent and contemplative, and join hand in hand
to climb the heights of ambition, or tread the round
of amufement and diffipation. Thofe whom tafte
leads to cultivate the elegant objefts of literature
amid the fweets of a rural retirement, to wander thro’
He has indeed been rafhly branded by fpme writers
as an avaricious time-ferving man. But no evidence
appears to juftify their afiertions; on the contrary, the
moft refpedtable teftimony, the niceft fcrutiny, exhibit
his character in thofe amiable colours in which we
have chofen to view it. Atticus is indeed no ordinary
chara£ter^ The general principles of human nature,
and the examples which moft frequently occur in the
world, naturally fuggeft a fufpicion, that had he been
a man of genuine integrity, he muft have obferved a
different tenor of conduct. But there is one circumftance
which tends to ftrengthen confiderably the refpeCtable
teftimony of his cotemporaries in his behalf. In Cato, in
Epictetus, in the philofopher who, while fuffering u
the grove, or recline on the brink of fome romantic der all the violence of an acute diftenaper, maintained
rill, and perufe the pages of one of thofe geniufes who
have Ihown themfelves able to enlighten the under-
to Pompey that pain was no evil, we have inftance#
of the tenets of philofophy oppofing and reprefling the
Handing, and to kindle the glow of generous fenti- principles of nature. We know how often religious
ment in the breaft thofe children of tafte frequently
affoeiate in their elegant purfuits. We are pleafed to
read the correfpondence of Pliny and Tacitus, of
Locke and Molineux, of Swift and Pope.. We rejoice
to find, that notwithftanding the rivalry of learning
and genius, tafte and philofophy have a natural ten¬
dency to promote benevolenpe and friendflup among
their votaries. The buftle of the world muft be ac¬
knowledged to be generally unfavourable to friendfaip.
enthufiafm has produced the fame effeCts. But Atticus
was the votary of the mild and elegant philofophy of
Epicurus ; which, though there appears to have been
a palpable inconfiftency between its principles and the
fuperftructure raifed upon them, was yet in its general
tendency not unfriendly to virtue, and recommended
to its votaries that calm and innocent mode of life
which Atticus cultivated. There is no fmall refero-
blance between the charadfer of Atticus and that of
When the heart is occupied with the fordid objetts of Epicurus, the founder of th s philofophy. The fame
ambition, 01 avarice, or gay diffipation, there is no tenets feem to have produced the fame effedls on both;
room left for the pure and generous fentiments of and we will venture to pronounce fo high an encomium
friendffiip. Interefts often interfere, competitions and
jealoufies arife, fatal to all the fweets of focial inter-:
courfe. It is in an a&ive life that virtue fliines wfth
the moft brilliant luftre ; but ftldom, alas ! does pure
virtue appear in the fcenes of aftive life. How beau¬
tifully does the character of Atticus (Tune amid the
chara&ers of his illuftrious cotemporaries! ut Lma inter
■minores ignes! Sylla, Caefar, Cicero, Brutus, Antony,
and Auguftus, were eminent for their abilities and vir-
on the Epicurean philofophy, as to aflert, that it
chiefly contributed to form the character of this ami¬
able Roman.
We know not if we may venture to affirm, that
friend/hips are moft naturally contracted among per¬
fons of the fame fex. We believe they often are. If
fimilarity of tafte, of fentiments, of manners, be fa¬
vourable to friendthip, this cannot but happen. The
diftjndtion which nature has eftablifhed between the
tues; but being engaged in the buttling purfuits of two fexes, the new diftindtions which are introduced
ambition, they feem to have been ftrangers to the
calm and elegant happinefs which Atticus enjoyed.
Though thofe of them who were cotemporaries could
not avoid perceiving and admiring each other’s merits,
yet never did cordial friendfhip fubfift between them.
Even Cicero who could fo well define the duties and
by the different views with which their education i
conducted, and the different duties which they are
called to perform in life, have all a tendency to difpofa
men and women to enter into habits of intimacy
with perfons of their own fex rather than with the
other. Young girls have their peculiar amufcmeuts.
defc ibe the happinefs of friendfhip, yet appears to as boys have theirs: they knit and few together, (
have but feldom enjoyed its delights. But Atticus,
who conftantly declined entering the fcenes of public
Hfe, experienced fuch happinefs in a private condition,
as muft have been more than an ample reward to him
for fhunning all the fplendid purfuits of ambition. He
was the difinterefted friend of all thofe eminent men,
and enjoyed their efteem and friendfhip. So upright
was his cbarafter, fo amiable his manners, that they
who were mortal enemies to each other, yet agreed in
cultivating at the fame time the friendfhip of Atticus.
fult each other concerning their drefs, and affociate at
their idle hours. Young men, in the fame manner,
prefer the fociety of their equals' of the fame fex till
fuch time as their hearts begin to feel the impulfe of
a new paffion. This foft paffion, indeed, caufes the
youth to prefer the company of his favourite maid to
that of his deareft companion ; and it perhaps caufes
the virgin to view her female companions with a jea¬
lous eye, while fhe fears that their charms may win
the heart of the youth whofe fond regard fhe herfelf
None of them appear to have hated him on account of wifhes to engage. But the fears, the jealoufies, the
his attachment to their enemies: and while he was
the friend of Cicero and O&avius, he was at the fame
time the proiedor of the wife of Antony. Perhaps
timidity, nay even the fondnefs of love, are incompa¬
tible with friendlhip. Though the lover and his miflrefs
be dear to each other, yet the free confidence of
j friendlhip
F R 1 f 4;
Fnendflnp. friendfliip cannot take place between them. They
•L'-u- dare not yet venture to truft to each other all the fe¬
rrets of their hearts. But if their mutual wifhes
be crowned by marriage; then, indeed, as their inte-
refts become the fame, if the tranfports of love are
not fucceeded by the calm delights and the free confi¬
dence of friendfiiip, they muft be unhappy. The mar¬
riage ftate is peculiarly favourable to friendlhip. Per-
fons whofe relations to each other are more remote,
will often find circumftances concurring to induce
them to cultivate a friendly intercourfe with each
other. But here indifference is almoft impofiible. It
is abfolutely requifite, in order that they may not ren¬
der each other miferable, that the hulband and the
wife be united in the bonds of friendlhip. This feems
even to be one of the great laws ©f nature, by means
of which provifion is made for the happinefs and the
prefervation of fociety. But though the wife and the
hulband be particularly attached to each other by the
ties of friendlhip no lefs than by thofe of love, yet
their mutual affe&ion will not detach them from the
reft of the world; their relations to the fociety around
them will ftill remain ; the hulband will ftill cultivate
the intimacy of thofe of his own fex, and the wife will
ftill choofe female in preference to male friends. Uporj
even a fuperficial view of life, we find reafon to declare
without hefitation, that acquaintance and intimacy
moft naturally take place among perfons of the fame
fex. The hulband and the wife are more than friends;
they are one bone and one jlejh. It has been fometimes
flightly infinuated, and fometimes more openly affert-
ed, by people who have but carelefsly viewed the phe¬
nomena of focial life, or have been difpofed to cavil
againft the fair fex, that women are incapable of fin-
cerity or conftancy in friendlhip with each other. But
it feems unnecelfary to offer a fcrious refutation of this
cavil. Neither is the general character of the female
fex fo inferior to that of the male, nor are their cir¬
cumftances fo very different from ours, as to render
them totally incapable of thofe virtues which are ne-
ceffary to eftablilh and fupport mutual friendlhip.
They are in general poffeffed of more exquifite fenfi-
bility, nicer delicacy of tsafte, and a jutter fenfe of
propriety, than we : nor are they deftitute of genero-
fity, fidelity, and firmnefs. But fuch qualities are
peculiarly favourable to friendlhip : they communicate
a certain charm to the manners of the perfon who is
adorned with them; they render the heart fufceptible
of generous dilinterelted attachment; and they elevate
the foul above levity, infincerity, and meannefs. Com¬
petitions and jealoufies muft no doubt arife now and
then even among the moft amiable of the female fex,
as well as among us. Thefe will preclude or deftroy
friendlhip. But the rivalry of beauty, of drefs, of
fafhion, is not oftener fatal to friendlhip among the
fair fex, than the contefts of pride, avarice, vanity,
and ambition, among their haughty lords. If friend-
fhip be ranked among the virtues, it is not lefs a female
than a male virtue.
The delightful intercourfe and intimacy of friend¬
lhip may be naturally expedled to fubfift not only be¬
tween the hulband and the wife, but among all who
are connected by any of the relations of confanguini-
nity. The power of inftindt does not always continue
to unite the parent and the child. Its offices are of a
]
F R I
Rclatif ns
of confan-
guiniiy.
temporary nature ; but when thefe are performed, it Fnendfhip
ceafes to operate. During the infancy, the childhood,' """v"
and even the youth, of his fon or daughter, the parent
watches over them with fond affe&ion, and labours
with anxious affiduity to promote their welfare, for
no other reafon but becaufe the yearnings of paternal
affeftion draw him towards them. But as they ad¬
vance farther in life, and become able to care for them-
felves, it has been fo ordered by the wifdom of nature,
that the attachment of the parent almoft dies away,
unlefs the grateful affedtion and the merit of his chil¬
dren afford him reafon to rejoice over them and blefs
them. How Ihocking, how miferable, the condition
of that family, whofe members are not united by the
mutual efteem and confidence of friendlhip ! where the
parent views his children with jealoufy, lhame, indig¬
nation, or forrow; and the children anxioufly avoid
the fociety of their parents! Their interefts are fo
nearly connedted; they have fo many occafions for
adting in concert, and muft live fo long together; that
we may almoft venture to affirm, that the parent and
the child, like the hulband and the wife, muft be ei¬
ther friends or enemies. But the ties of nature, the
influence of habit, fentiments, and circumftances, all
concur to form between them the facred connedtion of
friendlhip. Brothers and lifters, the children of the fame
parents, and for a while members of the fame family,
may be expedted to regard each other through life with
kindnefs and efteem; and thefe we would rather choofe
to attribute to a rational attachment, founded on cer¬
tain principles, than to a blind inftindtive affedlion.
Thefe are a few of the diftindlions and relations in
fociety which appear moft favourable to friendlhip.—
Were we to defcend to minuter particulars, we might
enumerate all the varieties of tafte, of temper, and of
circumftanccs, by which mankind are diftinguilhed
from one another, and diftributed into particular claffes.
But this would be too tedious, and does not appear
neceffary. ^
As friendlhip is an attachment which takes place Laws of
between certain human charadters when placed in cer- friendlhip.
tain circumftances, there muft therefore be laws for
fupporting the attachment and regulating the inter¬
courfe of friendlhip. Mutual efteem is the balls on
which true friendlhip is eftablilhed; and the intercourfe
of friendlhip ought furely to be connedted in fuch a
manner that this foundation be not injured. Friend¬
lhip muft diminilh neither our benevolence nor pru¬
dence : it muft not feduce us from an honeft atten¬
tion to our private intereft, nor contradt our focial af-
fedtions.
Sincerity may be confidered as the firft law of friend¬
lhip. Artifice and hypocrify are inimical to all focial
intercourfe. Between the deceitful and the honeft,
friendlhip can never fubfift. For a while, the one may
impofe on the other; unfufpicious integrity may not
be able to fee through the malic under which the hi¬
deous features of felfilh cunning are veiled; but the
deceitful friend muft ever be a ftranger to the delight¬
ful fentiments of genuine friendlhip. To enjoy thefe,
your virtues muft be fincere, your affedtion for the
perfon whom you call your friend unfeigned : in com¬
municating to each other your fentiments, in offering
and liftening to mutual advice, in joining to profecute
the lame defigns, or lhare in the fame amufements,
candid
F R I [ 47i ] F R I
Friendflup candid finc'erity muft ftill be obferved between you.
L—-v—— Attempt not to perfuade each other, that your mutu¬
al affedion is more ardent, or your mutual efteem more
profound, than it really is. If the fentiments or opi¬
nions which the one expreffes appear to the other im¬
proper or ill founded, let not a falfe delicacy prevent
him from declaring his reafons againft them ; let him
not applaud where, if he were fincere, he tnuft blame.
Join not even your friend in an undertaking which you
iecretly dillike, or an amufement infuflerably difagree-
able to you. You cannot, confidently with fincerity
and candour: and you will foon begin to think the
bleffings of friendfhip too dear, when bought at the
price of fuch facrifices.
But though lincerity is to be faithfully obferved in
the intercourfe of friendfhip ; yet the harfhnefs of con¬
tradiction muit be carefully avoided. Thofe obliging
manners which are fo agreeable in an acquaintance or
cafual companion, are ftill more fo in a friend. If
they are neceffary to recommend the advantages of fo-
cial intercourfe in general to the members of fociety,
they are no lefs neceffary to communicate a charm to
the intercourfe of friendfhip. People often think
themfelves intitled to behave to thofe whom they
call their friends, and whofe interefts they profefs to
regard as their own, with harfhnefs, negligence, and
indifcreet familiarity ; but nothing can be more fatal
to friendfhip. It is a well known rnaxitn, eftablifhed
by general and uniform experience, that too much fa¬
miliarity occafwns mutual contempt. And indeed how can
it be otherwife ? Mild obliging manners are under flood
as the natural and genuine expreffrons of kindnefs and
affe&ion : boifterous rudenefs, petulance, and negleft,
are naturally confidered as expreflive of oppofite fen¬
timents. But if friendfhip affume the tone, the car¬
riage, and the language of enmity or indifference, it
mull foon lofe all its native charms and advantages.
Let the friend, as well as the cafual companion, when
he finds reafon to difapprove of the fentiments and
conduct, or to diffent from the opinions of his friend,
exprefs himfelf in the gentleft terms, with honefly and
fincerity, but without careleffnefs or harfhnefs. Let
no frequency of intercourfe nor union of interefts ever
tempt to carelefs or contemptuous familiarity. Stiff
and unmeaning ceremony may be banifhed; but eafe,
and delicacy, and refpedtful deference, and obliging
attention, muft fupply its room. Much of the unhap-
pinefs of the marriage ftate, and much of the mutual
uneafinefs which arifes among thofe who are related
by the endearing ties of confanguinity, is occafioned
by the parties who are thus clofely connedted, thinking
it unneceffary to obferve the ordinary rules of good
breeding in their mutual intercourfe. Even kindnefs
puts on a difgufting garb, and aflumes an harfh afpedl.
But mutual kindnefs cannot there longfubfift. Home,
which ought to be a fandluary to fhelter from the
anxieties and ills of life, a little paradife where thofe
pure and innocent pleafures might be enjoyed which
afford the moft genuine happinefs, and which are not
to be tafled in the buftle of the bufy and the diflipa-
tion of the gay world 5—home thus becomes a place
of torment, which is never entered but with pain and
unwillingnefs; and from which the fon, the daughter,
the hufband, and the wife, eagerly feize every oopor-
'j tunity to efcape.
Mutual confidence is the very foul of friendfhip.. If
friendfhip be rightly defined to be a mutual affedlion
founded on mutual efteem, thofe who are united in
the bonds of friendfhip cannot but repofe mutual con¬
fidence in each other. Am I confcious of none but
generous worthy fentiments, and none but upright ho-
neft intentions ? I readily difclofe all the fecrets of my
foul to him whom I regard as capable only of fimilar
defigns and fimilar fentiments. But it may be afked,
how far the confidence of friendfhip ought to be car¬
ried ? Muft I reveal to my friend all my fentiments,
opinions, and defigns ? Muft I communicate to one
friend the fecrets which have been intruded to me by
another ? Or muft I rather obferve the moft fufpicious
caution in my intercourfe with my friends, remember¬
ing that he who is now my friend may one day become
my enemy ? It feems moft prudent to obferve a me¬
dium between fufpicious caution and unlimited confi¬
dence. Were human virtue perfeft, and were there
no inftances of friends ever becoming enemies, thofe
who regard each other with friendly affedlion might
very reafonably be required to fet no bounds to their
mutual confidence. But as this is far from being the
cafe, different meafures are to be obferved. Contrail
no friendfhips, if you think it neceffary to treat a
friend with the fame referve as an enemy. Yet ven¬
ture not to difclofe to your friend all the foolifh or evil
defigns which the wantonnefs of imagination may fe-
duce you to form. When you feel the emotions of
pride, of vanity, or of any evil paffion, if you are
able to reprefs them by the ftrength of reafon and con-
fcience, it feems unneceffary for you to tell the ftruggle,
or to boaft of the vi&ory. If, at any former period
of life, you have been fo unfortunate as to commit
a&ions which you cannot now recoiled! without ftramc
and contrition, there can be no reafon why you may
not, as far as poffible, bury the remembrance of them
in your own breaft. In Ihort, not to become tedious
by defeending to minute particulars, the laws of friend-
ftrip do not require friends to unbofom themfelves to
each other any farther than is necelfary—to give them
juft ideas of each other’s charadler and temper,—to
enable them to be ferviceable to each other in the pro-
fecution of honeft defigns,—and to afford each of
them proper opportunities of exciting the other to vir¬
tue and wifdom, and of interpofing his influence to
preferve him from vice and folly. Whatever is necef¬
fary for any of thefe purpofes ought to be mutually
communicated; whatever is not, may be concealed
without violating the laws of friendftrip. As mutual
efteem is the foundation of friendflrip, and as human
friendfliips are not always lafting, you ought not to
pour into the ear of your friend all the impertinences
which you may happen to conceive, nor even all the
projedls which may float in your imagination : but as
much of the felicity of friendfhip arifes from the mu¬
tual confidence to which it affords room, call not any
man your friend in whofe prefence you find it proper
to obferve the fame fufpicious caution as if he were
your enemy. The ancients, who talked of friendihip
with enthufiafm as one of the moft elevated among the
virtues, required ftill a clofer union and a more dilin-
terefled attachment among friends than we dare ven¬
ture to infill upon. The mutual duties which they
have deferibed as incumbent On friends, appear fome-
whafc
F R I [ 472 1 F R I
Tr'en-lfhip. what extravagant. Among other things, fome of them
*— ■> * have gone fo far as to require a degree of mutual con¬
fidence which would foon deftroy all confidence, and
could not fail to couttteraA all the purpofes of friend-
fhip : they have required one friend to communicate
to another, not only all his own thoughts and purpofes,
but even thofe fecrets which have been confided to his
honour by any other friend. But the evil confequen-
ees which would refult are eafily to be forefeen. Per¬
haps, like Atticus, you enjoy the friendfliip of men
who are mutual enemies ; and by communicating the
fecrets of the one to the other, you will then become
the betrayer of both. Or, though not abfolutely ene¬
mies, yet thofe who-are your friends may happen not
to be in habits of friendihip with each other ; and they
ftixy then perhaps not fcruple to divulge thofe fecrets
of one another which you have imprudently blabbed
to them. Indeed, might we fuppofe all mankind ab-
folutely faultlefs, and not liable to moral imperfeftion,
we need not fear thefe bad confequences from unbound¬
ed confidence in our friends. But friendfhip would
in fnch a Hate of fociety be unknown ; juft as in the
golden age of the poets there are fuppofed to have
been no diftinftions of property. We cannot here
forbear dropping an obfervation, which will readily be
acknowledged as juft by all who have any tolerable
knowledge of the morality of the philofophers of an¬
cient Greece. All their doctrines and precepts appear
calculated for a different order of beings than mankind.
They glanced carelefsly at the phenomena of the moral
world ; and gleaning a few fa6ts, immediately fet them-
felvcs to ereft fyfterrts : From thefe, however wild and
theoretical, they then pretended to deduce laws for
the regulation of human condufit; and their rules are
generally fuch as might be expected from the means
which they appear to have employed in order to arrive
at them. An apology has however been offered for
fome of them, which, in our opinion, could occur
only to fuperficial obfervers of human life. It has
been alleged in behalf of the Stoics, that their fyftem
indeed required more exalted virtue than human nature
is capable of attaining 5 but that, notwithftanding this,
it could not fail to produce the happieft effects on the
manners and fentiments of its votaries. Inftances, too,
have been produced in fupport of this affertion; a Cato,
an Epictetus, an Antoninus. When we contemplate
a model of perfection beyond what we can hope to
reach, fay the advocates of the Stoic philofophy,
though we defpair of attaining, yet we are prompted
to afpire after it. Now, the moil natural way of rea-
foning here feems to lead to a very different conclu-
fion. If an obje& is fet before me which I muft not
hope to obtain, I am unwilling to wafte my time and
exhauft my vigour iu the purfuit of it: bid me afcend
an inacceffible height, I view the vale below with new
fondnefs. Philofophy, as well as fuperftition and en-
thufiafm, might in a few inftances triumph over the
principles of nature ; but was it always equally power¬
ful ? Were all the difciples of Zeno Catos or EpiCte-
tufes ? Have all the monks and anchorites of the Ro-
Jnifti church been holy as the founders of their orders ?
No : the Greek philofophers who infefted Rome, and
taught thofe •whlnrfwal dodtrines which we hear fre¬
quently dignified with the name of fubihne, Were An¬
gularly corrupted and licentious in their manners.
N° 132.
If thofe Of the regular clergy of the church of Rome Fiiendfhip*
have been always more pure, they have been cruelly t“““'
calumniated. Aik, then, only what I am capable of
performing : if you demand what is abovemy ftrength,
I fit ftiH iu indolence. In its general tendency, the
Stoic philofophy was favourable rather to vice than to
virtue.
But we have not yet exhaufted all the duties of
fnendlhip. We have inculcated fincerity, and mutual
refpeft and obligingnefs of manners ; we have alfo en¬
deavoured to afcertain, what degree of mutual confi¬
dence ought to take place between friends. But an
important queftion ftill remains to be confidered : how
far is an union ofinterejls to takefdace between friends l
Am I to ftudy the intcreft of my friend in preference
to my own ? May I lawfully injure others, in order to
ferve him ? Here, too, we muft confider the circum-
ftances and the ftrength of human nature ; and let us
beware of impofing burdens too heavy to be borne.
The greater and more perfedt the union which reigns'
in fociety, the greater will be its ftrength and happi-
nefs; the clofer the union of friends, the more advan¬
tages will each of them derive from their union.
Where Other ties befides thofe of friendfhip Concur to
unite two individuals, their interefts will be more clofe-
ly conjoined than if they were connefted by the ties
of friendfhip alone. The order of natare feems here
to be,-—the hufband and wife—the parent and child-
brothers and fifters, the offspring of the fame parents—
friends, connedted by the ties of friendfhip alone.
And, if we may prefume to guefs at the intentions of
the Author of nature from what wc behold in his works
and read in his word, the clofeft union in f-.r*-*- ""ight
to be that between the hufband and the wife ; their in¬
terefts are altogether the fame ; they ought mutually
to forego convenience and gratification for each other’s
fake. Ti*e interefts of parents and children are fome-
what lefs clofely connected ; much is due from the one
to the other, but fomewhat lefs thau in the former
relation 5 their interefts may fometimes be fepatate,
but never ought to be oppofite. Next come brethren,
and other more diftant relations ; and next, the friend.
In thefe cafes, where we fuppofe the attachment of
fnendftiip to operate together with the ties of na¬
ture, we perceive that interefts are varioufiy united,
and various duties are due ; fcarce in any of them does
it appear that the interefts of two can become entirely
one. Still lefs can that be expedted to happen, where
the ties of friendfliip adt not in concert with thofe of
nature. We give up, therefore, all thofe romantic
notions, which fome have fo earneftly infifted on, of
requiring the friend to confider his friend as himfelf.
We cannot expedt any two individuals to poffefs pre-
cifely the fame degree of knowledge, to entertain ex¬
actly the fame fentiments, or to ft and in circumftances
precifely fimilar. But till this happen, the interefts of
two can never be precifely the fame. And we will
not, therefore, require the friend adtually to prefer his
friend to himfelf 5 nay, we will even allow him to prefer
himfelf to his friend ; convinced that fuch is the defign
of nature, and that by prefuming to counteradt the
principles of nature we (hall be able to ferve no ufeful
purpole. But as far as the firft principles of huatan
action and the mftitutions of fociety permit, we may
reafonably require of friends, that they mutually endea¬
vour
F R I [ 473 ] F R I
ffrfendfliip. vcwr to contribute each to tbe other’s j'ntercft. You upright sdvice; will rejoice in your profperity, will Frkndfhlp.
will not deftrt your own family, nor negleft what is
fcbfoietely heceflary for your own prefervation, in Order
that you may ferve a friend. It is not requifite that
you be either a Damon or a Pythias. Away with
yvhat is romantic; but fcruple not to fubmit to what
is natural and reafonable. When your friend needs
' ydur direftion and advice, freely and honeftly give it:
does he need more than advice ; your aftive exertions
in his behalf? the laws of friendihip require you not
to refufe them. Is it neceffary for him to receive
ftill more fubtlantial afMance ? You may even be
txpe&ed to aid him with your fortune. But remem¬
ber, that even the amiable principle of benevolence muft
be fubjeft to the directions of prudence: if incapa¬
ble of taking care of ourfelves, we cannot be expefted
tocontribute to the good of others: fociety would not be
favourable to the'bappinefs of the human race, if every
individual it tidied the general intereft fo far as to negledt
his own. We are not born to be citizens of the world ;
but Europeans, Britons, Engliihmen or Scotchmen.
glory over your virtues, and will be ready to confoie '
and relieve you when linking under the preflure of
diftrefs ! Mufl not your connexion with fuch a per-
fon be favourable to your virtue, your intereil, and
your happinefs ? When we furvey any fublime or beau¬
teous feene in nature,' we wifii for fome perfon of con¬
genial tafie and feelings to participate with us in the
noble enjoyment which the profpeCt affords j when we
read any fine piece of compofition, the pleafure which’
we receive from it is more exquifite if others join with
us in applauding it. The landfcape which we have
often furveyed, the poem which we have often read,
pleafe us anew, with all the charms of novelty, when
we have an opportunity of pointing out their, beauties
to fome perfon to whom they have been hitherto un¬
known. Friendfhip communicates new charms and a
more delicate relifir to all our moil refined and elegant
pleafures. It enlivensxiur joys, it foothes and alleviates
our forrovvs. What Cicero has faid of polite letters
and philofophy, may be with ftill ftronger propriety
-Let every one, then, feek the intereft and happinefs of faid of friendfhip. In every condition of life the influ-
his friends with whom he is connefted by the laws of ence of virtuous friendihip is favourable to our welfare
and our happinefs : in profperity, in adverfity ; in the
filence and tranquillity of retirement, as well as amid
the hurry of buftnefs; in the bofom of your family,
and when furrounded by your neareft connexions, no
lefs than when removed to a ftrange country. Indeed,
whatever advantages fociety beftows above what are to
be enjoyed in a favage ftate, not lefs numerous nor lefs
important are thofe which we may derive from uniting
in the bonds of friendfhip, rather than living in a ftate
of enmity or indifference. g
But though friendfhip, when founded on mutual Miflakes}»
efteem, and regulated by the laws of prudence, t>enev0‘g
friendftiip alone, in fubordination to his own particular
intereft and happinefs, and to the intereft and happi-
nefs of thofe with whom he js conneXed by the ties
of nature and the general inftitutions of fociety.1 En¬
gage not in the fervice of your friend, n'or lavifh your
fortune in his behalf, if by that means you are likely
to injure either yourfelf or your family. Still lefs
will you think it requifite to carry your friendftiip to
fuch romantic excefs as to commit crimes in the fervice
of your friend. The ancients, whofe ideas of the,na¬
ture and duties of frieridftiip were romantic and extrava¬
gant, have, fome of them, required that a friend fhould
hefitate at no aXion,- however atrocioufly wicked, by lence, and honefty, be produXive of fo many happy ^ COI1fg_’
which he can be ufeful to. his friend. Have I been
guilty of theft or murder, or any other heinous viola¬
tion of the laws of morality or ihe inftitutions of fo-
effedls; yet many inftances , occur in the world, quen
in which connexions dignified with the name ofconftancy.
friehdftiip are unfavourable both to the virtue and
ciety : when I am brought to juft ice for my crime, if the happinefs of thofe between whom they fubiift.
you, being my friend, are appointed to fit as my judge,
the laws of friendftiip, fay thofe admirable mafters of
morality, require that you pronounce me innocent,
though convinced of my guilt. But we need not de¬
claim agaii^ft the abfurdity of enjoining fuch bafe deeds
as duties of friendfhip. The idea of a connexion, the
laws of which are inimical to the order of fociety, muft
ftrike with horror every perfon who thinks of it.
When men affociate from views of convenience; when
their union is haftily formed without a knowledge
of each other’s temper and charaXer ; when they are
drawn together by accident, as when they happen to
agree in the purfuits of the fame interefts or pleafures;
when the young and the gay refort together to the
haunts of difiipation, and the covetous and ambitious
find it convenient to toil in concert for riches and
.Such a connexion is the union of a knot of villains, power: on all fuch occafions, the connexion which is
confpiring againft the peace, nay even the exiftence of formed and dignified with the name of friendfhip is
^ fociety.
••General Such we apprehend to be the nature of rational
liB xnew of the friendfhip ; fuch the circumftances in the order of na-
bi«- advantages ture and of fociety which are moft favourable to this
s . r, unj0n. ail?j fuCh the duties, by the performance of
which it may be maintained. When founded on
thefe principles, and regulated by thefe laws, friend¬
ftiip is truly virtuous, and cannot but be highly bene-
of friend-
unworthy of that honourable appellation. It is not
virtuous; it is produXive of no happy effeXs, and is
quickly diffolved. He, therefore, who is not incapa¬
ble of virtuous friendftiip, and is defirousof enjoying its
advantages, muft carefully confider the nature of the
connexion which he wifties to form, .gain a thorough
acquaintance with the clmraXer of the perfon whofe
efteem and affeXion he wiflies .to acquire, and attend
ficial to the individuals between whom it fubfifts, and to thofe rules by the obfervance of which true friend-
t-o the intereft of fociety in general. How delightful to Ihip may be maintained,
have fome perfon of an amiable and virtuous charaXer
in whom you can confide; who will join with you in
the profecution of virtuous defigns, or will be ready to
call you back when you heedlefsly ftray into the paths
©f vice and folly !, who will adminifter to you honeft.
-You VII. Part II.
Many inftances are related, which flrow what power P^at:?n
it is poftible for friendftiip to acquire over the human the^owfr
heart. We need not here repeat the well-known ftory of friend-
of Damon and Pythias, whofe generous friendftiip af- filiP over
forded a fpeXacle which foftened even the favage heart t^rh,umsB
. 3 O of
Fill [ 474 1 F R I
THendftip. ©f Dionyfius. It is known to every fchobl-boy ; and,
‘in, ■ y——~ after the affected narrative of Valerius Maximus, has
been ftudioufly detailed and commented on by almoit
every fucceeding ftory-teller or moralift. Addifon, in
one of his Spectators, gives a beautiful little relation, we
know not upon what authority, which finely illuitrates
the power both of friendfnip and love. Two male ne¬
groes, in one of our Weft India iflands, nearly of the
fame age, and eminent among their fellows in flavery
forgracefulnefsof figure,ftrength, agility, and dexterity,
were alfo diftinguifired for their mutual friendfhip and
for their common attachrrjent to a young female ne¬
gro, who was generally efteemed the moft beautiful
of her complexion in the whole ifiand. The young
female appeared to be equally pleafed with both her
lovers ; and was willing to accept either of them for a
hufband, provided they could agree between them-
felves which of them fhould yield to the pretenfions.
of the other. But here lay the difficulty ; for while
neither would treacheroufly fupplant, neither of them
was willing to yield to his friend. The two youths,
therefore, long fuffered the fevereft affliction, while
their hearts were torn between love and friendfflip. At
length, when they were no longer able to endure the
agony of fuch aconteft, being ftill unable to reprefs their
paffion for their lovely countrywoman, and incapable
of violating the laws of friendfhip,—on a certain day,
they both, in company with the objeCt of their ill-fated
love, retired into a wood adjoining to the fcene of
their labours. There, after fondly embracing the
maid, calling her by a thoufand endearing names, and
lamenting their own unhappy fate, they ftabbed a
knife into her breaft ; which, while ftill reeking with
her blood, was by each of them in his turn plunged
into his own. Her cries reached the people who were
at work in the next field : fome of them haftening to
the fpot, found her expiring, and the two youths al¬
ready dead befide her.
We have introduced this little narrative as a ftriking
inftance of the noble effeCts which naturally refult from
genuine friendfhip. Here we fee it fuperior to the
force of the moft violent of paflions. Had the eleva¬
ted fouls of thofe negro youths been refined and en¬
lightened by culture and education in the principles of
prorality and true religion, we may reafonably fuppofe
'that their friendfhip would have triumphed over their
love, without prompting them to the rafh and defpe-
I0 rate deed which they committed.
'Friendfhip Friendfhip, thus amiable in its charader, thus be-
tot incon- neficial ih its influence and effeCts, the theme of un-
bounded panegyric to the philofophers and moraliftsof
Chriftiani° every age, has been faid by fome refpeClable modern
i-y. writers to be inconfiftent with the fpirit of that holy
religion which we profefs, and which we regard as the
revelation of heaven. General benevolence is fre¬
quently inculcated through the gofpel: Jtfus often
parneftly intreated his dik*ples, “ to love one ano¬
ther }” and dire&ed them in what manner to difplay
their mutual love, by telling them, that “ whatfoever
things they could reafonably wifh to receive from o-
thers, the fame ought they to do them.” The writers
of the epiftles often enlarge on the topics of charity
and brotherly love. But private friendfhip is no where
recommended in the code of Chriflianity. Nay, it is
& inconfiftent with that univerfal benevolence which
the gofpel enjoins, that where the one is recommend- Friend/fuj*.
ed and enforced, the other may be underftood to be ta- 1
citly forbidden. But can that religion be true, or can
it be favourable to the happinefs of its votaries, which
is inimical, nay, which is even not friendly to virtu¬
ous friend drip ? Such are the fuggeftions of Lord
Shaftefbury and Soame Jenyns on this head.
We muft grant them, that the fyftem of morals or
religion which difeourages a connection fo noble in
its origin, fo amiable in its chara&er, and fo benefi¬
cial in its influence, as virtuous friendfhip, is rather
unfavourable to the happinefs and virtue of its vota¬
ries. But we muft_ confider the genius of Chriftianity
with more careful attention, before we fuffer ourfelves
to be perfuaded that friendfhip is inconfiftent with it.
Univerial benevolence is, indeed, inculcated in the
gofpel: we are required to love our neighbours as our¬
felves : and our Saviour feems to infiftuate, in the ftory
of the humane Samaritan, that we ought to regard as
neighbours all our brethren of the human race, however
feparated from us by any of the diftinftions of fociety.
But it would be unfair to conclude from this, that the
great Author of the gofpel meant to abolifh the order
of focial life, or to oppofe the ties of nature. Thefe
may ftill be refpedted, though the laws of this bene¬
volence be obeyed. The parent is not required to de-
fert his child, ih order that he may affift or relieve his
neighbour ; nor the child to leave his parent to perifh
under the infirmities of old age, while he haftes to lend
afliftance to a ftranger. The gofpel was not intended
to diffolve communities, or to abrogate the dillin&ions
of rank. In Jefus the end of the ceremonial law was
accomplifhed: by him, therefore, that burden of types
and ceremonies with which the Jews had been loaded
was taken away. But he who abolifhed the ceremo¬
nial law declared, that the obligations of the moral law
fhould be more permanent than heaven or earth : The
duties which it enjoined were ftill to be religioufly dif-
charged : The precepts of the gofpel were to iiluftrate
and enforce, not to contradidl, the inftitutions of the
moral law. The relative duties of parents and chil¬
dren were ftill to be performed ; though men were di¬
rected not to confine all their fentiments of benevolence
to domeftic relations. Jefus, in his conduct, did not
fet himfelf to oppofe the order of focicty. In various
parts of the New Teftament all the focial duties are
defined and enforced ; the mutual duties of parents and
children, of hufbands and wives, and of mafters and
fervants. The fubmiffion of all the members of a com¬
munity to that power which is vefted with the autho¬
rity of the whole, is-alfo ftriiftly enjoined in the gofpel.
Jefus, when in his laft moments he recommended his
mother to the protection of his beloved difciple, chofe
to afk iim to confider /w as a parent ; and directed
to expeCt from him the refpeCt and kindnefs of
a fon. Thefe faCts and obfervations teach us in
what fenfe to underftand that univerfal benevolence
which is inculcated in the gofpel. Though we are
to love all mankind; yet k is not neceffary that all
the individuals of the human race fhare our affeCtion
alike. Were we powerful, and wife, and benevolent,
as the Deity; fuch extenfive benevolence might be
required of us : But our fphere of aCtion and obferva-
tion is narrow ; we cannot extend our acquaintance on
influence beyond a very limited circle. Were we to en-
3 dcavour
F R I [ 475 1 F R I
ic’fli'p deavotir to be equally ufeful to ail mankind, we fliould
  become incapable of being ufeful to any individual.
We cannot become citizens of the world in the fenfe
in which fome philofophei s have affeded to call them-
felves fuch, without becoming outcafts from every par¬
ticular fociety. A fon, a brother, a countryman, a
ftranger, lie around you, each in circumftances of ex¬
treme diftrefs ; you pity their misfortunes, and would
■gladly admin ifter relief: but fuch is your benevolence,
that you feel precifely the fame degree of compaflion
for each of them ; you cannot determine to whom you
fliould firit ftretch out an helping hand ; and you
therefore Hand like that venerable afs of the fchool-
men, whofe tantalizing fituation between two bundles
-of hay has been fo long celebrated and lamented by
metaphysicians ; and fuffer fon, and brother, and coun¬
tryman, and ftranger, to perifh, without relieving any
of them by your kind offices. It is therefore the de-
fign of the gofpel, that we fliould fubmit to the laws
of nature, and comply with the inftitutions of fociety.
Firtl, attend to felf-prefervation ; next, perform the
duties of a wife or huiband,—a parent,—a child,— a
brother,— a citizen,—an individual of the human race.
You will do well, indeed, to regard all mankind with
benevolence ; but your benevolence will be unavailing
to the qbjefts of it, if you overlook the diftin&ions of
nature and thofe inilitutions which fupport the union
of focial life.
But if the fpirit of Chriftianity be not inimical to the
inftitutions and relations of fociety, neither can it be un¬
favourable to friendftiip. If that benevolence which the
■gofpel enjoins, admit of any modifications, why not of
that particular modification which conftitutes private
•friendftiip : It is not, indeed, dire&ly enjoined; but
neither is it forbidden. It is perfeftly confident with
the general tendency and fpirit of the gofpel fyftem :
being favourable to the interefts of fociety, it cannot
■but lie agreeable to our holy religion.
But it is recommended by no direft precept, fay
'thofe wffio would reprefent Chriftianity as inimical to
it ; while it has been the favourite theme of the philo-
fophers and moralifts of the heathen world.
But w'hy fhould friendftiip be recommended by
means different from thofe which the gofpel employs
for the purpofe? Make yourfelf well acquainted with
that admirable fyftem which you fo earntftly oppofe ;
you will find that even the duties of private friendftiip
are better explained and more powerfully enforced in
the gofpel, than by all the heathen philofophers and
poets from Hefiod to Plutarch. The gofpel makes a
diftinftion between the virtuous and the vicious; it re-
prefents one charafter as more amiable and refpe&able
than another. As it diftinguiflies between virtue and
vice, betwreen piety and impiety ; fo its great ob-
je<Sl is to deter us from vice, and to encourage us to
the practice of virtue. It cannot be fuppofed, then,
that the gofpel will direft us to affociate indifferently
with virtuous and profligate charadkers. It does not.
It direfts us to feek improvement, by affociating with
thofe whom we have reafon to efteem. It diredts thofe
who are incorrigibly wicked to be expelled from fo¬
ciety. What is this but to command us to enter into
habits of intimacy wherever there is ground for mutual
efteem? But this is the only bafis of genuine friend-
fliip. When all the means which lead to a certain
end are laid before you, and when you Me partien- Fiiandftip.
larly diredled by fome high authority ta employ thofe —y—^
means ; though the end which you thus attain be not
pointed out, yet the commanding you to employ fuch
a feries of means, is evidently the fame as if you were
diredled to accomplifh the purpofe to which they tend.
Thus, though the precepts of Chriftianity do not di-
redtly enjoin private friendftiip ; yet they have a diredt
tendency to form thofe exalted charadlers who alone
are capable of true friendftiip; they inculcate thofe
virtues which naturally give rife to this generous at¬
tachment, and are abfolutely neceffary to fupport it
where it is formed ; they inculcate benevolence by
the moft effedlual motives, and admit of modifications
of that benevolence, correfpondent to the relations and
iuftitutions of fociety : And therefore they may be
confidered in as ftrong and diredl terms, as if it had
been exprefsly faid, “ Cultivate private friendftiip.”
Befides, friendftiip is rather an accident of fociety, a
natural confequeuce of our character as moral and fo¬
cial beings, than a relation to be regulated and defined
by inftitutioris. ir
This union, fo natural between virtuous perfons, Friendftip
has been countenanced by the exaVnple of the Authorcour,tena!1*-
of our religion ; to whofe life, no lefs than to his doc- gatiouA^
trines and precepts, we will do well to look for a ftan- txamp;e,
dard by which we may regulate our conduft. We al¬
lude to two remarkable inftances which occur in the
evangelical hiftory; and with the recital of which, as
ftated in all their ftriking circumftances by a very ele¬
gant writer *, we ftiall conclude the prefent article. • w. Mri-
“ The evangelift, in relating the miracle which moth, Efq;
Chrift performed at Bethany by reftoring a perfon to1" con“
life who had lain fome days in the grave, introduces ^ot£,1"®
his narrative by emphatically obferving, that ‘ Jefus Tranjlathn
loved Lazarusintimating, it fhould feem, that the of Cicero's
fentiments which Chrift entertained of Lazarus were ^‘uu
a diftinA and peculiar fpecies of that general benevo¬
lence with which he was aAuated towards all mankind.
Agreeably to this explication of the facred hiftorian’s
meaning, when the fitters of Lazarus fent to acquaint
Jefus with the ftate in which their brother lay, they
did not even mention his name ; but, pointing him out
by a more honourable and equally notorious defigna-
tion, the terms of their meffage were, ‘ Behold ! he
whom thou loveft is tick !’ Accordingly, when he in¬
forms his difciples of the notice he had thus received,
hisexpreffion is, ‘ Our friend Lazarus fleepeth.’ Now
that Chrift did not upon this occafion ufe the word
friend in its loofe undiftinguiftied acceptation, but in a
reftrained and ftriAly appropriated fenfe, is not only
manifeft from this plain account of the faA itftlf, but
appears farther evident from the fequel. For as he
was advancing to the grave, accompanied with the re¬
lations of the deceafed, he difeovered the fame emotions
of grief as Iwelled the bofoms of thofe with whom La¬
zarus had been moft intimately conneAed ; and fympa-
thizing with their common forrow, he melted into
tears. This circumftance was too remarkable to efcape
particular obfervation : and it drew from the fpeAa-
tors, what one fliould think it muft neceffarily draw
from every reader, this natural and obvious refleAion>
‘ Behold ! how he loved him !’
“ But in the concluding cataftrophe of our Saviour’s
life, he gave a ftili more decifive proof that fentiments
3 O 2 of
F R I [ 476 1 F R I
Efiendftiip, of the ftrongeft perfonal atta’.'hir.ettt and friendfhip
.lyi'-fUnd. were not unvvoIthy of being admitted into bis facred
' * bofom : they v^ere too deeply, indeed, impreffed, to be
extinguilhed even by the molt excruciating torments.
In thofe dreadful moments, obferving among the af-
flidded witneffes of his painful and ignominious fuf-
ferings, that faithful follower who is defcribed by the
hiftorian as ‘ the diiciple whom he lovedhe di-
liinguilhed him by the moft convincing inftance of fu-
perior confidence, elleem, and affeftion, that ever was
exhibited to the admiration of mankind. For, under
circumftances of the moft agonizing torments, when it
might be thought impoffible for human nature to re¬
tain any other fenfibility but that of its own inexpref-
fible fufferings, he recommended to the care and pro-
teftion of this his tried and approved friend, in terms
of peculiar regard and endearment, the moft tender
and facred objeft of his private affe&ions. , But no lan¬
guage can reprefent this pathetic and a fit (ding fcene
with a force and energy equal to the fublime Simplicity
of the Evangelift's own narrative : ‘ Now there flood
by the crofs of Jefus, his mother and his mother’s
lifter, and Mary Magdalene. When Jefus faw his
mother and the difciple ({landing) by, whom he lo¬
ved 5 he faith to his mother, Behold thy fqn I then
he faith to the difciple, Behold thy mother ! And
from that hour that difciple took her to his own home.’
“ It may fafely be afferted, that among all thofe
memorable examples of friendship, which have been
celebrated with the higheft encomiums by the ancients,
there cannot be produced a Single inilance in which
the moft diftinguifhing features of exalted amity are
fo Strongly difplayed as in the foregoing relation.
The only one, perhaps, that bears even a faint iimili-
f-Already tude to it, is that famous tranfa&ion f recorded by
rstked in a Greek author, which -paffed between Eudamidas and
1^468 co^' Aretheus. But when the veiy different cireumitances
1 ’ ’attending the refpeftive examples are duly confidered,
it muff be acknowledged, that the former rifes as much
above the latter in the proof it exhibits of fublime
friendship, as it does in the dignity of the charadters
concerned.
“ Upon the whole, then, it appears, that the divine
Founder of the Chriftian religion, as well by his own
example as by the fpirit of his moral docSrine, has.not
only encouraged but conSecrated friendihip.”
FRIESLAND,, one of the united provinces of the
Low Countries. It is bounded on the.call by the ri-
-ver Lauvers, which parts it from the lordShip of Gro¬
ningen, on . the fouth by Oveiyffel, on the weft by
the Zuider-Zee, and on the north by the German o-
cean. It is .30. miles from north to fouth, and 28 from
<aft to weft. The land is very fertile in corn and pa¬
sture ; the horfes are .large, and the cows and Sheep
prolific. It is divided into three parts; Weftergo to
the weft, Oilergo to the eaft, and Sevenwalden to the
fouth. The iflands of Sheling, Ameland, and other
fmall ones, are dependent on this province. The prin¬
cipal towns are Leuwaflie.n the capital, Fran eke r, Doc*
kum, Harlingen, and Staveren.
Friesland (Eaft.), a province of Germany, in the
circle of Weftphalia, lying near the German ocean. It
is bounded on the fouth by the biShopric of Munfter,
on the eaft by the county of Oldenburg, on the weft
by the province of Groningen, and on the north by
the Sea,-being about 5c miles in length, and 3D in Frigate
breadth... It belongs to Pruffia, and was formerly call-. SI
ed the county of Embden. It is a very fertile country, Fr‘ght-'^
and feeds a great number of cattle ; but it was greatly "
damaged by an inundation in 1717, and the repair of
the dykes coft an immenfe fum. The principal towns
are Norden, Leer, Effens, Whitmunde, and Aurick.
Embden was an imperial city, and the principal place
in the country ; but now belongs alfo to the king of
Pruffia, who bought it of the Dutch.
IR[GATE, in fea affairs, a Ship of war, ufually
of two decks, light built, defigned for fwift failing.
When it hath but one deck, and confequently is of a
fmaller Size, they call her a light frigate.
Frigates mount from 20 to 44 guns, and are efteem-
ed excellent cruifers. The name was formerly known
only in the Mediterranean, and applied to a.long kind
of veffel navigated in that fea with fails and oars. The
EnghSh were the firft who appeared on the ocean with
thele Ships, and equipped them for war as well as for
commerce.
Frig ate-Built, denotes the difpofition of the decks
of fuch merchant Ships as have a defeent of four or five
Heps from the quarter deck and fore-caftle into the
waiff, in contradiftin£tion to thofe whofe decks are on
a continued line for the whole length of the Ship, which
are called galley-built.
FRIGATOON, a Venetian veffel, commonly ufed
in the Adriatic, built with a fquare Stern, and without
any fore-maft, having only a main-mait, mizen-malt,
and bow-fprit.
FRIGHT, or Terror, a fudden and violent de¬
gree of fear. See Fear.
Sudden fear is frequently productive of very remark¬
able effetts upon the human fyStem. Of this many
inftances occur in medical writings.—-In general, the ef¬
fects gt terror are a contraction of the fmali veffels and a
rtpulfion of the blood in the large and internal ones;
hence proceed a fuppreffion of perfpiratiou, a ge¬
neral oppreffion, trembling, and anguifh of. the heart* ,
and lungs overcharged with blood.
Frights often occalion incurable difeafes, as epilep.-
fy, Stupor, madnefs, &c. In acute difeafes, they have •
evidently killed many, by the agitation into which .
they have thrown the fpirfts, already too much difor-
dered, We have alfo accounts of perfons abfolutely
killed by terrors when in perfect health at the time of .
receiving the Shock from them : people ordered to be .
executed, but with private.orders for a reprieve, have
expired at the block without a wound.- Out of many
inftances of the fatal effects of fear recorded.in writers;, ,
the following is Selected as one of the moSl Singular.
“ George Grochantzy, a Polander, who had iriliited as
a Soldier in the fervice of the king of Pruffia, deferted
during the laft war. A.fmall party was Sent in purfuit .
of him.; and when he leaft expected it, they furprifed
him..finging and dancing among a company of peafants,
who were got. together in' an inn and were making
merry. This event, fo fudden and unforefcen, and at
the fame time fo.dreadful in .its confeqpences. Struck
him in fuch a manner, that, giving a great cry, he be¬
came at once altogether Stupid and. infenlible, and
was feized without the leaft refiSlance. They car¬
ried him away to Glocau, where he was brought be-
fare the council of., war, and received - Sentence
&
FrigHt.
* mrh,
Air p. Si,
Sac.
F R I t 477 ] F R I
a deferter. He fuffered himfelf to be led and dif-
pofed of at the will of thofe about Him, without ut¬
tering a word,, or giving the leail lign that he knew
.what had happened or would happen to him. He re¬
mained, immo-veable as a ftatue wherever he was placed,
and was wholly pafiive with refpedf to all that was
done to h:m or about him. During all the tiipe that
he was in ctdtody, he neither eat, nor drank, nor flept,
nor had any evacuation. Some of his comrades Were
fent to fee him ; after that he was viiited by fome of¬
ficers of his corps and by fome priefts j but he ftill
continued in the fame Hate, without difeovering the
kaft figns of fenfibility. Promifes, intreaties, and
threatenings, were equally, ineffedfual. The phyficians
who were confulted upon his cafe were of opinion, that
he was in a Hate of hopelefs idiocy. It was at firft
fufpe&td, that thofe appearances were feigned ; but
thefe fufpicions neceffarily gave way, when it was
known that he took no fuitenance, and that the invo¬
luntary functions of nature were in great meafure fuf-
pended. After fome.time they knocked off his fetters,
and left him at liberty to go whither he would. He
received his liberty with* the fame infenfibility that he
had fliowed upon other occafions : he remained hxed
and immoveable; his eyes turned wildly here and there
without taking cognizance of any objtdt, and the
snofcles of his face were fallen and fixed like thbfe of
a dead body. Being left to himfelf,.he pafled 20 days in
this condition, without eating, drinking, or any evacua¬
tion, and died on the 20th day. Pie had been fome-
times heard to fetch deep fighs; and once he rulhed
with great violence on. a i'oldier, who had a mug of
liquor in his hand, forced the mug from him, and ha¬
ving drank the liquor with great eagernefs, let the
mug drop to the ground.”
When a perfon is affected with terror, the principal
endeavour fhould be to rtfiore the circulation to its
due order, to promote perfpiration, and to allay the
agitation of the patient. For thefe purpofes he may
drink a little warm liquor, .as camomile-tea, &c. the
feet and legs may be put into warm water, the legs
rubbed, and the camomile-tea repeated every fix or
eight minutes; and when the fkin is warm, and there
is a tendency to perfpiration, fleep may be promoted
by a gentle opiate.
But frights have been known not only to caufe, but
alfo to cure, dtfeafea.. Mr Boyle * mentions agues,
gout, and feiatica, cured by this means. .
To.turn from the ferious to the ludicrous effedfs of
fear, the following infiance of the latter fort, quoted
from a French author by Mr Andrews, in his volume
of Anecdotes, (hows upon what flight, occafions this
paffion may be fometluies excited in a very high
degtee, even in perfons the mofi unlikely to enter¬
tain fuch a guefi. “ Charles Guftavus (the fuc-
cefibr of Chrifiina of Sweden) was befieging Prague,
when a boor of mofi extraordinary vifage defired ad¬
mittance to his tent ; ami being ailowedientrance, of¬
fered, by way of amyfing the king, to devour a whole
hog of one hundred weight in his prefence; The old
general Konigfmarc, who.flood by the king’s fide,
and who, foldier as he was, had not got rid of the pre¬
judices of his childhood, hinted to his royal mailer
that the peafant ought to be burnt as a forcerer.
‘Sir/ laid the fellcw, imtat«d at,,the . remark,. ‘ if
your majefly will but make that old gentleman take off Fright ’
his fword and his fpurs, I will eat him immediately .11 .
before I begin the hog.’ General Konigfmarc (who ri ~tZin*'I.
had, at the head.of a body of Swedes, performed won- J
ders againft the Auftrians, and who w'as looked upon
as one of the braved men of the age) could not Hand
this propofal, efpecially as it was accompanied by a
mofi hideous and preternatural expanfion of the fright¬
ful peafant’s jaws. Without uttering a word, the ve¬
teran fuddenly turned round, ran out of the court,
and thought not himfelf fafe until he had arrived at his
quarters; where he remained above 24 hours locked
up fecurely, before he had got rid of the panic which
had fo feverely affeCled him.”
Fear (Dr Beattie j- obferves) flxould not rife higher f Element* -
than to make us attentive and cautious; when it gains °f Mcra,<-
an afcendency in the mind, it becomes an infupport-
able tyranny, and renders life a burden. The object
of fear is evil; and to be exempt from fear, or at leafl
not enflaved to it, gives dignity to our nature, and in¬
vigorates all our faculties. Yet there are evils which
we ought to fear. Thofe that arife from ourfelves, or
which it is in our power to prevent, it would be mad-
nefs to defpife, and audacity not to guard againft. -
External evils, which we cannot prevent, or could not
avoid without a breach of duty, it is manly and ho¬
nourable to bear with fortitude. Infenfibility to dan¬
ger is not fortitude, no more than the incapacity of
feeling pain can be called patience; and to expofe
ourfelves unnecefiarily to evil is worfe than folly, and '
very blameable prefumption. It is commonly called
fool-hardinefs; that is, fuch a degree of hardinefs or
boldnefs as none but fools are capable of.. See the ar¬
ticle Fortitude.
FRIGID (frlgidus/, in a general fenfe, denotes the
quality of being cold. It is frequently applied to a -
jejune ftyle, that is unanimated by any ornaments, and •
confequently without any force or vigour.
Fmaw Zone. See Zone. .
FRIGIDITY, in medicine, the fame with Impg-
TEJVCE.:
FRIGORIFIC,. in phyfiology, fmall particles of
matter, which, according to Gaflendus and others, be¬
ing actually and eflentially cold, and penetrating other
bodies, produce in .them that quality which we call ■
cold. See Cold. .
FRIL AZIN, the name-of a clafs or rank of people
among the Anglo-Saxons, conlifting of thoie who had
been Haves; but had either purchafed, or by fomeother
means obtained, tlreir liberty. Though thefe were in
reality free men, they were not coniidered as of the
fame rank and dignity with thofe who had been bora
free, but were Hill in a more ignoble and dependent
condition, either on their former mailers or on fome
new patrons. This cuftom .the Anglo-Saxons feem to >
have, derived from their anceftors in Germany, among ;
whom thofe who had been made free did not differ
much in point of dignity or importance in the Hate
from thofe who continued in fervitude. This dillinc-
tion between thofe wdro have been made free and thofe
who enjoy freedom by defeent from a long race of free
men; Hill .prevails in many parts of-Germany .; and
particularly in the original feats pf the Anglo-Saxons.
Many of the inhabitants of towns and cities in England,
in this period, feem to .have been of this .clafs of men,
3 j who.*
F R I [ 47* ] F R I
wlio were in a kind of middle Hate between Haves and
,Tl“Ig'l!a- freemen.
", FRILL, in falconry. When a hawk trembles or
fhivers, they fay the frills.
PhtcCCIII. FRINGILLA, in ornithology, a genus belonging
to the order of pafferes. The bill is conical, ftraight,
and (harp-pointed. There are no lefs than 108 fpecies
comprehended under this genus, diftingviifiied princi¬
pally by varieties in their colour. The following are
the moft noted.
1. The cardueln, or goldfinch, with the quill-
feathers red forwards, and the outermoft without any
fpots; the two outermoft are white in the middle, as
the reft are at the point. The young bird before it
moults is grey on the head; and hence it is termed by
the bird- catchers a grey-pate. There is a variety of
goldfinches called by the London bird-catchers a che-
verel, from the manner in which it concludes its jerk.
It is diftinguifhed from the common fort by a white
ftreak, or by two, fometimes three, white fpots under
the throat. Their note is very fweet; and they are
much efteemed on that account, as Well as for their
great docility. Towards winter, they affemble in
■Hocks; and feed on feeds of different kinds, particu¬
larly thofe of the thiftle. It is fond of orchards, and
frequently builds in an apple or pear-tree : its neft is
very elegantly formed of fine mofs, liverworts, and
bents, on the outfide; lined firft with wool and hair,
and then with the goflin or cotton of the fallow. It
lays five white eggs, marked with deep purple fpots on
the upper end; and has two broods in the year. When
kept in cages, they are commonly fed much on hemp-
feed, which they eat freely, but which is faid to make
them grow black, and lofe both their red and yellow.
The goldfinch is along-lived bird, often attaining the
age of 20 years.—This fpecies is plenty throughout
Europe; it is alfo met with both in Afia and Africa,
but lefs common.
2. The aekbs, or chaffinch, hath black limbs,
and the wings white on both lides ; the three firft fea¬
thers of the tail are without fpots, but two of the chief
are obliquely fpotted. It has its name from its de¬
lighting in chaff. This fpecies entertains us agreeably
with its fong very early in the year, but towards the
latter end of fummer affumes a chirping note : both
fexes continue with us the whole year. What is very
lingular in Sweden, the females quit that country in
September, migrating in flocks into Holland, leaving
their mates behind: in the fpring they return. In
Hampfhire Mr White has obferved fomething of this
kind ; vail flocks of females with fcarcely any males
among them. Their neft is almoft as elegantly con-
llrufted as that of the goldfinch, and of much the fame
materials, only the infide has the addition of fome
large feathers. They lay four or five eggs of a dull
white colour, tinged and fpotted with deep purple.
They are caught in plenty in flight-time ; but their
nefts are rarely found, though they build in hedges
and trees of all forts. They make their nefts of mofs
and wool, or any thing they can gather up; and have
young ones thrice a-year. They are feldom bred from
the neft, as being a bird not apt to learn another’s
fong, nor to whiftle; fo that it is beft to leave the old
ones to bring them up. The Effex finches are gene¬
rally allowed to be the beft fort, both for length of
fong and variety, ending with feveral notes that are Fringiila.
very pretty. It is an hardy bird, and will live almoft v—
upon any feeds, none coming amifs to him. He is
feldom fubjedl to difeafe, but will be very loufy if not
fprinkled with wine two or three times a-month.
3. The montlfringllla, or brambling, has a yellow
bill tipt with black ; the head, hind part of the neck,
and back, are black; the throat, fore part of the neck,
and bread, pale rufous orange; lower part of the bread
and belly white ; the quill feathers brown, with yel-
lowifh edges; the tail a little forked ; the legs grey.
This, fpecies migrates into England at certain feafons,
but does not build here. It is frequently found among
chaffinches, and fometimes corties in vaft flocks. They
are alfo feen at certain times * vaft clouds in France,
infomuch that the ground has been quite covered with
their dung, and more than 600 dozen were killed each
night. They are faid to be particularly fond of beech
malt, but will alfo eat feeds of various other kinds.
Their fltlh is eaten by many, but is apt to prove bitter.
They are faid to breed about Luxemburg, making the
neft on the tall fir-trees, compofed of long mofs with¬
out, and lined with wool and feathers within: the eggs
are four or five in number, yellowifti, and fpotted ;
and the young are fledged at the end of May. This
fpecies is found more or lefs throughout Europe ; and
is common in the pine forefts of Ruffia and Siberia,
but thofe of the laft are darker in colour and lefs in
fi?e.
4. The doraeftica, or sparrow, hath the prime fea¬
thers of the wings and tail brown, the body variegated
with grey and black, and a Angle white ftreak on the
wings. Thefe well-known birds are proverbially fa-
laeious, and have three broods in a year. They are
every where common about our houfes, where they
build in every place they can find admittance; under
the roof, corner of the brick-work, or in holes of the
wall. They make a flovenly neft ; generally a little
hay ill put together, but lined well with feathers ;
where they lay five or fix eggs of a reddifli white co¬
lour fpotted with brown. i hey will fometimes build
in the neigbouring trees, in which cafe they take more
pains with the neft : and not utifrequently they expel
the martins from theirs, to fave the trouble of con-
ftrudxing one of their own. The fparrow, from fre¬
quenting only habitations and parts adjacent, may be
faid to be chiefly fed from human induftry ; for in fpite
of every precaution, it will partake with the pigeons,
poultry, &c. in the food thrown out to them, grain of
all kinds being moft agreeable to its tafte ; though it
will eat refufe from the kitchen of moft kinds. It is a
familiar but crafty bird, and will not fo eafily come
into a fnare as many others. Tn autumn they often
colleft into flocks, and rooft in numbers on the neigh¬
bouring trees, when they may be {hot by dozens, or of
night caught in great numbers by a bat fowling-net.
The flefti is accounted tolerable by many. The fpar¬
row has no fong, only a chirp or two frequently re¬
peated, and far from agreeable. This fpecies is fpread
every where throughout Europe; and is alfo met with
in Egypt, Senegal, Syria, and other parts of Africa
and Alia.
5. Thefpinus, or siskin, hath the prime feathers of
the wings yellow in the middle, and the four firft chief
tail-feathers without fpots; but they are yellow at the
bafe.
1J R 1 [4;
Fr’iiJ^IIa. bafe, and black at the points. Mr Willoughby tells
us, that this is a fong-bird: that in Suffex it is called
the larky-bird, becaufe it comes to them in barley-feed
time. We are informed that it vifits thefe iflands at
very uncertain times, like the grofs beak, &c. It is
to be met with in the bird (hops in London ; and be¬
ing rather a fcarce bird, fells at a higher price than the
merit of its fong deferves: it is known there by the
name of the aberdavlne. It is a very tame and docile
fpecies ; and is often kept and paired with the canary-
bird, with which it breeds freely. The bird-catchers
have a notion of its coming out of Ruffia. Dr Kra¬
mer informs ue, that this bird conceals its neft with
great art; and though there'are infinite numbers of
young birds in the woods on the banks of the Danube,
which feem juft to have taken flight, yet no one could
difcover it.
6. The linota, or linnet, has the bottom of the
breaft of a fin6 blood-red, which heightens as the
fpring advances. Thefe birds are much efteemed for
their fong. They feed on feeds of different kinds,
which they peel before they eat; the feed of the li-
num or flax is their favourite food ; from whence the
name of the linnet tribe. They breed among furze
and white thorn : the outfide of their neft is made
with mofs and bents, and lined with wool and hair.
They lay five whitifti eggs, fpotted like thofe of the
goldfinch.
«■ 7. The cannalina, or greater, red-pole, is rather
lefs than the common linnet, and has a blood-coloured
fpot on the forehead, and the breaft of the male is
tinged with a fine rofe-colour. It is a common fraud
in the bird-ftiops in London, when a male-bird is di-
ftinguifhed from the female by a red-breaft, as in the
cafe of this bird, to ftain or paint the feathers, fo that
the deceit is not eafily difcovered, without at leaft clofe
infpe&ion. Thefe birds are frequent on our fea-coafts;
and are often taken in flight-time near London : it is
a familiar bird; and is cheerful in five minutes after it
is caught.
8. r£h.z Unaria, or lesser red-pole, is about half
the fize of the laft, and a rich fpot of purplifli red on
the forehead: the breaft is of the fame colour, but lefs
bright. The female is lefs lively in colour; has no
red on the breaft ; and the fpot on the forehead is of
a faffron hue. This fpecies is common enough in Eng¬
land ; and lays four or five eggs of a pale bluilh green,
thickly fprinkled near the blunt end with fmall reddifli
fpots. Mr Pennant mentions an inftance of this bird
being fo tenacious of her neft, as to fuffer herfclf to be
taken off by the hand ; and that when releafed (he
would not forfake it. This fpecies is known about
London by the name of Jlone redpok. Linnaeus, Kra¬
mer, and others, mention its being very fond of the
feeds of alder. Whole flocks of them, mixed with the
fifkin, frequent places where alders grow, for the fake
of picking the catkins : they generally hang like the
titmoufe, with the back downwards ; and in this (late
are fo intent on their work, that they may be en¬
tangled one after another by dozens, by means of a
twig fmeared with birdlime faftened to the end of a
fiftiing rod or other long pole. This fpecies feems to
be in plenty throughout Europe, from the extreme
parts of Ruffia on the one hand to Italy op the other.
Is very common in Greenland, and was alfo met with
'9 1 f it r
by our late voyaggrs at Aoonalaftika. In Ameuca it Lingflia.
is likewife well known. Hence it feems to be a bird ^
common to the whole of the northern part of the globe
without exception.
9. The montium, or twite, is about the fize of a
linnet. It has the feathers of the upper part of the
body duflcy ; thofe on the head edged with afh-'colour,
the others with brownifti red: the rump is pale crinr-
fon ; the wings and tail are dulky, the tips of the
greater coverts and fecondaries whitifti; the legs pale
brown. The female wants the red mark on the rump.
Twites are taken in the flight-feafon near London
along with other linnets. It is probable that the name
has been taken from their twittering note, having no
mulic in it; and indeed the bird-catchers will tell at
fome diftance whether there be any twites mixed
among linnets merely from this circumftance. The
twite is fuppofed to breed in the more northern parts
of our ifland. ,
10. The amanda’va, or amaduvade bird, is about
the fize of a wren. The colour of the bill is of a dull
red ; all the upper parts are brown, with a mixture of
red ; the under the fame, hut paler, the middle of the
belly darkeft ; all the feathers of the upper wing-co¬
verts, breaft, and fides, have a fpot of white at the tip;
the quills are of a grey brown ; the tail is black ; and
the legs are of a pale yellowiftr white. It inhabits
Bengal, Java, Malacca, and other parts of Afia.
11. The Senegdla, or Senegal finch, is a fpecie*
very little bigge? than a wren. The bill is reddilh,
edged all rounff with brown ; and beneath the under
mandible a lihe of brown quite to the tip; the fame
alfo is feen on the ridge of the upper mandible: the
upper parts of the body are of a vinaceous red colour;
the lower parts, with the thighs and under tail-coverts,
of a greeniftr brown ; the hind part of the head and
neck, the back, fcapulars, and wing-coverts, are brown;
the tail is black; and the kgs are pale grey. It in¬
habits Bengal; and, with the former fpecies, feeds on
millet. This affords the natives an eafy method of
catching them: they have no more to do than to fup-
port a large hollowed gourd, the bottom uppermoft,
on a (lick, with a firing leading to fome covered place,
and ftrewing under it fome millet; the little biids,
haftening in numbers to pick it up, are caught beneath
the trap, by the (lick being pulled away by the ob-
ferver at a diftance. The females are faid to fing near¬
ly as well as the males. They are familiar birds; and
when once ufed to the climate, will frequently live
five or fix years in a cage. They have been bred in
Holland by the fanciers of birds.
12. 'The canaria, or Canary-bird, hath a whitifti
body and bill, with the prime feathers of the wings
and tail greenifti. It was originally peculiar to thofe
ides to which it owes its name; the fame that were
known to the ancients by the addition of the Fortunate.
Though the ancients celebrate the ifle of Canaria for
the multitude of birds, they have not mentioned any
in particular. It is probable, then, that our fpecies
was not introduced into Europe till after the fecond
difcovery of thefe ides, which was between the 13th
and 14th centuries. We are uncertain when it firft
made its appearance in this quarter of the globe. Be-
lon, who wrote in 1555, is filent in refpe& to thefe
birds; Gefner is the firft who mentions them; and Al-
drovand;
F K I 1 4^0 1 F R I
Frippery drovand fgeaks of them as rarities, obferving that they
: I! were veryvdear on aecoant of the diffictiity. attending
, Fflt- the bringing them from fo diftant a country, and that
they were purchafed by people of rank alone. They
are ftill found on the fame fpot to which we were firlt
indebted for the produ&ion of fueh charming fong-
flers ; but they are now become fo numerous in our
own country, that we are under no necefiity of croffing
the ocean for them. —The Canary-bird will prove fer¬
tile with the fiikin and goldfinch ; but in this cafe the
• produce, for the mod part, proves fterile; the pairs
fucceed beft vvhen the hen-bird is the Canary, and the
cock of the oppofue fpecies. It will alfo prove proli¬
fic with the linnet, yellow-hammer, chaffinch, and even
the houfe fparrow; but the male Canary-bird will not
affimilate with, the female of thefe birds ; the hen mull
: be ever of the Canary fpecies, and the young, of thefe
inoitly prove male birds.—This bird is faid by fome to
live to or 15 years ; by others, as far as 18.
FRIPPERY, a French term fometimes ufed in our
language to lignify the trade or traffic of old fecond-
hand clothes and goods. The word is alfo ufed for the
place where fuch fort of commerce is carried on, and
even for the commodities themfelves. The company
. of frippiers, or fripperers, at . Paris, are a regular cor-
. poration, of an ancient Handing, and make a conlider*
: able figure in that city.
FRISII, Frisei, Frisiokes, and Frisones, (anc.
geog.), a people of Germany, f6 called either from their
ardent love of freedom, or from the frefh and unbroken
lands they occupied, contradillinguifned from the old
lands. Tacitus divides them, from their extent of
power and territory, into the Majores,'fituated on the
. coaft. betwen the Rhine and the Ems; and into the
Minores, occupying the parts about the lakes lying
between the channels of the Rhine.
FRIT, or Fritt, in the glafs manufa&ure, is the
matter or ingredients whereof glafs is to be made,
when they have been calcined or baked in a furnace.
A fait drawn from the afhea of the plant kali or
from fern, or other plants mixed with land or flint,
and baked together, makes an opaque mafs called by
glafs-men frit ; probably from the Italian frit tare,, to
fry ; or becaufe the frit, when melted, runs into lumps,
like fritters, called by the Italians fritdli.
Frit, by the ancients, was called ammonitrum, of
fund, and nrpov, nitre; under which name it is
deferibed by Pliny thus : Fine fand from the Voltur-
nian fea, mixed with three times the quantity of nitre,
and melted, makes a mafs called ammonitrum; which
being rebaked makes pure glafs.
Frit, Neri obferves, is only the calx of the materials
which make glafs; which though they might be melt¬
ed, and glafs be made, without thus calcining them,
yet it would take up much more time. This calcining,
or making of frit, ferves to mix and incorporate the
materials together, and to evaporate all the fuperfiuous
humidity. The frit, once made, is readily fufed, and
-turned into glafs.
There are three kinds of frits. The firft, cryftal frit,
or that for cryftal metal, is made with fait of pulverine
and fand. The fecond, and ordinary frit, is made of
the bare afhes of pulverine or barilla, without ex-
$ rafting the fait from them. This makes the ordi¬
nary white or cryftal metal. The third is frit for green
.N° 132.
glafies, made of common afhes, without any prepara-. Frith
tion. This laft frit will require ten or twelve hours ti
baking. Frizi-.g;
The materials is each are to be finely powdered, 'r~“
wafhed, and fearced ; then equally mixed, and frequent¬
ly itirred together in the melting pot. For the reft
fee Glass, and Crystal.
FRITH, in its moft ufual acceptation, fignifies the
mopth or opening of a river into the fea ; fuch are the
Frith of Forth or of Edinburgh, the Frith of Clyde,
Moray Frith, &c.
FRITILLAR1A, frttillary: A genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the hexandria clafs of
plants; and in the natural meUipd ranking under the
loth order, Coronaria. The*orolla is hexapetaloua
and campanulated, with a neftariferous cavity above the
heel in each petal; the ftamina are as long as the co-. -
rolla. There are five fpecies, all of th<tm bulbous-
rooted flowery perennials, producing annual ilalks
from about one foot to a yard or more high, termi¬
nated by large, bell-fhaped, liliaceous flowers, of a
great variety of colours. They are all propagated by
offsets, which they furnifh abundantly.from the fides of
their roots, and which may be feparated everyffecond
or third year; they are hardy plants,.and will thrive in,
any of the common borders.
FRIULI, a province of Italy, fubjeft to Venice,
and bounded by Carinthxa in Germany on the north,
by Carniolaon theeaft,by the Gulph of Venice on the
fouth, and by the Bellunefe and Feltrin on the weft.
FR1ZE, or Frieze, in architecture, a part of the
entablature of columns, more ufually written and pro¬
nounced freexe. See Freeze.
Frize, or Freeze, in commerce, a kind of wool¬
len cloth or fluff for winter wear, being frized. or,
knapt on one fide; whence, in all probability, it de¬
rives its name.
Of frizes, fome are croffed, others not croffed : the
former are chiefly of Englifh manufacture, the latter
of Irifh.
PRIZING of Cloth, a term in the woollen
manufactory, applied to the forming of the nap of
cloth or fluff into a number of little hard burrs or
prominences, covering almoft the whole ground thereof.
Some cloths are only frized on the back fide, as
black cloths ; others on the right fide, as coloured and
mixed cloths, rateens, bays, friezes, &c.
Prizing may be performed two ways. One with the
hand, that is, by means of two workmen, who con¬
duct a kind of plank that ferves for a frizing inftru-
ment. The other way is by a mill, worked either by wa¬
ter or a horfe, or fometimes by men. This latter is
efteemed the better way of frizing, by reafon the mo¬
tion being uniform and regular, the little knobs of the
frizing are formed more equably and regularly. The
ftruCture of this ufeful machine is as follows :
The three principal parts are the frizer or crifper, the
frizing table, and the drawer or beam. The two firtl
are two equal planks or boards, each about 10 feet
long and 15 inches broad; differing only in this, that
the frizing-table is lined or covered with a kind of
coarfe woollen fluff, of a rough fturdy nap; and the
frizer is incruftated with a kind of cement compofed
of glue, gum-arabic, and a yellow fand, with a little
aqua-vitae, or unne. The beam, or drawer, thus call*
FRO [ 481 j FRO
Prizing ed, becaufe it draws the fluff from between the frizer
II and the frizing-table, is a wooden roller, befet all over
Fro 1 er. jjtt]e> ^ne> (^ort points or ends of wire, like thofe
of cards ufed in carding of wool.
The difpofirion and ufe of the machine is thus. The
table ftands immoveable, and bears or fuftains the cloth
to be frized, which is laid with that fide uppermoft on
which the nap is to be raifed : over the table is placed
the frizer, at fuch a dittance from it as to give room
for the fluff to be paffed between them: fo that the
Frizer, having a very flow femicircular motion, meeting
the long hairs or naps of the cloth, twifts, and rolls
them into little knobs or burrs; while, at the fame
time, the drawer, which is continually turning, draws
away the fluff from under the frizer, and winds it over
its own points.
All that the workman has to do while the machine
is a-going, is to ftretch the fluff on the table as faft as
the drawer takes it off, and from time to time to take
off the fluff from the points of the drawer.
The defign of having the frizing-table lined with
fluff of a fhort, ftiff, ftubby nap, is that it may detain
the cloth between the table and the frizer long enough
for the grain to be formed, that the drawer may not
take it away too readily, which muft otherwife be the
cafe, as it is not held by any thing at the other end.
It were unneceflary to fay any thing particular of the
manner of frizing fluffs with the hand, it being the
aim of the workmen to imitate, as near as they can with
their wooden inftrument, the flow, equable, and circu¬
lar motion of the machine : it needs only be added, that
their frizer is but about two feet long and one broad;
and that to form the nap more ealily, they moiften the
furface of the fluff lightly, with water mingled with
whites of eggs or honey.
FROBENIUS (John), a famous and learned print¬
er in the 16th century, was born at Hamelburgh in
Franconia, and fettled at Bafil. He had before flu-
died in that univerfity, where he acquired the reputa¬
tion of being uncommonly learned ; and now fetting
up a printing-houfe in that city, was the firft of the
German printers who brought that admirable art to any
degree of perfe&ion. Being a man of great probity
and piety, as well as fkill, he was particularly choice
in the authors he printed 5 and would never, for the
fake of profit, fuffer libels, or any thing that might
hurt the reputation of another, to go through his
prefs. The great ehara&er of this printer was the
principal motive which induced Erafmus to refide at
Bafil, in order to have his own works printed by him.
A great number of valuable authors were printed by
Frobenius, with great care and accuracy; among
which were the works of St Jerome, Augufline, and
Erafmus. He defigned to have printed the Greek
Fathers; but died in 1527, before he could execute
his defign. Erafmus wrote his epitaph in Greek and
Latin.
John Frobenius left a fon, named Jerome Frobenius,
and a daughter married to Nicholas Epifcopius ; who,
joining in partnerfhip, continued Frobenius’s printing-
houfe with reputation, and printed corredl editions of
the Greek Fathers.
FROBISHER, or Forbisher (Sir Martin), an
excellent navigator and fea-officer in the 16th century,
Was born near Doncafter in Yorkfhire, and was from
Vot. VII. Part IL
his youth brought up to navigation. He wjs the firft Frobiftter
Englilhman who attempted to find a north-weft paf- H
fage to China, and in 1576 he failed with two barks r°g> f
and a pinnace in order to' attempt that paffage. In
this voyage he difcovered a cape, to which he gave the
name of §>ueen Elizabeth's Foreland, and the next day
difcovered a llrait to which he gave his own name. This
voyage proving unfuccefsful, he attempted the fame
paffage in 1577; but difcovering fome ore irt an ifiand,
and his commiffion dire&ing him in this voyage only to
fearch for ore, and to leave the farther difcovery of the
north-well to another time, he returned to England.
He failed again, with 15 Ihips and a great number of
adventurers, to form a fettlement: but being obftruc-
ted by the ice, and driven out to fea by a violent
ftorm, they, after encountering many difficulties, re¬
turned home, without making any fettlemenr, but
brought a large quantity of ore.—He afterwards com¬
manded the Aid in Sir Francis Drake’s expedition to
the Weft Indies, in which St Domingo in Hifpaniola,
Carthagena, and Santa Juftina, in Florida, were taken
and facked. In 1588, he bravely exerted himfelf in
defence of his country againft the Spanilh armada,
when he commanded the Triumph, one of the laro-dl
(hips in that fervice; and, as a reward for his diftin-
guilhed bravery, received the honour of knighthood
from the lord high-admiral at fea. He afterwards
commanded a fquadron which was ordered to cruife on
the Spanifli coaft ; and in 1592 took two valuable
Ihips and a rich carrack. In 1594 he was fent to the .
affiftance of Henry IV. king of France againft a body
of the Leaguers and Spaniards, who had ftrongly en¬
trenched themfelves at Croyzon near Breft; but in an
aflault upon that fort, on the 7th of November, Sir
Martin was unfortunately wounded with a ball, of which
he died foon after he had brought back the fleet to Ply¬
mouth, and was buried in that town.
Frobisher's Straits, lie a little to the northward of
Cape Farewell in Weft Greenland, and were difcover¬
ed by Sir Martin Frobiflier. W. Long. 48. 16. N.
Lat. 63. 12.
FRODSHAM, a town of Chefliire in England,
162 miles from London, is noted for its ancient caftle.
It has a ftone-bridge over the river Weaver near its
conflux with the Merfey, and a harbour for Ihips of
good burden. By the late inland navigation, it has
communication with the rivers Dee, Ribble, Oufe,
Trent, Darwent, Severn, Humber, Thames, Avon,
&c. which navigation, including its windings, extendi
above 500 miles, in the counties of Lincoln, Notting¬
ham, York, Lancatter, Weftmoreland, Stafford, War¬
wick, Leicefter, Oxford, Worcefter, &c.
FROG, in zoology. See Ran a.
EuII-Frog. See Rasa.
FRoa-Fi/h of Surinam, a very Angular animal, of
which, a figure is given by Mr Edwards, Hift. of Birds,
Vol. I. There is no fpecimen in the Britiih mufeum,
nor in any private colleftion, except that of Dr Fo-
thergill. It was brought from Surinam in South A-
merica.—Frogs, both in Afia and Africa, according
to Merian, change gradually from fifhes to frogs, at
thsfe in Europe; but after many years revert again in¬
to fiflies, though the manner of their change has never
been inveftigated. In Surinam thefe fifties are called
jahjes. They are cartilaginous, of a fubftance like our
3 P muftela.
FRO [ 482 ] FRO
Froaic, muftela, a*nd exquifite food ^ they are formed with re-
frentia* bu-ar vertebne, and fmall bones all over the body di-
vided into equal part?; are firft darkiih, and then
grey: their fcales make a beautiful appearance. Whe¬
ther this animal is, in its perfedt Hate, a fpecies of frog
with a tail, ora kind of water lizard, Mr Edwards does
not pretend to determine ; but obferves, that when its
fize is confidered, if it fhould be deemed a tadpole at firft
produced from fpawn, and in its progrefs towards a
frog, fuch an animal, when full grown, if it bears the
farce proportion to its tadpole as thofe in Europe do,
muft; be of enormous fize; for our full grown frogs ex¬
ceed the tadpoles at leaft 50 times. See a reduced fi¬
gure on Plate CCIII.
FROME, a river that rifes from feveral fprings in
the Weftern parts of Dorfetftiire in England, the prin¬
cipal of which is near Everfhot; and dire&ing its courfe
almoft due weft, paftes under Frampton-bridge, wafhes
the town of Dorchefter, and falls into a bay of the
Englifh Channel called Poolhaven, near Wareham.
FnoME-Schyood, a town of Somerfetfhire in England,
105 miles from London. It is the chief town of this
part of the country, which was anciently one great
foreft called Selwcodjbir: ; and in the latter end of the
laft century, in thofe called Frame-Woodlands, there
was a confiderable gang of money-coiners or clippers,
of whom many were taken and executed, and their co¬
vert laid open. Though the town is bigger than force
cities, yet it has only one church ; but it has fix or
feven meeting-houfes of Proteftant diffenters. The
inhabitants j.are reckoned about 13,000, whofe chief
manufadtory is broad-cloth. About 50 years ago,
more wire cards for carding the wool for the fpinners
were made at this place than in all England befides,
which rvas for the moft part fupplied with them from
hence; for here were no lefs than zo mafter card-
makers, one of whom employed 400 men, women, and
children, in that manufadiory at one time; fo that even
children of 7 or 8 years of age could earn half-a-crown
a-week. The river here, which abounds with trout,
eels, &c. rifes in the woodlands ; and runs under its
Hone-bridge towards Bath, on the eaft fide of which
it falls into the Avon. This town has been a long
time noted for its fine beer, which they keep to a great
age, and is generally preferred by the gentry to the
wines of France and Portugal. It was governed for¬
merly by a bailiff, and now by two conftables of the
hundreds of Frome, chofen at the court-leet of the
lord of the manor.
FRONDESCENTIA, from from, “ a leaf;” the
precife time of the year and month in which each fpe¬
cies of plants unfolds its firft leaves.
All plants produce new leaves every year; but all do
not renew them at the fame time. Among woody
plants, the elder, and moft of the honey-fuckles; a-
mong perennial herbs, crocus and tulip, are the firft
that pufti or expand their leaves. The time of fow-
ing the feeds decides with refpeft to annuals. The
oak and afh are conftantly the lateft in puftring their
leaves: the greateft number unfold them in fpring; the
moffes and firs in winter. Thefe ftriking differences
with refpeft to fo capital a circu'mftance in plants as
that of unfolding their leaves, feem to indicate that
each fpecies of plants has a temperature proper or pe¬
culiar to itfelf, and requires a certain degree of heat Front
to extricate the leaves from their buds, and moduce II.
the appearance in queftion. * Frontmn
This temperature, however, is not fo fixed or con- T
ftant as it may appear to a fuperficiai obferver. A-
mong plants of the fame fpecies, there are force more
early than others; whether that circumftance depends,
as it moft: commonly does, on the nature of the plants,
or is owing to differences in heat, expofure, and foil.
In general, it may be affirmed, that fmall and young
trees are always earlier than larger or old ones.
The pufhing of the leaves is likewife accelerated or
retarded according to the temperature of the feafon ;
that is, according as the fun i« fooner or later in dif-
penfing that certain degree of heat which is fuitable to
each fpecies.
FRONT, the forehead, or that part of the face
above the eyebrows. The word is formed of the Latin
from; and that fr om the Greek “ to think, per¬
ceive of Pi'"' mem, “ the mind, thought.” Marti-
nius, to make out this etymology, obferves, that from
the forehead of a perfon we perceive what he is, what
he is capable of, and what he thinks of.
Front is alfo ufed where feveral perfons or things
are ranged fide by fide, and firow their front or fore¬
parts.
Front, in archite&ure, denotes the principal face
or fide of a building, or that prefented to their chief
afpedt or view.
FRONTAL, in archite&ure, a little fronton or
pediment, fometimes placed over a fmall door or win¬
dow.
Frontal, Frontlet, or Brow-land, is alfo ufed in
fpeaking of the Jewifh ceremonies. This frontal con-
fifts of four feveral pieces of vellum, on each whereof
is written fome text of feripture. They are all laid on
a piece of a black calf’s leather with thongs to tie it by.
The Jews apply the leather with the vellum on their
foreheads in the fynagogue, and tie it round the head
with the thongs.
FRONTIER, the border, confine, or extreme, of
a kingdom or province, which the enemies find in front
when they would enter the fame. Thus we fay, a
frontier town, frontier province, &c. Frontiers were
anciently called marches.
The word is derived from the French frontiere, and
that from the Latin frontaria; as being a kind of front
oppofed to the enemy. Skinner derives frontier from
front; inafmuch as the frontier is the exterior and moft;
advanced part of a ftate, as the front is that of the face
of a man.
FRONTIGNIAC v/ine, is fo called from a town
of Languedoc in France, fituated 16 miles fouth-weft
of Montpelier, remarkable for producing it.
FRONTINUS (Sextus Julius), an ancient Roman
writer, was of confular dignity, and flouriftied under the
emperors Vefpafian, Titus, Domitian, Nerva, and
Trajan. He commanded the Roman armies in Bri¬
tain; was made city-prsetor when Vefpafian and Ti¬
tus were confuls; and Nerva made him curator of the
aquedu&s, which cccafioned his writing De aqunduEli-
bus urlis Roma. Ele wrote four books upon the Greek
and Roman art of war ; a piece De re agraria, and
another De Irmzttbus. Thefe have been often feparate-
W
FRO
L 483 ]
FRO
Frontlf- ]y reprinted ; but were all colleiled together in a neat fenfation of cold Is excited, and we call that fubftance
f'ff6 edition at Amfterdam in 1661, with notes by Robertas cold; but if it flows from any fubftance into our body, '
Froft. Keuchenius. He died under Trajan. the ferifation of heat is excited, and we call that fub-
Y—' FRONTISPIECE, in architefture, the principal HanCe to, without regard to the abfolute quantity coal¬
face of a fine building. The word is formed of the tained in either cafe. See He at.
Of all known fubftance?, the acmofphere either ab-
forbs or throws out heat with the moft remarkable fa¬
cility : and in one or other of thefe ftates it always ii
with refpeA to the furface of the earth, and fuch bo¬
dies as are placed on or near it; for thefe, properly
fpeaking, have no temperature of their own, but arc
Latin froniifplcium, q. &. fronds hom'tms infpeQh.—Hence
alfo, by a figure, we fay, the frontifpiece of a book ;
meaning an ornament with an engraven title on the
firft page.
FRONTLET. See Frontal.
FRONTO (Marcus Cornelius), was chofen for his
eloquence to inftruA the emperors Marcus Aurelius and entirely regulated by that of the atmofphere. When
Lucius Verus in rhetoric ; in recompence of which he the air has been for fometime abforbing the heat from
was promoted to the confulate, and a ftatue was erec- terreftrial bodies, a froft muft be the undoubted Cos¬
ted to his honour. He taught Marcus Aurelius not fequence, for the fame reafon that water freezes in a
only eloquence, but the duty of kings, and excellent veffel put into a freezing mixture ; and were this ab-
morals. Some fay he wrote againft the Chriftians. A forption to continue for a length of time, the whole
feA was formed of thofe who looked upon him as a mo- earth would be converted into a frozen mafs. There
del of perfeA eloquence, and thefe were called Fronto- are, however, certain powers in nature, by which this
ithni. The Civilians, whofe names were Fronto, men- effeA is always prevented ; and the moft violent froft
tioned in the pandects, were probably defcended from we can imagine, muft always as it were defeat its own
him. _ _ purpofes, and end in a thaw. To underftand this fub-
FROST, in phyfiology, fuch a ftate of the atmo- jcA, we muft obferve,
fphere as occafions the congelation or freezing of water 1. In that ftate of the atmofphere which we deno-
and other fluids. See Congelation. minate froft, there is a moft intimate union between
Under the articles Coi.b, Congelation, Evapo- the air and the water It contains; and therefore frofty
ration, Fluidity, &c. it is Ihown, that water and weather, except in very high latitudes, is generally
other fluids are capable of containing the element of clear.
fire or heat in two very different ftates. In the one, 2. When fuch an union takes place, either in win-
they feem to imbibe the fire in fuch a manner, that it ter or fummer, -we obferve the atmofphere alfo in¬
cludes all the methods by which we are accuftomed to
obferve it, either by our fenfation of feeling, or the
thermometer; in the other, it manifefts itfelf obvioufly
to our fenfes, either by the touch, the thermometer,
■or the emifilon of light.
In the firft of thefe ftates, we call the body cold
clined. to abforb heat, and confequently to froft.
Thus in clear fettled weather, even in fummer, though
the day may be exceffively hot by reafon of the con¬
tinued funihine, yet the mornings and evenings are re¬
markably cold, and fometimes even difagreeably fo.
3- The air being therefore always ready in the time
and are apt to fay that this colcbefs is occafioned by of froft, or in clear weather, to abforb heat from every
the alfence of heat. But this manner of exprefling fubftance which comes into contaA with it, it follows
ourfelves is certainly improper .; for even thofe fluids that it muft alfo abforb part of that which belongs to
which are coldeft to the touch contain a vaft deal of the vapours contained in it.
heat. Thus vapour, which is colder to the touch 4. Though vapour is capable of becoming much
than the water from which it was raifed, contains an colder than water without being frozen, yet by a con-
immenfe quantity of fire, even more than fuflicient to tinued abforption it muft at laft part with its latent
heat it red hot. The like may be faidof common fait, heat, i. e. that which eftentialiy conftitutes it vapour;
and fnow, or ice. If a quantity of each of thefe fub- and without which it is no longer vapour, but water
rtances is feparately reduced to the degree of 28 or 30 or ice. No fooner, therefore, does the froft arrive at
of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, upon mixing them to- a certain pitch, than the vapours, every where dif-
gether, the heat which would have raifed the thermo- perfed through the air, give out their latent heate
meter to the degree above mentioned, now enters into the atmofphere then becomes clouded; the froft either
the fubftance of them in fuch a manner that the mer- totally goes off, or becomes milder by reafon of the
cury falls down too.—Here an exceftive degree of great quantity of heat difeharged into the air; and
cold is produced, and yet we are fare that the fubftan- the vapours defeend in rain, hail; or fnow, according
ces contain the very fame quantity of heat that they to the particular difpofition of the atmofphere at the
formerly did : nay, they will even feem exceedingly time.
cold, whew they moft certainly c Vain a great deal 5. Even in the polar regions, where it may be
more heat than they originally did ; for they abforb it thought that the-froft muft increafe beyond meafure,
from all bodies around them ; and if a fmail veflel full there are alfo natural means for preventing its running
of water is put in the middle of fueh a mixture, it will to extremes. The principal caufe here is, the mixture
in a (hort time be full of ice. of a great quantity of vapours from the more tempe-
It appears, therefore, that our fenfes, even when rate regions of the globe with the air in thofe dreary
aftlfted by thermometers, can only judge of the ftate in climates. It is well known, that aqueous vapour al-
which the element of fire is with relation to the bcF- ways flies from a warm to a colder place. For this
dies around us, without regard to the quantity contain- reafon, the vapours raifed by the fun in the more te’m-
ed in them. Thus, if heat flows from any part of our perate regions of the earth, muft continually travel
body into any fubftance aAuaiiy in contaA with it-, the northward and fouthward in great quantities. Thus
3 P 2 they
FRO I 484 ] FRO
they furnifh materials for thofe immenfe quantities of
fnow and ice which are to be found in the neighbour¬
hood of the poles, and which we cannot imagine the
weak influence of the fun in thefe parts capable of rai¬
ling. It is impoflible that a quantity of vapour can be
mixed with frofty air, without communicating a great
deal of heat to it ; and thus there are often thaws of
confiderable duration even in thofe climates where,
from the little influence of the fun, we Ihould fuppofe
the froft would be perpetual.
6. We may now account with fome probability for
the uncertain duration of frofts. In this country they’
are feldom of a long continuance; becaufe the vapours
railed from the fea-with which our ifland is furround-
ed, perpetually mix with the air over the ifland, and
prevent a long duration of the fro'ft. For the fame
reafqn, frofts are never of fuch long duration in mari¬
time places on the continent as in the inland ones.
There is nothing, however, more uncertain than the
motion of the vapours with which the air is conftantly
filled; and therefore it is impofiible to prognofticate the
duration of a froft with any degree of certainty. In
general, we may always be certain, that if a quantity
of vapour is accumulated in any place, no intenfe froft
can fubfift in that place for any length of time ; and
by whatever caufes the vapours are driven from place
to place, by the fame caufes the frofts are regulated
throughout the whole world. See Thaw, Vapour,
See.
The effe&s of froft in feveral different countries, are
enumerated under the article Congelation. In the
northern parts of the world, even folid bodies are li¬
able to be affe&ed by froft. Timber is often apparent¬
ly frozen, and rendered exceedingly difficult to faw.
Marie, chalk, and other lefs folid terreftrial concre¬
tions, will be (battered by ftrong and durable frofts.
Metals are eontra&ed by froft: thus, an iron tube, 12
feet long, upon being expofed to the air in a frofty
night, loft two lines of its length. On the contrary,
froft fwells or dilates water near one-tenth of its bulk.
Mr Boyle made feveral experiments with metalline
veffels, exceedingly thick and ftrong ; which being
filled with water, clofe flopped, and expofed to the
cold, burft by the expanfion of the frozen fluid with¬
in them. Trees are frequently deftroyed by froft, as
if burnt up by the moft exceffive heat; and in very
ftrong frofts, walnut-trees, aflies, and even oaks, are
ibmetimes fplit and cleft, fo as to be feen through,
and this with a terrible noife, like the exploiion of fire¬
arms.
Froft naturally proceeds from the upper parts of bo¬
dies downwards : but how deep it will reach in earth
or water, is not eafily known ; becaufe this depth may
vary with the degree of coldnefs in the air, by a longer
or (horter duration of the froft, the texture of the
earth, the nature of the juices wherewith it is impreg¬
nated, the conftitution of its more internal parts as to
heat and cold, the nature of its effluvia, &c. Mr
Boyle, in order to afeertain this depth, after four
nights of hard froft, dug in an orchard, where the
ground was level and bare, and found the froft had
fcarce reached three indhes and a half, and in a garden
nearer the houfe only two inches below the furface.
Nine or ten fucceffive frofty nights froze the bare
ground in the garden fix inches and a half deep ; and
in the orchard, where a wall (heltered it from the fouth
fun, to the depth of eight inches and a half. He alfo
dug in an orchard, near a wall, about a week after¬
wards, and found the froft to have penetrated to the
depth of 14 inches. In a garden at Mofcow, the froft
in a hard feafon only penetrates to two feet: and the
utmoft effedf that Captain James mentions the cold to
have had upon the ground of Charlton ifland, was to
freeze it to 10 feet deep : whence may appear the dif¬
ferent degrees of cold of that ifland and Ruffia. And
as to the freezing of water at the abovementioned
ifland, the Captain tells us, it does not naturally con¬
geal above the depth of fix feet1#the reft being by ac¬
cident. Water alfo, expofed to the cold air in large
veffels, always freezes firft at the upper furface, the
ice gradually increafing and thickening downwards:
for which reafon, frogs retire in frofty weather to
the bottom of ditches; and it is faid, that (hoals of
fiflr retire in winter to thofe depths of the fea and ri¬
vers, where they are not to be found in fummer. Wa¬
ter, like the earth, feems not difpofed to receive any
very intenfe degree of cold at a confiderable depth or
diftance from the air. The vaft maffes of ice found
in the northern feas being only many flakes and fragr
ments, which, Aiding under each other, are, by the
congelation of the intercepted water, cemented toge¬
ther.
In cold countries, the froft often proves fatal to
mankind ; not only producing gangrenes, but even
death itfelf. Thofe who die of it have their hands and
feet firft feized, till they grow paft feeling it ; after
which the reft of their bodies is fo invaded, that they
are taken with a drowfinefs, which if indulged, they
awake no more, but die infenfibly. But there is ano¬
ther way whereby it proves mortal, viz. by freezing
the abdomen and vifetra, which on diffedfion are found
to be mortified and black.
The great power of froft on vegetables is a thing
fufficiently known; but the differences between the
frofts of a fevere winter, and thofe which happen in
the fpring mornings, in their effedfs on plants and
trees, were never perfectly explained, till by Meff. Du
Hamel and Buffon in the Memoirs of the Paris Aca¬
demy.
The frofts of fevere winters are much more terrible
than thofe of the fpring, as they bring on a priva*
tiqn of all the produ&s of the tenderer part of the
vegetable world ; but then they are not frequent, fuch
winters happening perhaps but once in an age ; and
the frofts of the fpring are in reality greater injuries to
us than thefe, as they are every year repeated.
In regard to trees, the; great difference is this, that
the frofts of. fevere winters affedl even their wood, their
trunks and large branches ; whereas thofe of the fpring
have only, power to hurt the buds.
The winter frofts happening at, a time when moft of,
the trees in our woods and gardens have neither leaves,
flowers, nor fruits upon them, and have their buds fo
hard as to be. proof againft flight injuries of weather,
efpecially if the preceding fummer has not been too
wet; in this date, if there are no uplucky circumftan*
ces attending, the generality of trees bear moderate
winters very well; but hard frofts, which happen late
FRO 1 485 ] FRO
in the winter, caufe very great injuries even to thofe
trees which they do not utterly deilroy. Thefe are,
1. Long cracks following the dire&ion of the fibres.
2. Parcels of dead wood inclofed round with wood yet
in a living ftate. And, 3. That diftemperature which
the forefters call the double Ilea, which is a perfect
circle of blea, or foft white wood, which, when the
tree is afterwards felled, is found covered by a circle
of hard and folid Wood.
The opinions ’of authors about the expofition of
trees to the different quarters, have been very different,
and moft of them grounded on no rational foundation.
Many are of opinion that the effefts of frofl are moft
violently felt on thofe trees which are expofed to the
north; and others think the fouth or the weft the moft
ftrongly affe&ed by them. There is no doubt but the
north expofure is fubjeft to the greateft cold. It does
not, however, follow from this, that the injury muft
be always greateft on the trees expofed to the north in
frofts: on the contrary, there are abundant proofs
that it is on the fouth fide that trees are generally
more injured by froft : and it is plain from repeated
experiments, that there are particular accidents, under
which a more moderate froft may do more injury to ve¬
getables, than the moft fevere one which happens to
them under more favourable circumftances.
It is plain from the accounts of the injuries trees re¬
ceived by the frofts in 1709, that the greateft of all
were owing to repeated falfe thaws, fucceeded by re¬
peated new frofts. But the frofts of the fpring-feafon
furnifh abundantly more numerous examples of this
truth ; and fome experiments made by the Count de
Buffon, at large in his own woods, prove inconteft-
ably, that it is not the fevereft cold or moft fixed froft
that does the greateft injury to vegetables.
This is an obfervation dire&ly oppofite to the com¬
mon opinion ; yet is not the lefs true, nor is it any way
difcordant to reafon. VVe find by a number of expe¬
riments, that humidity is the thing that makes froft
fatal to vegetables ; and therefore every thing that can
occafion humidity in them, expofes them to thefe in¬
juries, and every thing that can prevent or take off an
over proportion of humidity in them, every thing that
can dry them though with ever fo increafed a cold,
muft prevent or preferve them from thofe injuries. Nu¬
merous experiments and obfervations tend to prove
this. It is well known that vegetables always feel the
froft very defperately in low .places where there are
fogs. The plants which ftahd by a river fide are fre¬
quently found deftroyed by the fpring and autumnal
frofts, while thofe of the fame fpecies, which ftand in
a drier place, fuffer little or perhaps not at all by
them ; and the low and wet parts of forefts are well
known to produce worfe wood than the high and drier.
The coppice wood in wet and low parts of common
woods, though it pufh out more vigoroufly at firft than
that of other places, yet never comes to fo good a
growth ; for the froft of the fpring killing thefe early
top-flioots, obliges the lower part of the trees to throw
out lateral branches : and the fame thing happens in a
greater or lefl'er degree to the coppice wood that grows
under cover of larger trees in great forefts •, for here
the vapours not being carried off either by the fun or
wind, ftagnate and freeze, and in the fame manner de-
ftroy the young (hoots, as the fogs of marfhy places.
It is a general obfervation alfo, that the froft is never
hurtful to the late fhoots of the vine, or to the flower-
buds of trees, except when it follows heavy dews, or a
long rainy feafon, and then it never fails to do great
mifehief, though it be ever fo flight.
The froft is always obferved to be more mifehievous
in its confequences on newly cultivated ground than in
other places; and this is becaufe the vapours which
continually arife from the earth, find an eafier paffage
from thofe places than from others. Trees' alfo which
have been newly cut, fuffer more than others by the
fpring frofts, which is owing to their (hooting out
more vigoroufly.
Frofts alfo do more damage on light and Tandy
grounds, than on the tougher and firmer foils, fnppo-
fing both equally dry ; and this feems partly owing to
their being more early in their produftions, and partly
to their lax texture fufferinga greater quantity of va¬
pours to tranfpire.
It alfo has been frequently obferved, that the fide-
(hoots of trees are more fubjedf to perifh by the fpring.
frofts than thofe from the top ; and M. Buffon, who
examined into this with great accuracy, always found
the effedfs of the fpring frofts much greater near the
ground than elfewhere. The (hoots within a foot of
the ground quickly periflted by them; thofe which
flood at two or three feet high, bore them much bet¬
ter ; and thofe at four feet and upwards frequently re¬
mained wholly unhurt, while the lower ones were en¬
tirely deftroyed.
There is a feries of obfervations, which have pro¬
ved beyond all doubt, that it is not the hard frofts
which fo much hurt plants, as thofe frofts, though lefs
fevere, which happen when they are full of moifture ;
and this clearly explains the account of all the great
damages done by the fevere frofts being on the fouth
fide of the trees which are affedted by them, though
that fide has been plainly all the while lefs cold than
the north. Great damage is alfo done to the weftern
fides of trees and plantations, when after a rain with a
weft wind the wind turns about to the north at fun-
fet, as is frequently the cafe in fpring, or when an eaft
wind blows upon a thick fog before fun-rifing.
Hoar-Fiiosr, a cold moift vapour, that is drawn
up a little way into the air, and in the night fails again-
on the earth, where it is congealed into icy cryftals of
various figures. Hoar-froft, therefore, is nothing but
dew turned into ice by the coldnefs of the air.
Melioration of Aromatic Spirits ly Frost. Mr Baum6
obferves, that aromatic fpirituous waters have lefs feent
when newly diftilledthan after they, have been kept a-
bout fix months: and he found that the good effedls
of age was produced in a (hort time by means of cold;
and that, by plunging quart-bottles of the liquor into
a mixture of pounded ice and fea-falt, the fpirit, after
having fuffered for fix or eight hours the cold hence
refulting, proves as grateful as that which hath been
kept many years. Simple waters alfo, after having been
frozen, prove far more agreeable than they were be¬
fore. Geoffrey takes notice of this melioration by-
froft ; Hijl. Acad. 17 13.
Melioration of Land by Frost. See Agxicu ltur b, .
n° 13.7.
FROTH,,
Froth
II
Frudefcen-
F R O [ 486 ] F It O
FROTH, a white light fubftance, formed on the
furface of fluids by vehement agitation, conlifling of
little fpherules or globules. *
Froth-Spit) or Cuckow-Spit, a name given to a
white froth, or fpume, very common in the fpringand
firlt months of fummer, on the leaves of certain plants,
particularly on 4iofc of the common white field-lych¬
nis or catch-fly, thence called by fomefpailingpoppy.
All writers on vegetables have taken notice of this
froth, though few have underftood the caufe or origin
of it till of late. It is formed by a little leaping ani¬
mal, called by fome the flea gmfs-bopper, by apply ing
its anus clofe to the leaf, and difcharging thereon a
fmall drop of a white vifcous fluid, which, containing
fome air in it, is foon elevated into a final! bubble: be¬
fore this is well formed, it depofits Inch another drop;
and fo on, till it is every way overwhelmed with a
quantity of thefe bubbles, which form tire white froth
which we fee. Within this fpume it is feen to acquire
four tubercles on its back, wherein the wings are inclo-
fed : thefe buriting, from a reptile it becomes a wing¬
ed animal: and thus, rendered perfedl, it flies to meet
its mate, and propagate its kind. It has an oblong, ob-
tufe body, and a large head with fmall eyes. The ex¬
ternal wings, for it has four, are of a dulky brown co¬
lour, marked with two white fpots: the head is black.
It is a fpecies of Cicada.
FROWDE (Philip), an Englifli poet, was the fun
of a gentleman who had been pofl>maft.er in the reign
of queen Anne. He was lent to the univerfity of
Oxford, where he had the honour of being diftinguifn-
ed by Addifon, who took him under his protedlion.
While he remained there, he became the author of fe-
veral pieces of poetry, fome of which in Latin were
pure and elegant enough to intitle them to a place in
the Mufee Angllcame. He likewife wrote two tragedies s
The Fall of Saguntum, dedicated to Sir Robert Wal¬
pole ; and Philotas, addrefled to the earl of Chefter-
iield. Fie died at his lodgings at Cecil-llreet in the
Strand, in 1738, and in the London Daily-Poft had
the following character given him : “ Though the
■elegance of Mr Frovvders writings has recommended
him to the general public elleem, the politenefs of his
genius is the lealt amiable part of his character;
for he efteemed the talents of wit and learning only as
they were conducive to the excitement and pradlice of
honour and humanity. Therefore, with a foul cheef-
ful, benevolent, and virtuous, he was in conveifation
genteelly delightful, in friendlhip punctually fincere, in
death Chriilianly refigned. No man could live more
beloved, no private man could die more lamented.”
A fine doge! and we have no reafon to doubt the
truth of it.
FRUCTESCENTIA, (from fruAut, “ fruit,”)
comprehends the precifj time in which, after the fall
of the flowers, the fruits arrive at maturity, and difperfe
their feeds.
In general, plants which flower in fpring, ripen their
fruits in fummer, as rye ; thofe which flower in fum-
mer, have their fruits ripe in autumn, as the vine; the
fruit of autumnal flowers ripens in winter, or the fol¬
lowing fpring, if kept in a Hove or otherwife defend¬
ed from excdlive frofts. Thefe frofts, fays M. A-
danfon, are frequently fo pernicious and violent as to
deilroy the greateft part of the perennial plants of Vir¬
ginia and Miffiffippi, that are cultivated in. France,
even before they have exhiL'ted their fruit. The
plants which flower during our Winter, fuch as thofe of
the Cape of Good Hope, ripen their fruit in fpring in
our floves.
FRUCTIFEROUS, fignifies properly any thing
that produces fruit..
FRUCTIFICATION of plants, is defined by
Linmaus to be the temporary part of a vegetable ap¬
propriated to generation, terminating the old vegeta¬
ble, and beginning the new. It confifts of the follow¬
ing feven parts; vix.. the calyx, corolla, ftamen, piftil-
lum, pericarpium, femen or feed, and receptaculam.
See .Botany, p. 446.
FRUIT, in its general fenfe, includes whatever the
earth producer for the nourifhment and fupport of ani¬
mals ; as herbs, grain, pulfe,hay, corn, flax, and every
thing expreffed by the Latins under the name/rw°Af.
Fruit, in -natural hiflory, denotes the laft produc¬
tion of a tree or plant, for the propagation or multi¬
plication of its kind ; in which fenfe Iruit includes all
kinds of feeds, with their furniture, &c.
Fruit, in botany, is properly that part of a plant
wherein the feed is contained; called by the Latins
frUfllus'-j and by the Greeks The fruit in the
Lin mean fyftem is one of the parts of fructification,
and is dillinguifhed into three paits, viz. the pericar¬
pium, feed, and receptacle or recepUicuIum feminurn. See
Botany.
Colours Extracted from Fruits* See the article Co-
LOUR-Muling, ri° 36.
Bread-Fruit- See Bread.
Fruits, with regard to commerce, are diflinguifhed
into recent or frcjh, and dry.
Recent Fruits, are thofe fold juft as they are ga¬
thered from the tree, without any farther preparation :
as are moft of the productions or our gardens and or¬
chards, fold by the fruiterers.
Dry Fruits, are thofe dried in the fun, or by the
fire, with other ingredients fometimes added to them
to make them keep; imported chiefly from beyond
fea, and fold by the grocers. Such are raiiins, cur¬
rants, figs, capers, olives, cloves, nutmegs, pepper, and
ether fpices; which fee under their refpeCtive articles.
Under the denomination of dry fruits are alfo fre¬
quently included apples, pears, almonds, filberds, &c.
Fruit-Flies, a name given by gardeners and others
to a fort of fmall hlacip-fiies found in vaft numbers a-
rr.ong fruit-trees, in the fpring feafon, and fuppofed t<f
do great injury to them. Mr Lewenhoek preferved
fume of tbefe flies for his microfcopical obfervationsi
Fie 'found that they did not live longer than a day or
two, but that the females during this time laid a great
number of longiflr eggs. The gardeners who fnppofe
that thefe flies woutui the leaves of the trees, are tnif-
taken : it is true that they feed on their juices; but
they have no inftruments wherewith they can extraCI
thefe for themfelves: they feed on fuch as are naturally
extravafated ; and when there is not a fufiacient quan¬
tity of thefe for their purpofe, they haunt the places
to which the pucerons refort, and feed on the juices
which thefe little creatures extravafate by means of the
holes they bore in the leaves with their trunks.
Fruit-Stones. The mifchiefs arifing from the cu-
ftom which many people have of fwailowing the itones
of
FRO [487] FRO
of plums and other fruit are very great. The Phi-
lofophical Tranfactions give an account of a woman
who fuffered violent pains' in her bowels for 30 years,,
returning once in a month or Ids. At length, a ftrong
purge being given her, the octalien of all thcfe com¬
plaints was driven down from the bowels to the anus;
where it gave a fenfation of diitenfion and ftoppage,
producing a continual defire of going to ftool, but
without voiding any thing. On the ailiftance of a
careful hand in this cafe, there was taken out with a
forceps a ball of an oval figure, of about ten drachms
in weight, and meafuring five inches in circumference.
This had caufed all the violent fits of pain which ihe
had fuffered for fo many years ; and, after voiding it,
foe became pevfedtly well. The ball extracted looked
like a ftone, and felt very hard, but it fwam in water.
On cutting it through with a knife, there was found
in the centre of it a plum-ftone; round which, feveral
coats of this hard and tough matter had gathered.
Another inftance given in the fame papers is of a man,
who, dying of an incurable colic which had tormented
him many years, and baffled the effects of medicines,
was opened after death ; and in his bowels was found
a ball fimilar to that above mentioned ; but fomewhat
larger, being fix inches in circumference, and weighing
an ounce and an half. In the centre of this, as of the
other, there was found the, ftone of a common plum,
and the coats were of the fame nature with thofe of
the former.
Thefe and feveral other inftances mentioned in the
fame place, fufficiently (how the folly of that common
opinion that the ftorvts of fruits are wholeforne. For
though by nature the guts are fo defended by their
proper mucus,, that people very feldom fuffer by things
of this kind ; yet if we confider the various circumvo¬
lutions of the guts, their valves and cells, and at the
fame time eonfider the hair of the fkins of animals we
feed on, the wool or down on herbs and fruit, and the
fibres, veffela, and nerves of plants, which are not al¬
tered by the ftomach ; it will appear a wonder that
iuftances of this fort of mifchief are not much more
common. Cherry-ftones, fwallowed ift great quanti¬
ties, have occafioned the death of many people ; and?
there have been inftanees even of the feeds of ftraw-
betries colle&ing into a lump in the guts, and caufing
violent diforders, wliich could not be cured without
great difficulty,
pRuiT-Tracs. With regard to thefe it may be ob-
forved, 1. That the cutting and pruning them when
young, fcrimp fheir bearing, though it contributes to
the riehaefs and flavour of the fruit, as well as to the
beauty of the tree. 2. That kernel-fruit trees come
later to bear than ftone-fruit trees : the time required
hy the firft, before they come to any fit age for bear¬
ing, being one with another five years; blit when they
do begin, they bear in greater plenty than ftone-fruit.
3. Thait ftone-fruit, figs, and grapes, commonly bear
eonfiderably in three or four years, and bear full crops
the fifth andfixth years ; and hold it for many years,
if well ordered. 4. That fruit-trees in the fame neigh-
bourhood will ripen a fortnight foonerin fome grounds
than in others of a different temperature. 5. That in
the fame country, hot or cold fummers fet confiderably
forwards, or put backwards, the fame fruit. 6. That
the fruit on wall-trees generally ripen before thofe on.
4
ftandards, and’ tliofe on ftandards before thofe on Fruitery
dwarfs. 7. That the fruit of all wall trees planted in 11
the fouth and call quarters, commonly ripen about the i'rutex.
fame time, only thofe in the fouth rather earlier than v" "'
thofe in the call; thofe in the weft are later by eight
or ten days; and thofe in the north, by 15 or 20.
For the planting, pruning, grafting, &c. of fruit-trees,,
fee the articlesPLANTing,Trans?lanting,Pruning,,
Grafting, Orchard, Nursery, &c.
FRUITERY, a place for the keeping of fruit, a
fruit-houfe, or fruit-loft.
A fruitery fhould be inaccefiible to any thing of
moifture; and Ihould be as much as poffible fo, even
to froft.
FRUMENTACEOUS, a term applied by bota-
nifts to all fuch plants as have a conformity with
wheat, in refpect of their fruits, leaves, ears, or the
like.
FRUMENTARII, a kind of foldiers or archers
under the weftern empire.
The firft time we read of thefe officers is in the reign
of the emperor Adrian, who made ufe of them to inform
himfelf of whatever paffed. They did not make any
particular corps diftinft from the reft of the forces, but
there was a certain number of them in each legion. It
is fuppofed, that they were at firft a number of young
perfons, difpofed by Auguftus throughout the pro¬
vinces, particularly on all the grand roads, to acquaint
the emperor, with all expedition, of every thing that
happened.
Afterwards they were incorporated into- the troops
themfekes, where they ftill retained their ancient name.
As their principal office was the giving intelligence,
they were often joined with the curioii, with whom
they agreed in this part of their office.
Their name of fiumenbarii is derived, from their be¬
ing alfo a fort of purveyors to the armies, cities, &c.
colledting all the corn from the feveral provinces to
furniih the commonwealth.
FRUMENTATION, in Roman antiquity, a lar-
gefsof corn beftowed on the people. This practice of
giving corn to the people was very ancient among live
Romans, and frequently ufed to foothe the turbulent
humour of the populace. At firft the number of thofe
to whom this largefs was given was indeterminate, till
Auguftus fixed it at 200,000.
FRUSH, or Running-thrush. See Farriery,
Seft- xliv%
FRUSTUM, in mathematics, a part of fome folid'
body feparated from the reft.
The fruftum of a cone is the part that remains,,
when the top is cut off by a plane parallel to the bafe;
and is otherwife called a truncated cane. See Conic
Sections.
The fruftum of a pyramid is alfo what remains af¬
ter the top is cut off by a plane parallel to its bafe.
The fruftum of a globe or fphere is any part there¬
of cut off by a plane, the folid contents of which may
be. found by this rule : To three times the fquare of;
the femidiameter of the bafe add the fquare of its-
height; then multiply that fum by the height, and
this produft multiplied by .5236 gives the folidity of
the fniftum.
FRUTEX, a shrub. Shtubs* according to Liu-
metis, make a branch of the feventfe family in the ve¬
getable.
FRO [ 4S8 ] FRO
Fry jr^tatk kingdom; and are diftinguifhed frdm trees, in
II that they come up without buds. But this diftinftion
L'clliUS' is not uuiverfal, though it be generally juft with regard
’ to thofe of Europe. Nature hath made no abfolute di-
ftin&ion between trees and ftirubs. Frutex, in its ge¬
neral acceptation, is a plant whofe trunk is perennial,
gtmmiparous, woody, dividing and fubdividing into a
great number of branches. _ In fhort, it is the epitome
of a tree, exemplified in the rofe-bufh.
FRY, in zoology, fignifies the fpawn, or rather
young, of fifh.
FRYTH (John), a martyr to the Proteftant reli¬
gion in the reign of Flenry VIII. He was the fon of
an inn-keeper at Seven-oaks in Kent; and educated
in the king’s college, Cambridge, where he took the
degree of bachelor of arts. Thence he removed to
Oxford, and was made a junior canon ofWolfey’s cob
lege. He had not been long in this univerfity before
he became acquainted with William Tyndale, a zealous
Lutheran, with whom he converfed frequently on the
abufes in religion. Fryth became a convert to Luthe-
ranifm, and publicly avowed his opinions. He was
apprehended, examined by the commiffary, and con¬
fined to his college. ' At length having obtained his
liberty, in 1528 he wertt over to Germany, where he
continued about two years ; and then returned to
England, more than ever determined in his religious
fentiments. Finding at that time but few aftbciates,
he wandered about from place to place, till at lafthe
was taken up at Reading as a vagrant, and fet in the
ftocks, where he remained till he was near expiring for
want of fuftenance. He was at length relieved by the
humanity of Leonard Cox, a fchoolmafter; who find¬
ing him a man of letters, procured his enlargement,
and adminiftered to his neceffities. Fryth now fet
cut for London, where, with more zeal than prudence,
lie began to make profelytes’; but was foon apprehend¬
ed by order of the chancellor Sir Thomas Moore, and
fent prifoner to the Tower. . Refufing to recant his
opinions, he was condemned to the flames, and ac¬
cordingly burnt in Smithfield, on the 4th of July 1533.
He left feveral works behind him, which were printed
in folio in 1573.
F'UAGE, in old Englilh writers^ a tax of nd. for
every fire, levied in the time of Edward III.
FUCINUS lacus (anc. geog), a lake of Italy in
the country of the Marfi. Now Logo di Celdno, from
a cognominal citadel, lying in the fouth of the
Abruzzo Ultra, in the kingdom of Naples, near the
Apennine. This lake was under the proteftion of a
god of the fame denomination, whofe temple flood on
its banks. According to the teftimony of ancient au¬
thors, it was fubjedt to extraordinary rifings and de-
creafings. The adtual circumference is 47 milesr the
breadth in the wideft part is 10, in the narroweft4;
its depth 12 feet upon an average. But all thefe have
varied prodigioufly. Two miles up the plain, behind
Avezzano, the fragments of boats, fhells, and other
marks of its ancient extent, have been cafually difco-
vered : and, on the contrary, there are people who re¬
member when it did not flow nearer than within two
milfes of Avezzano. An immenfe trail of excellent
land is loft at every increafe of its level. All round
this noble piece of water rifes a circle of grand moun¬
tains, fome of them the higheft in Italy, if we except
N° 133.
the Alps, and many of them covered with fnow ; and Fuelnus
at the foot of them are numerous villages, with rich tuCu»-
and well cultivated farms. The environs of the lake,
Mr Swinburn defcribes as all well inclofed, and the
fides of the hills as covered with fine woods; its waters
abound with fifli of various kinds, and thither repair at
ftated feafons innumerable flights of wild-fowl. As
the fwelling of the lake w^as attended with incredible
damage, the Marfi had often petitioned the fenate to
drain it: Julius Casfar would have attempted it, had he
lived longer. His fucceflbrs were averfe to the pro-
jedl; till Claudius, who delighted in expenfive difficult
enterprizes, undertook it. During the fpace of 11
years he employed 30,000 men in digging a pafiage
through the mountain ; and when every thing was
ready for letting off the water, exhibited a fuperb na¬
val fpe&acle on the lake. A great number of con¬
demned criminals were obliged to aft the parts of Rho¬
dians and Sicilians in feparate fleets, to engage fn ear-
neft, and to deftroy one another for the entertainment
of the court and the multitude of fpeftators that co¬
vered the hills : A line of well-armed veffels and rafts
loaded with foldiers furrounded the fcene of aftion, ia
order to prevent any of the wretches from efcaping ;
but it was with great difficulty and many threats that
they could be bi ought to an engagement. When this
favage diverfion W'as ended, the operations for opening
the emiffary or outlet commenced, and the emperor
was very near being fwept away and drowned by the
fudden rufhing of the waters towards his vent. How¬
ever, either through the ignorance or negligence of the
engineers, the work did rtot anfwer as was expefted,
and Claudius did not live long enough to have the
faults amended : Nero abandoned the fcheme through
envy. Hadrian is faid to have let off the waters of the
Fucinus; but none now efcape except through hidden
channels formed by nature, which are probably fubjeft
to be obftrufted, and thus occafion a fuperabundance
of water in the lake, till fome unknown caufe removes
the obftruftions and again gives free paffage.
Sir William Hamilton, who vifited the Fucinus in
1785, fays, “ it is the moft beautiful lake he ever faw,
and would be complete if the neighbouring mountains
were better wooded.” It furnilhes abundance of fifh,
though not of the beft quality. There are a few large
trout, but moftly tench, barbel, and dace. In the
{hallow water on the borders of the lake, he faw thou*
fands of Water-fnakes purfuing and preying upon a
little kind of fifh like our thornbacks, but much bet¬
ter armed ; though their defen five weapons feemed to
avail them but little againft fuch ravenous foes. Clau¬
dius’s emiffary he defcribes as ilill entire, though filled
up with earth and rubbifh in many parts. He went
into it with torches as far as he could. It is a covered
underground canal three miles long, and part of it cut
through a hard rock; and other parts fupported by
mafon work, with wells to give light. Hadrian is
faid to have let off the waters of the lake : and our
author is of opinion, that if the canal were cleared and
repaired, it would ftill anfwer that purpofe, and there¬
by reftore a great deal of rich land fit for cultiva¬
tion.
FUCUS, a name given by the ancients to certain
dyes and paints. By this name they called a purple
fea-plant ufed by them to dye woollen and linen things
$ of
F U C [ 489 1 F U C
Tucus. of that colour. The dye was very beautiful, but not
" » ' ' lading ; for it foon began to change, and in time
■went wholly off. This is the account Theophraftus
gives of it.
The women of thofe times alfo ufed fomething call¬
ed fucus, to ftain their cheeks red ; and many have fup-
pofed, from the fame word expreffing both, that the
fame fubftance was ufed on both occafions. But this,
on a ftridt inquiry, proves not to be ’ the cafe. The
Greeks called every thing fucus, that would ftain or
paint the flelh. But this peculiar fubftance ufed by
the women to paint their cheeks was diftinguilhed from
the others by the name of rizion among the more cor-
reft writers, and was indeed a root brought from Syria
into Greece. The Latins, in imitation of the Greek
name, called this root radicula, and Pliny very erro-
neoufly confounds the plant with the radix lunarta, or
Jlruthion of the Greeks.
The word fucus was in thofe times become fuch an
univerfal name for paint, that the Greeks and Romans
had a fucus metallicus, which was the cerufs ufed for
painting the neck and arms white; after which they
ufed the purpuriffum, or red fucus of the ri%ium, to
give the colour to the cheeks. In after-times they alfo
ufed a peculiar fucus or paint for jthe purpofe, prepa¬
red of the Greta argent aria, or filver-chalk, and fome of
the rich purple dyes that were in ufe at that time : and
this feems to have been very little dift’erent from our
rofe-pink ; a colour commonly fold at the colour-ihops,
and ufed on like occafions.
Fucus, in the Linnsean fyftem of botany, is a ge¬
nus of the order of algse, belonging to the cryptoga-
mia clafs of plants. The moft remarkable fpecies are,
1. The ferratus, ferrated fucus, or fea-wrack. This
is frequent at all feafons of the year upon the rocks at
low-water mark, but produces its feeds in July and
Auguft. It confifts of a flat, radical, and dichoto¬
mous leaf, about two feet long ; the branches half an
inch wide, ferrated on the edges with dents of unequal
fize, and at unequal diftances, having a flat ftalk or
rib divided like the leaf, and running in the middle of
it through all its various ramifications. A fmall fpe¬
cies of coralline called by Linnaeus Sertulariapumila,
frequently creeps along the leaf. All the fpecies of
fucus afford a quantity of impure alkaline fait; but this
much lefs than fome others, eight ounces of the allies
yielding only three of fixed fait. The Dutch cover
their crabs and lobfters with this fucus to keep them
alive and moift; and prefer it to any other, as being
deftitute of thofe mucous veficles with which fome of
the reft abound, and which would fooner ferment and
become putrid.
2. The veficulofus, bladder fucus, common fea-wrack,
or fea-ware. It grows in great abundance on the fea-
rocks about low-water mark; producing its fru&ifica-
tions in July and Auguft. It has the fame habit, co¬
lour, and fubftance as the foregoing ; but differs from
it in the following refpects: The edges of the leaf
have no ferratures, but are quite entire. In the difc or
furface are immerfed [.hollow, fpherical, or oval air-
bladders, hairy within, growing generally in pairs,
but often Angle in the angles of the branches, which
are moft probably air-bladders deftined to buoy up
the plant in the water. Laftly, on the fummits or
Vol. VII. Part II.
extreme fegments of the leaves, appear tumid veficles Focus,
about three quarters of an inch long, fometimes oval —r—
and in pairs, fometimes fingle and bifid, with a clear
vifcid mucus interfperfed with downy hairs.—This
fpecies is an excellent manure for land; for which pur¬
pofe it is often applied in the maritime parts of Scot¬
land and other countries. In the iflands of Jura and
Skye it frequently ferves as a winter-food for cattle,
which regularly come down to the ftrores at the recefs
of the tides to feek for it. And fometimes even the
flags have been obferved, after a ftorm, to defcend
from the mountains to the fea-fides to feed upon this
plant.
Linnaeus informs "us, that the inhabitants of Goth¬
land in Sweden boil this fucus in water, and mixing
therewith a little coarfe meal or flour, feed their hogs
with it; for which reafon they call the plant fwintang.
And in Scania, he fays, the poor people cover their
cottages with it, and fometimes ufe it for fuel.
In Jura, and fome other of the Hebrides, the inha¬
bitants dry their cheefes without fait, by covering them
with the allies of this plant; which abounds with fuch
quantity of falls, that from five ounces of the allies
may be procured two ounces and a half of fixed alka¬
line falls, that is, half of their whole weight.
But the moft beneficial ufe to which the fucus vefi¬
culofus is applied, in the way of economy, is in ma¬
king pot-alh or kelp, a work much praftifed in the
Weftern Ifles. There is great difference in the good-
nefs and price of this commodity, and much care and
Ikill required in properly making it. That is efteemed
the beft which is hardeft, fineft grain’d, and free from
fand or earth. The price of kelp in Jura is 3I. 10s.
per ton, and about 40 or 50 tons are exported annually
from that illand. So great a value is fet upon this fu¬
cus by the inhabitants of that place, that they have
fometimes thought it worth their while to roll frag¬
ments of rocks and huge ftones into the fea, in order
to invite the growth of it.
Its virtues in the medical way have been much ce¬
lebrated by Dr Ruffel, in his Differtation concerning
the ufe of Sea-water in the Difeafes of the Glands.
He found the faponaceous liquor or mucus in the ve¬
ficles of this plant to be an excellent refolvent, ex¬
tremely ferviceable in difperfing all fcorbutic and fcro-
phulous fwellings of the glands. He recommends the
patient to rub the tumor with thefe veficles bruifed
in his hand, till the mucus has thoroughly penetrated
the part, and afterwards to wafh with fea-water. Or
othervvife, to gather two pounds of the tumid veficles,
in the month of July, when they are full of mucus,
and infufe them in a quart of fea-water, in a glafs-
veffel, for the fpace of 15 days, when the liquor will
have acquired nearly the confiftence of honey. Then
ft rain it off through a linen cloth, and rub this liquor
with the hand, as before, three or four times a-day,
upon any hard or fcrophulous fwellings, waffling the
parts afterwards with fea-water, and nothing can be
more efficacious to difperfe them. Even fcirrhofities,
he fays, in womens breads, have been difpelled by
this treatment. The fame author, by calcining the
plant in the open air, made a very black fait powder,
which he called vegetable athiops ; a medicine much in
ufe as a refolvent and deobftruent, and recommended
3 alfo
F U C [ 49° ] F U C
alfb as an excellent dentrifice, to corredl the fcorbutic
laxity ofthe gums, and take off the foulnefs of the teeth.
3. The plicatus, matted or Indian-grafs fucus,
grows on the fea-fhores in many places both of Scot¬
land and England. It is generally about three or
four, but fpmetimes fix, inches long. Its colour, after be¬
ing expofed to the fun and air, is yellowifh, or auburn;
its fubfiance pellucid, tough, and horny, fo as to bear
a ftrong refemblance to what the anglers call Indian
graft, that is, the tendrils iffuing from the ovary of the
dog-fith.
4. The palmatus, palmated or fweet fucits, eom-
jmoniy called dulfe or dilfe. This grows plentifully on
the fea-coafts of Scotland, and the adjoining iflands.
Its fubftance is membranaceous, thin, and pellucid; the
colour red, fometimes green with a little mixture of
red ; its length generally about five or fix inches, but
varies from three inches to a foot; its manner of growth
fan-fhaped’, or gradually dilated from the bafe upwards.
Its divifions are extremely various. The inhabitants
both of Scotland and England take pleafure in eating
this plant, without expe&ing any medical virtues from
it. The inhabitants of the Archipelago alfo are fond
of it, as we learn from Steller. They fometimes eat
it raw, but efteem it moft when added to ragouts,
oglios, &c. to which it gives a red colour ; and, dif-
folving, renders them thick and gelatinous. In the
Ifle of Skye it is fometimes ufed in fevers to promote
a fweat, being boiled in water with the addition of a little
butter. In this manner it alfo frequently purges. The
dried leaves, infufed in water, exhale the feent of violets.
5. The efculentus, eatable fncus, or bladder-locks,
commonly called tangle in Scotland, is likewife a na¬
tive of the Britifli ihores. It is commonly about
four feet long, and feven or eight inches wide; but
is fometimes found three yards or more in length,
and a foot in width. Small fpecimens are not above
a cubit long, and two inches broad. The fubftance
is thin, membranaceous, and pellucid; the colour
green or olive. The root confifts of tough carti¬
laginous fibres. The ftalk is about fix inches long
and half an inch wide, nearly fquare, and pinnated in
the middle between the root and origin of the leaf,
with ten or a dozen pair of thick, cartilaginous, oval-
obtufe, foliaceous ligaments, each about two inches
long, and crowded together. The leaf is of an oval-
lanceolate, or long elliptic form, fimple and undivided,
waved on the edges, and widely ribbed in the middle
from bottom to top, the ftalk running through its
whole length, and Handing out on both fides of the
leaf. This fucus is eaten in the north both by men
and cattle. Its proper feafon is in the month of Sep¬
tember, when it is in greateft perfe&ion. The mem¬
branous part is rejeded, and the ftalk only is eaten. It
is recommended in the diforder called pica, to ftrength-
en the ftomach and reftore the appetite.
6. The faccharinus, fweet fucus, or fea-belt, is very-
common on the fea-coaft. rihe fubftance of this is
cartilaginous and leathern ; and the leaf is quite rib-
lefs. By thefe charaders it is diftinguiftied from the
preceding, to which it is nearly allied. It confifts on¬
ly of one fimple, linear, elliptic leaf, of a tawney green
colour, about five feet long and three inches wide in
its full-grown ftate ; but varies fo exceedingly as to
be found from a foot to four yards 'in length. The
ordinary length o the ftalk is two inches, but it varies
even to a foot. The root is compofed of branched
fibres, which adhere to the ftones like claws. This
plant is often inftfted with the fertularia ciliata. The
inhabitants of Iceland make a kind of pottage of this
fucus; boiling it in milk, and eating it with a fpoon.
They alfo foak it in frefh water, dry it in the fun, and
then lay it up in wooden veffels, where in a ftiort time
it is coveted with a white efflorefcence of fea fait, wjjich
’ has a fweet tafte like fugar. This they eat with but¬
ter ; but if taken in too great a quantity, the fait is
apt to irritate the bowels and bring on a purging.
Their cattle feed and get fat upon this plant, both in
its recent and dry ftate 5 but their fleih acquires a bad
flavour. It is fometimes eaten by the common people
on the coaft of England, being boiled as a pot-herb.
7. The ciliatus, ciliated or ligulated fucus, is found
on the fhores of Iona and other places, but is not com-,
mon. The colour of this is red, the fubftance mem¬
branous and pellucid, without rib or nerve ; the ordi¬
nary height of the whole plant about four or five
inches. It is variable in its appearance, according to
the different ftages of its growth. This fucus is eaten
by the Scots and Irifir promifeuoufly with the fucus
palmatus or dilfe.
8. The prolifer, or proliferous fucus, is found on
the {bores of the weftern coaft, adhering to {hells and
ftones. The colour is red ; the fubftance membrana¬
ceous, but tough, and fomewhat cartilaginous, with¬
out rfb or nerve, though thicker in the middle than
at the edges. The whole length of the plant is about
four or five inches, the breadth of each leaf about a
quarter of an inch.' The growth of this fucus, when
examined with attention, appears to be extremely An¬
gular and wonderful. It takes its origin either from
a fimple, entire, narrow, elliptic leaf, about an inch
and a half long ; or from a dilated forked one, of the
fame length. Near the extremity of the elliptic leaf,
or the points of the forked one (but out of the fur-
face, and not the edge), arifes one or more elliptic or
forked leaves, which produce othei fimiiar ones, in the
fame manner, near the fummits ; and fo on continually
one or more leaves from near the ends of each other,
in a proliferous and dichotomous order, to the top of
the plant; which in the manner of its growth refembles
in a good meafure the caftus opuntia, or flat-leaved
Indian fig. Sometimes two or three leaves, or more,
grow out of the middle of the dife of another leaf ;
but this is not the common order of their growth.
The fru&ifications are red, fpberical, rough warts,
lefs than the fnaalleft pin’s head, fcattered without or¬
der on the furface of the leaves. Thefe warts, when
highly magnified, appear to be the curled rudiments of
young leaves ; which in due time either drop off and
form new plants, or continue on and germinate upon
the parent. This plant is very much infefted with the
fluftra pilofa, the mandrepora verrucaria, and other co¬
rallines, which make it appear as if covered with white
fcabs.
9. The pinnatifidus, jagged fucus, or pepper-dilfe,
is frequent on fea-rocks which are covered by the
tides, both on the eaftern and weftern coafts. It is of
a yellow olive-colour, often tinged with jed. The
fubftance is cartilaginous, l^ut yet tender and tranfpa-
rent; the height about two or three inches. This fu-
CU3
F U L L 493 1 F U L
Fulica. ed to that diocefe from 1067. From this place to
■ » 1 ■' Putney there is a wooden bridge over the Thames,
where not only horfes, coaches, and all carriages, but
even foot-palfengers, pay toll. The church here is
both a redory and a vicarage.
FULICA, the gallinule and coot, in ornitho¬
logy ; a genus of birds of the order of grallae. It
has a convex bill, with the upper mandible fornicated
over the lower at the edge ; the lower mandible is gib¬
bous behind the tip. The forehead is bald ; and the
feet have four toes, fubpinnated. There are 25 fpe-
eies ; 18 of which belong to the gallinule divifion,
diftinguifhed by having the toes furnifhed with broad
fcalloped membranes ; and 7 comprehend the coots
which have the toes divided to their origin. The fol¬
lowing fpecies are among the moft noted.
1. The chloropus, or common gallinule, is in
length about 14 inches, and has a bald forehead and
broad flat toes. It gets its food on grafly banks, and
borders near frefli waters, and in the very waters if
they be weedy. It builds upon low trees and fhrubs
by the water-fide ; breeding twice or thrice in a fum-
mer; and, when the young are grown up, drives them
away to Ihift for themfelves. They lay feven eggs of
a dirty white, thinly fpotted with ruft-colour. This
bird ftrikes with its bill like a hen, and in the fpring
has a ftirill call. In flying, it hangs down its legs ; in
running, it often flirts up its tail, and flrows the white
feathers. We may obferve, that the bottoms of its
toes are fo very flat and broad (to enable it to fwim),
that it feems to be the bird which connedts the cloven¬
footed aquatics with the next tribe, <w‘z. the fin toed.
It is pretty common on the continent, though in fome
parts more fcarce than in others. It is alfo an inhabi¬
tant of America, from New York to Carolina } and
is recorded as a native of Jamaica and other iflands in
the Weft Indies. It is faid to feed on plants and fmall
fiflr; and the flefh is for the moft part pretty good.
2. The porphyria, or purple gallinule, is about
the fize of a fowl, or 17 inches in length. The bill
is an inch and a half long, and of a deep red colour.
The forehead is bare and red ; the head and hind part
of the neck are gloffy violet; the legs are very ftout,
and of the colour of the bill. This bird is more or
lefs common in all the warmer parts of the globe. On
the coafts of Barbary they abound, as well as in
fome of the iflands of the Mediterranean. In Sicily
they are bred in plenty, and kept for their beauty ;
but whether indigenous there, is uncertain. It is
frequently met with in various parts of the fouth of
Ruflia and weftern parts of Siberia, among reedy pla¬
ces ; in the neighbourhood of the Cafpian Sea it is
not uncommon ; but in the cultivated rice-grounds of
Ghilar in Perfia it is in great plenty and high plumage.
The female makes the neft among the reeds in the
middle of March ; lays three or four eggs, and fits
from three to four weeks. That it is common in Chi¬
na, the paper-hangings from thence will every wdiere
teftify. It is alfo met with in the Eaft Indies, the
iflands of Java, Madagafcar, and many others. Our
late navigators faw them at Tongataboo in vaft num¬
bers, as well as in the ifland of Tanna and other
parts. It is alfo common in the fouthern parts of:
America. In refpe£t to its manners, it is a very docile
bird, being eafily tamed, and feeding with the poul¬
try, fcratching the ground with the foot as the cock Fulica
and hen. It will feed on many things, fuch as fruit, II
roots of plants, and grain ; but will eat fiftr with avi- Fu,k-
dity, dipping them into the water before it fwallows
them. It will frequently ftand on one leg, and lift
the food to its mouth with the other like a parrot. A
pair of thefe kept in an aviary in France, made a neft
of fmall flicks mixed with a quantity of ftraw, and laid
fix w'hite eggs, perfectly round; but the hen was care-
lefs of them, and they came to nothing. The fleflr is
faid to be exquifite in tafte.
3. The atm, or common coot, hath a bald fore¬
head, a black body, and lobated toes ; and is about 15
inches in length. They frequent lakes and ftill rivers;
making their neft among the nifties, with grafs, reeds,
&c. floating on the water, fo as to rife and fall with it.
They lay five or fix large eggs, of a dirty whitifh hue,
fprinkled over with minute deep ruft-coloured fpots p
and it is faid, that fometimes they will lay 14 or more
eggs. The young when juft hatched are very de¬
formed, and the head mixed with a red coarfe down.
In winter they often repair to the fea, and the chan¬
nel near Southampton is fometimes obferved almoft
covered with them. They are often brought to that
market, where they are expofed to fale without their
feathers, and Raided like pigs. This fpecies is not
fo numerous as might be expefted; for we find that
vaft numbers fall a prey while young to the buzzards,
which frequent the marlhes. Their food is fmall fifh
and water-infe£ls; but they will fometimes eat the roots
of the bulrulh, and with it feed the young; they are faid
likewife to eat grain. This fpecies is fuppofed to ex¬
tend throughout the old continent, and perhaps the
new alfo. Authors record it as inhabiting Greenland,
Sweden, Norway, Ruflia, Siberia, Peifia, and China,
and many of the intermediate parts. It is alfo met
with in Jamaica, Carolina, and other parts of North
America. The Indians about Niagara drefs the
flcins of thefe birds, and ufe them for pouches. They
are called in Carolinajlujlerers.
4. The aterrima, or greater coot, is of a larger
fize than the laft, and its plumage is blacker.- This
fpecies is faid to be found in Lancaflrire and Scotland :
but is more plentiful on the continent, being found in
Ruflia and the weftern part of Siberia very common ;
and is alfo in plenty at Sologne and the neighbouring
parts, where they call it judelle. The people eat this
bird on maigre days, and its fleftr is much efteemed.
FULIGINOUS, whatever proceeds from a thick:
footy fmoke, fuch as litharge-and lamp-black.
FULIGNO, a city of Italy, in the pope’s territo¬
ries, 10 miles north ofSpoletto.
FUL1GO, in natural hiftory, a fpecies of pumice-
ftone. See Pumice.
FULK ( William), a learned and eminent divine of
the church of England, in the 16th century. He was
patronifed by the earl of Leicefter, who in 1571 pre-
fented him to the living of Warley in Eflex, and foon
after to that of Diddington in Suffolk. He attended
Leicefter, when he went ambaffador to France; and
on his return was made mailer of Pembroke-hall, and
Margaret profeffor of divinity at Cambridge. His
works are very numerous, levelled chiefly at the Papifts;.
the moft confiderable of them is his Comment on the;
Rhemilh Teftament. He died in 1589,
FULLER,.
F U L L 494 1 F U L
Fuller. FULLEH (Nicholas), prebendary of Salifbury, and
a learned Engliih critic; who publilhed in 1617 Mif-
cellanea Theolngica in four books, and afterward two
more of Mifcellanea Sacra. He died in 1623 ; and
there are forrie MSS of his remaining in the Bodleian
library that ihow his great Ikill in Hebrew and phi¬
lology.
Fuller (Dr Thomas), a learned Englilh divine,
was born at Alvinckle, near Oundle, in Northampton-
ihire, about the year 1608, and ftudied at Cambridge.
He was chofen minifter of St Bennet’s there ; and at
about 23 years of age, his merit procured him a fel-
lowfhip in Sidney-college, and a prebend in Salifbury
cathedral. He was foon after prefented to the reftory
of Broad Windfor in Dorfetfhire ; and afterwards was
made le&urer of the Savoy in London: but upon the
preffing of the covenant, he retired to Oxford; and
foon after accompanied Sir Ralph Hopton as his cha¬
plain in the army, which he attended in their marches
from place to place. After the death of king Charles I.
he obtained the living of Waltham-abbey, and was ap¬
pointed ledturer of St Clement’s; and fhortly after re¬
moved to the lecture of St Bride’s, Fleet-ftreet. Upon
the reiteration, he recovered his prebend in the ca¬
thedral of Salifbury, was appointed chaplain extraor¬
dinary to his majefty, and created dodlor of divinity.
It is faid, his memory was fo amazingly tenacious and
comprtheniive, that he could make ufe of a fermon ver¬
batim if he once heard it. He once undertook, in paf-
flng to and from Temple-bar to the Poultry, to tell
at his return every fign as it flood in order on both
fides of the way, repeating them either backwards or
forwards ; and this tafk he adtually performed. He
wrote, t. A Hiftory of the Holy War. 2. The
Church-luftory of Britain, in folio. 3. Andronicus,
or the. Unfortunate Politician, in 8vo. 4. A Pifgah-
fight of Paleftine. A Hiftory of Englifh Worthies;
and other works. He died in Auguft 1661; and was
interred in the chancel of Cranford church, in Middle-
fex, whither his body was attended by at leaft 200 of
his brethren of the miniftry.
FULLER, a workman employed in the woollen
manufactories to mill or fcour cloths, ferges, and other
fluffs, in order to render them more thick, compadt,
and durable. See Fulling.
• See Clay, Fuxlers Earth, in natural hiftory, a fpecies of clay*,
©°4. of a greyifh afh-coloured brown, in all degrees from
very pale to almoft black, and it has generally fome-
thing of a greenifh caft. It is very hard and firm, of a
compact texture, of a rough and fomewhat dully fur-
face that adheres flightly to the tongue. It is very
foft to the touch, not ftaining the hands, nor breaking
eafily between the fingers. It has a little harfhnefs be¬
tween the teeth, and melts freely in the mouth. Thrown
into water, it makes no ebullition or hiffing; but fwells
gradually in bulk, and falls into a fine foft powder. It
makes no tffervefcence with aquafortis.
The greateft quantity and the fineft earth of this
kind in the world, is dug in the pits at Wavedon, near
Woburn in Bedfordfhire. The ftrata in thefe pits lie
thus: From the furface to the depth of fix feet, there
are ieveral layers or beds of fand, all reddilh, but fome
lighter coloured than others. Under thefe there is a
thin ftratum of a fand-ftone, which they break through,
and then there is the fuller’s earth- The upper ftra¬
tum of this is about a foot thick : the workmen call
it cledgi, and throw it afide as ufelefs; being commonly Fidler
fouled with the fand which originally covered it, and tj
which infinuates Rfelf a^good way into it. After this, Fulling'
they come to the fine fuller’s earth for fale, which lies
to the depth of eight feet more. • The matter of this
is divided into feveral layers, there being commonly
about a foot and an half between one horizontal fiffure
and another. Of thefe feveral layers, the upper half,
where the earth breaks itfelf, is tinged red ; which
feems to be owing to the running of the water upon it
from among the fands above ; fome of which are pro¬
bably of a ferruginous nature, or have ferruginous
matter among them. This reddiih fuller’s earth the
workmen call crop; and between the cledge and this
there is a thin ttratum of matter/ of lefs than an inch,
which in tafte, colour, and external appearance, re-
fembles the terra Japonica of the (hops. The lower
half of the ftrata of fuller’s earth they call wall-earth.
This is untinged with the red colour of the other, and
feems the moil proper for fulling. Under the fuller’s
earth there is a ftratum of white and coarfe ftone about
two feet thick. They feldom dig thro’ this; but if they
do, they find more ftrata of fand.
This earth is of great ufe in fcouring cloths, fluffs,
&c. imbibing all the greafe and oil ufed in preparing,
dreffing, &c. of the wool; for which reafon it is made
a contraband commodity, and is not to be exported
under the penalty of 1 s. for every pound weight. See
Fulling.
Fuller’s JVeed, or Teazle. See Dipsacus.
FULLERY, a place where cloths, &c. are fulled.
See the next article.
FULLING, the art or aft of cleanfing, fcouring,
and prefling cloths, fluffs, and ftockings, to render
them ftronger, clofer, and firmer: called alfo milling.
Pliny [lib. vii. cap. 56.) affures, that one Nicias, the
fon of Hermias, was the firft inventor of the art of
fulling: and it appears by an infeription, quoted by Sir
G. Wheeler, in his Travels thro’ Greece, that this fame
Nicias was a governor in Greece in the time of the Ro¬
mans.
The fulling of cloths and other fluffs is performed
by a kind of water-mill, thence called a fulling or flour¬
ing mill.
Thefe mills, excepting in what relates to the mill-
ftones and hopper, are much the fame with corn-mills:
and there are even fome which ferve indifferently for
either ufe ; corn being ground, and cloths fulled, by
the motion of the fame wheel. Whence, in fome pla¬
ces, particularly in France, the fullers are called millers;
as grinding corn and milling fluffs at the fame time.
The principal parts of the fulling-mill are. The
wheel, with its trundle; which gives motion to the
tree or fpindle, whofe teeth communicate it to the
peftles or Hampers, which are hereby railed and made
to fall alternately according as its teeth catch on or quit
a kind of latch in the middle of each peftle. The pettles
and troughs are of wood ; each trough having at leaft
two, fometimes three peitles, at the diferetion of the
mailer, or according to the force of the ftream of wa¬
ter. In thefe troughs are laid the cloths, fluffs, &c.
intended to be fulled : then, letting the current of
water fall on the wheel, the peftles are fucceffively let
fall thereon, and by their weight and velocity ftamp
and pi els the fluffs very llrongly, which by this means
become thickened and condenfed. In the courfe of
the
F U L [ 495 1 FUN
Ful'ing the operation, they fometimes make ufe of urine,
'll fometimes of fuller’s earth, and fometimes of foap.
Ful.mma r|-.o prepare the (foffs to receive the firft imprefTions of
the peftle, they are ufually laid in urine ; then in ful¬
ler’s earth and water } and, laftly, in foap diffolved in
hot water. Soap alone would do very well; but this
is expenfive : though fuller’s earth, in the way of our
dreffing, is fcarce inferior thereto; but then it fnull; be
well cleared of all ftones and grittineffes, which are apt
to make holes in the fluff. As to urine, it is certainly
prejudicial, and ought to be entirely difcarded ; not
fo much on account of its ill fmell, as of its fharpnefs
and faltnefs, which qualities are apt to render the fluffs
dry and harfh.
The true method of fulling with foap is delivered by
Monf. Colinet, in an authentic memoir on that fubjedl,
fupported by experiments made by order of the mar¬
quis de Louvois, then fuperintendant of the arts and
manufa&ories of France ; the fubflanee of which we
fnall her fubjoin.
Method of Full ing Cloths and Woollen Stuffs with Soap.
~A coloured cloth, of about 45 ells, is to be laid in
the ufual manner in the trough of a fulling-mill;
without firfl foaking it in water, as is commonly prac-
tifed in many places. To full this trough of cloth, 15
pounds of foap are required ; one-half of which is to
be melted in two pails of river or fpring water, made
avhot as the hand can well bear it. This folution is to
be poured by little and little upon the cloth, in pro¬
portion as it is laid in the trough : and thus it is to be
fulled for at leafl two hours; after which, it is to be ta¬
ken out and flretched. This done, the cloth is imme¬
diately returned into the fame trough, without any
new foap, and there fulled two hours more. Then
taking it out, they wring it well, to exprefs all the
greafe and filth. After the fecond fulling, the remain¬
der of the foap is diffolved as in the former, and call
four different times on the cloth; remembering to take
out the cloth every two hours, to ftretch it, and undo
the plaits and wrinkles it has acquired in the trough.
When they perceive it fufficiently fulled, and brought
to the quality and thicknefs required, they fcour it for
good in hot water, keeping it in the trough till it be
quite clean. As to white cloths ; in regard thefe full
more eafily and in lefs time than coloured ones, a third
part of the foap may be fpared.
Fulling of Stockings, Caps, &c. (hould be performed
fomewhat differently ; viz. either with the feet or the
hands ; or a kind of rack, or wooden machine, either
armed with teeth of the fame matter, or elfe horfes or
bullocks teeth. The ingredients made ufe of herein
are, urine, green foap, white foap, and fuller’s earth.
But the urine alfo is reckoned prejudicial here. Woven
dockings, &c. fhould be fulled with foap alone : for
thofe that are knit, earth may bfc ufed with the foap.
Indeed it is frequent to full thefe kinds of works with
the mill, after the ufual manner of cloth, &c. But that
is too coarfe and violent a manner, and apt to damage
the work unlefs it be very flrong.
FULMAR, in ornithology. See Procellaria.
Fulmar, or Foumart. See Mustela.
FULMINATING, fomething that thunders or
refembles thunder.
Fulminating Gold, Silver, Copper, Quiclftlver, &c.
See C H E m 1 ST k y - Index at Fulminating.
FULMINATION, in chemiflry, the fame with Fulmina-
detonation. See Detonation and Nitre. tl“n
Fulmination, in the Romifir canon law, a fentence Funambu-
of a bifhop, official, or other ecclefiaflic appointed by lus.
the pope, by which it is decreed that fome bull fent ——y——J
from the pope fhall be executed.
FUMARIA, fumitory: A genus of the pen-
tandria order, belonging to the diadelphia ^lafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
24th order, Cory dales. The calyx is diphyllous ; the
corolla ringent; and there are two membranaceous fila¬
ments, each of which has three antherae. There are a
number of different fpecies ; all of them low, fhrubby,
and deciduous and evergreen plants, growing from two
to fix or feven feet high, adorned with fmall Ample
leaves, and papilionaceous flowers of different colours.
The moft remarkable is the officinalis, or common fu¬
mitory ; which grows naturally in fhady cultivated
grounds, and produces fpikes of purplifh flowers in
May and June. It is very juicy, of a bitter tafle,
without any remarkable fmell.—The medical effects
of this herb are, to flrengthen the tone of the bowels,
gently loofen the belly, and promote the urinary and
other natural fecretions. It is principally recommend¬
ed in melancholic, fcorbutic, and cutaneous diforders,
for opening obftructions of the vifcera, attenuating and
promoting the evacuation of vifcid juices. Frederic
Hoffman had a very great opinion of it as a purifier of
the blood ; and affures us, that in this intention fcarce
any plant exceeds it. Cows and fheep eat the plant;
goats are not fond of it; horfes and fwine refufe it.
FUMIGATION, in chemiflry, a kind of calcina¬
tion, when metals or other hard bodies are corroded
or foftened by receiving certain fumes for that pur-
pofe.
Fumigation, in medicine. By the fubtile fumes
that are infpired as well as inhaled into our bodies,-
ipuch benefit or prejudice is produced, according to the
nature of the matter, and the conflitution into which it
is received ; as is evident from the palfies produced a-
mong workers in lead-mines, &c. and the benefits re¬
ceived in many cafes when the air is impregnated with
falutary materials. Catarrhs and catarrhbus coughs are
relieved by fumes received with the breath ; and, by
the fame method, e?cpe6loration is affifled in humoufal
afthmas; and even ulcers in the lungs are faid to have
been healed by this method. The advantage of mercu¬
rial fumigations in the cure of venereal ulcers is known
to every prattitioner.
FUMITORY, in botany. See Fumaria.
FUNAMBULUS, among the Romans, was what
we call a rope-dancer, and the Greeks fchamobates. See
Rope- Dancer.
There was a funambulus, it feems, who perform¬
ed at the time when the Hecyra of Terence was adl-
ted ; and the poet complains, that the fpedlacle pre¬
vented the people from attending to his comedy. Ita
populusfludioflupidus in funambulo, animum occuparat.
At Rome, the funambuli firft appeared under the-
confulate of Sulpicius Paeticus and Licinius Stolo, who"
were the firfl introducers of the fcerric reprefenta-
tions. It is added, that they were firfl exhibited in
the ifland of the Tyber, and that the cenfors Meffala
and Caffius afterwards promoted them to the theatre.
In the Floralia, or ludi Floraleti held under Galba,
there£
Funchal
H
Fund.
FUN t 496 1 FUN
there were funambulatory elephants, as we are inform¬
ed by Suetonius. Nero alfo (bowed the like, in honour
, of his mother Agrippina. Vopifcus relates the fame of
the time of Carinus and Numerianus.
FUNCHAL, an epifcopal town of Madeira, in an
ifland of the Atlantic Ocean, over-againft the coaft of
Morocco. It is large, ftrong, handfome, and populous,
with fine churches. The principal trade confifts in
fweetmeats and wines. It belongs to the Portuguefe;
and is feated in a fertile valley, at the foot of a moun¬
tain from whence feveral dreams proceed. W. Long.
14. 30. N. Lat. 31. 30.
FUNCTION, the a& of fulfilling the duties of any
employment.
Function, being alfo applied to the actions of the
body, is by phyficians divided into vital, animal, and
natural. The •vital fun ft ions are thofe neceffary to life,
and without which the individual cannot fubfid; as
the motion of the heart, lungs, &c. The natural func¬
tions are fuch as it cannot fubfid any confiderable
time without; as the digedion of the aliment, and its
converfion into blood. Under animal funftions are
included the fenfes of touching, lading, &c. memory,
judgment, and voluntary motion ; without any or all
of which 'em animal may live, but not very comfort¬
ably.
The animal-funftions perform the motion of the
body by the aftion of the mufcles; and this aftion
confids chiefly in the (hortening the flefliy fibres,
which is called contrail ion, the principal agents of
which are the arteries and nerves didributed in the
flefliy fibres.
All parts of the body have their own funftions, or
aftions, peculiar to themfelves. Life confids in the ex-
ercife of thefe funftions, and health in the free and ready
exercife of them.
FUND, in general, fignifies any fum of money ap¬
propriated for a particular purpofe. Thus, that part
of the national revenue which is fet afide for the pay¬
ment of the national debt, is called the Jinking fund.
But, when we fpeak of the funds, we generally mean
the large fums whidi have been lent to government,
and conditute the national debt; and for which the
lenders, or their affignees, receive intered from reve¬
nues allotted for that purpofe. The termflock is ufed
in'the fame fenfe, and is alfo applied to the fums which
form the capital of the bank of England, the Ead In¬
dia and South-Sea companies; the proprietors of which
are intitled to a (hare of the profits of the refpeftive
companies.
The praftice of funding was introduced by the Ve¬
netians and Genoefe in the 16th century, and has been
adopted iince by mod of the nations in Europe. Prin¬
ces had often borrowed money, in former times, to
fupply their exigencies, and fometimes mortgaged their
territories in fecurity : but thefe loans were generally
extorted, and their payment was always precarious ;
for it depended on the good faith and fuccefs of the
borrower, and never became a regular burden on po-
fterity. The origin of funds is derived from the pecu¬
liar manners and circumdances of modern Europe.
Since the invention of gun-powder, and the progrefs
of commerce, the military occupation has become a
didinft employment in the hands of mercenaries ; the
apparatus of war is attended with more expence; and
N0i33.
the decifion of national quarrels has often been deter,
mined by command of money rather than by national
bravery. Ambitious princes have therefore borrowed
money, in order to carry on their projefts with more
vigour. Weaker dates have been compelled, in felf-
defence, to apply to the fame refource ; the wealth in¬
troduced by commerce has afforded the means; the
regularity of adminidration, edablifhed in confequence
of the progrefs of civility, has increafed the confi¬
dence of individuals in the public fecurity; the com¬
plicated fydem of modern policy has extended the
feenes of war, and prolonged their duration ; and the
colonies edabliflied by the mercantile nations have ren¬
dered them vulnerable in more points, and increafed
the expence of defending them.
When a greater fum has been required for the an¬
nual expence than could eafily be fupplied by annual
taxes, the government have propofed terms, to their
own fubjefts, or foreigners, for obtaining an advance
of money, by mortgaging the revenue of future years
for their indemnification. This mortgage may either
be for a limited period, or perpetual. If the fum allot¬
ted annually for the benefit of thofe who advance the
money, be confiderably greater than the interefts of
the fums advanced, they may agree to accept of fuch
allowance, for a limited time, as a full equivalent.
Thus, they may either agree for the cafual produce
of the revenue affigned ; or a fixed annuity for a great¬
er or lefs number of years ? or a life-annuity to them¬
felves or nominees; or an annuity for two or more lives;
or an annuity, with the benefit of furvivorfliip, called a
tontine, in which fcheme, the whole fum to which the
original annuitants were intitled continues to be diflri-
buted among the furvivors.
The eftablilhment of the funds was introduced in
Britain at the revolution ; and has fince been gradually
enlarged, and carried to an amazing extent. The va¬
rious methods above mentioned have been ufed in their
turns, but perpetual annuities have been granted for
the greateft part; and, even when the money was ori¬
ginally advanced on other conditions, the lenders have
been fometimes induced, by fubfequent offers, to accept
of perpetual annuities, inftead of the former terms.
The debt for which perpetual annuities are granted, is
called the redeemable debt, and the other is called the
irredeemable debt. Although the debts thus contrafted
by government are feldom paid for a long term of
years ; yet any creditor of the public may obtain
money for what is due him when he pleafes, by
transferring his property in the funds to another ^ and
regular methods are appointed for tranfafting thefe
transfers in an eafy manner. By means of this, the
flocks become a kind of circulating capital; and have
the fame effeft, in fome refpefts, as the circulating
money in the nation. When a flockholder transfers
his (hare, he may fometimes be able to obtain a greater
price than the original value, and at other times be ob¬
liged to accept of a lefs one. The value of the funds
depends on the proportion between the intereft they
bear, and the benefit which may be obtained by ap¬
plying the money to other purpofes. It is influenced
by the plenty or fcarcity of money, and by the quan¬
tity of the public debt; and it is impaired by any event
which threatens the fafety, or weakens the credit, of
the government.
FUN
The bufmefs of ftock-jobbing is founded on the va-
J nation of the prices of ftock. Perfons poffeHed of real
property may buy or fell ftock, according to their no¬
tion that the value is likely to rife or fall, in expecta¬
tion of making profit by the difference of price. And
a practice has taken place among perfons who often
poffefs no property in the funds, to contract for the
fale of ftock againil a future day, at a price now a-
greed on. For inftance: A agrees to fell B loool.
of bank-ftock, to be transferred, in 20 days, for
12001. A has, in faCt, no fuch ftock ; but, if the
price of bank ftock, on the day appointed for the
transfer, ftrould be only 118 per cent. A may purchafe
as much as wall enable him to fulfil his bargain for
1180I. and thus gains 201. by the tranfa&ion; on
the contrary, if the price of bank-ftock be 125 per
cent, he will lofe 501. The bufinefs is generally fettled
without any aftual purchafe or transfer of ftock, by A
paying to B, or receiving from him, the difference be¬
tween the current price of the ftock on the day ap¬
pointed and the price bargained for.
This praftice, which is really nothing elfe than a
wager concerning the price of ftock, is contrary to
law; yet it is carried on to a great extent. In the
language of Exchange-alley, where matters of this
kind are tranfaCted, the buyer is called a bull, and the
feller a bear. As neither party can be compelled by
law to implement thefe bargains, their fenfe of honour,
and the difgrace and lofs of future credit, which at¬
tend a breach of contrad, are the principles by which
the bufinefs is fupported. When a perfon declines to
pay his lofs, he is called a lame duck, and dare never
afterwards appear in the Alley. This opprobrious
appellation, however, is not beftowed on thofe whofe
failure is owing to want of ability, providing they
make the fame furrender of their property voluntarily,
which the law would have exafted if the debt had been
fntitled to its fanftion.
The intereft or dividend on the ftock is paid half-
yearly ; and the purchafer has the benefit of the inte¬
reft due on the ftock he buys, from the laft term to the
time of purchafe. Therefore the prices of the ftocks
Wfe gradually, cceteris paribus, from term to term, and
fall at the term when the intereft; is paid. In compa¬
ring the prices of the different ftocks, it is nCceffary to
advert to the term when the laft intereft was paid;
and, allowance being made for this circumftanee, the
prices of all the government ftocks, which bear inte¬
reft at the fame rate, muft be nearly the fame, as they
all depend on the fame fecurity.
When a loan is propofed, fuch terms muft be offer¬
ed to the lenders, as may render the tranfaeftion bene¬
ficial ; and this is now regulated by the prices of the
old ftocks. If the ftocks, which bear intereft at 4per
cent, fell at par, or rather above, the government may
exped to borrow money at that rate; but, if thefe
ftocks are under par, the government muft either grant
a higher intereft, or fome other advantage to the len¬
ders, in compenfation for the difference. For this pur-
pofe, befides the perpetual annuity, another annuity
has fometimes been granted for life, or for a term of
years. Lotteries have frequently been employed to
facilitate the loan, by intitling the fubferibers to a cer¬
tain number of tickets, for which no higher price is
charged than the exaft value diftributed in prizes, tho’
Vol. VII. Part II.
FUN
their market-price is.generally 21. or 31. highet. Some- Pund*.
times an abatement of a certain proportion of the ca- ' "
pital has been granted, and a lender intitled to hold
100I. ftock, though in reality he advanced no more
perhaps than 95 1.
It belongs to the Chancellor of the Exchequer to
propofe the terms of the loan in parliament ; and he.
generally makes a previous agreement with fome weal¬
thy merchants, who are willing to advance the-money,
on the terms propofed. The fubferibers to the loan
depofit a certain part of the fum fubferibed 5 and are
bound to pay the reft by inftahnents, or ftated propor¬
tions, on appointed days, under pain of forfeiting what
they have depofited. For this they are intitled, per¬
haps, not only to hold their {hare in the capital, but to
an annuity for 10 years, and to the right of receiving
a certain number of lottery-tickets on advantageous
terms. They may fell their capital to one perfon, their
annuity to a fecond, and their right to the tickets to a
third. The value of all thefe interefts together is called
omnium ; and, in order to obtain a ready fubfeription,
it ought to amount to 102 1. or upwards, on 100 k of
capital. This difference is called the bonus to the fub¬
feribers.
The capital advanced to the public, in the form of
transferable ftocks, and bearing intcreft from taxes ap¬
propriated for that purpofe, is called the funded debt.
Belidcs, there is generally a confiderable fum due by
government, which is not difpofed of in that manner,,
and therefore is diftinguilhed by the appellation of the
unfunded debt. This may arife from any fort of national
expence, for which no provifion has been made, or for
which the provifion has proved infufficient. The chief
branches are,
1 ft, ‘ Exchequer Bills. Thefe are iffued from the ex ¬
chequer, generally by appointment of parliament, and
fometimes without fuch appointment, when exigencies
require. They bear intereft from the time when iffued,
and are taken in by the bank of England, which pro¬
motes their circulation.
2d, Navy-Bills. The fums annually granted for the
navy have always fallen fhort of what that fervice re¬
quired. To fupply that deficiency, the admiralty if-
fues bills in payment of vidluals, ftores, and the like,
which bear intereft fix months after the time iffued.
The debt of the navy thus contra&ed is difeharged,
from time to time, by parliament.
In time of war, the public expences, fince the revow
lution, have always been much greater than the annual
revenue ; and large fums have confequently been bor¬
rowed. In time of peace, the revenue exceeds the
expence, and part of the public debts have frequently
been paid off. But, though there have been more years
of peace than of war fince the funds were eftablifhed,
the debts contradled during each war have much ex¬
ceeded the payments during the fubfequent peace.
This will appear by the following abftraft of the pro-
grefs of the national debt.
Debt at peace of Ryfwich, 1697 L. 21,515,473
Debt at the beginning of war 1701 16,394,701
Difeharged during peace 169710 1701 5,121,07!
Debt at peace of Utrecht 1714, inclu¬
ding value of annuities afterwards fub¬
feribed to South-Sea ftock - 55,282,978
Contracted in war 1701 to 1714 38,888,277
3 R Debt
[ 497 1
FUN [ 498 ] F U N
Debt at beginning of war 1740, inclu- other parts, does not always exprefs the fundatnental Fundamen.
ding. f,OOO,OOO charged on civil founds of. he chords: for among ft; all the founds which tal-
L.47,954,623, form a chord, the compofer is at liberty to. transfer to
lift
7,328,35:5 the bafathat w’hich he thinks preferable; regard being..
79,193,313 had to the procedure.of that bafs, to the beauty of the-
31,238,690 melody, and.above all to the expreffion, as may after-
73,289;673. wards be explained. In this cafe the real fundamental
5,903,640 , found, inftead of retaining its natural fta,tion, which is
in the bafs, will ieither be transferred to fome of the
other parts, pr perhaps even entirely fuppreffed, and
33>957>27° Inch a chord is called an inverted chord.
In reality, fays Rameau, a,chord inverted does not.
differ from the chord in its diredt and natural order
from which it was produced ^bpt as thefe founds form
125,000^000 different combinations,. thefe*combinations have long
been taken for fundamental chords; different names-
8,959,270 have been given them, (which may be feen at the word
211,363,254 Accord, in Rouffeau’s Dictionary). Thefe names,,
by the perfons who beftowed them, were thought to
FUNDAMENT, in anatomy, the loweft part of create and fandtify their diftinCtions; as if a difference.
’n names could really produce a difference in the fpe-.
. Difcharged during.peace 171410 1739
Debt at peace of Aix la-Chapelle, 1748
Contracted during war 1740 to 1748
Debt at beginning of war 1756
Paid off during peace 1748.40 1756
Debt funded at the peace 1763, inclu-.
ding L. 9,839,597 then owing, which ,
was funded in the fubfequent yrears J
Befides this, there was about L.6,ooo,oco
of debt paid-off, without ever being
funded.
Funded debt, 1775 ;
Paid off during peace 1763 to 1775,be¬
fides unfunded debt above mentioned
Funded debt at the peace 1783
the inteftinum reCtum, called by anatomifts the anus.
See Anatomy, n° 93.
FUNDAMENTAL, in general,. fomething that
ferves as a bafe or foundation for another.
M. Rameau in his Treatife of.Harmony has fhown,. .
and M. d’Alembert in his Elements of Muftc has ftill-
Fundamental, in- mufie. & fundamental .found \s more clearly evinced, that many of thefe pretendedly
that which forms the loweft note of the Chord, and different chords were no more than inveriions of one
from whence are deduced the harmonical relations of Angle chord. Thus the chord of the fixth is no more
^ the reft ; or, which ferves for a key to the tone*. The than the perfect chord of the third transferred to the-
fundamental bafs is that which ferves for a foundation bafs ; by adding a fifth, we fhall have the chordofthe.
to the harmony. A. fundamental chord is that whofe
bafs is fundamental, and in which the founds are ran-
fixth and fourth. Here there are, three combinations,
of a chord, which only confifts of three founds; thofe.
ged in the fame order as when they.are generated, ac- which contain four founds are fufceptible of four,
cording to the experiment fo often repeated by M. combinations, fince each of thefe founds may be trans-
d’Alembert, in his Preliminary Difcourfe and Elements ferred to the bafs. But in adding beneath this another
^.of Mufic f. But as this order removes the parts to an bafs which, under all the combinations of one and the.
extreme diftance one from the other, they muftbe ap^ fame chord, always prefents the fundamental found; it.
proximated by combinations or inverfions ; but if the is evident,, that confonant chords are reduced to the.
bafs remains the fame, the chord does not for this
number three, and the number of diffonant chords to
fon ceafe to bear the name of fundamental. Such an four. Add to this all-the chords by fuppofition, which
example is this chord, ut mi fol, included in the inter- may likewife be reduced to the fame fundamentals, and.
val of a fifth : whereas, in the order of its generation, you will find harmony brought to a degree of fimpli-
ut fol mi, it includes a tenth, and even a feventeenth ; city in which no perfon could ever hope to fee it whilil
fince the fundamental ut is not the fifth oi fol, but the
oftave of that fifth.
FvmsAMRmAL Bafs. This part in mufic is, accords
rules remained in that ftate of confufion where M»
Rameau found them. It is certainly, as that author,
obferves, an aftonifhing occurrence, that the practice.
ing to Rouffeau, and indeed according to all authors of this art could be carried fo far as it really was, with-
who have proceeded upon M. Rameau’s experiment, out knowing its. foundation ; and that all the rulea
in its primary idea, that bafs which is formed by the were fo exactly found, without having difcovered the
fundamental notes of every perfedt chord that confti- principle on which they depended.
lutes the harmony of the piece; fo that under each
chord it caufes to be heard, or underftood, the fun-
After having (hown what is the fundamental bafs be¬
neath the chords, let us now fpeak of its procedure.
damental found of that particular chord; that is to and of the manner in which it conneds thefe chords
fay, the found from whence it is derived by the rules among themfelves. Upon this point the precepts o£
of harmony. From whence we may fee, that the
fundamental bafs . can have no other contexture than
the art may be reduced to the fix following rules.
1. The fundamental bafs ought never to found any
that of a regular and fundamental fucceffion, without other notes than thofe of the feries or tone in which
which the procedure of the upper parts would be ilk- the compofer finds himfelf, or atleaft thofe of the le¬
gitimate.
To underftand this well, it is neceffary to be known,
that, according to the fyftem of Rameau, which Rauf-
feau has followed in his Di&ionary, every chord, tho’
ries or tone to which he ehoofes to make a tranfition.
This.of all the rules for the fundamental bafs is the firft;
and moft indifpenfable.
2. By the fecond, its procedure ought to be fo implir
compofed of feveral founds, can only have one which citly fubjeded to the laws of modulation, as never to
is its fundamental, wz. that which produces this chord,
fuffer the idea of a. former mode, to be loft till that of a
and which is its bafs according to the dired and natu- fubfequent one can be legitimately affumed; that is to
ral order. Now, the bafs which prevails under all the fay, that the fundamental bafs ought never to be de-
3 viaus.
P “U N [ 4^9 ] FUN
JFfln&men-vious, or fufFer us to be one moment at a lofs in what
*aI- mode we are.
3. By the third, it'is fubje&ed to the connection of
chords and the preparation of diflbnances : a manoeuvre
which, as We (hall afterwards fee, is nothing elfe but
a method of producing this connection, and which of
confequence is only neceffary when the connexion can¬
not fubfift without it. See Connection, Prepara¬
tion.*
4. By the fourth, it is neceffitated, after every dif-
fonance, to putfue that career which the refolution of
the diifonance indifpenfably prefcribes. See Resolu¬
tion.
5. By the fifth, which is nothing elfe but a confe¬
quence of the former, the ‘fundamental bafs ought
only to move by confonant intervals ; except alone
in the operation of a broken cadence, or after a Chord
of the feventh diminifhed, where it rifes diatonically.
Every other motion of the fundamental bafs is illegi-
! mate.
6. By the fixth, in fhort, the fundamental bafs or
harmony ought not to be fyncopated; but to diftin-
guifh the bars and the times which they contain, by
changes of chords properly marked with cadences ; in
fuch 4 martner, for inflance, that tlie diffonances which
ought' to be prepared may find their preparation in
the imperfeft time, but chiefly that all the repofes may
happen in the perftdl time. This fixth rule admits of
an infinite number of exceptions ; but the compofer
ought however to be attentive to it, if he would form
a mufic in which the movements are properly marked,
and in which the bars may end gracefully.
Wherever thefe rules are obferved, the harmony flrall
be regular and without fault : this, however, will not
hinder the mufic from being deteftable. See Compo¬
sition.
A word of illuftration on the fifth rule may not be
Ufelefs. Whatever turn may be given to a funda¬
mental bafs, if it is properly formed, one of thefe
alternatives muft always be found: either perfedl
chords moving by confonant intervals, without which
thefe chords would have no connexion ; or, diffonant
chords in operations of cadence: in every other cafe,
the diffonance can neither be properly placed nor pro¬
perly refolved.
From thence it follows, that the fundamental bafs
cannot move regularly but in one of thefe three man¬
ners. 1 ft, To rife- or defcend by a third or by a fixth.
2dly, By a fourth ora fifth. 3dly, To rife diatonical¬
ly by means of the difibnance which forms the connec¬
tion, or by a licence upon a perfcft chord. With refpebi
to a diatonic defcent, it is a motion abfolutely prohibit¬
ed to the fundamental bafs; or, at moft, merely tolera¬
ted in cafes where’two perfect chords are in fucceffion,
divided by a clofe exprefled or underftood. This rule
has no other exception : and it is from not difcerning
Hie foundation of certain tranfitions, that M. Rameau
has caufedthe fundamental bafs to defcend diatonically
tmder chords of the Ceventh; an operation which is
impracticable in legitimate harmony. See Cadence,
Dissonance.
The fundamental bafs, which they add for ho other
reafon than to ferve as a proof of the harmony, mu ft
be retrenched in execution, and often in praftice it
would have a very bad efFeft; for it is, as M. Rameau
very properly obferves, intended for the judgment,,5nd Fundamen-
not for the ear. It would at leaft produce a monotony, tal
extremely nairfeous by frequent returns of the fame ‘ v
chord, which they difguife and vary more agreeably
by combining it in different manners upon the conti¬
nued bafs, without reckoning upon the different inver-
fions of harmony, which furnifli a thoufand means of
adding new beauties to the mufic and new energy to
the expreffion. See Chord, Inversion.
But it will be obje&ed. If the fundamental bafs is
not tffeful in compofing good mufic, if it muft even be
retrenched in praftice, what good purpofe, then, cun
it ferve ? We anfwer, that, in the firft place, it ferves
for a rule to fcholars, upon which they may learn to
form a regular harmony, and to give to all the parts
fuch a diatonic and elementary procedure as is pre-
feribed them by that fundamental bafs. It does more,
as we have already faid : it proves whether a harmony
already formed be juft and regular; for all harmony
which cannot be fubje&ed to the teft of a fundamental
bafs, muft according to all rules be bad. Finally, it
ferves for the inveftigation of a continued bafs under a
given air : though, in reality, he who cannot direftly
form a continued bafs, will fcarcely be able to form a
fundamental bafs, which is better ; and much lefs ftill
will he'be able to transform that fundamental bafs in¬
to a legitimate continued bafs. Thefe which follow
are, however, the principal rules which M. Rameau
prefcribes for finding the fundamental bafs of a given
air.
1. To afeertain with precifion the mode in which
the compofer begins, and thofe through which he paffes.
There are alfo rules for inveftigating the modes; but
fo long, fo vague, fo incomplete, that with refpeft to
this, the ear may be formed long before the rules are
acquired ; and the dunce who Ihould try to ufe them,
would gain no improvement but the habit .of proceed¬
ing always note by note, without even knowing where
he is.
2. To try in fucceffion under each note the princi¬
pal chords of the mode, beginning by thofe which are ‘
moft analogous, and palling even to the moft remote,
when the compofer fees himfelf under a neceffity of do¬
ing fo.
3. To confider whether the chord chofen can fuit
the upper part in what precedes and in what follows,
by a juft fundamental fuccelfion ; and when this is im¬
practicable, to return the way he came.
4. Not to change the note of the fundamental bafs
till after having exhaufted all the notes which are al¬
lowed in fucceffion in the upper part, and which can
enter into its chord ; or till fome fyncopated note in
the air may be fufceptible of two or a greater number
of notes in the bafs, to prepare the diffonance which
may be afterwards refolved according to rule.
5. To ftudy the intertexture of the phrafes; the
poffible fucceffion of cadences, whether full or avoided;
and above all, the paufes which for ordinary return at
the end of every four, or of every two bars, fo that
they may always fall upon perfect and regular caden¬
ces.
6. In fhort, to obferve all the rules formerly given
for the compofition of the fundamental bafs.—Thefe
are the principal obfervations to be made for finding
one under any given air; for there are fometimes feve-
3 R. 2 ' ral
F U N [ 1 FUN
Fundi ral (KiTerent ones which naay be^ inv'eftigated. But,
Funeral w^atever may t0 ^Ie contrary, if the air has
.. ;tnera * accent and charafler, there is only one juft fundamen¬
tal bafs which can be adapted to it.
After having given a fumrnary explication of the
manner in which a fundamental bafs fhould be compo-
fed, it fliould remain to fuggeft the means of tranf-
forming it into a continued bafs; and this would be
cafy, if it were only necefiary to regard the diatonic
procedure and the agreeable air of this bafs. But let
us not imagine that the bafs, which is the guide and
fupport of the harmony, the foul, and as it were the
interpreter, of the air, Ihould be limited to rules fo
limple : there are others which depend upon principles
more certain and more radical; fruitful, but latent
principles, which have been felt by every artift of ge¬
nius, without having been detedted by any one. Rouf-
feau hopes, that in his letter upon French muiic he
iniinuated this principle. For thofe who underhand
him, he imagines he has faid enough concerning it,
and can never fay enough of it for thofe who do not.
See Roujfeau’s Mlfcellanits, Vol. II. p. i.
He does not here mention the ingenious fyftem by
M. Serre of Geneva, nor his double fundamental bafs ;
becaufe the principles which, with a fagacity merito¬
rious of praiie, he had half detedled, have afterwards
been unfolded by M. Tartini, in a work of which Rouf-
fcau has given an account in his article System,
FUNDI (anc. geog.}, a town of Latium, on the
Via Appia, near Cajeta ; enjoying all the privileges of
Roman citizens, except the right of fuffrage and of
magiftracy. Now Fmdi; a city of Naples, on the con¬
fines of the pope’s dominions. E. Long. 14. 20.
N. I,at. 41. 35,
FUNDY-bay, a bay feated between New-England
and Acadia or New Scotland, in which there is an ex¬
cellent fifhery.
EUNEN, or Eionia, a confiderable ifland in Den¬
mark, feated on the Baltic fea, and feparated from Jut¬
land by a ftrait called the Lejfer Belt, and from the
ifland of Zealand by another called the Great Belt. It
is fertile in wheat and barley ; and abounds in cattle,
horfes, game of all forts, and fiih. Odenfee is the ca¬
pital town.
FUNERAL rites, ceremonies accompanying the
interment or burial of any perfon. The word is form¬
ed of the Latin funus ; and that of fun alia, on account
of the torches (which were Junes cera circumdati) ufed
in the funerals of the Romans; though others derive
Janus from the Greek death or Jlaughter.
Thefe rites diftered among the ancients according to
the different genius and religion of each country.
The firft people who feem to have paid any particu¬
lar refpedt to their dead, were the Egyptians, the pof-
terity of Ham. The firft cultivators of idolatrous wor-
Ihip and fuperlUtion after the flood; they were alfo
the firft who afferted the-immortality of the foul, its
migration into all kinds of animals in earth, air, and
fea, and its return to the human body ; which they
fuppofed to be within the term of 3000-years : Hence
proceeded their very great care in embalming of them
dead bodies, and their being at fuch vaft expehces, as
they were, in building proper rep.ofitories for them ;
for they were more folicitous about their graves than
their, houfea; This, gave birth to thofe wonders of the
world, the pyramids, which were built for the burial of
their kings,_ with fuch vaft charges, and almoft incre¬
dible magnificence. ' See Pyramid.
Whenever a perfon died among the Egyptians, his
parents and friends put on mournful habits, and ab-
ftained from all banquets and entertainments. This
mourning lafted from 40 to 70 days, during which
time they embalmed the body. See Embalming.
When this ceremony was finiftied, the embalmed,
body was rtftored to the friends, who placed it in a
kind of open cheft, which was preferved either
in their houfes, or in the fepulchres. of their an»
ceftors. But before the dead were allowed to be
depofited in the tomb, they underwent a folemn judge¬
ment, which extended even to their kings. Of this
remarkable cuftom we have a particular account in the
firft book of Diodorus Siculus. “ Thofe who pre¬
pare to bury a relation, give notice of the day intend¬
ed for the ceremony to the judges, and to all the
friends of the deceafed; informing them, that the body
will pafs over the lake of that diftridl to which the dead
belonged : when, on the judges affembled, to the num¬
ber of more than 40, and ranging themfelves in a femi-
circle on the farther fide of the lake, the veffel is fet
afloat, which thofe who fuperintend the funeral have
prepared for this purpofe. This veffel is mariaged by
a pilot, called in the Egyptian language Charon ; and
hence they fay,, that Orpheus, travelling in old tiities
into Egypt, and feeing this ceremony, formed his
fable of the infernal regions, partly from what he fawv.
and partly from invention. The veffel being launched
on the lake before the coffin which contains the body
is put on board, the law permits all, who are fo inclin¬
ed, to produce an accufation againft it. If any one
fteps forth, and proves that the deceafed has led an
evil life, the judges pronounce fentence, and the body
is precluded from burial ; but if the accufer is convict¬
ed of iryuftice in his charge, he falls himfelf under a
confiderable penalty. When no accufer appears, or
when the hccufer is proved to be an unfair one, the re¬
lations, who are affernbled, change their expreffions of
forrow into encomiums on the dead: yet do not, like,
tire Greeks, fpeak in honour of his family, becaufe they
confider all Egyptians as equally well-born ; but they
fet forth the education and manners of his youth, hi&-
piety and juftice in maturer life, his moderation, and
every virtue by which he was diftinguifhed; and they,
fupplicate the infernal deities to receive him as an affo-
ciate among the blcft. The multitude join their accla¬
mations of applaufe in this celebration of the dead,
whom they confider as going to pafs an eternity among^
the ju!t below.” Such is the defeription which Dio¬
dorus gives cf this funeral judicature, to which even the.
kings of Egypt were fubjedi. The Came author afferts,
that many fovereigns had been thus judicially deprived
of the honours of burial by the indignation of their,
people: and that the terrors of fuch a fate had the
moft falutary influence on the virtue of their kings.
The funeral rites' among the Hebrews were folemn
and magnificent. When any perfon was dead, his rela¬
tions and friends rent their cloaths ; which cuftom is
but faintly imitated- by the modern Jews, who only
cut off a bit of their garment, in token of affli&ion. it
was ufual to bend the dead perfon’s thumb into the
hand, and faften it in that gofture with a ftring; be-
3>. caufe.
FUN f 501 ] FUN
Funerat. caufe the thumb then having the figure of the name of
■"“'V—- God, they thought the devil would not dare to ap¬
proach it. When they came to the bury ing-place, they
made a fpeech to the dead in the following terms :
“ Bieffed be God, who has formed thee, fed thee,
maintained thee, and taken away thy life. O dead! he
knows your numbers, and {hall one day reflore your
life, &c.” Then they fpoke the eloguim, or funeral
•oration, of the deceafed;. after which they faid a pray¬
er, called, the righteoufaefs of judgment; then turning
the face of the deceafed towards heaven, they called
out, “ Go in peace.”
Among the ancieat Greeks it was ufual fometimes
before the interment, to put a piece of money into the
mouth of the deceafed, which was thought to be Cha¬
ron’s fare for wafting the departed foul over the infer¬
nal river. This ceremony was not ufed in thofe coun¬
tries which were fuppofed to be fituated in the neigh¬
bourhood of the infernal regions, and to lead thither
by a ready and diredt road. The corpfe was likewife
furnifhed with a cake, ccmpofed of flour, honey, &c.
which was defigned to appeafe the fury of Cerberus
the door-keeper of hell, and to procure the ghoft a
fafe and quiet entrance. During the time the corpfe
Continued in the houfe, there flood before the door a
yeflel of water: the defign of which was, that thofe
concerned about the body might purify themfelves by
wafliing; it being the opinion of the Greeks, as well
as of the Jews, that pollution was contraded by touch¬
ing a dead body.
The ceremonies by which they expreffed their for-
row for the death of their friends were various; but
it feems to have been a conftant rule to recede as much
as poflible in habit and behaviour from their ordinary
cuftoms. For this reafon they abftained from banquets
and entertainments ; they divefted themfelves of all or¬
naments ; they tore, cut off, or fliaved their hair, which
they call into the funeral pile, to be confumed with
the body of their deceafed friend. Sometimes. they,
threw themfelves on the ground, and rolled in the dull,
or covered their head with afhes; they beat their
breafts, and even tore their flefh with their nails, upon
the lofs of a perfon. they much lamented. When per-
fons of rank, fuch as public magiftrates or great ge¬
nerals, died, the whole city put on a face of mourn¬
ing; all public meetings were intermitted; the fchools,
baths, (hops, temples, and all places of concourfe, were
fhut up.
After interment followed the epula or feafls, at which
the company ufed to appear crowned; when they fpoke
in praife of the dead, fo far as they could go with
truth, it being efteemed a notorious wickednefs to lie
upon fuch an occafion. And not oidy at thofe feafts,
but even before the company departed from the fe-
pulchre, they were fometimes entertained with a pane¬
gyric upon the dead perfon.
The Grecian foldiers, who died in war, had not
only their tombs adorned with inferiptions fliowing
their names, parentage, and exploits, but were alfo
honoured with an oration in their praife. Particularly
the cullom among the Athenians in the interment of
their foldiers was as follows, namely, “ They .ufed to
place the bodies of their dead in tents three days before
the funeral, that all perfons might have opportunity
to find out their relations, and pay their laft refpefts
to them. Upon the fourth day, a coffin of cyprefs Funeral,
was fent from every tribe, to convey the bones of their —
own relations; after which went a covered hearfe, in
memory of thofe whofe bodies could not be found. All
thefe, accompanied with the whole body of the people,
were carried to the public burying place, called Cerami-
cus, and there interred. One oration was fpoken in com¬
mendation of them all, and their monuments adorned
with pillars, inferiptions, and all other ornaments ufual
about the tombs of the moft honourable perfons. The
oration was pronounced by the fathers of the deceafed
perfons, who had behaved themfelves moft valiantly.
Thus, after the famous battle at Marathon, the fathers
of Callimachus and Cynsegyrus ■ were appointed to
make the funeral oration. And upon the return of
the day, upon which the folemnity was firft held, the
fame oration was conftantly repeated every year.”
Interring or laying the dead in the ground, feems
to have been the mod ancient pra&ice among the
Greeks ; though burning came afterwards to be gene¬
rally ufcd among them. It was cuftomary to throw
into the funeral pile thofe garments the deceafed u-
fually wore. The pile was lighted by one of the de-
ceafed’s neareft relations or friends, who made prayers
and vows to the winds to aflift the flames, that the
body might quickly be reduced to aflies ; and during
the time the pile was burning, the dead perfon’s friends
flood by it, pouring libations of wine, and calling upon
the deceafed.
The funeral rites among the ancient Romans were very
numerous. The deceafed was kept feven days; and
every day waftied with hot water, and fometimes with
oil, that, in cafe he were only in a {lumber, he might
be thus waked; and every now and then his friends
meeting, made a horrible outcry or fliout, with the
fame view; which Lift action they called conclamatio.
The third conclamation was on the feventhday; when,
if no figns of life appeared, the defunft was drefled and
embalmed by the pollin&ores ; placed in a bed near
the door, with his face and heels towards the ftreet
«nd the outfide of the gate, if the deceafed were of
condition, was garnifhed with cyprefs boughs. In
the courfe of thefe feven days, an altar was raifed near
his bed fide, called accrra ; on which his friends every
day offered incenfe ; and the libitinarii provided things
for the funeral.
On the feventh day a crier was fent about the city,
to invite the people to the folemnivation of the fune¬
ral in thefe wbrds : Exequias L. Tit. L.flii, qnibus ejl
ccmmodum ire, jam tempos ejl. OUns (i. e. iiuj ex adibus
ejfertur. The people being affembled, the lafl concla¬
mation ended, and the bed was covered with purple :
a trumpeter marched forth, followed by old women
called prajlca, finging fongs in ptaife of the deceafed :
laftly, the bed followed, borne by the next relations;
and if the perfon were of quality and office, the waxen
images of all his predeceffors were carried before him
on poles. The bed was followed by his children, kindred,
&c. at rati, or in mourning : from which a6t of follow¬
ing the corpfe, thefe funeral rites were called exequite.
The body thus brought to the roftra, the next of kin,
laudabat defunSum pro rojlris, made a funeral oration in
his praife and that of his anceftors. This done, the
body was carried to thepyra, or funeral pile, and there,
burnthis friends firft cutting off a finger, to-be bu¬
ried
F TJ ,fN .[ 502 ] F U N
ned vvitn a fccond folemnity. The body confumed,
the afhes were gathered ; and the prietl fprinkling the
company thrice with clean water, the eldeit oi the
pr,efica crying aloud, Meet, difmided the people, who
took their leave of the deceafed in this form, F^ale, vale,
vale: nos te online quo naturapermifefii, fequemur.—The
afhes, inclofed in an utn, were laid in the fepulchre or
tomb.
The ancient Chrijlians teflified their abhorrence of the
Pagan cuftom of burning the dead ; and always depo-
lited the body entire in the ground : and it was ufual
to beftow the honour of embalming upon the martyrs
at lead, if not upon others. They prepared the body
for burial, by wafhing it with wat<pr, and dreffing it
in a funeral attire. The exportation or carrying forth
of the body was performed by near relations, or per-
1'ons of fuch dignity as the circumflances of the de¬
ceafed required. Pfalmody, or finging of pfalms, was
the great ceremony ufed in all funeral procefiions among
the ancient Chriftians.
lu tbe Rormjh church, when a perfon is dead, they
wafh the body, and put a crucifix in its hand. At its
feet Hands a veffel full of holy water, and a fprinkler,
that they who come in may fprinkle both themfelves
and the.deceafed. In the mean time feme prieft Hands
by the corpfe, and prays for the deceafed till it is laid
in the earth. In the funeral procefiion, the exorciH
walks firH, carrying the holy water ; next the crofs-
bearer, afterwards the reH of the clergy, and lafl of all
the officiating prieft. They all fing the miferere, and
fome other pfalms; and at the end of each pfalm a re¬
quiem. We learn from Alet’s ritual, that the faces of
deceafed laymen muft be turned towafds the altar,
when they are placed in the church ; and thofe of the
clergy, towards the people. The corpfe is placed in
the church furrounded with lighted tapers: after the
office for the dead, mafs is faid; then the officiating
prieft fprinkles the corpfe thrice with holy water, and
as often throws incenfe on it. The body being laid in
the grave, the friends and relations of the deceafed
, fprinkle the grave with holy water.
The funeral ceremonies of the Greek church are
much the fame with thofe of the Latin. It needs on¬
ly be obferved, that, after the funeral fervice, they kifs
the crucifix, and falute the mouth and forehead of the
deceafed : after which each of the company eats a bit
of bread and drinks a glafs of wine in the church,
wiftiing the foul a good repofe, and the affli&ed family
all confol'ation.
FwNERjL-Games, a part of the ceremony of the an¬
cient funerals.
It was cuftomary for perfons of quality-, among the
ancient Greeks and Romans, to inftitute games, with
all forts of ©xercifes, to render the death of their friends
more remarkable. This practice was generally recei-
ved, and is frequently mentioned by ancient writers.
Patroclus’s funeral games take up the greateft part of
one of Homer’s Iliads,; and Agamemnon’s ghoft is
introduced by the fame poet, telling the ghoft of A-
, chilles, that he had been a fpedtator at a great num¬
ber of fuch folemnities.
The celebration of thefe games among the Greeks
moftly confifted of horfe-races; the prizes were; of dif-
.ferent forts and value, according to the quality and
; R^aguificence of the perfon that celebrated them. The
garlands given to vigors on this occafion were ufualty
of parfley, which was thought to have forge particular “
relation to the dead.
Thofe games, among the P-omans, confifled chiefly
of proteffibns; and fometimes of mortal combats of
gladiators around the funeral pile. They, as well as
the Greeks, had alfo a cuftom, though very ancient,
of Cutting the throats of a number of captives be¬
fore the pile, as vitftims to appeafe the manes of
the deceafed. Gsefar relates, that the* Gauls had this
cuftom. >
The funeral games were aboliffied by the emperor
Claudius.
Funeral Oration, a difeourfe nronounced in praife'
of a perfon deceafed, "atthe ceremony of his funeral.
This cuftom is very ancient. In the latter part of
the account above given of the Egyptian ceremonies
of interment, may be perceived the firft rudiments of
funeral ovations, and what was the fubjeCt of them,
which were afterwards moulded into a more polite arid
regular form by other nations, who adopted this cuf¬
tom. Nor can we omit remarking, that thofe funeral
folemnities were attended not only with orations in
praife of the deceafed, but with prayers for him ;
which prayers, it feems, were made by one whoperfo-
nated the deceafed": an entire form of one of them is
preferved by Porphyry, and perhaps it may in fome
meafure gratify the reader’s curiofity to recite it from
him. “ When (fays he) they (the Egyptians) em¬
balm their deceafed nobles, they privately take out the
entrails, and lay them up in an ark or cheft: moreover,
among other things which they do in favour of the
deceafed, lifting up the ark or cheft to the fun, they
invoke him ; one of the Libitinarii making a prayer for
the deceafed, which Euphantus has tranflated out of
the Egyptian language, and is as follows:—O lord, the
fun, and all the gods who give life to men, receive me,
and admit me into the fociety of the immortal ones ;
for as long as I lived in this world, I religioufly wor-
fliipped the gods whom my parents (howed me, and
have always honoured thofe who begat my body : ntir
have I killed any man, nor have I defrauded any of
what has been committed to my truft, nor have I done
any thing which is inexpiable. Indeed, whilft I was
alive, if I have finned cither by eating or drinking any
thing which was not lawful; not through myfelf have
I finned, but through thefe, ftiowing the ark and cheft
where the entrails were. And having thus fpoke, he
calls it into the river, but the reft of the body he em¬
balms as pure.”
The Grecians received the feeds of fuperftition
and idolatrous worlhip from the Egyptians, through
the coming of Cecrops, Cadmus, Danaus, and E-
rechtheus, into Greece; and among other cuftoms
tranfplanted from Egypt, were the folemnities ufed at
the burial of the dead. Of theft, an encomium on the
deceafed always formed a part, as particularly noticed
under the preceding article.
From the Egyptians and Grecians, efpectally from
the latter, the Romans received many of their laws
and cuftoms, as well as much of their polytheifm and
idolatrous worlhip. It is well known, that the cuftom
of making funeral orations in praife of the dead ob¬
tained among them ; and the manner in which their
funecal fervices were performed has been already de-
feribed.
FUN [ 5°3 1 FUN
FtmmL fcfibed.^ The corpfe being brought into their great
oratory^called the Roflra, the next of the kin laudalat
defunSum pro rojiris, that is, made a funeral oration, in
the commendation principally of the party deceafed,
but touching the worthy afts alfo of thofe his prede-
ceffors whofe images were there prefent. The account
given by Dr Ken net is in thefe words: “ In all the
funerals of note, efpecially in the public or indidtive,
the corpfe was firft brought with a valt train of follow¬
ers into the Eorum ; here one of the neareft relations
afcended the roftra, and obliged the audience with an
oration in praife of the deceafed. If none of the kin¬
dred undertook the office, it was difcharged by fome
of the moft eminent perfons in. the city for learning
and eloquence, as-Appian Reports of the funeral of
Sylla. And Pliny the younger reckons it as the lad
addition to the happinefs of a very great man, that he
had the honour to be praised at his funeral by the molt
eloquent Tacitus, then conful; which is agreeable to*
Quintilian’s account of this matter, Nam et funebres,
&c. For the funeral os-ations (fays he) depend very
often on fome public office, and by order of fenate
are many times given in charge to the magiflrates to
be performed by themfeives in perfon. The invention
of this cultom is generally attributed to Valerius Pop-
licola, foon after the expulsion of the regal family.
Plutarch tells us, that honouring his colleague’s obfe-
quies with a funeral oration, it fo pleafedthe Romans,
that it became cuftomary for the bed men to celebrate
the funerals of great perfons with fpeecbes in their
commendations*” Thus Julius Caefar, according to
cudom, made an oration in the roftra, in praife of his
wife Cornelia, and his aunt Julia, when dead; wherein,
he ffiowed, that his aunt’s del'cent, by her mother’s
fide, was from kings, and by her father’s from the-
gods. Plutarch fays, that “ he approved of the. law?
of the Romans, which ordered fuitable praifes to be-
given to women as well as to men, after, death.”
Though by what he fays in another place, it Teems
that the old Roman law was, that funeral orations
fhould be made only for the elder women; and
therefore he fays, that Casfar was the fird that made
one upon his own wife, it not being then ufual
to.take notice of younger women in that way : but
by that ait ion he gained much favour From the popu¬
lace, who afterwards looked upon him, and loved him
as a very mild and good man. The reafon why fuch
a law was made in favour of the women, Livy tells us,
was this, That when there was Jueh a fcarcity of mo¬
ney in the public, treafur.y, that the fum agreed upon
to give the Gauls to break up the fiege of the city and
capital could not be raifed, the women colleited a-
mong themfeives and made it up ; who hereupon had-
not only thanks given them, but this additional ho¬
nour, that after death, they- fhould be folemnly praifed-
- as well as the men: which looks as if, before this
time, only the men had thofe funeral orations made
for them.
This cuftom of the Romans very early obtained-
among the Chriftians. Some of their funeral fermons
or orations are now extant, as that ef Eufebius on
Condantine; and thofe of Wazianzen on Baiil and Cffi-
farius ; and of Ambrofe on Valentinian, Theqdofius,
and others. Gregory, the brother of Bafd, made
tvanSuo, a funeral oralian, for Melitius biffiop of
Antioch: in which orations, they not only praifed the Funeral,
dead, but addreded themfeives to them, which feems
to have introduced the cuftom of praying to departed
faints. Now thefe orations were ufually made before
the bodies of the deceafed were committed to the
ground ; which cuftom has been more or lefs continued
ever frnce, to this day.
Thus it appears, that thofe rites and ceremonies
among the heathens, which have been delivered from
one people to another, are what have given birth to
Funeral Sermons and Orations among Chriftians.
Though this pra&ice is confiderably improved, and
cleared of many things which would fmell too rank of
paganifm, and is thrown-into a method which, perhaps,
may be of fome fervice to Chiiftianity ; yet, notwith-
ftunding this new drefs, its original may very eafily be
difcerned. The method in which the charafters of
deceafed pt'ihms are given in our funeral fermons, is
very much the fame with that obferved in thofe pagan
orations ; where firft an account is given of the paren¬
tage of the deceafed, then of his education; after that,
we hear of his conduft in riper years : then his many
virtues are reckoned up, with his generous, noble, and
excellent performances.—Nor let the pradlict be con¬
demned becaufe of its rife and original; for why may
not the cuftom of heathens, if juft and laudable in them-
felves, and no ways pernicious to Chriftianity in their
confequences, be followed by Chriftians ? Only, fince
we are come into this pra&ice, there is one thing we
ffiould take care to follow them in; and that is, not
to make thofe fermons or orations for every one ; but
for thofe only whofe characters are diftinguilhed, who
have been eminently ufefnl in the world, and in the-
church of Chrift. The old heathens honoured thofe
• alone with this part of the funeral folemnity, who were -
men of probity and juftice, renowned for their wifdom ;
and knowledge, or famous for-warlike exploits: This,
as Cicero* informs us, being part of the law for burials, * De L.’gy
which directs, that the praifes only of honourable per- ^ a-
Tons thall be mentioned in the oration. • It would be
much more agreeable, therefore, if our funeral dif-
courfes, were not fo common, and if the characters *
given of the deceafed were more Juft ; devoid of that
fulfom flattery with which they too often abound.
FUNGI (from the name of the
4th. order of the 24th clafs of vegetables, in the Lin-
nsean fyftem ; comprehending all thofe which are of
the mufhroom kind, and which in Tournefort confti-
tute,the 2d, 3d, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, and 8th, genera of
the firft feCtion in the clafs xvii. This order in Lin-
nasus contains 10 genera. • See Agaxicus,.Boletus,
Clavaria, Lycqperdon, &c. •
Fungi, an order of plants in the Fragment a Me-
thodi Naturalis of X.innseus. See Bor an Y,p. 470.
The ancients called fungi children of the earthy mean¬
ing, no doubt, to indicate the obfcurity of their origin.
The moderns have iikewife been at a lofs in what ranfc
to place them; fome referring them to the animal,
fome to the vegetable, and others to the mineral king¬
dom.
! Meflrs Wilck and Miinchaufen have not-fcrupled to
rank thefe bodies in the number of animal productions;
becaufe, when fragments of them or their feeds were
macerated in water, thefe gentlemen perceived a quan¬
tity of animalcules difcharged, which they fuppofed -.1
capafele . r;
TUN L W 1 TUN
capable of being changed into the fame fubilance. It
was the ancient opinion, that beef could ptoduce bees?
but it was referved forMeffrs Wilckand Miinchaufen
to fuppofe, that bees could produce beef. Wilck af-
feits, that fungi confifl; of innumerable cavities, each
inhabited by a polype; and he does not hefitate to
afcribe the formation of them to their inhabitants, in
the fame way as it has been faid that the coral, the
lichen, and the mucor, were formed. Hedwig has
lately Ihown how ill founded this opinion is with re-
fpedl to the lichen ; and M. Durande has demonftra-
ted its falfity with regard to the corallines; “ Indeed
(fays M. Bonnet, talking of the animality of fungi)
nothing but the rage for paradox could induce any one
to publiih fuch a fable ; and I regret that pollerity
will be able to reproach cur times with it. Obferva-
tion and experiment fliould enable us to overcome the
fpvejudices of modern philofophy ; now, that thofe of
the ancient have difappeared and are forgotten.”
It cannot be denied that the mufhroom is one of the
moft perifhable of all plants, and it is therefore the
moft favourable for the generation of infedts. Con-
fidering the quicknefs of its growth, it mull be fur-
nifhed with the power of copious abforption ; the ex¬
tremity of its veffels muft be more dilated than in other
plants. Its root feems, in many cafes, to be merely
intended for its fupport; for fome fpecies grow upon
flones or moveable fand, from which it is impoffible
that they can draw much nourifbment. We muft
therefore fuppofe, that it is chiefly by the ftalk that
they abforb. Thefe ftalks grow in a moift and tainted
air, in which float multitudes of eggs, fo fmall, that
the very infefts they produce are with difficulty feen
By the microfcope. Thefe eggs may be compared to
the particles of the Byffus, 100,000 of which, as M.
Gleditfch fays, are not equal to the fourth of a grain.
May we not fuppofe, that a quantity of fuch eggs are
abforbed by the veffels of the fungus, that they remain
there, without any change, till the plant begins to
decay ? Befides, the eggs may be only depofited on the
furface of the plant, or they may exift in the water
into which they are thrown for examination. Do
not we fee that fuch eggs, difperfed through the air,
are hatched in vinegar, in pafte, &c. and wherever
they find a convenient nidus for their developement ?
Can it be furprifing then, that the corruption of the
mufhroom fhould make the water capable of difclofmg
certain beings that are really foreign to both ?
It is not more eafy to acquiefce in the opinions of
thofe naturalifts who place the fungi in the mineral
kingdom, becaufe they are found growing on porous
Hones, thence called Lapides Fungarii; which, how¬
ever, muft be covered with a little earth, and be wa¬
tered with tepid water, in order to favour the growth.
Such mufhrooms are no more the produce of the ftone,
than the lichen is of the rock to which it adheres, or
the mofs of the tree on which it is found. We have
only to obferve the growth of mulhrooms, to be con¬
vinced, that this happens by devffopement, and not by
addition or combination of parts as in minerals. The
opinion of Boccone, who attributed them to an unftu-
ous matter performing the fundftion of feed, and acqui¬
ring extenfion by appofition of fimilar parts ; and that of
Morifon, who conceived that they grew’ fpontaneoufly
©ut of the earth by^ a certain mixture of fait and ful-
Nsi33-
phur, joined with oils from the dung of quadrupeds; Fungi,
have now no longer any adherents. Fungi are proda- 't—
ced, they live, they grow, by developement; they are
expofed to thofe viciffitudes natural to the different pe¬
riods of life which chara&erife living fubftances; they
perifh -and die. They extradl, by the extremity of
their veffels, the juices with which they are nourifhed;
they elaborate and aifimilate them to their own fub-
ftance. They are, therefore, organized and living be¬
ings, and confequently belong to the vegetable king¬
dom. But whether they are real plants, or only the
produ&ion of plants, is ftill a matter in difpute with the
ableft naturalifts.
Some ancient authors have pretended to difcover the
feed of mu (brooms ; but the opinion was never gene¬
rally received. Petronius, when he is laughing at the
ridiculous magnificence of his hero Trimalcio, relates,
that he had written to the Indies for the feed of the .
morelle.
Thefe produ&ions w’ere generally attributed to the
fuperfluous humidity of rotten wood, or other putrid
fubftances. The opinion took its rife from obferving
that they grew’ moft copioufly in rainy weather. Such
was the opinion of Tragus, ofBaubin, and even of Co-
lumna, who, talking of the peziza, fays, that its fub-
ftance was more iolid and harder, becaufe it did not
originate from rotten wood, but from the pituita of the
earth. It is not furprifing that, in times when the
want of experiment and obfervation made people be¬
lieve that inlefts could be generated by putrefaftion,
we Ihould find the opinion general, that fungi owed
their origin to the putrefcence of bodies, or to a vif-
cous humour analogous to putridity.
Malpighi could not fatisfy himfelfasto the exiftence
of feeds which other botanifts had pretended to difcover.
He only fays, that thefe plants muft have them, or
that they perpetuate themfelves and (hoot by fragments.
Micheli, among the moderns, appears to have employ¬
ed himfelf moft fuccefsfully on this fubjeft. He ima¬
gined, that he not only faw the feeds, but even the fta-
mina, as well as the little tranfparent bodies deftined to
favour the diffemination and the fecundation of thefe
feeds. Before this author, Lifter thought he perceived
feeds in the Fungus per of us crajfus magnus of John Bau-
hin : the little round bodies that are found in the pezi¬
za; and helvellae, at that time, paffed for feeds ; which
did not appear at all probable to Mariigli, confidering
that the eye, vyhen affifted with the very bell micro-
fcopes, could perceive nothing firnilar in much larger
fungi. Indeed thefe bodies may be the capfules or co¬
vers of the feeds, if they are not the feeds themfelves.
However this may be, Marfigli, obferving that fungi
were often without ro3ts or branches, and that they
wanted flowers and feeds, the means which nature em¬
ploys for the produftion of perfeft plants, thought him¬
felf warranted in doubting whether thefe beings could
be ranked in the number of vegetables.
The doubts of Marfigli prompted him to obferve the
formation of fungi. Their matrix he called 5//«x •• he
imagined they grew in places where they met with an
unftuous matter, compofed of &n oil mixed with nitrous
fait, which, by fermentation, produced heat and moi-
flure, and infinuated itfelf between the fibres of wood J
that is, he imagined them the produftion of a vifcous
and putrefcent humour. Lancifi, in like manner, con-
fidered
FUN [ S°S 1.
Fungi, fidered fungi as owing their exiftence to the putrefac- fels which
“■—v—- tion of vegetables, and fuppofed them a difeafe in the
plant ; but he imagined, “ that the fibres of the tree
were neceflary to their produftion,” as is the cafe in
the formation of galls ; he compared them to the warts
and other excrefcences of the human body. He added,
that fuch fungous vegetable tumors mud necefiarily af-
fume various forms and figures, from the fluids which
diltend the tubes and veflels relaxed by putrefcence,
from the du&ility of the fibres and their diredtion, and
from the adtion of the air.
This opinion has been refuted by the celebrated na-
turalift M. de Juflieu, in the Memoirs of the Academy
of Sciences for the year 1728. He maintains, that the
fungi have a great analogy with the lichen, which is al¬
lowed to be a vegetable ; that, like the lichen, they
are divefted of ftalk, branches, and leaves : that,
like it, they grow and are nouriflied upon the trunks
FUN
ipofe the organization of vegetables are
not to be found in the fungi, and that they feem en¬
tirely compofed of cellular fubftance and bark; fo that
this fimple organization is nothing moi-e than an ag¬
gregation of veflels endowed with a common nature,
that fuck up the moifture in the manner of a fponge ;
with this difference, that the moifture is affimilated in¬
to a part of the fungus. ‘ Laftly, That the frudtifica-
tion, the only eflential part of a vegetable, and which
diftinguilhes it from all other organized bodies, being
wanting, fungi cannot be confidered as plants. This
he thinks confirmed by the conftant obfervation of
thofe people who gather the morelle and the mufir-
room, and who never find them in the fame fpots
where they had formerly grown. As the generation of
fungi, fays M. Necker* is always performed when the
parenchymatous or cellular fubftance has changed
its nature, form, and funftion, we muft conclude that
Fungi;
of trees, on pieces of rotten wood, and on all forts of it is the degeneration of that part which produces
putrid vegetables; that they refemble the lichen too in thefe bodies.
the rapidity of their growth, and the facility with which
many of them may be dried and reftored to their for¬
mer figure, upon being immerfed in water ; and, laft¬
ly, that there is a great fimilarity in the manner in
which their feeds are produced. He affirms, that only
the warts and excrefcences which grow on animal bo¬
dies, and the knots and other tumors that are to be
found on trees, can be compared with one another ; for
they are compofed equally of the folid and liquid fub¬
ftance of the plant or animal on which they grow;
whereas, the matter of the fungi is not only quite di-
ftindt from that of the plants on which they are found,
but often entirely fimilar to the fubttance of thofe that
fpring immediately from the earth.
But if fungi were owing merely to the degeneration
of plants, they would be ftill better intitled to confti-
tute a new kingdom. They would then be a decom-
pofition, not a new formation or new bodies. Be-
fides, we cannot deny, that in thofe bodies which
form the limit between the animal and vegetable king¬
doms, the organization becomes fimple, as the organs
deftineft for nutrition are multiplied; but, as the laft in
the clafs of infefts belongs to the animal kingdom*
fungi ought, notwithftanding the fimplicity of their
organization, ftill to belong tq the vegetable kingdom.
The parenchymatous or cellular fubftance, which, as
Mr Bonnet fays, is univerfaily extended, embraces the
whole fibrous fyftem, and becomes the principal inftru-
The organization, fays M. de Juffieu, which diftin- ment of growth, muft naturally be more abundant in
guifhes plants and other productions of nature, is vifi- thefe productions ; and this accounts for the rapidity
ble in the fungi ; and the particular organization of of their enlargement. Befides, growth, whether flow
each fpecies is conftant at all times and in all places; a — J'  1 J 1 '
circumftance which could not happen if there were not
an animal reproduction of fpecies, and confequently a
multiplication and propagation by feed. This is not,
he fays, an imaginary fuppofition ; for the feeds may
be felt like meal upon muftirooms with gills, efpecially
when they bepin to decay ; they may be feen with a
magnifying glafs, in thofe that have gills with black
margins: and, latlly, fays he, botanifts can have no
doubt that fungi are a diitinCl clafs of plants, becaufe,
by comparing the obfefvations made in different coun¬
tries with the figures and defcriptions of fuch as^ have
been engraven, the fame genera and the fame fpecies
are every where found.
Notwithftanding this refutation by M. de Juffieu,
another naturalift, M. de Necker, has lately maintained,
in his work intitled 'Mycitohgia, That the fungLoiight
to be excluded from the three kingdoms of nature, and
be confidered as intermediate beings. He has obfer-
' yed, like Marfigli, the matrix of the fungi: and has
or rapid; never was employed'" to determine the pre¬
fence or abfence of the vegetable or animal charafter.
The draba vcrna, which in a few weeks fhoots, puts
forth its leaves, its flowers, and fruit, is not lefs a
plant than the palm. The infeCt that exifts but for a
day, is as much an animal as the elephant that lives for
centuries. As to the feeds of the fungi, it is probable
that nature meant to withdraw from our' eyes the dif-
femination of thefe plants, by making the feeds almoll
imperceptible ; and it is likewife probable, that natu-
ralilts have feen nothing but their capfules. Since,
however, from the imperfection of our fenfes, we are
unable to perceive thefe feeds, ought we to infer that
they do not exift ? Are we authorized to conclude this,
becaufe we do not find muftirooms where we have
found them a year before ? Undoubtedly not; for the
greater part of plants require a particular foil, and the
fame mould that this year will fofter a rare plant, will
next year, allow it to perifti. Neither are we at liberty
to deny the exiftence of thefe feeds, becaufe thofe bo-
fubftituted the word carchte (initium faciens) inftead dies which have been called their feeds, an l the frag-
of fitus ; imagining that the rudiment of the fungus ments or-cuttings of the plants fhemfelves, have not
cannot exift beyond that point in which the develope- produced others of the fame fpecies. Nature feems to
ment of the filaments or fibrous roots is perceived. He have referved for herfelf the care of diffeminating cer-
allows, that fungi are nouriffied and grow like vege- tain plants: It is in vain, for inftance, that the bota-
tables; but he thinks that they differ very much from nift fows the dull found in the capfules of the orchis,
them in refpeft of their origin, ftrufture, nutrition, which every-one allows to b.e the feed. But, after all,
and rapidity of growth. He fays, that the various vef- what are thofe parts in the fungi cafually ohferved hy
•Vol. VII. Part II. ' 3S 7 naturaliib,
FUR [ t;o6 I FUR
Fung! natnralifts, and which they have taken for the parts of
II fru&ification ? Thefe are quite diftinA from the other
IFurca- parts; and whatever may be their ufe, they cannot
have been formed by a prolongation of the cellular
fubftance, or of the fibres of the tree on which the
fungus grows : they are, therefore, owing, like flower
and fruit, to the proper organization of the plant.
Thefe plants, therefore, have a particular exi (fence,
independent of their putrefying nidus. The gills of
certain fungi, which differ effentially from the reft of
the plant in their conformation, would be fufficient to
authorize this latter opinion. But can putrefa&ion
create an organic fubftance ?
Nature undoubtedly diffeminates through the air,
an‘d over the furfa'ce of the earth, innumerable feeds of
fungi, as well as eggs of infe&s. The plant and the
animal are excluded, when the nidus or the tempera¬
ture is favourable for their developement. No fortui¬
tous concourfe, either of atoms or fluids, could pro¬
duce bodies fo exquifitely and fo regularly organized.
It is fufficient to throw one’s eyes on the beautiful
plates which Schaeffer has publifhed of them, and com¬
pare them, by the glafs, with the warts and other ex-
trefcences of animals, to be convinced that they have
not the fame origin. The fun&ion of the cellular fub-
"ftai.ce in vegetables muft be greatly fuperior to that in
animals, if it could produce any thing but deformities.
The greater part of fungi exhibit a configuration
much too regular, conftant, and uniform, to be theef-
fe& of chance or putrefa&ion. As this form is pre-
ferved the fame in all places where fungi have been
found, it follows, that they contain in themfelves the
principles of their reprqdu&ion. They refemble the
mifletoe, and other parafrtic plants, which are perfect¬
ly diftindt from the trees on which they grow. The
fungi, therefore, are organized and living fubftances,
•or true plants. If the manner of their production is
unknown, that of fome infeCts is fo too.
FUNG1BLES, in Scots law, are fuch things as are
eftimated by number, weight, or meafure; as, coin,
butter, ale, &c.
FUNGITiE, in natural hiftory, a kind of fofiile
coral, of a conic figure, though fometimes flatted and
flriated longitudinally.
FUNGUS, in furgery, denotes any fpongy excre-
fcence. See Surgery.
FUNNEL of a Chimney, the (haft or fmalleft
part of the wafte, where it is gathered into its lead di-
menfions.
Palladio direCts, that the funnels of chimneys be
. carried through the roof four or five feet at lead, that
they may carry the fmoke clear from the houfe into
the air. See the article Chimney.
He alfo advifes, that chamber chimneys be not made
narrower than 10 or u inches, nor broader than 15 :
for if too narrow, the fmoke will not be able to make
its way ; and, if too wide, the wind will drive it back
into the room.
FUR, or Furr, in commerce. See Furr.
FURBISHER, a perfon who furbifties, poliflies, or
cleans arms, as guns, fwords, piftols, &c.; which is
chiefly performed with emery. See the article Emery.
FURCA, in antiquity, apiece of timber refembling
a fork, ufed by the Romans as an inftrument of pu-
nilhment.
The puniftmient of the furca was of three kinds : iFutche
the fir ft only ignominious, when a mailer, for fmall H.
offences, forced a ferVant to carry a furca oft his (houl- Funes-
ders about the city. The fecond was penal, when the '
party was led about the circus, or other place, with
the furca about his neck, and-w hipped all the way.
The third was capital, when the malefa&or having his
head faftened on the furca, was whipped to death.
FURCHE', in heraldry, a crofs forked at the
ends.
FURETIERE [Antony), an ingenious and learned
Frenchman, was born at Paris in 1620; and after a
liberal education became eminent in the civil and canon
law. He was fitft an advocate in the parliament; and
afterwards taking orders, was prefented with the ab¬
bey of Chalivoy, and the priory of Chuines. Many
works of literature recommended him to the public :
but what he is chiefly known by and valued for, is hfe
Univerfal Dictionary of the French Tongue, in which
he explains the terms of art in all fciences. He had
not, however, the pleafure of feeing this ufeful work
publiflied before his death ; which happened in 1688.
He was of the French academy ; and the difputes and
quarrels which he had with certain members of it made
a great noife in the world.
FURIA, in zoology, a genus of infe&s belonging
to the order of vermes zoophyta. There is but one
fpecies, viz. the infernalis. This has a linear fmooth
body ciliated on each fide, with reflexed feelers preffed
to its body. In Finland, Bothnia, and the northern
provinces of Sweden, it was not unfrequently that
people were feized with a pungent pain, confined to a
point, in the hand or other expofed part of the body,
which prefently increafed to a moft excruciating de¬
gree, and hath fometimes been fuddenly fatal. This
diforder was more particularly obferved in Finland, e-
fpecially about boggy and marfhy places, and always
in autumn. At length it was difeovered that this pain
inftantly fucceeded fomewhat that dropped out of the
air, and in a moment penetrated and buried itfelf in
the flefli. The Finlanders had tried variety of appli¬
cations to no purpofe, until at length a poultice-df
curds or cheefe was found the moft effe&ual in eafing
the pain : and the event confirmed that the infedl was
allured by this application to leave the flefli ; as, on
its removal, this worm, no longer than the fixth of an
inch, was found in it, and thus the caufe of this pain¬
ful difeafe explained. But by what means this crea¬
ture is raifed into the air, is as yet unknown.
FURIES, in Pagan antiquity, certain goddeflea
whofe office it was to punilh the guilty after death.
They were three in number : AleAo, Megaera, and
Tifiphone; who were deferibed with fnakes inftead of
hair, and eyes like lightning, carrying iron chains
and whips in one hand, and in the other flaming-
torches ; the latter to difeover, and the former to punifh,
the guilty : and they were fuppofed to be conftantly
hovering over fuch perfons as had been guilty of any
enormous crime.
Mythologifts fuppofe, that Tifiphone puniflied the
crimes which fprang from hatred or anger; Megaera,,
thofe from envy: and Ale&o, thofe from an infatiable
purfuit after riches and pleafure. They were worfhip-
ped at Cafina in Arcadia, and at Carmia in Peloponne-
fus. They had a temple at Athens near the Areopa-
gus,.
Furius
Furnace.
FUR [ 5^7 J FUR
gus, and their priefts were chofen from amongft the
judges of that court. At Telphufia, a city in Arca,-
dia, a black ewe was facrificed to them.
FURIUS (Bibaculus), a Latin poet who flourifhed
about 103 B. C. He wrote annals in verfe, of which
Macrobius recites fome fragments. Suetonius alfo re¬
lates fome verfes of his on Valerius Cato, in his Illu-
ftrious Grammarians.
FURLING, in the fea language, fignifies the
wrapping up and binding any fail clofe to the yard ;
which is done by bawling upon the clew-lines, bunt¬
lines, See. which wraps the fail clofe together, and be¬
ing bound fall to the yard the fail is furled.
FURLONG, a long meafure, equal to one eighth
of a mile, or 40 poles.
It is alfo ufed in fome law-books for the eighth part
of an acre.
FURLOUGH, in the military language, a licence
granted by an officer to a foldier, to be abfent for fome
time from his duty.
FURNACE, an utenfil or veffel proper to contain
fire, or to raife and maintain a vehement fire in, whe¬
ther of coal or wood.—Of thefe there arc a great va¬
riety, according to the different ufes to which they are
applied.
In all furnaces the principal things to be attended
to are, x. To confine the heat as much as poffible to
the matter to be operated upon; 2. To prevent its
being diffipated; 3. To produce as much heat with
as little fuel as poffible; and, 4. To have it in our
power to regulate the degree of heat according to our
pleafure.
To anfwer the firft intention, the fire is ufually con¬
fined in a chamber or cavity built on purpofe for it,
and furnilhed with a door for putting in the fuel; a
grate for fupporting it, and allowing air to pafs thro’,
as well as the afhes to drop down into a cavity pro¬
vided on .purpofe, and called the ajh-plt. Thus the
heat produced by the inflamed fuel is confined by the
fides of the furnace, and obliged to fpend great part
of its force upon the fubjeft inclofed.
The fecond intention, viz. to prevent the diffipation
of the heat, is obtained by fhutting the door of the
furnace; taking care that the chimney be not too
wide, and that the matter to be adted upon be placed
in fuch a manner that the fire may have its full effedt
upon it as it goes up the chimney.
The third intention, which is the moft important, is
at the fame time the moft difficult to anfwer, and de¬
pends entirely upon the proportion between the fpaces
betwixt the furnace bars and the widenefs and height
of the chimney. This will appear from a confidera-
tion of the principles on which the degrees of inflam¬
mation are produced. Thefe depend entirely on the
current of air which paffes through the inflamed fuel.
As foon as the fuel is fet on fire, a certain degree of
heat is produced; but unlefs a conftant influx of air
is admitted through the burning fuel, the fire is in-
ftantly extinguifhed; nor is it poffible by any means
to renew the inflammation until we admit a ftream of
frefh air among the fuel. When this is done, a rare-
fadtion commences in the air of the fire-place of the
furnace; fo that it is no longer a counterpoife to the
external air, and is therefore driven up the chimney
by that which enters at the a(h pit. This again paf-
fing through the fuel, is rarefied in its turn ; and giving
place to frefli quantities, there is a conftant flow of air
up the chimney. In proportion to the rarefadtion of the
air in the fire-place, the greater is the heat. But by
a certain conftrudtion of the furnace, the under part of
the chimney will become almoft as ftrongly heated a^
the fire-place; by which means, though a very ftrong
cuirent of air is forced through the fuel, yet as great
part of the heat is fpent on the chimney, where it cafl
be of no ufe, the fuel is wafted in a very confiderable
degree. To avoid this, we have no other method tha*(
to contradt the throat of the chimney occafionally by
a Hiding plate; which when put quite in, ihuts up the
whole vent; and by being drawn out more or lefs,
leaves a larger or fmaller vent at pleafure. This plate
ought to be quite drawn out till the fuel is thoroughly-
kindled, and the furnace well heated, fo that a current
of air may flow ftrongly through the fuel. After this
the plate is to be put in a certain length, fo as juft to
prevent the fmoke from coming out at the door of the
furnace. The rarefadtion of the air in the fire-place
will folicit a very confiderable draught of air, which
will keep the fuel inflamed to a great degree ; at the
fame time that the heat, being refledted from every
part of the furnace excepting that narrow paflage
where the fmoke goes up, becomes very intenfe. A
large quantity of fuel may be put in at once, which
will confume flowly, and thus require but little atten¬
tion in comparifon with thofe furnaces where no fuch
precaution is ufed. The Hiding-plate may be made of
caft-iron in thofe furnaces where no great heat is ex¬
cited ; but in others fire-clay will be more convenient.
The contrivance, however, is fcarce applicable to thofe
furnaces where great quantities of metal are to be melt¬
ed ; and accordingly the wafte of fuel there is immenfe.
It is computed, that the iron works of Carron in Stir-
lingfhire confume annually as many coals as would be
fufficient for a city containing ,700,000 inhabitants.
The fourth intention, viz. that of regulating the
heat, is accompliftred by allowing only a certain quan¬
tity of air to pafs through the fuel. For this purpofe,
according to Dr Black, it is neceffary to have the
command of the furnace below; the parts above being
frequently filled with fmall quantities of foot. The
belt method of managing this is to ffiut up the door
of the aflr-hole perfedtly clofe, and to have a fet of
round holes bearing a certain proportion to one an¬
other; and their areas being as 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, &c.
Seven or eight of thefe ought to be made in the door
of the afti-pit, which will give a fufficient command
over the fire. When the fire is to be increafed to the
utmoft, all the paftages both above and below are to
be thrown open, and the height of the vent augment¬
ed ; which, by increafing the height of the column of
rarefied air, increafes alfo the motion of that through
the fuel, and of confequence alfo the heat of the fur¬
nace. Macquer recommends another tube applied to
the alh-pit, wideft at the end fartheft from the fur¬
nace, and tapering gradually towards it. The inten¬
tion of this is to augment the current and velocity of
the air by its being made to pafs from a wider u/to a
narrower vent; but though this is no doubt true, the
air will not ultimately move with greater velocity than
3 S 2 if
Furnace.
FUR C 508 ] FUR
Furnace, if the tube were not there. It can only be ufeful
' *1 therefore in cafes where the furnace is placed in a fmall
room, and the tube itfelf has a communication with
the external air.
PI. CC1V, An EJJay or Cupelling. Furnace is made in the fol-
I* lowing manner. 1. Make with iron plates a hollow
quadrangular prifm, eleven inches broad and nine ihch-
es high (a**, ££), ending at top in a hollow quadran-
Cramer's gular pyramid (hb, cc) feyen inches high, terminating
Art of Ef- in an aperture at top feven inches fquare. This prifm
^,ng‘ m,uft be clofed at bottom with another iron plate, which
ferves as a balls or bottom to it (<z«). 2. Near the
bottom make a door (e), three inches high, and five
inches broad, that leads to the alh-Hole. 3. Above
this door, and at the height of fix inches from the ba-
fis, make another door (/), of the figure of a feg-
ment of a circle, four inches- broad at its bafis, and
three inches and a half high in the middle. 4. Then
fallen three iron plates on the forepart of this furnace.
.Let the firlt of them {gg), eleven inches long and half
an inch high, be'fattened, fo that its lower edge fliall
rett againtt the bottom of the furnace, with three or
four rivets; and in fuch a manner, that there may be
between the upper edge of the faid plate and the fide
of the furnace a groove fo wide, as that the Aiders of
the lo wer door (kk) may be put into it, and freely
move backwards and forwards therein : thefe mutt be
made of a thicker iron-plate. The fecond iron-plate
(M), eleven inches long, three inches high, and per-
feftly' parallel to the foregoing plate, mult be fattened
in the fpace between the two doors, in fuch manner
that both the upper and the lower edges of it may form
a hollow groove with the fide of the furnace. One of
thefe grooves, which is turned downwards, ferves to
receive the upper edge of the Aiders that {hut the
hwer door (N° 2). The other, that turns upwards,
is to receive the inferior edges of the Aiders of the
fmall door above (No. 3). The third plate (z7), which
is like the firft, mutt be rivetted clofe above the upper
door, in fuch manner, that it may form a groove turn¬
ing downwards, and contiguous to the upper edge of
the upper door (No. 3.) 5. In order to fiiut both
doors (No 2, 3.), you mutt adapt to each of them two
Aiders made of iron-plates, that may move within
the above mentioned grooves (kk, ll). But the two
Aiders belonging to the upper door (No. 3.) mutt have
each a hole near the top; that is, one a fmalfhole
one fifth part of an inch broad, and one inch and a half
long {m); and the other a femicircular aperture, one
inch high and two inches broad (n). Let, befides, each
Aider have a handle, that they may be laid hold of when
they are to be moved. 6, Moreover, let five round
holes, one inch broad, be bored in the furnace ; twm
of which mutt be made in the fore-part of the furnace
(00), two others in the back part; all at the height
of five inches from the bottom, but three inches and a
half diftant from each fide of the furnace; and, fi¬
nally, a fifth hole [p), at the height of one inch above
the upper edge of the upper door (/). 7. In fiiort,
(et the ipfide of the furnace be armed wuth iron-hooks,
jetting out half an inch, and about three inches di-
ttant from each other, to fatten the lute with which
the furnace is to be covered over within 8. Let
then an iron, moveable, hollow, quadrangular pyra¬
mid (gl> three inches high, be adapted to the upper
aperture (J) of the furnace, at the bafis feven inches Furnace,
broad, ending upwards in a hollow tube (r), three ——v—■-
inches in diameter, two inches high, almoft cylindri¬
cal, though fomevyhat convergent at top. This pro¬
minent tube ferves to fupport a funnel or fl-ue, which
is almott cylindrical, hollow, made of iron plates, and
two feet high ; and which, when a very ftrong fire is
required, is put perpendicularly upon the Aiorter tube,-
in fuch a manner, that it enters ciofe into it, one inch
and a half or two inches deep, and may again be
taken off at pleafure, when there is no need of fo ftrong'
a fire. But this pyramidal cover (7) mutt befides
have two handles (ss) adapted to it, that it may be
laid hold of, and thus be taken away or put on again :
and that this, being put oniihe aperture (r/) of the
furnace, may not be eafily thrown down, let an iron
plate be rivetted to the right and left upper edge of-
the furnace (cc), and be turned down towards the in-
fide, fo as to make a furrow open before and behind,
into which the latteral edges of the cover may enter,
and be fattened, and at pleafure be moved backwards
and forwards, whenever it mutt be put on, or moved.
9. Let a fquare ledge, made of a thick iron-plate,
be fattened at top of the upper edge of the lower door
(e): this is defigned to fupport the grate and the.
lute : but it mutt be made of two pieces, that it may
be eafily introduced into the cavity of the furnace.
Thus you will have an aflay-oven, which mutt after¬
wards be covered over on the infide with lute. This
you are to do as follows:.
That the fire may be better confined, and that
the iron may not be deftroyed by growing red-hot,
the whole infide of the furnace mutt be covered over,
with lute, one finger or one finger and a half thick.
The lute fit for this is deferibed under the article Che-
mistr v,n°6o4, 605. But before you cover the infide of
your furnace with- this lute, you mutt firft put within
the furnace fmall iron bars, equal in length to the
diameter of the oven, quadrangular, prifmatical, half
an inch thick, having their extremities fupported by
a fquare iron ledge, and three fourths of an inch di->
ftant from each other; and you mutt fatten them fo,
that their flat fides may be oblique with regard to tho
tranfverfe fettion of the furnace, and that the two op-
pofite angles may look one upwards and the other
downwards: the bars mutt not be laid flat, but edge-
wife ; by which fituation you hinder the aftres of the
fuel of the fire from being detained too long between
the interftices of' the faid iron-bars, and from making
an obftruftion that would oppofe the free draught of
the air. The furnace being then covered over with
lute, and dried up by a gentle heat, is at laft fit for
docimaftical operations, and efpecially for fuch as muft
be performed in the aflay-oven.
If then an operation is to be made in the furnace
hitherto deferibed, you muft let through the four
lower holes above deferibed of the furnace f 00) placed
before and behind, and direftly oppofite to each other,
two iron-bars one inch thick, and long enough that
their extremities on every fide may jut out of the holes
a fmall matter. Thefe ferve to fupport the muffle and
its bottom. You then introduce the muffle through
the upper aperture of the furnace (d), and place it
upon the above deferibed iron-bars, in fuch a manner,
that the open fore-fide of it be contiguous to the in¬
ward X
Tlate CCW
T XT B TN A C E .
FUR [ 509 1 FUR
Furnace, tvard border of the upper door {/)• The fuel of the condenfed, and more quickly agitated, ftrikes them Furnace.
u“—v—fire is introduced through the top of the furnace (d) ; more violently (which the effeft of the bellows plainly “"’'Y'-"**
the cover of which {g), on this account, muft be /hows) ; it thence appears, that in warm and wet wea-
moveable, and not very heavy. The belt fuel for the tber, when the atmofphere is light, the fire muft be
fire is charcoal made of the hardeft wood, efpecially lefs efficacious in furnaces; that likewife, when feveral
of beech, broken into fmall pieces of the bignefs of furnaces, fituated near each other, are burning at the
an inch, wherewith the muffle muft be covered over
fome inches high. We then rejeft larger bits of coals,
becaufe they cannot fall through the narrow interftices,
between the fides of the muffle and thofe of the fur¬
nace, and cannot of courfe fufficiently furround the
circumference of the muffle. Whence it happens,
that there are on every fide places void of fuel, and
the fire is either not ftrong enough jor unequal. But
if, on the contrary, you ufe coals too fmall, then a
fame time, the fire is in part fuffocated, becaufe the
ambient air is thereby rendered more rare and lighter.
The fame effedl is produced by the fun, efpecially in
fummer-time, when it (bines upon the place where the
furnace is fituated. The atmofphere, on the contrary,
being heavier in cold dry weather, excites a very great
fire.
The heat of the fire afts the ftronger upon the bo¬
dies to be changed, as the muffle put in the furnace is
great part fall immediately through the interftices of lefs ; as the faid muffle has more and larger fegments
the grate into the affl-hole ; and the tencereft particles
of them turn too foon into aftres, and, by increafing
the heap of afhes, obftruft the free draught of the air,
which is here greatly requifite.
A perfeft management of the fire is moll commonly
neceflary in the performing of operations in this fur¬
nace; therefore the chemical reader mult give attention
what follows. If the door of the alh hole (e) is quite
out of it ; as the fides of this hmffle are thinner;
in (hort, as there are more veffels placed in the hinder
part of the muffle; and on the contrary. In this cafe,
when many of the conditions requifite for the exciting
of fire are wanting, then indeed the artificer, with all
his (kill, will hardly be able to excite the fire to a fuf-
ficient degree, in order to perform operations well, in
common affay-ovens, even though he ufes bellows, and
open ; and the Aiders of the upper door (_/') drawn puts coals into the upper door of the furnace. For this
towards each other,, fo as to touch one another in the
middle of the door ; and if, befides, the cover (<y), and
the (unnel adapted to its tube (r), is upon the top (y)
of the furnace ; the fire will be then in the higheft de¬
gree poffibie ; though, in the mean time, it is hardly
ever necelfary to put the funnel on, except in a very
cold feafon : but if, after having difpofed the furnace
in the' manner juft deferibed, ;you put red burning
coals into the open upper door (y) of it, the fire is
■ftillmore'inefeafed thereby: however, this artifice is.
never; or very feldom, necelfary. When you (hut the
tipper doorWith only-that Aider that has a narrow ob¬
long hole in it (m), then the heat becomes a little lefs;
but it diminilhes dill more when you (hut the door
with the other Aider that has in it the femicircular hole
(«), which is larger than that of the firft Aider nay,
reafon, the grate ought to be put aimoil three inches
below the muffle, left the air, ruffling through the affl-
hole, ffloulct cool the bottom of the muffle, which hap¬
pens in common aflay-ovens ; and again, that the fmal-
ler coals, almoft already confumed, and the afties, may
more eafily fall* through the interftices of the grate, .
and the larger coals dill fit to keep up the fire be re¬
tained. Laftly, The above-mentioned funnel is added,
thatithe blowing,of the fire being, by’ means of it, in-
creafed as much as poffibie, this might at laft be car¬
ried to the ftequifite degree ; for the fire may always be
diminiffled, but not always be increafed at pleafure,
without the affiftance of a proper apparatus.
- Fig. 2. Reprefents a longitudinal feclion of a Re¬
verberatory Furnace ufed in the fracking of ores.
. The mafonry. 2. The affl-hole. 3. A channel for
the heat again is lefs when you take away the funnel the evaporation of the moifture. 4. The grate. 5. The
put at the top of the cover: finally, the door of the fire-place, . 6. The inner part of the furnace. 7. A
affl-hole being either in part or totally Arut, the heat bafon formed of fand. 8. The cavity where the melt-
is ftill diminiffled; becaufe the draught of air fo’necef- ed metal is. 9. A hole through which the fcoria is
fary to excite the fire, is thereby hindered : but if, be- to be- removed. 10. The paffage of the flame and
Aides all.thefe, you likewife open the upper door quite,
then the cold air, ruffling into the mufflo, cools the
bodies put under it, that are to be changed, to a de¬
gree never required in any operation, and fuch as will
entirely hinder the boiling of lead. If, during the ope¬
ration, the fire begins to decay, or to grow unequal, it
is a fign that there are places void of coals between Jining Furnace, i. The mafonry of the pillars and
the fides of the furnace and thofe of the muffle : there- walls furrounding the furnace. 2. The channels for
fmoke, or the lower part of the chimney ; which is to
be carried up to a height of about 30 feet. 11. A
hole in the roof, through which the ore is thrown into
the furnace. This furnace is 18 feet long, 12 feet -
broad, and high.
Fig, 3. Reprefents a longitudinal fejSlion of the Re-
fore, in this cafe,- you muft ftir your coals on every fide
with an iron-rod, which is to be introduced through
the upper hole {p) of the furnace, that they may-fall
together, and thus-adl in a proper mariner and equality.
However, you are to obferve • concerning the regi¬
men of the fire juft deferibed, tk ,t thouglr the. appa.
status is made with all the exaQnefs men>ioiffld, never-
carrying off the moifture. 3. Other fmall channels
which join in the. middle of the bafon. 4. The bafon
made of bricks. 5. A bed of affles. . 6. The hollow
or bafon in which the metal is melted and refined.
7. The great flame-hole. .8. The two openings for
the entry of the tuyeres of the bellows.- 9^ The vault
or dome of the furnace. 10. The fire-place. 11. The
thelefs the effetl does not always an(wer it. The caufe grate. 12., The" draught-hole. 13. A hole in the
of which difference has moft . commonly its origin in vault, which, being opened, ferves to cool the fur-
the various difpqfitions of the air : for as every fire is nace.
more excited by coals in, proportion as the. air, .more portable Furnace.. See Chemjstrv, n° 6co, &c.
Melting:-
FUR
Melting Furnace. See Chemistry, a0 2d 605, 606.
J Lamp Furnace. Ibid 611.
Machines for Blowing Air into Furnaces. The
earlieft method of aninjating large fires in the furnaces
where ores were fmelted, feems to have been by expo-
fing them to the wind. Such was the pra&ice of the
Peruvians before the arrival of the Spaniards among
them. Alonfo Barba relates, that their furnaces, call¬
ed guairas, were built on eminences, where the air
was free ft ; that they were perforated on all fides with
holes, through which the air was driven in when the
wind blew, which was the only time when the work
could be carried on ; that under each hole was made a
[ 5r° 1
FUR
quid matter, it flies off with confiderable force through Furnace,
the fmaller pipe D, by which it is conveyed to the fur- "’v
nace. '
From this defcription, it is evident that the princi¬
pal thing to be kept in view in the conftru&ion of
thefe machines is, to mix the defcending dream of wa¬
ter with as great a quantity of air as poffible.- For this
purpofe the contrivahce reprefented in the left-hand
machines anfwers much better than the former. By
this the water defcending from the refervoir A, falls
into a kind of cullender B, perforated with a great
number of holes in its fides. Thus the water being
forced out in a number of fmall ftreams is very effec-
projeftion of the done-work, on which were laid burn- tually daihed againft the fides of the wide defcending
ing coals, to heat the air before it entered the furnace, pipe, when it enters the. condenfing veffel C, and is fent
Some authors fpeak of feveral thoufands of thefe guairas off by the pipe D, as in the former.
burning at once on the fides and tops of the hills of
Potofi ; and feveral remains of this pradfice are to be
found in different parts of Great Britain.
This method of fupplying air being found excef-
fively ineffedtual and precarious, the indruments called
bellows fucceeded. Thefe were at firft worked by the
ftrength of men; but as this was found to be very labo¬
rious and expenfive, the force of running water was em¬
ployed to give motion to thefe machines. Thus a much
greater quantity of metal could be procured than for¬
merly, and the feparation was like wife more complete;
infomuch, that in many places the flags or cinders from
which the iron had formerly been extra&ed were again
nfed as frelh ore, and yielded plenty of metal.
But though this method was found to be greatly
preferable to the others, yet great improvements were
In fome machines of this kind the candru&ors feem PM. Com.
to have been of opinion, that a great height was re- °f
quired in the water-fall; but Dr Lewis, who hathp,a '*
made a great number of experiments upon the fubjedf,
fliows, that an excels in height can never make up
for a deficiency in the quantity of the water. Four or
five feet, he thinks, is a fufficient height for the water¬
fall ; where there is a greater height, however, it may
be rendered ufeful, by joining two or more machines
together in the manner reprefented in the plate; where
the water, after having once emitted its air in the con¬
denfing veffel C, flows out into a new refervoir E. From
thence it defeends through another cullender F, and
defcending from it into a condenfing veffel G, the air
is extricated, and carried off through the pipe H. The
upper figure reprefents the cullender, with the fliapes
ilill wanted. In order to melt very large quantities of of the holes and their proportional diftances, according
1 time, it was neceffary to ufe bellows of an im- to Dr Lewis.
menfe fize ; and in proportion to their fize they flood
in need of the more frequent and expenlive repairs.
The oil, alfo, which the bellows required in large quan¬
tity, becoming rancid, was found to generate a kind
Thus, with very little expence, where there is a fuf-
cient quantity of water, as ftrong a blaft of air as can
he defired may be readily obtained; for feveral ma¬
chines may be conftru&ed, and joined together in «
of inflammable vapour, which fometimes burft the bel- manner fomewhat fimilar to that above mentioned, un¬
lows with explofion, and thus rendered them totally
ufelefs. A new method, therefore, of blowing up
fires altogether free from the abovementioned incon¬
veniences, was fallen upon by means of water. It de¬
pends on the following principle, viz. That a ftream
of water, running through a pipe, if by any means it
is mixed with air at its entrance into the pipe, will
carry that air along with it, and part with it again
as foon as it comes out of the pipe; and if the air is
then collefted by a proper apparatus, it may with
til all the quantity of water is employed. It is pro¬
per to obferve, however, that as by this method the
air is loaded with moifture, it is proper to make the
condenfing veffel as high as conveniently may be, that
the air may arrive at the furnace in as dry a ftate as
poffible.—rThe long flender pipes in the left hand ma¬
chines reprefent a gage filled with mercury or water, by
which the ftrength of the blaft may be determined.
In the large iron founderies another method is ufed
for blowing up the fires by means of a kind of air-
fuccefs be ufed for exciting the moft violent degrees of pumps. Thefe confift of call-iron cylinders of about
heat.
Machines of this kind are reprefented on Plate CCIV.
fig. 4. In the right-hand machine, AB reprefents
three feet diameter, exadlly fitted with a pifton moved
up and down by means of a water-wheel. In the bot¬
tom of the cylinder is a large valve like that of a bel-
ftream of water falling into the funnel, whofe throat lows, which rifes as the pifton is lifted up, and thus
is contra&ed at B; after which the ftream runs through
the perpendicular pipe EF, in the upper part of which
there are fome fmall holes reprefented by edef. Thro’
thefe holes the air has accefs to mix itfelf with the de¬
fcending water, which being daihed againft the fides
admits the air into the cavity of the cylinder from be¬
low. Immediately above the bottom is a tube which
goes to the furnace; and as it proceeds from the cy¬
linder is furnilhed with a valve opening outward. Thus,
when the pillon is drawn up, the valve in the bot-
of the pipe is reduced to froth, and thus fills the whole tom rifes and admits the air that way into the cylinder ;
cavity of the pipe EF, which is confiderably larger
than the throat of the funnel B. When this frothy
llream enters the veffel C, the air extricates itfelf from
the water; and as it cannot return through the pipe
EF becaufc it is eontinually filled with
while the lateral valve ffiuts, and prevents any air from
getting into it through the pipe. When the pifton
is thrull down, the valve in the bottom Ihuts, while
the air being compreffed in the cavity of the cylinder
ftream of li- is violently forced out through the lateral tube into
the
FUR [ 511 1 FUR
Furor, tta furnace. In the great foundery at Can'on, four
Furr. 0f thefe large cylinders were a few years ago employed
at their principal furnace, and fo contrived that the
ftrokes of the piftons, being made alternately, produ¬
ced an almoft uninterrupted blaft. Some little inter-
miffion might indeed be perceived by the ear, but it
was too trifling to produce any fenfible effeft on the
heat of the furnace. Even this could have been pre¬
vented by means of a large refervoir into which all the
four cylinders might difcharge their blaft. This fhould
be furnilhed with an heavy pilfon ; whofe weight be¬
ing fupported by the air of the cylinder alone, would
force it out through its lateral tube in a manner per-
feflly equable, without any of that puffing or inter¬
ruption in the blaft, perceptible though but in a fmall
degree in the other.
FUROR uterinus, a diforder peculiar to women.
See Medicin£-'/«<&*.
FURR, in commerce, fignifies the Ikin of feveral
wild beafts, drefled in alum with the hair on ; and
ufed as a part of drefs, by princes, magiftrates, and
others. The kinds moft in ufe are thofe of the ermine,
fable, caftor, hare, coney, See. See Mu stela.
It was not till the later ages that the furs of beafts
became an article of luxury. The more refined na¬
tions of ancient times never made ufe of them : thofe
alone whom the former ftigmatifed as barbarians were
clothed in the Ikins of animals. Strabo deferibes the
Indians covered with the fkins of lions,- panthers, and
bears; and Seneca, the Scythians clothed with the
Ikins of foxes and the leffer quadrupeds. Virgil ex¬
hibits a picture of the favage Hyperboreans, fimilar
to that which our late circumnavigators can witnefs to
in the clothing of the wild Americans, unfeen before
by any polifhed people.
Gens effmna viriim Rtphao’tunditur E-.iro ;
Et pscudum fulvis velantur corpora fetis.
Moft part of Europe was at this time in fimilar cir-
cumftances. C as far might be as much amazed with
the fkin-dreffed heroes of Britain, as our celebrated
Cook was at thofe of his new-difeovered regions.
What time hath done to us, time, under humane con¬
querors, may effeft for them. Civilization may take
place ; and thofe fpoils of animals, which are at pre-
fent effential for clothing, become the mere objects of
Ornament and luxury.
It does not appear that the Greeks or old Romans
ever made ufe of furs. It originated in thofe regions
where they moft abounded, and where the feverity of
the climate required that fpecies of clothing. At firft
it confifted of the fkins only, almoft in the ftate in
which they were torn from the body of the beaft ; but
as foon as civilization took place, and manufactures
were introduced, furs became the lining of the drefs,.
and often the elegant facing of the robes. It is pro¬
bable that the northern conquerors introduced the fa-
(hion into Europe. We find, that about the year
522, when Totila king of the Vifigoths reigned in
Italy, the Suethons (a people of modern Sweden)
found means, by help of the commerce of numberlefs
intervening people, to tranfmit, for the ufe of the Ro¬
mans, faphilinas pelks, the precious fkins of the fables.
As luxury advanced, furrs, even of the moft valuable
fpecies, were ufed by princes as linings for their tents:
thus.Marco Polo, in 1252, found thofe of the Cham
of Tartary lined with ermines and fables. He calls Furr>
the laft Zibdines and Zambalines. He fays that thofe '—"'V—
and other precious furrs were brought from countries
far north ; from the land of Darhnefs, and regions al¬
moft inacceffible by reafon of moraftes and ice. The
Weifli fet a high value on furrs as early as the time of
Howel Dda, who began his reign about 940. In the
next age, furrs became the fafhionable magnificence of
Europe. When Godfrey of Boulogne and his follow¬
ers appeared before the emperor Alexis Comnene, on
their way to the Holy Land, he was ftruck with the
richnefs of their dreffes, tarn ex ojlro quam anrifrigio et
niveo opere harmelino et ex mardrino grijioque et varia.
How different was the advance of luxury in France
from the time of their great monarch Charlemagne,
who contented himfelf with the plain furr of the ot¬
ter ! Our Henry I. wore furrs; yet in his diftrefs was
obliged to change them for warm Welfli flannel. But
-in the year 1337 the luxury had got to fuch a head,
that Edward III. enabled, that all perfons who could
not fpend a hundred a-year fliould abfolutely be pro¬
hibited the ufe of this fpecies of finery. Thefe, from
their great expence, muft have been foreign furrs, ob¬
tained from the Italian commercial ftates, whofe traffic
was at this period boundlefs. How ftrange is the re¬
volution in the furr-trade ! The north of Afia at that
time fupplied us with every valuable kind .; at prefent
we fend, by means of the poffeffion of Hudfon’s Bay.,,
furrs, to immenfe amount* even to Turkey and tire
diftant China.
Neva Voyages in Search’of Furrs. During .the late
Captain Cook’s laft voyage to the Pacific Ocean, be-
fides the various fcientific advantages to be derived
from it, a new fburce of wealth was laid open to fu¬
ture navigators, by trading for furrs of the moft valu¬
able kind on the north-weft coaft of America. The
firft veffel which engaged in the new branch of trade
pointed out by that great navigator, was equipped by
fome gentlemen in China. She was a brig of 60 tons
and 20 men, commanded by James Hanna. She fail¬
ed from the Typa the end of April 1785 ; proceeded'
to the northward, along the coaft of China ; paffed
through. Diemen’s Straits, the fouth end of Japan ;
and arrived, at Nootka in Auguft following. Soon af¬
ter her arrival, the natives, whom Captain Cook had
left unacquainted with the effe&s of fire-arms, tempted,
probably by the diminutive fize of the.veffel (fcarce
longer than fome of their own canoes), and the fmall
number of her people, attempted to board her in open,
day ; but were repulfed with confiderable flaughter.
This Was the introduction to a firm and lafting friend-
fhip. Captain Hanna cured fuch of the Indians as-
were wounded ; an unreferved confidence took place
they traded fairly and peaceably; a valuable cargo of
furrs was procured and the bad weather fetting in,,
he left the coaft in the end of September, touched at
the Sandwich Iflands, and arrived at Macao the end!
of December of the fame year.
. Captain Hanna failed again from Macao in May
1786, in the fnow Sea-Otter of 120 tons and 30 men,
and returned to Macao in February 1787. In this
fecond voyage he followed his former track, and ar¬
rived at Nootka in Auguft ; traced the coaft from
thence as far as 53 degrees, and explored the extenfive
found difeovered a fhort time before by Mr Strange,,
6 and!
PUR n 5
and called by him Queen Charlotte’s Sound, the lati¬
tude of which is 51 degrees nbrth, longitude 128 weft.
The fnow Lark, Captain Peters, of 220 tons and
40 men, failed from Macao in July 1786. Her defti-
nation was Kamtfchatka (for which (he was provided
with a fuitable cargo of arrack, tea, &c.). Copper
Iflands, and the N. W. coaft. Captain Peters was di-
refted to make his paftage between Japan and Corea,
and examine the iflands to the north of Japan, faid to
be inhabited by hairy people ; which, if Captain Cook
had lived, would not have been left to the French to
determine. No account having been received of this
veflel fmce her departure, there is every feafon to fear
Hie has periftied.
In the beginning of 1786, two coppered veffels
were fitted out at Bombay, under the direftion of
James Strange, Efq; who was himfelf a principal owner.
Thefe veffels were, the fnow Captain Cook of 300
tons, and fnow Experiment of 100 tons. They pro¬
ceeded in company from the Malabar coaft to Batavia;
pafled through the Straits of Macaflar, where the Ex¬
periment was run upon a reef, and was obliged to haul
afliore upon Borneo to repair ; from thence they fleer¬
ed to the eaftward of the Palaos Iflands; made Sul¬
phur Ifland ; and arrived at Nootka the end of June
following. From Nootka, where they left their fur-
geon’s mate (Mackay) to learn the language and col-
left fliins againft their intended return (but who was
brought away in the Imperial Eagle the following
year), they proceeded along the coaft to Queen Char¬
lotte’s Sound, of which they were the firft difcovtrers ;
from thence in a direct courfe to Prince William’s
Sound. After fome ftay there, the Experiment pro¬
ceeded to Macao (their vefl’els being provided with
-pafies by the governor-general of Goa) : the Captain
•Cook endeavoured to get to Copper Ifland, but with¬
out fuccefs, being prevented by conftant weft winds.
Two coppered vefiels were alfo fitted out by a fo-
*ciety bf gentlemen in Bengal, viz. the fnow Nootka
• of 200 tons, and the fnow Sea Otter of too tons,
commanded by John Meares and William Tipping,
lieutenants in the royal navy. The Nootka failed in
March 1786 from Bengal ; came through the China
Seas ; touched at the Bafliees, where they were very
civilly treated by the Spaniards, who have taken pof-
feffion of thefe iflands; arrived at Oonalaika the be¬
ginning of Auguft ; found there a Rufliaiygalliot and
fome furriers ; difcovered accidentally near Cape Gre-
ville a new ftrait into Cook’s River, 15 leagues wide
• and 30 long ; faw fome Ruffian hunters in a fmall bay
between Cape Elizabeth and Cape Bear; and arrived
in Prinoe William’s Sound the end of September:
They determined wintering in Snug Corner Cove,-
lat. 60. 3c. in preference to going to the Sandwich
Iflands,. which feem placed by Providence for the com¬
fort and refre (hment of the adventurers in this trade,
and were frozen up in this gloomy and frightful fpot
from the end of November to .the end of May. By
the feveru} of the winter they loft their third and
four h mates, furgeon, boatfwain, carpenter, and
cooper, and twelve of the fore-maft men ; and the re¬
mainder were fo enfeebled as to be under the neceffity
of applying to . the commanders of the King George
and Queen Charlotte, who juft at this time arrived in
the found, for fome hands to affift in carrying thevef-
N° 133.
E2 ] FUR
fel to the Sandwich Iflands, where, giving over all
further thoughts of trade, they determined (after get¬
ting a fea-fteck of fifti off Cape Edgecumbe) imme¬
diately to proceed. The Nootka arrived at Macao the
end of Oftober 1787. v
The Imperial Eagle, Captain Barkley, fitted out by
a fociety of gentlemen at Oftend, failed from Oftend
the latter end of November 1786; went into the bay
of All Saints; from thence, without touching any
where, to the Sandwich Iflands, and arrived at Noot¬
ka the beginning of June ; from thence to the fouth,
as far as 470 30', in which fpace he difcovered fome
good and fpacious harbours. In the lat. of 470 46',
loft his fecond mate, purferj^and two feamen, who
were upon a trading party with the long-boat, and im¬
prudently trufting themfelves afliofe unarmed, were
cut off by the natives. This place feems to be the
fame that Don Antonio Mourelle calls the Ilha de lot
Dolores, where the Spaniards going aftrore to water,
were alfo attacked and cut off.
The King George of 320, and the Queen Char¬
lotte of 200 tons, commanded by Captains Portlock
and Dixon, who ferved under Captain Cook in hislaft
voyage, were fitted out by a fociety of gentlemen in
Englandj who obtained a privilege to trade to the
north-weft coaft of America, from the South-Sea
and Eaft India companies.
Thofe veffels failed from England the beginning of
September 1785; touched at the' Falkland Iflands,
Sandwich Iflands, and arrived in Cook’s River in the
month of Auguft. From thence, after collefting a
few furrs, they fteefed in the end of September for
Prince William’s Sound, intending, it is faid, to winter
there ; but were prevented entering, by heavy ftorms
and extreme bad weather, which obliged them to bear
away, and feek fome other paid of the coaft to winter
at. The ftorms and Kid weather accompanied them
till they arrived off Nodtka Sound, when they were fo
near the (bore, that a canoe came off to them: but
though thus near accompliftiing their purpofe, a frefn
ilorm came on, and obliged them finally to bear away
for the Sandwich Iflands, where they remained the win¬
ter months ; and returning again to the ebaft, arrived
in Prince William’s Sound the middle of May. The
King George remained in Prince William’s Sound ;
and during her.ftay, her long-boat difcovered a new
paffage from the Sound into Cook’s River. The Queen
Chailotte proceeded along the coaft to the fouth ‘
looked into Behring’s Bay, where the Ruffians have
now a fettlement; examined that part of the coaft
from 56 to 5-0°, which was not feen by Captain Cook,
and which confifts of a clufter of iflands, called by Cap¬
tain Dixon Shieen Charlotte's IJlands, at a confiderable
diftance from the Main, which is thus removed farther
to the eaftward than it was fuppofed to' be: fome part
of the continent may, however, be feen from the eaft
fide of thefe iflands; and it is probable, the diftance
does not any where exe'eed 50 leagues. On this efti-
mation, Hudfon’s Houfe, lat. 530 long. 106° 27' weft,
will not be more than 800 miles diftant from that part
of this coaft in the fame parallel. It is therefore not
improbable, that the enterprifing fpirit of our Cana¬
dian furriers may penetrate to this coaft (the com-
munic'ation with whidh is probably much facilitated
by lakes or rivers)* and add to the comforts and luxuv
4 ries
FUR f 5
ties of Europe this invaluable furr, which in warmth,
" beauty, and magnificence, far exceeds the riche(l furrs
of Siberia. Queen Charlotte’s iflands are inhabited
by a race of people differing in language, features, and
manners, from all the other tribes of this coall. Among
other peculiarities, they are dittinguilhed by a large in-
cifion in the under lip, in which is inferted a piece of
polifhed wood, fometimes ornamented with mother-of-
pearl {hell, in {hape and fize like a weaver’s fhuttle,
which undoubtedly is the moft effeftual mode of de¬
forming the human face divine that the ingenious de¬
pravity of tafte of any favage nation has yet difcovered.
Thefe fliips, after difpofing of their furrs in China,
were loaded with teas on account of the Englifh com¬
pany, failed from Wampoa the end of February, and
arrived in England a fhort time fince, after an abfence
of three years.
The year after the departure of the King George
and Queen Charlotte, the fame fociety to which they
belonged fitted out two other veflels, viz. the Princefs
Royal of 60 tons, and the Prince of Wales of 200
tons, commanded by Captains Colnet and Duncan,
the former of whom had ferved under Captain Cook.
Thefe velfels left England in Auguft 1786; touched
at New Year’s harbour on Staten Land, wdiere they
, left an officer and 12 men to kill feals againft the Ar¬
rival of a veffel which was to follow them from Eng¬
land ; from thence they proceeded direftly to Noot-
ka, where they arrived the 6th of July, fickly and in
bad condition, and found here the Imperial Eagle,
which had left Europe fome months after them. Lea¬
ving Nootka, they fteered along the ffiore to the north¬
ward, and foon after fell in with the Queen Char¬
lotte.
In the beginning of 1788, Captain Hears failed
again with two other vefljels, the Felice, which he
commanded himfelf, and the Iphigenia, Captain Dou¬
glas, to Nootka Sound. Here he purchafed of the
chief of the diftrift a fpot, on which he built a houfe
for his refidence and more convenient intercourfe with
the natives, hoifting the Britiffi colours thereon, fur¬
rounding it with a breaft-work, and mounting a three
pounder on the front. Having fo done, he fent Mr
Douglas in the Iphigenia to trade along the northern
coaft, while he himfelf proceeded to the fouth ; and by
prefents to the chiefs obtained the ports Cox and
Effingham, and the promife of an exclufive trade with
the natives of the difirift, and alfo fome other places,
which he took poffeffion of in the name of the king.
Captain Douglas likewife, by prefents to the chiefs of
the countries he vifited, obtained fimilar privileges,
no other European veffel having failed there before
him.
On their return to Nootka, they found a veffel fi-
niffied which the commander had laid down before his
departure. This, which he named the North-weft
America, he left at Nootka with the Iphigenia,
while he failed with a cargo of furrs in the Felice to
China.
A few days after his arrival at China, two veffels,
the Prince of Wales and Princefs Royal, came to Can¬
ton from their trading voyage above mentioned. Cap¬
tain Hears, fearing a competition of interefts might
be injurious to both parties, propofed a cop&rtnerfhip,
Vol. VII. Part II.
IS 1 FUR
which was mutually agreed to j and another flt'p was
purchafed by the firm, and called the Argonaut. In
the month of April 1789, Captain Hears gave Mr
Colnet the command of the Princefs Royal and Ar¬
gonaut, which were loaded with ftores and articles efti-
mated fufficient for three years trade, befides feveral
artificers, and near 70 Chinefe, who intended to be¬
come fettlers on the north-weft coaft of America, un¬
der proteftron of the new company.
In the mean while, the Iphigenia, and North-weft;
America (the veffelbuilt at Nootka) having wintered
in Sandwich Iflands, returned to Nootka in the latter
end of April. Soon after which, two Spanifti fliips of
war,, under the command of Don Martinez, anchored
in the found. For a few days mutual civilities paffed
between the Spanifti captain and Mr Douglas ; but
at the end of about a week, Don Martinez fummoned
the latter on board his own ftiip the Princeffa, telling
him he was his prifoner, and that the king of Spain
had commanded him, Don Martinez, to feize all vef¬
fels he ftiould find on that coaft. He therefore in-
ftrufted his officers to take poffeffion of the Iphigenia,
which they accordingly, did in the name of his Catho¬
lic majefty ; and the officers and crew were conveyed
as prifoners on board the Spanifti ftiips, where they
were put in irons, and otherwife ill treated. Imme¬
diately after this, Don Martinez took poffeffion of the
little fettlement, hoifting the ftandard of Spain, and
modeftly declaring all the lands from Cape Horn to
60 degrees north latitude belonged to his mafter. To
aggravate the infult, he forcibly employed the crew
of the Iphigenia in building batteries, &c. and offered
no kind of violence to two American veffels that were
at the fame time in the harbSur. At this time the
North-weft America was fent to explore the Archipe¬
lago of St Lazarus. On her return to Nootka ftie
met with a fimilar treatment, and the {kins ftie had
colle&ed were feized, with the reft of her cargo.
A few days after the Princefs Royal (which we
have mentioned as leaving Canton in company with the
Argonaut) arrived. The Spanifti commander, for rea-
fons that do not appear, fuffered her to depart. The
(kins collefted by the North-weft America were {hip¬
ped on board her for the benefit of her owner, and ffie
proceeded to trade in the neighbouring ifles. On the
3d of July, the Argonaut arrived at.the Sound ; and
Don Martinez, after making every profeffion of civi¬
lity to Mr Colnet the commander, took poffeffion of
the faid fhip in the name of his mafter, and made pri¬
foners of the crew. Soon after, the Princefs Royal
returning to receive inftruftions from Mr Colnet, direc¬
tor of the Enterprize, was feized by the Spanifti cap¬
tain.
The crews of the Britiftl.veffels were differently dif-
pofed of; fome fent to China by the American veffels,
and others to Spanifti America : but the Chinefe were
all detained, and employed in the mines which were
opened on the lands purchafed by Captain Hears.
What thefe mines confifted of we are no where in¬
formed. Mr Colnet was fo much affe&ed at the fail¬
ure of the enterprize as to be deprived of reafon.
This, as foon as known, occafioned a fpirited re-
prefentation from the Britiftl court to that of Spain ;
at the fame time that vigorous preparations were made
3 T for
F U S [5.
Furten- for war In cafe adequate fatisfaftion fliould be refufed.
burgh Matters, however, were prevented from coming to ex-
Fufee by a compliance on the part of Spain, after
many delays and much artifice of negociation, with the
requifitions of Britain: in confequence of which, among
other advantages unneceffary to be here* recited, the
whole trade from California to China is completely
laid open; and the Britifh allowed the full exercife of
navigation and commerce in thofe parts of the world
which were the fubjeft of difcuffion.
In fome accounts of the voyages above mentioned,
the furr-trade in thofe, parts have been greatly magni¬
fied. In that publiihed by Captain Portlock, however,
this officer obferves, that the gains hitherto have cer¬
tainly not been ‘enviably’ great; though the merchants
have no doubt found the trade lucrative.
FURSTENBURGH, a town and caftle of Ger¬
many, the capital of a county of the fame name, 30
miles north weft of Conftance. E. Long. 8. 30. N.
Lat. 47. 50.
FURTHCOMING, in law, the name of an a&ion
competent to any perfon who has ufed arreftment in
the hands of his debtor’s creditor, for having the fub-
jedt arrefted declared his property.
FURUNCULE, or Boil, in furgery, a fmall refill¬
ing tumor, with inflammation, rednefs, and great pain,
arifing in the adipofe membrane, upderthe flcin. See
Surgery.
FURZE, in botany. See Ulex.
FUSANUS, in botany : A genus of the monoecia
order, belonging to the polygamia clafs of plants.
The hermaphrodite calyx- is quinquefid; there is no
corolla; there are four ftamina; the germen beneath;
there are four ftigmata; the fruit a plum.
FUSAROLE, in architecture, a moulding or or¬
nament placed immediately under the echinus, in the
Doric, Ionic, and Compofite capitals.
FUSE or Fuze, in artillery. See Fusee.
FUSEE, in clock-work, is that conical part drawn
by the fpring, and about which the chain or firing is
wound ; for the ufe of which, fee Clock and Watch.
Fusee, or Firelock. See Musquet<‘.
Fusee, Fu%e, or Fuje, of a bomb orgrenado, is that
which makes the whole powder or compofition in the
ffiell take fire, to do the defigned execution.
Fuzes are chiefly made of very dry beech-wood, and
fometimes of hornbeam, taken near the root. They
are turned rough, and bored at firft, and then kept
for feveral years in a dry place; the diameter of the
hole is about -Jlh of an inch ; the hole does not come
quite through, leaving about ^th of an inch at the
bottom ; and the head is made hollow, in the form of
a bowl.
The compofition for fuzes is faltpetre 3, fulphur x,
and mealed powder 3, 4, and fometimes 5. This com¬
pofition is drove in with an iron-driver (whofeends are
capped with copper to prevent the compofition from
taking fire), and equally hard as poffible; the laft
fhovel-full being all mealed powder, and two Hands of
quickmatch Ihid acrofs each other being drove in with
it, the ends of which are folded up into the hollow top,
and a cap of parchment tied over it till ufed.
Vvhen thefe fuzes are driven into the loaded ffiell,
tlie lower end is cut off in a Hope, fo that the compo-
Milltary
Dia. voce
Laboratory,
4 1 F U S
fition may inflame the powder in the ffiell; the fuze FufibiHty
muft have fuch a length as to continue burning all the II
time the ffiell is in its range, and to fet fire to the Fuilian.
powder as foon as it touches the ground, which in- v——'
ftantly burfts into many pieces. When the diftance of
the battery from the objedl is known, the time of the
ffiell’s flight may be computed to a fecond or two ;
which being known, the fuze may be cut accordingly,
by burning two or three, and making ufe of a watch
or a ft ring by way of a pendulum to vibrate feconds.
FUSIBILITY, in natural philofophy, that quality
of bodies which renders them fufible. Gold is more
fufible than iron or copper; but lefs fo than filver, tin,
and lead. Borax is frequently mixed with metals, to
render them more fufible.
FUSIL, in heraldry, a bearing of a rhomboidal fi¬
gure, longer than the lozenge, and having its upper
and lower angles more acute and ffiarp than the other
two in the middle. It is called in Latin fufus, “ a
fpindle,” from its ffiape.
FUSILIERS, Fusileers, or Fuzileers, in the mi¬
litary art, are foldiers armed as the reft of the infantry,
but wearing caps like the grenadiers, though fomewhat
fhorter. There are three regiments in the Britiffi fer-
vice : the royal regiment of Scots fuzileers raifed in
1678; the royal regiment of Engliffi fuzileers raifed
in 1685; and the royal regiment of Welffi fuzileers
raifed in 1688-9.
FUSION, the ftate of a body rendered fluid by fire.
See Fluidity, and GHEMisTRY-/?n/<?x.
FUST, or Faustus, a citizen of Mentz, and one
of the earlieft printers. He had the policy to conceal
his art ; and to this policy we are indebted for the tra¬
dition of “ The Devil and Dr Fauftus,” handed down
to the prefent times. Full, in partnerfhip with Peter
Schoeffer, having in 1462 printed off a confiderable
number of copies of the Bible to imitate thofe which
were commonly fold in MS. Fuft undertook the fale
of them at Paris, where the art of printing was then
unknown. At firft he fold his copies for fo high a
fum as 500 or 600 crowns, the prices ufually demand¬
ed by the fcribes. He afterwards lowered his price
to 60 crowns, which created univerfal aftoniffiment:
but when he produced copies as fall as they were want¬
ed, and lowered the price to 30 crowns, all Paris was
agitated. The uniformity of tfie copies increafed the
wonder; informations were given into the police againft
him as a magician ; his lodgings were fearched ; and a
great number of copies being found, they were feized:
the red ink with which they w’ere embelliffied was faid
to be his blood; it was ferioufly adjudged that he was
in league with the devil; and if he had not fled, moll
probably he would have ffiared the fate of thofe
whom ignorant and fuperftitious judges condemned in
thofe days for witchcraft. See (Hiftuy of) Print¬
ing..
FUSTIAN, in commerce, a kind of cotton ftuff,
wdiich feems as it were whaled on one fide.
Right fuftians ffiould be altogether made of cotton-
yarn, both woof and warp; but a great many are made,
the warp of which is flax, or even hemp.
There are fuftians made of feveral kinds, wide, nar¬
row, fine, coarfe*; with fltag or nap, and without it.
Fustian, is alfo ufed for a bombaft ftyle, or a high
fwelling ]
F U T [51
Yuftlck fwelling kind of writing made up of heterogeneous
I parts.
Futufe‘ FUSTICK, or Fir stock, a yellow wood, that grows
' in all the Caribbee i(lands, ufed in dying yellow. It
pays no duty on importation. It is a fpecies of Mo-
RUS.
FUSTIGABTIO, in the Roman cuftoms, a punifh-
ment inflidted by beating with a cudgel. This punifti-
ment was peculiar to freemen : for the (laves were
fcourged or lalhed with whips.
FUTTOCKS, in a (hip, the timbers raifed over the
keel, or the encompaffing timbers that make her
breadth.
FUTURE, fomethingto come hereafter. We fay
a future (late, a future contingency ; there is none but
God to whom future things are prefent.
Future, or Future Tenfe, in grammar, denotes an
inflexion of verbs, whereby they denote, that a thing
will be in fome time yet to come. See Grammar.
5 1 I" Y T
FUZES, or Fusees, in artillery. See Fusee.
FUZILEERS. See Fusileers.
FYTT (John), a celebrated painter of animals and
flowers, &c. was born at Antwerp about the year 1625,
and proved one of the bed artifts of his time. He
frequently painted in conjun&ron with Rubens, and
Jordaens; and whatever fubjedt he chofe to reprefent
in the ftyle which he adopted, was always defigned
and finiftied in a mafterly manner. His general fub-
jedts were live and dead game, wild boars, hares, dogs,
fruits, flowers, and birds, particularly partridges; which
he defcribedwith furprizing truth, nature, and ftrength.
He likewife imitated fuccefsfully the bas relieves on
vafes of marble or porphyry; and gave uncommon
frefhnefs to his fruits and flowers ; and in objedts of
the animal kind, he defcribed even the hairs of the ani¬
mals and the plumage of his fowl with wonderful fpi-
rit, exadtnefs, and freedom of pencil.
G
GTHE feventh letter and fifth confonant of
» our alphabet; though in the alphabets' (rf^jill
the oriental languages, the Hebrew, Phenician, Chal¬
dee, Syriac, Samaritan, Arabic, and even Greek, G is
the third letter. The Hebrews call it ghimel or gimel,
q. d. “ camel;” by reafon it refembles the neck of
that animal; and the fame appellation it bears in the
Samaritan, Phenician, and Chaldee: in the Syriac it
is called gamel, in Arabic gum, and in Greek gamma.
The gamma (r) of the Greeks is manifeftly the gi¬
mel (a) of the Hebrews or Samaritans. All the dif¬
ference between the gamma and gimel confifts in this,
that the one is turned to the right and the other to
the left, according to the different manners of writing
and reading which obtained among thofe different na¬
tions; fo that all the pains Salmafius has taken on So-
linus, to prove that the G was derived from the Greek
kappa, is loft.
From the Greeks the Latins borrowed their form
of this letter; the Latin G being certainly a corrup¬
tion of the Greek gamma r, as might eafily be (hown,
had our printers all the charafters and forms of this
letter which we meet with in the Greek and Latin
MSS. through which the letter paffed from r to G.
Diomed, lib. ii. cap. De Litera, calls G a new letter.
His reafon is, that the Romans had not introduced it
before the firft Punic war ; as appears from the roftral
column ere&ed by C. Duilius, on which we every
where find a C in lieu of G. It was Sp. Carvilius who
firft diftinguiftied between thofe two letters, and in¬
vented the figure of the G; as we are affured by Te-
fentius Seamus. The C ferved very well for G; it
being the third letter of the Latin alphabet, as the r
or 7 was of the Greek.
The G is found inftead of C on feveral medals :
Valllant, Nurn. Imperat. tom. i. p. 39.
M. Beger produces a medal of the Familla Ogulnia,
where Gar is read inftead of Car, which is on thofe
of M. Patin. But the C is more frequently feen on
medals in lieu of G; as, Aucustalis Callaecia
Cartacinensis, &c. for Augustalis, &c. Not
that the pronunciation of thofe words was altered, but
only that the G was unartfully or negligently cut by
the workmen : as is the cafe in divers inferiptions of
the eaftern empire; where auc, aucc, auccc, are
frequently found for aug, &c.
The northern people frequently change the G into
V or W; as in Gallus, Wallus; Gallia, Wattia, Vallia,
&c. For in this inftance it muft not be faid that the
French have changed the W into G; becaufe they
wrote Gallus long before Wallus or Wallia was known,
as appears from all the ancient Roman and Greek
writers. And yet it is equally true, that the French
change the W of the northern nations, and V confo¬
nant, into G; as, Willielmus, “ William,” into Guil¬
laume ; Wulphilas into Gulphilas; Vafco into Gafcon,
&c.
The letter G is of the mute kind, and cannot be
any way founded without the help of a vowel. It is
formed by the reflexion of the air againft the palate,
made by the tongue as the air paffes out of the throat;
which Martianus Capella expreffes thus, G fpiritus cum
palato; fo that G is a palatal letter.
The modern G takes its form from that of the La¬
tins. In Englifti it has two found , one from the
Greek r, and the Latin, which is called that of the
hard G, becaufe it is formed by a preffure fomewhat
hard on thefore-paitof thetongueagainfttheuppergum;
3 T 2 which
GAB [ 5,
Gabale which found it retains before a, o, a, /, r; as gate, go, gull.
II At the end of a word it is always hard, as riug,Jing, &c.
Gabel, ^he other found, called that of the fuft G, referable*
1l“‘" tjlat 0f j . and is commonly, though not always, found
before e and it as in ge/iure, giant, Sic. To this rule,
however, there are many exceptions ; G is often hard
before as give, &c. and fometimes before e, as get.
Sic. It is alio hard in derivatives from words ending
in g, as Ji/iging, ftnnger, &c. and generally before er, at
the end of words,-as finger. G is mr' before «, as
gnajh, fign. Gk has the found of the hard G in the
beginning of a word, as gh<fit!y ; in the middle, and
fometimes at the end, it is quite lilent, as right, though.
At the end of a word Gh has often the found of f, as
laugh, rough, tough*
As a numeral, G was anciently ufed to denote 400 j
and with a dafh over it thus G> 40,00a.
As an abbreviature, G. itands for Gains, Gellius,
gens, genius, &e. G. G. for gemina, gejjit, gefiferunt,
&c. G. C. for genio civitatis or Gcefaris. G. JL. for
Gains lihertus, or genio loci. G. V. S. for genh urbis
Jacrum. G. B. for genio bono. And G. T. for genio
tutelari.
In mufic, G is the chara&er or mark of the treble
cleff; and from its being placed at the head, or mark¬
ing the fxrll found in Guido’s fcale, the whole fcale
took the name gamut.
GABALE, in mythology, a deity worlhipped at
Heliopolis under the figure of a lion, with a radiant
bead ; and it is thus reprefented on many medals of
Caracaila.
GABA RDINE, from the Italian gavardina, has
been fometimes ufed to denote a coarfe frock, or mean
drefs. In this fenfe it is ufed by Shakefpeare in his
Tempefl: and Merchant of Venice, and by Butler in his
Hudibras, book i.
GABARA, or Gabbara, in antiquity, the dead
bodies which the Egyptians embalmed, and kept in
their houfes, efpecially thofe of fuch of their friends as
died with the reputation of great piety and holinefs, or
as martyrs. See Embalming, and Mummy.
GABEL (Gabella', Gabluin, Gablagium), in French
Gabelle, i. e. VeBigal, hath the fame fignification a-
nvong the ancient Englifh writers that gabelle hath in
France. It is a tax ; but hath been varioufly ufed, as
for a rent, cuftom, fervice, &c. And where it was
a payment of rent, thofe who paid it were termed ga-
llatores. When the word gabel was formerly men¬
tioned without any addition to it, it lignified the tax
on fait, the’ afterwards it was applied to all other taxes.
In the French cuftoms, the gabel, or tax on fait,
computed to make one-fourth of the whole revenue of
the kingdom, is faid to have had its rift in France in
1286, under Philip the Fair. Philip the Long took
a double per livre on fait, by an edidt in 1318, which
he promiftd to remit when he was delivered from his
enemies; which was renewed by Philip de Valois in
1345 ; and the duty was raiftd to four deniers per
livre ; king John refumed it in 1355, and it was grant¬
ed to the dauphin in '-358, to ranfom king John. It
was continued by Cliarles V. in 1366; after his de-
ceaft it was fupprefftd, but revived again by Cha. VI.
in 1381. Louis XI. raiftd it to 12 deniers per livre ;
and Francis I. in 1542 to 24 livres per mukl: and it
has been confiderably augmented fince that time ; £a
5
6 ] GAB
that a minot of fait latterly paid a duty of 5^2 livres, Gabu
8 fols, and 6 deniers. Philip de Valois hrit eitablifhed If
granaries and officers of the gabelles, and prohibited Gal)rc** '
any other perfons from felling fait: from w'hich time 'v " -
the whole commerce of fait for the inland corrfump-
tion continued wholly in the king’s hands, every grain
thereof being' fold and diftributed by Jatis farmers and
officers created for the purpoft.—This very odious and
oppreffive tax has lately been abolifhed by the National
Afftmbly.
GABII, (anc. geog. ), a town of Latium, midway
aim oft between Rome and Prenefte to the eaft, often
mentioned in the hiftory of Tarquin the Proud. Cine-
tus Gabinus denoted a particular way of tucking the
gown, by drawing it forwards on the breaft, ami tying
it into a knot; as the people of Gabix did at a folemn
facrifice, on the fudden attack of an enemy, in order
to be fitter for aftion. In this manner the oonful ufed
to declare war, to facrifice, and burn the fpoils of the
enemy; and then he was faid to be pracinclus. The
place now extinft.
GABINIAN laws, in Roman antiquities; laws
in diluted upon ftvtral occafions by perfons of the name
of Gabinius. The firft was the Gabinia lex de ComitTis, by
A. Gabinius the tribune, in the year of Rome 614. It
required that in the public affemblies for ele&ing ma-
giftrates, the votes fhould be given by tablets, and not
'viva voce.—Another de Comitiis, which made it a ca¬
pital punifhment to convene any clandeftine affembly,
agreeable to the old law of the 12 tables.—Another de
Militia, by A. Gabinius the tribune, year of Rome
685. It granted Pompey the power of carrying on
tilt war againil the pirates during three years, and of
obliging all kings, governors, and ftates, to fupply
him with all the neceffaries he wanted, over all the Me¬
diterranean fta,and in the maritime provinces as far as
400 fiadia from the fta.—Another de Ufurd by Aul.
Gabinius the tribune, year of Rome 6.85. It ordain-
ed that no a'ftion fhould be granted for the recovery of
any money borrowed upon fmall intereft to be lent upon
larger. This was an ufual practice at Rome, which
obtained the name of verfuram fiacere.—Another againfl
fornication.
GABIONS, in fortification, bafkets made of ozier-
twigs, of a cylindrical form, fix feet high and four
wide ; which, being filled with earth, ftrve as a (bel¬
ter from the enemy’s fire.
GABLE, or GABLF.~End, of a houfe (from gaval,
Welffi), is the upright triangular end from the cornice
or eaves to the top of the houfe.
GABRES, or Gavres, a religious ftft in Perfia
and India ; called alfo Gebres, Guebres, Gevres, Gaurs,
&c. See Magi.
The Turks call the Chriftians Gabres, q. d. infidels,
or people of a falfe religion ; or rather, as Leunclavius-
abferves, heathens or gentiles: the word Gabre, among
the Turks, having the fame figoification zb pagan, or
infidel among the Chriftians, and denoting any thing
not Mahometan.
In Perfia the word has a more peculiar fignification;
wherein it is applied to a fe£l difperftd through the
country, and faid to be the remains of the ancient Per-
fians or followers of Zoroafter, being worfnippers of
fire. They have a fubuib at Ifpahan, which is called
G aural ad, or “ the town of the Gaursfi where they
are
GAD [5
Gabriel are employed in the meaneft and vileil drudgery: fome
II of them are difperfcd through other parts of Periia ;
Gad. but^they principally abound in Kerman, the mail bar-
m~"' v ren province in the whole country, where the Maho¬
metans allow them liberty and the exercife of their re¬
ligion. Several of them fled many ages ago into India,
and fettled about Surat, where their pofterity remain
to this day. There is alfo‘ a colony of them at Bom¬
bay. They are a poor, ignorant, in offer, five people,
extremely fuperftitious, and zealous for their rites, ri-
oreus in their morals, and honell in their dealings,
'hey profefs to believe a refurreclkin and a future
judgment, and to wot (hip only one God. And though,
they perform their woi (hip before fire, and diredt their
devotion towards the riling fun, for which they have
an extraordinary veneration, yet they ftrenuoufly main¬
tain that they worlhip neither; but that thefe are the
mod expreffive fymbols of the Deity, and that for this
reafon they turn towards them in their devotional fer-
vices.—However, fome have fuppofed, that thefe are
Perfians converted to Chriftianity, who, being after¬
wards left to themfelves, mingled their ancient fuper-
'ftitions with the truths and pra&ices of Chrillianity,
and fo formed for themfelves a religion apart: and they
allege, that throughout the whole of their fyftem of
doctrine and practice, we may difeern the marks and
traces of Chrillianity, though grievoully defaced ; the
annunciation, the magi, the maffacre of the infants,
our Saviour’s miracles, his perfecutions, afcenlion, &c.
GABRIEL, the name of one of the principal an¬
gels in heaven. It fignifies the Jlrength of God. There
are a few events, in which this exalted being was con¬
cerned, recorded in feripture. He was fent to the
prophet Daniel, to explain to him the vifion of the ram
and goat, and the myltery of the feventy weeks, which
had been revealed to him. He was fent to Zecharias,
to declare to. him the future birth of John the Baptift.
Six months after, he was fent to Nazareth to the Virgin
Mary, to warn her of the birth of Jefus Chrilt.
The Orientalifts add feveral particulars to what the
feriptures inform us concerning the angel Gabriel. The
Mahometans call him the faithful fpirit; and fhe Per¬
fians, by way of metaphor, the peacock of heaven. We
read, in the fecond chapter of the Koran, that ibhofo-
ever is an enemy to Gabriel fhall be confounded. It was
Gabriel, they believe, who brought to Mahomet their
falfe prophet the revelations which he publilhed ; and
it was he who conduced him to heaven mounted upon
the animal Borak.
GABRIELITES, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, a fed
of anabaptiils that appeared in Pomerania in 1530.
They derive their name from Gabriel Scherling ; who,
after having been for fome time tolerated in that coun¬
try, was obliged to remove, and died in Poland.
GAD (anc. gebg.), a diftridt of the Transjordan
Palefline, fituated between Gilead and the kingdom of
Balkan to the north, and the kingdom of the Amor-
rhites to the fouth; having the Jordan to the weft, and
bounded by various people on the eaft ; fo called fronT
a tribe of that name.
Gad, among miners, a fmall punch of i -m, with a
long wooden handle, ufed to break up the ore.
One. of the miners holds this in his hand, direfting
the point to a proper place, while the other drives it
into the vein, by linking it with a Hedge-hammer-
17 ] GAD
G/iD-Bee, or Gad-Fly. See Oestrus. Gad-Bee!
GADARA (anc. geog.), a town of the Peraea, or II 1
Transjordan, in the Decapolis, a very ftrohg place. Gadu?*
Reftored by Pompey after its demolition by tb^ Jews
(Jofephus). After Herod’s death it was joined to
the province of Syria by Auguftus.
GADARENORUM Acer (anc.geog.), the coun¬
try of the Gadarenes, called by Matthew the country
of the Gergefens, becaufe it was a diftridl that lay be¬
tween Gaduta and Gergefa, othervvife called Gerafat
both which'lay within the Decapolis on the other fide
Jordan.
GADES, or Gadira (anc.geog.), a fmall iflancl jgr
in the Atlantic, on the Spanilh coall, 25 miles from
the Columns of Hercules. It was fometimes call¬
ed Tarteffus and Erythia according to Pliny. Gervon,
whom Hercules killed, fixed his refidence there. Her¬
cules, furnamed Gaditanus, had there a celebrated
temple in which all his labours were engraved with ex¬
cellent workmanlhip. The inhabitants are called Ga-
ditani.
GADUS, in ichthyology, a genus of fifties belong¬
ing to the order of jugulares. The head is fmooth ;
there are feven cylindrical rays in the branchioftege
membrane; the body is oblong, with deciduous feales;
the whole fins are covered with the common Ikin of the
filh ; the rays of the back-fins are blunt, and thofe of
the bread are lharp. There are 17 fpecies, principally
diftinguilhed by their cirri and the number of back-
fins. The moll remarkable are,
1. The morhua, or common cod, is cmereous on
the back andfides, and commonly fpotted with yellow:
the belly is white ; but they vary much, hot only in
colour, but in lhape, particularly that of the head. The
fide-line is white, and broad, and ftraight, till it reaches
oppofite the vent, when it bends towards the tail. Cod¬
lings are often taken of a yellow, orange, and even red
colour, while "they remain among the rocks ; but on
changing their place affume the colour of other cod-fifh.
The jaws are of an equal length, and at the end of the
lower is a fmall beard ; the teeth are difpofed. in the;
palate as well as in the jaws.
The cod is found only in the northern parts; of the
world; it is, as Rondeletius calls it, an ocean-fifti, ahd.
never met with in the Mediterranean Sea. It affedls
cold climates, and feems confined between the latitudes
66° and 50'; what are caught north, and fouth of thofe
degrees being either few in quantity or bad in quality.
The Greenland filh are fmall,. and emaciated throug-fi,
want of food ; being very voracious, and having in thole,
feas a fcarcity of provifion. This locality of lituation
is common to many other fpecies of this genus, moll
of them being inhabitants of the cold feas, or fuch as
lie within regions that can juft claim the title of tem¬
perate. There are neverthelefs certain fpecies found
near the Canary Iflands, called cherny, of which we
know no mote than the name ; but which, according
to Captain Glafs, are better tailed than the Newfound¬
land kind.
The great rendezvous of the cod-filh. is on the banks
of Newfoundland, and the other fand-banks that lie
off the coafts of Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, and New
England. They prefer thofe fituations, by reafon of
the quantity of worms produced in thofe fandy bot¬
toms, which tempt them to refort there for food ; but'
another
GAD [ 5'8 1 GAD
•Gadus. another caufe of the particular attachment the fifti have ford fubfiftence to a much more numerous body of peo- Gadws.
‘“--Y—~ to thefe fpots, is their vicinity to the polar feas, where pie at home, who are engaged in the various manufac- * 11
they return to fpawn : there they depofite their roes in tures which fo vaft a fifhery demands,
full fecurity ; but want of food forces them, as foon as The food of the cod is either fmall fifti, worms, te-
the firft more fouthern feas are open, to repair thither ftaceous or cruftaceous animals, fuch as crabs, large
for fubfiftence. Few are taken north of Iceland, but on . whelks, &c.; and their digeftion is fo powerful as to
the fouth and weft coafts they abound: they are again diflblve the greateft part of the (hells they fwallow.
found to fwarm on the coafts of Norway, in the Bal- They are very voracious, and catch at any fmall body
tic, off the Orkney and the Weftern Ifles; after they perceive moved by the water, even (tones and
which their numbers decreafe, in proportion as they
advance towards the fouth, when they feem quite to
ceafe before they reach the mouth of the Straits of Gi¬
braltar.
pebbles, which are often found'in their ftomachs.
Fifliermen are well acquainted with the ufe of the air-
bladder or found of the cod; and are very dexterous in
perforating this part of a live fifti with a needle, in or-
Before the difcovery of Newfoundland, the greater der to difengage the inclofed air ; for without this o-
fiftieries of cod were on the feas of Iceland, and off
Weftern Kies, which were the grand refort of (hips
from all the commercial nations ; but it feems that the
greateft plenty was met with near Iceland. The Eng-
lifti refortcd thither before the year 1415 : for we find
that Henry V. was difpofed to give the king of Den¬
mark fatisfa&ion for certain irregularities committed on
thofe feas by his fubje&s. In the reign of Edward IV.
the Englifh were excluded from the fiftiery by treaty ;
peration it could not be kept under water in the well-
boats, and brought frefli to market. The founds of
the cod failed is a delicacy often brought from New¬
foundland. Ilinglafs is alfo made of this part by the
Iceland fiftiermen : a procefs which deferves the atten¬
tion of the natives of the north of Scotland, where thefe
fifti are plentiful. It is given under the article Ich-
THYOCOLLA.
Providence hath kindly ordained-, that this fifti, fo
and forbidden to refort there under pain of forfeiture of ufeful to mankind, (hould be fo very prolific as to fup-
life and goods. Notwithftanding this, that monarch ply more than the deficiences of the multitudes annual-
afterwards gave licence to a (hip of Hull to fail to Ice- ly taken. Leuwenhoeck counted 9,384,000 eggs in a
land, and there relade fifti and othei goods, without cod-fifh of a middling fixe ; a number, fure, that will
regard to any reftri&ions to the contrary. The right
of the Englifli in latter times was far from being con¬
firmed : for we find queen Elizabeth condefcending to
aflc permiffion to fifti in thofe feas from Chriftian IV.
of Denmark; yet afterwards (he fo far repented her
requeft, as to inftruft her ambaffadors at that court to
infift on the right of a' free and univerfal fiftiery. In
baffle all the efforts of man, or the voracity of the in¬
habitants of the ocean, to exterminate, and which will
fecure to all ages an inexhauftible fupply of grateful
provifion.
In our feas they begin to fpawn in January, and de¬
pofite their eggs in rough ground among rocks. Some
^  _ continue in roe till the beginning of April. The cod-
the reign of her fucceffor, however, they had not fewer fifti in general recover quicker after fpawning than any
than 150 (hips employed in the Iceland fiftiery ; which other fifti; therefore it is common to take fome good
indulgence might arife from the marriage of James with ones all the fummer. When they are out of feafon,
a princefs of Denmark. But the Spanifh, the French, they are thin-tailed and loufy ; and the lice chiefly fix
and the Bretons, had much the advantage of the Eng- themfelves on the infide of their mouths,
lifti in all fiftieries at the beginning, as appears by the The fifti of a middling fize are moft efteemed for,
flate of that in the feas of Newfoundland in the year the table ; and are chofen by their plumpnefs and
1578, when the number of (hips belonging to each na- roundnefs, efpecially near the tail, by the depth of the
tion ftood thus: fulcus or pit behind the head, and by the regular un-
Spaniards, 100, befides 20 or 30 that came from dulated appearance of the fides, as if they were ribbed.
Bifcay to take whale for train, being about five or The glutinous parts about the head lofe their delicate
fix thoufand tons. flavour after it has been 24 hours out of the water, even
Porjuguefe 50,- or three thoufand tons. in winter, when thefe and other fifti of this genus are
French and Bretons 150, or feven thoufand tons. in higheft feafon.
Englifli, from 30 to 50. One mentioned by Mr Pennant as the larged that he
The increafe of (hipping that refort to thofe fertile ever heard of taken on our coafts, weighed 78 pounds;
Banks is now unfpeakable. Britain now enjoys the the length was five feet eight inches, ^nd the girth
greateft (bare; which ought to be efteemed our chiefeft round the (boulders five feet. It was taken at Scar-
treafure, as it brings wealth to individuals, and ftrength borough in 1755, and was fold for one (hilling. But
to the date. See Fishery. the general weight of thefe fifti in the Yorkftiire feas,
All this immenfe fiftiery is carried on by the hook he fays, is from 1:4 to 40 pounds. This fpecies is
and line only. We have been informed that they fifti fhort in proportion to its bulk, the belly being very
from the depth of 16 to 60 fathoms, according to the large and prominent.
inequality of the bank, which is reprefented as a vaft 2. The egle/mus, or haddock, has a long body 5
mountain, under water, above 500 miles long, and near the upper part of a duflcy brown colour, and the belly
300 broad.; and that feamen know when they approach and lower part of the fides filvery : On the back are
it by the great fwell of the feas and the thick mifts three fins refembling thofe of the common cod-fifti ;
that impend over it. The bait is herring, a fmall fifti the lateral line is black ; and the tail is forked: The
called a capelin, a (hell-fifti called clams, and bits of head (lopes down to the nofe ; on the chin is a (hort
fea-fowl; and with thefe are caught, tiih fufficient to beard; and on each fide beyond the gills is a large
find employ for near 15,000 Britilh feamen, and to af- black (pot. Superftition affigns this mark to the im-
preflioa
Gadu*.
GAD [ S'
Gadus. predion St Peter left with his finger and thnmb when
'“•■‘y——■ he took the tribute out of the mouth of a fifli of this
fpecies, which has been continued to the whole race of
haddocks ever fince that miracle. Large haddocks
begin to be in roe in the middle of November, and
continue fo till the end of January ; from that time
till May they are very thin-tailed, and much out of
feafon. In May they begin to recover ; and fome of
the middling-fized fifh are then very good, and continue
improving till the time of their greatell perfedtion. The
fmall ones are extremely good from May till February,
and fome even in February, March, and April, viz.
thofe which are not old enough to breed.
The filhermen alfert, that in rough weather had¬
docks fink down into the fand and ooze in the bottom
of the fea, and fhelter themfelves there till the ftorm is
over; becaufe in ftormy weather they take none, and
thofe that are taken immediately after a llorm are co¬
vered with mud on their backs.
In fummer they live on young herrings and other
• A foecics fmall filh ; in winter on the lione-coated worms*,
olSerfula. which the filhermen call haddock-meat.
The grand fhoal of- haddocks comes periodically on
the Yorklhire coafts. It is remarkable that they ap¬
peared in 1766 on the 1 oth of December, and exaftly
on the fame day in 1767 : thefe lhoals extended from
the Ihore near three miles in breadth, and in length
from Flamborough head to Tinmouth-caftle, and per-
haps much farther northwards. An idea may be given
of (heir numbers by the following fa61: Three filher¬
men, within the diftance of a mile from Scarborough
harbour, frequently loaded their coble or boat with
them twice a-day, taking each time about a ton of filh:
when they put down their .lines beyond the diftance of
three miles from the Ihore, they caught nothing but
dog-filh, which Ihows how exa&ly thefe filh keep their
limits. The beft haddocks were fold from eightpence
to a Ihilling per fcore; and the poor had the fmaller
fort at a penny and fometimes a halfpenny per fcore.
The large haddocks quit the coaft as foon as they
go out of feafon, and leave behind great plenty of fmall
ones. It is faid that the large ones vifit the coafts of
Fiamburgh and Jutland in the fummer. It is no lefs
remarkable than providential, that all kinds of filh (ex¬
cept mackrel) which frequent the Yorklhire coaft, ap¬
proach the Ihore, and as it wTere offer themfelves to us,
generally remaining there as long as they are in high
feafon, and retire from us wdien they become unfit for
ufe. It is the commoneft fpecies in the London mar¬
kets. - They do not grow to a great bulk, one of 14
pounds being of an uncommon fize, but thofe are ex¬
tremely coarfe; the beft for the table weighing from
two to three pounds.
3. The barlatus, or pout, never grows to a large
fize, feldom exceeding a foot in length. It is diftin-
guilhed from all others by its great depth; one of the
fize above mentioned being near four inches deep in
the broadeft part. The back is very much arched, and
carinated; the colour of the fins and tail are black: at
the bottom of the pe6Ioral fins is a black fpot. The
lateral line is white, broad, and crooked. The tail is,
even at the end, and of a dulky colour. The colour
of the body is white; but more obfcure on the back
than the belly, and tinged with yellow.— It is called at
Scarborough a kleg, and is a very delicate filh.
[9 ] GAD
4. The Minutus, or poor, is the fmalleft fpecies yet
difcovered, being little more than fix inches long. On
the chin is a fmall beard: the eyes are covered with a
loofe membrane : on the gill-covers and the jaws there
are on each fide nine pundlures. The colour on the
back is a light brown ; on the belly a dirty white. It
is taken near Marfeilles, and fometimes in fuch quanti¬
ties as to become a nuifance; for no other kinds of filh
are taken during their feafon. It is efteemed good^
but incapable of being'faked or dried. Belon fays,
that >ghen it is dried in the fun, it grows as hard as
horn. We owe the difcovery of this kind in our feas
to the Reverend Mr Jago.
5. The carbonarius, or coal fish, is of a more
elegant form than the cod-filh : they generally grow to
the length of two feet and an half, and weigh about
28 or 30 pounds at moft. The head is fmall; the un¬
der jaw a little longer than the upper: The tail is
brcadand forked. They vary in colour: Some have their
back, nofe, dorfal fins, and tail, of a deep black; the
gill-covers, filver and black ; the ventral and anal fins,
and the belly, white: Others are dulky, others-
brown; but, in all, the lateral line is ftraightfand
white, and the lower part of the ventral and anal fins
white. This filh takes its name from the black colour
that it fometimes affumes. Belon calls it the eolfifeh,
imagining that it was fo named by the Englilh, from
its producing the Ichthyocolla ; but Gefner gives,the
true etymology. Thefe filh are common on moft of
our rocky and deep coafts, but particularly thofe of
the north of Great Britain. They fwarm about the
Orkneys, where the fry are the great fupport of the
poor. The young begin to appear on the Yorklhire
coaft the beginning of July in vaft Ihoals, and are at that
time about an inch and an half long. In Auguft they
are from three to five inches in length, and are ta¬
ken in great numbers with the angling rod : they are
then efteemed a very delicate filh; but grow fo coarfe
when they are a year old, that few people will eat
them. Filh of that age are from 8 to 15 inches long,,
and begin to have a little blackncfs near the gills and
on the back, and the blacknefs increafes as they grow
older.
The fry is known by different names in different
places : they are called at Scarborough parrs; and
when a year old, billets. About 20 years ago fuch a
glut of parrs vifited that part, that for feveral weeks it
was impoffible to dip a pail into the fea without taking
fome.
Though this filh is fo little efteemed when frelh,.yet
it is faked and dried for fale.
6. The pollachius, or pollack, has the under jaw
longer than the upper ; the head and body rifes pretty
high, as far as the fii ft dorfal fin. The fide line is in-
curvated, riling towards the middle of the back, then
finking and running ftraight to the tail ; it is broad;
and of a brown colour. The colour of the back is
dullty, fometimes inclining to green.: the fides be¬
neath the lateral line are marked with lines of yellow;
and the belly is white.—This filh is common on many
of our rocky coafts: during fummer they are feen in
great Ihoals frolicking on the furface of the water, and
flinging themftlves into a thoufand forms. They are
at that time fo wanton as to bite at any thing that ap¬
pears on the top of the waves, and are often taken
with
GAD [52
Cu;’u?. witli a goofe-feather fixed to the hook. They are very
ftrong, being obferved to keep their flatioii at the
feet of the rocks in the moft turbulent and rapid fea.
They are a good eating fifii. They do not grow to
a very large fize ; at lead the biggeil feldom exceed
fix or feven pounds: but fotne have been taken in the
fea near Scarborough, which they frequent during
winter, that weighed near 28 pounds. They are there
called leds.
7. The merhngus, or whiting, is a fifh of an ele¬
gant make : the upper jaw is the longed ; the eyes are
large, the nofe is lliarp ; the teeth of the upper jaw
are long, and appear above the lower when clofed.
The colour of the head and back is a pale brown; the
lateral line white, and crooked ; the belly and fides are
filvery, the lad dreaked lengthwife with yellow.
Thefe fidr appear in vad dioals in our feas in the
fpring, keeping at the didance of about half a mile to
that of three from the Ihore. They are caught in vad
numbers by the line, and afford excellent diverfion.
They are the mod delicate, as well as the mod whole-
fome, of any of the genus : but they do not grow to
a large fize, thebigged not exceeding 20 inches; and
even that is very uncommon, the ufual length being 1 o
or 12 ; though, it is faid, that whitings from 4 to 8
pounds in weight have been taken in the deep water at
the edge of the Dogger-Bank.
8. The merlucius, or hake, is found in vad abun¬
dance on many of our coads, and of thofe of Ireland.
There was formerly a vad dationary filhery of hake on
the Nymph Bank off the coad of Waterford, immenfe
quantities appearing there twice a-year; the firil Ihoal
coming in June, during the mackrel-feafon ; the other
in September, at the beginning of the herring-feafon,
probably in purfuit of thofe filb : it was no unufual
thing for fix men with hooks and lines to take a thou-
fand hake in one night, befides a confiderable quantity
of other filh. Thefe were faked and fent to Spain,
particularly to Bilboa. We are at this time uninform¬
ed of the date of this fifhery ; but find that Mr
Smith, who wrote the hidory of the county of Wa¬
terford, complains even in his time (1746) of its de¬
cline. Many of the gregarious filh are fubjedt to
change their fituations, and defert their haunts for
numbers of years, and then return again. Mr Smith
indances the lofs of the haddock on the Waterford
Ihores, where they ufed to fwarm; and we can-bring
the capricioufnefs of the herrings, which fo frequently
quit their dations, as another example.— Sometimes
the irregular migration of filh is owing to their being
followed and haraffed by an unufual number of fifh of
prey, fuch as the lhark kind; fometimes to deficiency
of the fmaller filh, which ferved them as food ; and
lallly, in many places to the cudom of trawling, which
not only demolilhes a quantity of their fpawn, which
is depofited in the fand, but alfo dedroys or drives in¬
to deeper waters numberlefs worms and infedls, the
repad of many filh.—The hake is in England edeem-
ed a very coarfe filh, and is feldom admitted to table
either frelh or falted.^When cured, it is known by the
name of Poor John. Thefe filh are from a foot and an
half to near twice that length : they are of a (lender
make, of a pale alh-colour on their backs, and of a
dirty white on their bellies.
10. The moha, or ling, is ufually from three to
.33-
o ] GAD
four feet long, but have been heard of feven feet long. GaJns.
The body is very (lender ; the head flat: the upper v~—"
jaw is the longed ; the teeth in that jaw are fmall and
very numerous ; in the Jower, few, dender, and lharp:
on the chin is a fmall beard. They vary in colour,
fome being of an olive hue on the fides and back, others
cinereous ; the belly white. The ventral fins are white;
the dorfal and anal edged with white. The tail is
marked near the end with a tranfverfe black bar, and
tipt with white. The ling takes its Englilh name
from its length, being corrupted from the word long.
It abounds about the Scilly Hies, on the coad of Scar¬
borough, and thofe of Scotland and Ireland, and forms
a confiderable article of commence. This branch of
trade was confiderable fo long ago as the reign of Ed¬
ward III. an adl for regulating the pfice of lob, ling,
and cod, being made in his 3 id year. In the York-
ihire feas they are in perfedtion from the beginning of
February to the beginning of May, and fome till
the end of that month. In June they fpawn, de-
p rfiting their eggs in the foft oozy ground of the
mouth of the Tees : at that time the males feparate
from the females, and refort to fome rocky ground
near Flamborough-head, where the filhermen take
great numbers without ever finding any of the female'
or roe’d fifh-among them. While a ling is in feafon its
liver is very white, and abounds with a fine-flavoured
oil ; but as foon as the filh goes out of feafon, the li¬
ver becomes red as that of a bullock, and affords no
oil. The fame happens to the cod and other filh in a
certain degree, but not fo remarkably as in the ling.
When the fiih is in perfe&ion, a very large quantity of
oil may be melted out of the liver by a flow fire; but
if a violent fudden heat be ufed for that purpofe, they
yield very little. The oil, which nature hoards up in
the cellular membranes of the filhes, returns into their
blood, and fupports them in the engendering feafon,
when they purfue the bufinefs of generation with fo
much eagerntfs aa to negleft their food. Vaft quantities
of ling are faked for exportation as well as for horne-
confumption. When it is cut or fplit for curing, it
mull meafure 26 inches or upwards from the fhoulder
to the tail; if lefs than that, it is not reckoned a fize-
able filh, and confequently not intitled to the bounty
on exportation ; fuch are called driz%!es, and are in
feafon all fummer.
11. The lota, or burbot, in its body has fome
refemblance to that of an eel, only Ihorter and thicker;
and its motions alfo refemble thole of that filh : they
are befides very fmooth, flippery, and (limy. The head
is very ugly, being flat, andlhaped like that of a toad:
the teeth are very fmall, but numerous. On the end
of the nofe are two fmall beards ; on the chin another.
The colour varies: fume are dufky, others are of a
dirty green, fpotted with black, and oftentimes with
yellow ; and the belly in fome is white ; but the real
colours are frequently concealed by the flime. This
filh abounds in the lake of Geneva, where it is called
lota ; and it is alfo met with in the Lago Magiore and
Lugano. In Britain it is found in the Trent; but in
greater plenty in the river Witham, and in the great
call fen in Lincolnflrire. It is a very delicate fiih for
the table, though of a difgulling appearance when a-
live. It is very voracious, and preys on the fry and
Idler filh. It does not often take a bait, but is gene¬
rally
GAG [ 521 1 GAG
Gaelic rally caught in weds. The largeft taken in our waters
/ li weigh between two and three pounds, but abroad they
. Gagc. are foinet[mes foun(l of double that weight.
" 12. The mujlela, or five-bearded cod, very much
refembles the former. The beards on the upper jaw are
four, viz. two at the very end of the nofe, and two a little
above them : on the end of the lower jaw is a Angle one.
The fifh are of a deep olive brown, their belly whitilh.
They grow to the fame fize as the former.—The Cor-
nifh fifhermen are faid to whiftle, and make ufe of the
words bod, bod, vean, when they are defirous of taking
this filh, as if by that they facilitated the capture. In
the fame manner the Sicilian filhermen repeat their ma-
inaffii di pajanu, 8tc. when they are in purfuit of the
fword-filh.
13. The torsk, or, as it is called in the Shetlands,
tujk and brifmack, is a northern fifh; and as yet undif-
covered lower than about the Orkneys, and even there
it is rather fcarce. In the feas about Shetland, it
fwarms, and forms (barrelled or dried) a confiderable
article of commerce. The length is about 20 inches,
the greatefl depth four and a half. The head is fmall;
the upper jaw a little longer than the lower; both jaws
furnifhed with multitudes of fmall teeth : on the chin
is a fmall fingle beard: from the head to. the dorfalfin
is a deep furrow. The colour of the head is dufky :
the back and fides yellow; belly white; edges of the
dorfal, anal, and caudal fins, white ; the other parts
dufky; the peftoral-fins brown.
GAELIC Language. See Highlands.
GJETULIA, (anc. geog.), a country of Africa,
lying to the fouth of Mauritania, called Gatulia Pro¬
pria, and Veins. Gatuli, the people, were diftinguifh-
ed by different epithets; as Nigri, Autololes, Dara, and
|] Banlurte, (Pliny). The Gatuli were among the fir ft
inhabitants of Africa ; a rough, unpolifhed people, li¬
ving on venifon and the fpontaneous produ&ions of the
•earth ; a roving wandering people, who took up with
the firft place in which night furprized them, (Salluft.)4
GAFF, a fort oY boom or pole, frequently ufed in
fmall fhips, to extend the upper edge of the mizen ;
and always employed for the fame purpofe on thofe
fails whofe foremoft edges are joined to the maft by
hoops or lacings, and which are ufually extended by a
boom below. Such are the main-fails of all Hoops,
brigs, and fchooners.
GAFFAREL (James), a French divine, and very
learned writer, born about 1601. He acquired great
fkiil in the oriental and feveral other languages ; and
was particularly verfant in the cabbaliftic and occult
fciences, which he learned,' expofed, and refuted. Car¬
dinal Richelieu made choice of him for his library-
keeper, and fent him into Italy to colleft the beft ma-
iiufcripts and books. He publifhed a book, intitled Cu-
riojilez. Innoules, i. e. Unheard-of Curiofities.. It is
faid the cardinal defigned to employ him in his grand
projedt for the re-union of religions. He died in
1681, aged 80. He had been labouring for many
jjf years, and had almofl finifhed, a hiftory of the fubter-
tanean world; containing an account of the caves,
grottoes, vaults, catacombs, and mines, he had met
with in 30 years travels.
GAGATES, or Jet. See Jet.
GAGE, in our ancient cuftoms, fignifies a pledge
f ( Vol. VII. Part II.
or pawn, given by way of fecurity. The word is only Gage,
properly ufed in fpeaking of moveables; for immove- v'-“
ables, bypotheca is ufed.
If the gage perifti, the perfon who received it is
not to anfwer for it, but only for extreme negli¬
gence, &c.
Gage is alfo ufed for a challenge to combat: Sec
Cartel. In which fenfe, it was a pledge, which the
accufer or challenger call on the ground, and the other
took up as accepting the challenge : it was ufually a
glove, gauntlet, chaperoon, or the like. See Com¬
bat, and Duel.
Gage is only now retained as a fubftantive. As a
verb, the G is changed into IV, and of gage is form¬
ed wage: as, to wage law, to wage deliverance*
y. d. to give fecurity a thing ftiall be delivered. See
Wage.
If a perfon who has diftrained be fued for not having
delivered what he had taken by diftrefs, he fliould
wage, or gage, or gager, deliverance; that is, put in
furety that he will deliver them.
Mort-GAGE, is that which is left in the hands of the
proprietor, fo that he reaps the fruits thereof.
In oppofition to vif-gage, where the frdits or reve¬
nues are reaped by the creditor, and reckoned on the
foot of the debt, which diminifhes in proportion there¬
to. The'fecond acquits or difcharges ilfelf; the firft:
does not.
Gage, in the fea-language. When one fhip is to
windward of another, fhe is faid to have the weather-
gage of her. They likewife call the number of feet that
a veffel finks in the water, the (hip’s gage; this they
find by driving a nail into a pike near the end, and
putting it down befide the rudder till the nail catch
hold under it; then as many feet as the pike is under
water is the (hip’s gage.
Gage, among letter-founders, a piece of box, or
other hard wood, varioufly notched; the ufe of which
is to adjuft: the dimenfions, Hopes, &c. of the di(Ferent
forts of letters. See Foundery.
Gage, in joinery, is an inftrument made to ftrike
a line truly parallel to the ftraight fide of any board or
piece of (tuff. Its chief ufe is for gaging of tenons
true, to fit into mortifes; and for gaging (luff of an
equal thicknefs. It is made of an oval piece of wood,
fitted upon a fquare (lick, to Hide up and down ftiffly
thereon, and with a tooth at the end of a fta(F, to
fcore, to ftrike a line upon the ftu(F at any diftance,
according' to the diftance of the oval from it.
Sliding Gage, a tool ufed by mathematical inftru-
ment-makers for meafuring and fetting off diftapces.
Sea-GAGE, an inftrument invented by Dr Hales and
Dr Defaguliers for finding the depth of the fea ; the
defcription whereof is this. AB (Plate CCV. fig. 1.
n° 1.) is the gage-bottle, in wdrich is cemented the
gage-tube Ff in the brafs cape at G. The upper end
of tube F is hermetically fealed, and the open lower
end f is immerfed in mercury, marked C, on which
fwims a fmall thicknefs or furface of treacle. On the
top of the bottle is fcrewed a tube of brafs HG, pier¬
ced with feveral holes to admit the water into the
bottle AB. The body K is a weight hanging by its
(hank L, in a foeket N, with a notch on one -fide at
m, in which is fixed the catch / of the fpring S, and,
3 U paffing
GAG r ] GAG
Gage, pafiing through the hole L, in the (hank of the weight
■“-v "L' K, prevents its falling out when once hung on. On the
top, in the upper part of the brafs tube at H, is fixed
a large empty ball, or full-blown bladder I, which mull
not be fo large, but that the weight K may be able to
fink the whole under water.
The inftrument thus conftrufted is ufed in the fol¬
lowing manner. The weight K being hung on, the
gage is let fall into deep water, and finks to the bot¬
tom : the focket N is fomewhat longer than the (hank
L.; and therefore, after the weight K comes to the
bottom, the gage wall continue to defcend till the
lower part of the focket (hikes againft the weight:
this gives liberty to the catch to fly out of the hole L,
and let go the weight K : when this is done, the ball
or bladder I inftantly buoys up the gage to the top
of the water. While the gage is under water, the wa¬
ter having free accefs to the treacle and mercury in the
bottle, will by its preflfure force it up into the tube
F/, and the height to which it has been forced by the
greateft preffure, viz. that at the bottom, will be (hown
by the mark in the tube which the treacle leaves be¬
hind it, and which is the only ufe of the treacle.
This (hows into what fpace the whole air in the tube
Fjf is comprefled ; and confequently the height or
depth of the water which by its weight produced that
Comprefiion, which is the thing required.
If the gage-tube F/ be of glafs, a fcale might be
drawn on it with the point of a diamond, (howing,
by infpeftion, what height the water (lands above the
bottom. But the length of 10 inches is not fufficient
for fathoming depths at fea, fince that, when all the
air in fuch a length of tube is compreffed into half an
inch, the depth of water is no more than 634 feet,
which is not half a quarter of a mile.
If, to remedy- this, we make ufe of a tube 50 inches
long, which for ftrength may be a mulket-barrel, and
fuppofe the air comprefled into an hundredth part of
half an inch; then by faying, as 1 : 99 : : 400 : 39600
inches, or 3300 feet; even this is but little more than
half a mile, or 2640 feet. But fince it is reafonable
to fuppofe the cavities of the fea bear fome proportion
to the mountainous parts of the land, fome of which
are more than three miles above the earth’s furface ;
therefore, to explore fuch great depths, the do&or
contrived a new form for his fea-gage, or rather for
the gage-tube in it, as follows. BCDF (ibid. n° 2.)
is a hollow metalline globe communicating on the top
with along tube AB, whofe capacity is a ninth part
of that globe. On the lower part at D, it has alfo a
(hort tube DE, to (land in the mercury and treacle.
The air contained in the compound gage-tube is com¬
preffed by the water as before; but the degree of com-
predion, or height to which the treacle has been for¬
ced, cannot there be feen through the tube; there¬
fore, to anfwer that end, a (lender rod of metal or
wood, with a knob on the top of the tube AB, will
receive the mark of the treacle, and (how it when ta¬
ken out.
If tire tube AB be 50 inches long, and of fuch a
bore that every inch in length (liould be a cubic inch
of air, and the contents of the globe and tube toge¬
ther 500 cubic inches ; then, when the air is com¬
preffed within an hundredth part of the whole, it ia
evident the treacle will not approach nearer than five Gige.
inches of the top of the tube, which will agree to the ——y’—
depth of 3 300 feet of water as above. - Twice this
4epth will comprefs the air into half that fpace nearly,
viz. 24- inches, which correfpond to 6600, which is a
mile and a quarter. Again, half that fpace, or 1^ inch,
will fliow double the former depth, viz. 13200 feet, or
2 y miles ; which is probably very nearly the greateil
depth of the fea.
Bucket Sea-Gage •, an inftrument contrived by Dr Fig. 3.
Hales, to find the different degrees of coolnefs and falt-
nefs of the fea, at different depths: it confifts of a
common houfehold pail or bucket, with two heads.
Thefe heads have each a round .hole in the middle,
about four inches in diameter, covered with fquare
valves opening upward; and that they may both open
and (hut together, there is a fmall iron rod fixed to
the upper part of the lower valve, and the other end to
the lower fide of the upper valve. So that as the buc¬
ket defcends with its finking weight into the fea, both
the valves may open by the force of the water, which
by that means has a free paffage through the bucket.
But when the bucket is drawn up, then both the valves
(hut by the force of the water at tlje upper part of the
bucket ; fo that the bucket is drawn up full of the
lowed fea water to which it has defcended. When the
bucket is drawn up, the mercurial thermometer fixed
in it is examined ; but great care mud be taken to ob-
ferve the degree at which the mercury (lands, before
the lower part of the thermometer is taken out of the
water in the bucket, left it be affe&ed by the different
temperature of the air. In order to keep the bucket
in a right pofition, there are four cords fixed to it,
reaching about three feet below it; to which the fink¬
ing weight is fixed. The refult of feveral trials with
this gage was, that when it was let down to different
depths, from 360 feet to 5346 feet, in lat. 25. 13. N.
and long. 25. i 2. W. it was difeovered by the ther¬
mometer, that the cold increafed gradually in propor¬
tion to the depths, till it defcended to 3900 feet, wz-
near |-ths of |a mile, whence the mercury in the ther¬
mometer came up at 530; and though it was afterwards
funk to 5346 feet, i. e. a mile and 66 feet, it came up
no lower : the warmth of the water upon the furface,
and that of the air, was all that time 84°. When the
xvater in the bucket was become of the fame tempera¬
ture with that on the furface of the fea, equal quanti¬
ties of both- were weighed and tried by the hydrome¬
ter ; that from below was found to be the heavieft,
and confequently the faked.
Dr Hales was probably led to the conftru&ion of
this fea-gage from an inftrument invented by Dr Hook,
and defigned for the fame purpofe. This confifts of a
fquare wooden bucket C, whofe bottoms are fo con¬
trived, that as the weight A finks the iron B. to
which the bucket C is faftened by two handles D, D,
on the end of which are the moveable bottoms or valves
E E, and thereby draws down the bucket, the refift-
ance of the water keeps up the bucket in the pofture
C, whereby the water, whilft the bucket is defending,
hath a free paffage through it; whereas, as foon as the
bucket is pulled upwards by the line F, the refiftance
of the water to that motion beats the bucket down¬
wards, and keeps it in the pofture G, whereby the in¬
cluded;
GAG [52
Gage- eluded water Is kept from getting out, and the am-
bient water kept from getting in. Phil. Tranf. NJ 9.
p. 149. and Na 24. p. 447. or abr. vol. ii. p. 260.
Aqueo■ mercurial Gage, is the name of an apparatus
contrived by Dr Hales, and applied in various forms
to the branches of trees, in order to determine the
force with which they imbibe moifture. Let er,
Eig 3-be a cylindric glafs, e. gr. of an inch diameter with¬
in, and eight inches long. Into this glafs is in¬
troduced the branch of a young thriving apple-tree
b, about three feet long, with lateral branches ; the
diameter of the tranfverfe cut i being of an
inch. Having fitted the joint r to the tube at r, by
folding a piece of fheep’s (kin round the ftem, it is ce¬
mented with a mixture of bees-wax and turpentine
melted together, in fuch a proportion as to make a
tery fluff clammy pafte when cold, and over the cement
folds of wet bladders are bound firmly with pack¬
thread. To the lower end e of the large tube, a fmal-
ler tube »<? is cemented, being abopt of an inch dia-
1 GAG
Tide-Gage, is the name of an inftrument ufed for
determining the height of the tides by Mr Bayly, in v“
the courfe of a voyage towards the fouth-pole, &c. in
the Refolution and Adventure, in 1772, 1773, 1774,
and 1775. This inftrument confifts of a glafs tube,
whofe internal diameter was feven-tenths of an inch,
laihed fall to a ten feet fir rod, divided into feet, inches,
and quarters: this rod was faftened to a ftrong poll
fixed upright and firm in the water. At the lower end
of the tube was an exceeding fmall aperture, through
which the water was admitted. In confequence of
this conftru&ion, the furface of the water in the tube
was fo little affefted by the agitation of the fea, that
its height was not altered one-tenth of an inch, when
the fwell of the fea was two feet; and Mr Bayly
was certain, that with this inftrument he could dif-
cern a difference of one-tenth of an inch in the height
of the tide.
Wind-GAGE, an inftrument for meafuring the force
of the wind upon any given furface. It was invented
meter, and 18 inches long, and in fubftance full ^ of by Dr Linn, who gives the following defeription of it,
an inch thick. Thefe tubes are cemented together at Phil. Tranf. Vol. LXV.
This inftrument confifts of two glafs tubes AB,
CD, of five or fix inches in length. Their bores, which
of bees-wax and turpentine, over which a wet bladder are fo much the better for being equal, are about four-
is bound. The apparatus being thus prepared, the tenths of an inch in diameter. They are conne&ed Fig. 4,
together like a fiphon, by a fmall bent glafs-tube a b,
the bore of which is about one-tenth of an inch in
diameter. On the upper end of the leg A B there is
a tube of latten brafs, which is kneed, or bent per¬
pendicularly outwards, and has its mouth open to¬
wards F. On the other leg CD, is a cover with a
round hole G in the upper part of it, two-tenths of an
inch in diameter. This cover and the kneed tube are
connedfted together by a flip of brafs ed, which not
only gives ftrength to the whole inftrument, but alfo
e with common hard brick-duft or powdered chalk ce¬
ment, and the joint is farther fecured with the cement
branch is turned downwards, and the glafs tube up¬
wards, and then both tubes are filled with water ; with
the finger applied to the open end of the fmall tube,
it is inverted and immerfed in the glafs ciftern x, full
of mercury and water. In this fituation the lower end
of the branch was immerfed fix inches in water, viz.
from r to i; the water was imbibed by the branch at
its tranfverfe cut i; and during its afeent into the fap-
veffels of the branch, the mercury rofe in the tube e a;
from the ciftern x, fo that in half an hour it was rifen
5^ inches high, as far as The height of the mer- ferves to hold the fcale HI. The kneed tube and co-
cury indicated, in fome tneafure, the force with which ver, are fixed on with hard cement or fealing wax.
the fap was imbibed, though not the whole force ; be-
caufe, while the water was imbibed by the branch, its
tranfverfe cut was covered with innumerable little he-
mifpheres of air, and many air-bubbles iffued out of the
To the fame tube is foldered a piece of brafs e, with
a round hole in it to receive the Heel fpindle KL ; and
at f there is juft fuch another piece of brafs foldered to
the brafs-hoop gh, which furrounds both legs of the
fap-veffels, which partly filled the tube er, as the water inftrument. There is a fmall ihoulder on the fpindle
was drawn out of it: and therefore, the height of the
mercury could only be proportionable to the excefs of
at f, upon which the inftrument refts, and a fmall nut
to prevent it from being blown off the fpindle by
the quantity of water drawn off above the quantity of the wind. The whole inftrument is eafily turned round
the air which iffued out of the wood. If the quantity
of air iffuing from the wood had been equal to the
quantity of water imbibed, it is plain that the mercu¬
ry could not rife at all, becaufe there would be no
room for it in the tube : but if nine parts in twelve of
the water be imbibed by the branch, and only three
fuch parts of air iffue into the tube in the fame time,
the mercury muft rife near fix inches, and fo propor-
tionably in other cafes. Dr Hales obferved, that the
mercury rofe higheft, in moft cafes, when the fun was
clear and warm, and that it fubfided three or four in-
upon the fpindle by the wind, fo as always to prefent
the mouth of the kneed tube towards it. The end of
the fpindle has a ferew on it; by which it may be
ferewed into the top of a poft or a ftand made on pur-
pofe. It has alfo a hole at L, to admit a fmall lever
for ferewing it into wood with more readinefs and fa¬
cility. A thin plate of brafs if is foldered to the kneed,
tube, about half an inch above the round hole G, fo as
to prevent rain from falling into it. There is likewife
a crooked tube A B (fig. 5.) to be put occafionally
upon the mouth of the kneed tube F, in order to pre¬
vent rain from being blown into the mouth of the
expofed in
ches towards evening, but rofe again the next day as
it grew warm, though feldom fo high as it firft. Dr wind-gage when it is left out all night.
Hales adapted the fize and fhape of the glafs apparatus the time of rain,
to a great variety of branches of feveral fizes and of
different kinds of trees, and repeated the experiment
above deferibed, mutatis mutandis, in a variety of in-
ftances. See his Vegetable Statics, vol. i. chap. ii. p.
, 84, &c.
The force or momentum of the wind may be afeer-
tained by the affiftance of this inftrument, by filling
the tubes half full of water, and puftiing the fcale a
little up or down, till the o of the fcale, when the in¬
ftrument is held up perpendicularly, be on a line with
3 U 2 the
G A ©
[ 1
G A G
;ace ot, the water m both legs ot tne wina- , r . ac~
The inftrument being thus adjafted, hold it up and confequently It is alfo ev.dent, that the
perpendicularly, and turning the mouth of the kneed column AD is equal to the difference of the columns „
gage.
P€rP£
tube towards the wind, .obferve how much the water
is depreffed by it in the one leg, and railed in the o-
ther. The fum of the two is the height of a column
of water, which the wind is capable of fuftaining at
that time ; and every body that is oppoled to that
wind will be preffed upon by a force equal to the
weight of a column of water, having its bafe equal to
the altitude of the column of water fuftained by the
wind in the wind-gage. Hence the force of the wind
AB, DB; but the difference of thefe columns h
fcl—c2x. Therefore d'x—bc2—c2x. Whence we get
bcx
K~~ d'--\-c2'
The ufe of the fmall tube of communication a b
(fig. 4.), is to check the undulation of the water, fo
that the height of it may be read off from the fcale
with eafe and certainty. But it is particularly defigned
to prevent the water from being thrown up to a much ,
upon any body where the furface oppofed to it is greater or iefs altitude, than the true height of the co¬
known, may be eafily found ; and a ready companion jumn which the wind is able at that time to fuflain,
may be made betwixt the ftrength of one gale of wind - - ■ • -  , . .
and that of another.
The force of the wind may be like wife meafured
with this inftrument, by filling it until the water runs
out at the hole G. For if we then hold it up to the
wind as before, a quantity of water will be blown out ;
and if both legs of the inflrument are of the fame
bore, the height of the column fuftained will be equal
from its receiving a fuddft impulfe whilft it is vibra¬
ting either in its afcent or defcent. . As in fome cafes ,
the water "in this inflrument might be liable to freeze, ,
and thus break the tubes, Dr Lind recommends a fa-
turated folution of fea-falt to be ufed inftead of it,
which does hot freeze till Fahrenheit’s thermometer
falls to o.
. c. . . - GAHNIA, in botany: A genus of the mpnogynia
to double the column of water in either leg, or the fum or(jer belonging to the hexandria clafs of plants. The
r 1 . •  »• _ • 1 .U 1  T?,,.. if lc^.0 ...... . p „ i.
of what is wanting in both legs. But if the legs are
of unequal bores, neither of thefe will give the true
height of the column of water which the wind fuftain¬
ed. But the true height may be obtained by the fol¬
lowing formulae.
Suppofe that after a gale of wind which had blown
the water from A to B (fig. 6.), forcing it at the fame
calyx is an involucrum with two or five flowers; the
corolla is two-valved ; the ftamina fix capillary and
very fhort filaments; the antherae linear, (harp-pointed ;
at the apex, and as long as the corolla j there is no
pericarpium: the feed is Angle and oblong.
GAIETA, an ancient, handfome, and ftrong town
of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples, and in the Terra
ime through the other tube out at E, the furface of gj Lavoro, with a fort, citadel, harbour, and biftiop’s
the water fliould be found Handing at fome level D G, £ee> jt wa3 taken by the Aullrians in 1707, and by
and it were required to know vyhat was-the height of tbe Spaniards in 1734. It is feated at the foot of a ,
the column EF or A B, which the wand fuftained. mountain near the fea, in E. Long. 13. 37. N. Lat.
In order to obtain this, it is only neceflary to find the
height of the columns D B or G.F, which are con- GAIN, the profit or lucre a perfon reaps from
llantly equal to one another y for either of thefe added bis trade, employment, or induftry. Some derive the
to one of the equal columns A D, E G, will give the wor(j from the German gewin : whereof the Italians ,
true height of the column of water which the wind had made guadagno; the French and Englifh gain.
fuftained.
1. Let the diameters AC, EH, of the tubes, be
refpedlively reprefented by cd; and let <z=;AD, or
EG, and jc = DB, of GF : Then it is evident, that
the column DB is to the column EG, as c2x to d1a.
But thefe columns are equal. . Therefore c'xzz d2a;
d1a.
and confequently x^=.~prr'
, But if at any inftant of time whilft the wind was
There are legal and reputable gains, as well as for¬
did and infamous ones. ' What is gained beyond a cer¬
tain fum, by gaming, is all liable to be reftored again, ,
if the lofer will take the benefit of the law.:
Gain, in architecture, is the workmens term for
the.bevelling (boulder of ajoift or other timber. It
is ufed, alfo, for the lapping of the end of the joift, .
&c. upon a trimmer or girder; and then the thick-
nefs of the (boulder is cut into the trimmer, alfo be-
blowing, it was obferved,. that, when the water flood veiling upwards, that it may juft receive the gain ; and
at E, the top of the tube out of which it is forced, fo the joift and trimmer lie even and level with the
it was deprefled in the other to fbme given level BF, o-'i.:.
the altitude at which it would have flood in each had
it immediately fubfided, may be found in the follow¬
ing manner.- Let £ = AB or EF.—Then it is evident
that the column DB is equal to the difference of co¬
lumns EF, GF- But the difference of thefe columns
d2b
'v>fisd2b—d2x; and confequently
furface." This way of working is ufed in floors and
hearths. .
To Gain the wind, in fea-language, is to arrive on
the weather-fide or to windward of fome other veffel
in fight, when both are plying, to windward, or failing
as near the wind as poffible.
GAINAGE, Gainagium, in our ancient writers,
fignifies the draught-oxen, horfes, wain, plough, and
For the cafes when the wind blows in at the narrow furniture, for carying on the work of tillage by the
leg of the inftrument: Let AB=EF=3, E G, or bafer fort of fokemen and villains,
ADrra, GF=DB=x, and the diameters EH, GA, Gainage is the fame with what is otherwife called
refpeftively =.d, e, as before. Then it is evident, wainage. Brafton, lib. i. cap, 9. fpeaking of lords and
that the column AD is to the column GF as a r’ to fervants, fays, Utfteos dejlruant, quod/ahum non pof-
42x. But thefe columns are equal; therefore d2xz^ac2; Jiteis effe ‘wainagiumfuum. And again, lib. iii. traCt. 2.
cap,_
^1^.2 t/w^.
G _^V & E.
Tlate CCV.
I/onJ^nyre,
GAL [ 525 1 GAL
®a;nage cap.' I • VlUanus non amerciabitur, nift falva ivaiuag'w fuo.
II Fur anciently, as it appears both by Magna Charta
aaianthus. ^ ot[ier books, the villain, when amerced, had his
'""rT_'1 gainage or wainage free; to the end his plough
might not Hand Hill: and the law, for the fame rea-
fon, does Hill allow a like privilege to the hulbandman;
that is, his draught-horfes are not in many cafes di-
ftrainable.
Gainage is alfo ufed for the land itfelfror the pro¬
fit raifed by cultivating it.
GAINSBOROUGH, a town of Lincolnfliire in
England, 150 miles from London, feafed on the ri¬
ver Trent near the fea. It is a large well built town,
with a pretty good trade, and has the title of an earl¬
dom. W. Long^o. 40. N. Lat. 53. 26. The north
marflr in its neighbourhood is noted for horfe-races.
The Danes-who invaded the kingdom brought their
Ihips up to this place. It was here that Sweno the Dane
was murdered by one of the Engliih, who was never
difcovered.
GALACTITES, in the hiftory of foffils, a fub-
ftance much-: refembling the morochthus or French
chalk, in many refpe&s; but different from it in co¬
lour. The ancients found it in the Nile and in fome
rivers in Greece, and ufed it in medicine as an aftrin-
gent, and for defluxions and ulcers of the eyes. At
prefent it is common in Germany, Italy, and fome
parts of France, and is wholly overlooked, being e-
fteemed a worfe kind of morochthus. See Moroch¬
thus.
GALACTOPHAGI, and Galactofot^, in an¬
tiquity, perfons who lived wholly on milk, without
corn or the tile of any other food. The words are
compounded of yaknyA®-, milk ^ io eat; and
■xcTn; of I drink.
Certain nations in Scythia Afiatica, as the Getse,
Nomades, &c. are famous, in ancient hiftory, in qua¬
lity of galaclophagi, or milk-eaters. Homer makes their
eloge, Iliad, lib. iii.
Ptolemy, in his geography, places the Galadtophagi
between the Riphaean mountains on one fide, and the
Hircanian fea on the other.
GALANGALS, in the materia medica.. See
ICempferi A.
GALANTHUS, the Snow-drop, in botany : A
genus of the monogynia order, belonging to the hex-
andria clafs of plants ; and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the ninth order, Spathacea, . There are three
concave petals; and the nedtarium conflfts. of three
fmall emargi.nated petals; the ftigma is Ample. There
is Tut one ipecies, viz. the nivalis; which is a bulbous-
rooted flowery perennial, rifing but ,.a few inches in
height, and adorned at top with fmall tripetalous flowers
of a white colour. There are three varieties, viz. .the
common Angle-flowered fuow-drop, the femi double
fnow-drop, and the double fnow-drop.. They are
beautiful little plants; and are much valued on account
of their early appearance, often adorning the gardens
* in January or February,, when fcarce any other flower
is to be feen.. They frequently burft forth when the
ground is covered with fnow, and continue very often
till the beginning of March, making a very ornamen-<
tal appearance, efpeeially when difpofed in clufters to¬
wards the fronts of the borders, &c. The Angle kind
•eqmes ficft into bloom, then the femi-double, and after
that the double. They will fucceed any where, and Galau
multiply exceedingly by off-fets from the roots. II
GAL AT A, a great fuburb belonging to Conftan- Galaxy. ^
tinople, oppofite to the feraglio, on the other Ade of iT““*
the harbour. It is here the Greeks, Armenians,
Franks, Chriftians, and jews inhabit, and are allowed
the exercife of their refpedtive worftiips.
GALATuEA and Gai.ath.ea, (fab. hift.), a fea-
nymph, daughter of Nereus and Doris. She was paf-
Aonately loved by the cyclops Polyphemus, whom ihe
treated with coldnefs and dildain ; while Acis, a fhep-
herd of Sicily enjoyed her unbounded affe&ion. The
happinefs of thele two lovers was difturbed by the jea-
loufy of the Cyclops, who crulhed his rival to pieces
with a piece of a broken rock while lie repofed on the
bofom of Galataea. The nymph was inconfolable for
the lofs of Acis; and as Ate could not reftore him to >
life, fhe changed him into a fountain.
GALATIA, the ancient name of a province of
AAa Minor, now called Amafia. It was bounded on the
eaft by Cappadocia, on the weft by Bithynia, on the
fouth by Pamphylia, and on the north by the Euxine
fea. It was the north part of Phrygia Magna; but
upon being occupied by the Gauls was called Galatia ;
and becaufe Atuated amidft Greek colonies, and itfelf ’
mixed with Greeks, Gallogracia. Strabo calls it Gala*
tia, and Gallogracia : hence a two-fold name of the
people ; Galata and GaHogrtsei. The Greeks called it
Gallia Parva ; to diftinguilh it from the Tranfalpha?
both which they called Galatia. It.was reduced under
the fubjeftion of the Romans in the time of Auguftus, .
and is now in the hands of the Turks. Here St Paul
founded a church, to which he direfted that epiftle
which is ftill known by the name of the Epiftle to the
Galatians, and was written to reclaim them from the
obfervation of Jewifti ordinances, into which they had
been feduced by fome falfe teachers.
GALAX, in botany : A genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants 5
and in the natural method ranking with thofe of which
the order is doubtful. The corolla is falver-lhaped;
the calyx decaphyllous ; the caplule. unilocular, bivah -
ved, and elaftic.
GALAX 7, in aftronomy, that long, white, lumf- -
nous track, which feems to encompafs the heavens like :
a fwath, fcarf, or girdle : and which is eaftly percei¬
vable in a clear night, efpecially. when the moon does
not appear. The Greeks call it raxagiaf, Galaxy, of :
r«x«, ■yax-xY.'l®-, Milk; on account of its colour and
appearance: the Latins, for the fame reafons, call it
via laSea ; and we, the milky-'way.. It pafles between
Sagittarius and Gemini, and divides the fphere into two •
parts; it is unequally broad; and in fome parts is Angle, .
in others double. .
The ancient poets, and even philofophers, fpeak of
the Galaxy, as the road, or way by which the heroes ■
went to heaven.
Ariftotle makes- it a kind of meteor, formed of a
crowd of vapours, drawn into that part by certain .<
large ftars difpofed in the region of the heavens an- -
fwering hereto.
Others, finding that the Galaxy was. feen all over -
the globe, that it always correfponded to the fame
Axed ftars, and that it tranfcended the height of the
higheft planets, fet afideAriltotle’s opinion, and placed <
tke.ce
GAL t 5*6 1 GAL
'Galba tlie Galaxy in vthc firmament, or region of the fixed
M ftars, and conclnded it to be nothing but an affemblage
, of an infinite number of miaute ftars.
Since the invention of the telefcope, this opinion has
been abundantly confirmed. By diredting a good te¬
lefcope to any part of the milky-way; where, before,
( we only faw a confufed whitenefs, we now defcry an
innumerable multitude of little ftars, fo remote, that
a. naked eye confounds them. See Astronomy,
ii° 119.
GALBA (Servius Sulpicius), a Roman emperor,
Born the 24th of December, five years before the Chrif-
tian era. He was gradually railed to the greateft of¬
fices of the ftate, and exercifed his power in the pro¬
vinces with the greateft equity and unremitted dili¬
gence. He dedicated the greateft part of his time
to folitary purfuits, chiefly to avoid the fufpicions of
Nero. His difapprobation of the emperor’s oppreffive
command in the provinces was the caufe of new dif-
turbances. Nero ordered him to be put to death j but
he efcaped from the hands of the executioner, and was
publicly faluted emperor. When he was feated on the
throne, he fuffered himfelf to be governed by favour¬
ites, who expofed the goods of the citizens to fale to
gratify their avarice. Exemptions were fold at a high
price ; and the crime of murder was blotted out, and
impunity purchafed with a large fum of money. Such
irregularities in the emperor’s minifters greatly difplea-
fed the people; and when Galba refufed to pay the
foldiers the money which he had promifed them when
he was railed to the throne, they aflaffinated him in the
73d year of his age, and the eighth month of his
reign. The virtues which had Ihone fo bright in Gal¬
ba when a private man, totally difappeared when he
afcended the throne ; and he who Ihowed himfelf the
moft impartial judge, forgot the duties of an emperor
and of a father of his people.
GALBANUM, in pharmacy, a gum ilfuing from
the ftem of an umbelliferous plant growing in Perfia
and many parts of Africa. See Bubon.
The juice, as brought to us, is femipellucid, foft, te¬
nacious ; of a ftrong, and to fome unpleafant, fmell;
and a bitterilh warm tafte : the better fort is in pale
coloured maffes, which, on being opened, appear com-
pofed of clear white tears. Geoffroy relates, that a
dark greenilh oil is to be obtained from this Ample by
diftillation, which, upon repeated rectifications, be¬
comes of an elegant Iky blue colour. The purer forts
of galbanum are faid by fome to difiblve entirely in
wine, vinegar, or water; but thefe liquors are only
partial menttrua with regard to this drug ; nor do fpi-
rit of wine or oils prove more elfe6tual in this refpedt:
the belt diffolvent is a mixture of two parts fpirit of
wine and one of water. Galbanum agrees in virtue
with gum ammoniacum; but is generally accounted
lefs efficacious in afthmas, and more fo in hyfterical
complaints. It is an ingredient in the gum pills, the
gum plafter, and fome other officinal compofitions.
GALE, in the fea-language, a term of various im¬
port. When the wind blows not fo hard but that a (hip
may carry her top-fails a-trip (that is, hoifted up to
the higheft), then they fay it is a loom-gale. When
it blows very ftrong, they fay it is a ftiff, ftrong, or
frelh gale. When two flops are near one another at
fea, and, there being but little wind blowing, one of
them finds more of it than the other, they fay that the Gale
one flop gales away from the other. H
Gale (Dr John), an eminent and learned minlffer Ga^a”g,(
among the Baptitts, was born at London in t68o. He
ftudied at Leyden, where he diftinguiftied himfelf very-
early, and afterwards at Amfterdam, under Dr Lim-
borch. He was chofen minifter of the Baptift congre¬
gation at Barbican ; where his preaching, being chiefly
practical, was greatly reforted to by people of all per-
fuafions. Four volumes of his fermons were publilhed
after his death, which happened in 1721. His
fleclions on Dr Wall's Hiftory of Infant-baptifm, is the
belt defence of the Baptifts ever publifhed, and the
reading of that performance induced the learned Mr
William Whifton and Dr Fofter to become Baptifts.
Gale (Theophilus), an eminent nonconformift mi¬
nifter, born in 1628. He was invited to Winchefter
in 1657 ; and continued a ftated preacher there until
the re-eftabliftrment of the church by Charles II. when
he rather chofe to fuffer the penalties of the aft of
conformity, than to fubmit to it contrary to his con-
fcience. He was afterwards engaged by Philip lord
Wharton as tutor to his fons, whom he attended to an
academy at Caen in Normandy ; and when this duty
was fulfilled, he became pallor over a congregation of
private conventiclers in Holborn. He died in 1678 ;
and is principally known by an elaborate work, in-
titled, the Court of the Gentiles, calculated to fliow,
that the Pagan philofophers derived their moft fublime
fentiments from the Scriptures.
Gale (Dr Thomas), a learned divine, born at
Scruton in Yorklhire, in the year 1636, was educated
at Cambridge, and at length became profeflbr of the
Greek language in that univerlity. He was after¬
wards chofen head mailer of St Paul’s fchool, London;
and was employed by the city in writing thofe elegant
inferiptions on the monument erefted in memory of
the conflagration in 1666. In 1676 he was collated
to a prebend in the cathedral of St Paul’s ; and was
likewife elefted a fellow of the Royal Society, to
which he prefented a Roman urn with its alhes. About
the year 1697, he gave to the new library of Trinity
college, in Cambridge, a great number of Arabic ma-
nuferipts ; and in 1697 was admitted dean of York.
He died in that city in 1702 ; and was interred in the
cathedral, where a monument, with a Latin infeription,
was erefted to his memory. He was a learned divine,
a great hiftorian, one of the bell Greek fcholars of his
age, and maintained a correfpondence with the moft
learned men abroad as well as at home. He publilhed,
1. Hiforia Poetic a slntiqui Scriptores, oftavo. z.Opuf-
cula Mythologica, Ethica, & Phyjica, in Greek and
Latin, oftavo. 3. Herodoti Hifloria, folio. 4. Hiflo-
ria jinglicana Scriptores quinque, in folio. 5. Hiftor'ue
Britanniae, Saxoniae, Anglo-Danicte, Scriptores quinde-
cim, in folio. 6. Rhetores SeleEli, &c.
GALEA, in antiquity, a light cafque, head-piece,
or morrion, coming down to the ftioulders, and com¬
monly of brafs; though Camillus, according to Plu¬
tarch, ordered thofe of his army to be of iron, as be¬
ing the ftronger metal. The lower part of it was cal¬
led buccula, and on the top was a creft. The Velites
wore a light galea, made of the Ikin of fome wild
beaft to make it more terrible.
GALEASSE, a large low-built veffel, ufing both
fails
GAL [ 5
Onlega, fails and oars, and the biggeft of all the veflels that
Gakn. ma^e ufe of the latter. It may carry twenty guns,
and has a ftern capable of lodging a great number of
marines. It has three mails, which are never to be
lowered or taken down. It has alfo thirty-two benches
of rowers ; and to each bench fix or feven Haves, who
fit under cover. This veffel is at prefent ufed only by
the Venetians.
GALEGA, in botany : A genus of the decandria
order, belonging to the diadelphia clafs of plants ; and
in the natural method ranking under the order,
Papilionacea. The calyx is compofed of Tubulated
nearly equal dents or fegments; the legumen has ob¬
lique ft rise, and feeds lying between them.
GALEN (Claudius), in Latin Galenus, prince of
the Greek phyficians after Hippocrates, was born at
Pergamus in the Lefler Afia, about the year 131. His
father was poffefled of a confiderable fortune ; was well
yerfed in polite literature, philofophy, aftronomy, and
geometry ; and was alfo well (killed in architedlure.
He himfelf inftrutted his fon in the firft rudiments of
learning, and afterwards procured him the greateft
mafters of the age in philofophy and eloquence. Galen
having finiftied his ftudies under their care, chofe phyfic
for his profeffion, and chiefly ftudied the works of
Hippocrates. Having at length exhaufted all the
fources of literature that were to be found at home,
he refolved to travel, in order to converfe with the mod
able phyficians in all parts, intending at the fame time
to take every opportunity of infpedling on the fpot
the plants and drugs of the countries through which
he paffed. With this view he went to Alexandria,
and (laid fome years in that metropolis of Egypt:
from thence he travelled through Cilicia; paffedthrough
Paleftine ; vifited the ides of Crete and Cyprus; and
made two voyages to Lemnos, in order to examine the
Lemnian earth, which was then efteemcd an admirable
medicine. With the fame view he went into the Lower
Tyria, in order to obtain a thorough infight into the
nature of the opobalfamum, or balm of Gilead ; and
having completed hisdefign, returned home by the way
of Alexandria.
Galen had been four years at Pergamus, where his
pradlice was attended with extraordinary applaufe,
when fome feditious commotions induced him to go to
Rome, where he refolved to fettle : but the proofs he
gave of his fuperior (kill, added to the refpeft (hown
him by feveral perfons of very high rank, created him
fo many enemies among his brethren of the faculty,
that he was obliged to quit the city, after having
redded there four or five years. But he had not long
returned to Pergamos, when he was recalled by the
emperors Aurelius and Verus. After their death, he
retired to his native country; where he died, about the
year 200. He wrote in Greek; and is faid to have
compofed two hundred volumes, which were unhappily
burnt in the temple of Peace. The bed editions of
thole that remain, are, that printed at Bafil in 1538,
in five volumes, and that of Venice in 1625, in feven
volumes. Galen was of a weak and delicate conftitu-
tion, as he himfelf afferts: but he neverthelefs, by his
temperance and (kill in phyfic, arrived to a great age ;
for it was his maxim, always to rife from table with
fome degree of appetite. He is juftly confidertd as
the greateft phyfician of antiquity, next to Hippo-
£
27 ] G A L
crates 5 and he performed fuch furprifing cures, that he Galena
was accufed of magic. .
GALENA, a name given by mineralifts to a fpe- a eop H'
ciea of poor lead-ore. It was alfo the original name
given by Andromachus to the theriaca, from its effedl ^
in bringing on a pleafing calm over the blood and fpi-
rits on taking it.
GALENIA, in botany: A genus of the digynia
order, belonging to the oftandria clafs of plants; and
in the natural method ranking under the 13th order.
Succulents. The calyx is trifid ; there is no corolla ;
the capfule is roundifti and difpermous.
GALENIC, or Galenical, in medicine, is that
manner of confidering and treating difeafes, founded
on the principles of Galen, or introduced by Galen*
This author, collefting and digefting what the phyii.-
cians before him had done, and explaining every thing
according to the ftridteft do&rine of the Peripatetics,
fet phyfic on a new footing : he introduced the doc¬
trine of the four elements ; the cardinal qualities and
their degrees ; and the four humours or temperaments.
Galenic is more frequently ufcd as contradiftin-
guifhed from chemical.
The diftinftion of galenical and chemical was occa*-
fioned by a divifion of the pra&itioners of medicine
into two fedls, which happened on the introdudlion of
chemiftry into medicine. Then the chemifts, arrogating
to themfelves every kind of merit and ability, ftirred
up an oppofition to their pretenfions, founded on the
invariable adherence of the other party to the ancient
pradlice. And though this divifion into the two fe&s
of galenifts and chemifts has long ceafed, yet the di-
ftindlion of medicines which refulted from it is dill
retained.
Galenical medicines- are thofe which are formed by
the eafier preparations of herbs, roots, &c. by infufion,
decoftion, &c. and by combining and multiplying in¬
gredients ; wbile_ thofe of chemiftry draw their more
intimate and remote virtues by means of fire and ela¬
borate preparations, as calcination, digeftion, fermen¬
tation, See.
GALENISTS, a-denomination given to fuch phy¬
ficians as pradlife, preferibe, or write, on the galeni¬
cal principles ; and (land oppofed to the chemijls. Seer
Galenical. At prefent the galenifts and chemifts
are pretty W'ell accommodated ; and mod of our phy¬
ficians ufe the preparations and remedies of both.
Galenists, or Galenites, in church-hiftory, a branch
of Mennonites or Anabaptifts, who take in feveral of
the opinions of the Socinians, or rather Arians, touch¬
ing the divinity of our Saviour. In 1664 the Waterlan-
dians were divided into two parties; of which the one
were called Gaknijls, and the other Jlpojlolians. They
are thus called from their leader Abr. Galenus, a learned
and eloquent phyfician of Amfterdam, who confider-
ed the Chriftian religion as a fyftem that laid much lefs
ftrefs on faith than pradlice ; and who was for taking
into the communion of the Mennonites all thofe who-
acknowledged the divine origin of the books of the
Old and New Teftament, and led holy and virtuous
lives.
GALLON. See Galleon.
GALEOPSIS, in botany : A genus of the angio-
fpermia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of
plants j and in the natural method ranking under the
4.2*
GAL [ 528 ] GAL
dSalenca* 43d order, Verticillatte. The upper lip of the corolla He had been but a few years at Florence, before he
lu“l is a little crenated or arched ; the under lip more than was convinced by fad experience, that Ariilotle’s doq-
Galileo. bidentate. trine, however ill-grounded, was held too facred to be
  GALERICULUM, was a cap worn both by men called in queftion. Having obferved fome folar fpots
and women amongft the ancient Romans. It confift- in 16x2, he printed that difcovery the followino- year
ed of fkin, which was fo neatly dreffed with human at Rome; in which, and in fome other pieces, he ven-
hair, that the artificial covering could fcarcely be di- tured to afiert the truth of the Copernican fyftem, and
ftinguifhed from the natural. It was ufed by thofe brought feveral new arguments to confirm it. For thefe
■whofe hair was thin ; and by wreftlers, to keep their he was cited before the inquifition; and, after fome
own hair from receiving any injury from the nafty oils months imprifonment, w^as releafed upon a fimple pro-
with which they were rubbed all over before they ex- mife, that he would renounce his heretical opinions,
ercifed. It feems to have refembled our wigs. and not defend them by word or writing. But having
GALIC, or Gaelic, Language. See Highlands, afterwards, in 1632, publiihed at Florence his “ Dia-
GxALICIA, a province of Spain, bounded on the logues of the two greateft fyftems of the world the
Dorth and weft by the ocean, on the fouth by Portugal, Ptolemaic and Copernican,” he was again cited before
: and on the eaft by Afturias and the kingdom of Leon, the inquifition, and committed to the prifon of that
The air is temperate along the coaft ; but, in other ecclefiaftical court at Rome. In June 32d N. S. that
- places, it is cold and moift. It is but thin of people ; year, the congregation convened ; and in his prefence
and the produce is wine, flax, and citrons: here alfo are pronounced fentence againft him and his books ob-
good paftures, copper, and lead ; and the forefts yield liginghim to abjure his errors in the moft folemn man-
wood for building, of fliips. St Jago di Compoftella ner ; committed him to the prifon of their office du-
is the capital town. ring pleafure ; and enjoined him, as a faving penance,
GALILEE, once a province of Judea, now of for three years to come, to repeat once a-week the
Turky in Afia, was bounded by mount Lebanon on feven penitential pfalms: refervingtothemfelves.how-
the north, by the river Jordan and the fea of Galilee ever, the power of moderating, changing, or taking
on the eaft, by the Chifon on the fouth, and by the away altogether or in part, the abovementioned puniih*
Mediterranean on the weft. It was the fcene of many ment and penance. On this fentence, he was detained
of our Saviour’s miracles; but the bounds of the couo- a prifoner till 1634; and his “ Dialogues of the iy-
try are not now well known, nor yet the places where ftem of the World” were burnt at Rome.
; many of the towns flood. He lived ten years after this, feven of which were
GALILEANS, a fed of the Jews. Their foun- employed in making ftill further difcoveries with his te-
<der was one Judas a native of Galilee, from which lefcope. But by the continual application to that in-
place they derived their name. Their chief, efteeming ftrument, added to the damage he received in his fight
it an indignity for the Jews to pay tribute to ftrangers, from the nocturnal air, his eyes grew gradually weak-
raifed up his countrymen againft the edidt of the em- er, till he became totally blind in 1639. He bore
peror Auguftus, which had ordered a taxation or en- this calamity with patience and refignation, worthy of
j-olment of all the fubje£ts of the Roman empire. a great philofopher. ’ The lofs neither broke his fpirit.
They pretended that God alone (hould be owned as nor hindered the courfe of his ftudies. He fupplied
Mafter and Lord, and in other refpedts were of the the defedt by conftant meditation ; whereby he pre¬
opinion of the Pharifees; but, as they judged it un- pared a large quantity of materials, and began to dic-
Jawful to pray for infidel princes, they ieparated them- tate his own conceptions; when, by a diftemper of
felves from the reft of the Jews, and performed their three months continuance, wafting away by degrees,
facrifices apart. he expired at Arcetti near Florence, in January 1642,
As our Saviour and his apoftles were of Galilee, N. S. in the 78th year of his age.
they were fufpe&ed to be of the fedt of Galileans ; Among various ufeful inventions of which Galileo
•and it was on this principle, as St Jerome obferves, that was the author, is that of the fimple pendulum, which
the Pharifees laid a fnare for him ; alking, Whether it he had made ufe of in his allronomical experiments,
was lawful to give tribute to Caefar ; that in cafe he He had thoughts of applying it to clocks; but did not
denied it, they might have an occafion of accufing execute it : the glory of that invention was referred
Aim. for Vicenzio his fon, who made the experiment at Ve-
GALILEO (Galilei), the famous mathematician nice in 1649; and M. Huygens-afterwards carried
and aftronomer, was the fon of a Florentine nobleman, this invention to perfedlion. He wrote a great num-
and born in the year 1564. He had from his infancy ber of treatifes, feveral of which were publilhed in a
a ftrong inclination to philofophy and the mathema- colledlion by Signor Mendeffi, under the title of ZV
tics ; and made prodigious progrefs in thefe fciences. fera di Galileo Galilei Lynceo. Some of thefe, with
In 1592, he was chofen profeffor of mathematics at others of his pieces, were tranflated into Englifli and
Padua ; and during his abode there he invented, it is publilhed by Thomas Salifbury, Efq; in his mathema-
•faid, the telefcope ; or, according to others, impro- tical colledlions, &c. in two volumes folio. A volume
•ved that inftrument, fo as to make it fit for aftrono- alfo of his letters to feveral learned men, and folutions
anical obfervations: (See Astronomy, p. 423,001. 1.) of feveral problems, were printed at Bologna in quarto.
In 1611, Cofmo II. grand duke of Tufcany fent for Befides thefe, he wrote many others, which were un«
Aim to Pifa, where he made him profeffor of mathe- fortunately loft through his wife’s devotion ; who, fo-
■smatics, with a handfome falary ; and foon after invi- licited by her confeffpr, gave him leave to perufe her
&ing him to Florence, gave him the office and title hulband’s manuferipts; of which he tore and took a-
principal philofopher and mathematician to his highnefs. way as many as hefaid were not fit to be publilhed.
^°i34- GALINACEUS
Galllew.
GAL L 529 ] GAL
GAL1NACEUS lapis. See Gallinaceus.
GALIUM, in botany : A genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of plants; and
in the natural method ranking under the 47th order,
Stellate. The corolla is monopetalous and plain ; and
there are two roundifh feeds. There are a great many
fpecies; of which the moft remarkable are, the verum,
or yellow lady’s bed-ftraw ; and the aperine, clivers, or
•-goofe-grafs. The former has a firm, eredl, brown,
fquare, Item ; the leaves generally eight in each whirl,
linear, pointed, brittle, and often reflex ; branches fhort,
generally two from each joint, terminating in fpikes of
fmall yellow flowers. It grows commonly in dry ground,
and on road fides. The flowers will coagulate boiling
milk ; and the bell Chelhire cheefe is faid to be prepa¬
red with them. The French prefcribe them in hyfte-
ric and epileptic cafes. Boiled in alum-water, they
tinge wool yellow. The roots dye a red not inferior
to madder ; for which purpofe they are ufed in the
ifland of Jura. In the Edinburgh medical commenta¬
ries we have accounts of fome violent fcorbutic com¬
plaints being cured by the juice of this plant.—Sheep
and goats eat the plant; horfes and fwine refufe it 5
cows are not fond of it. The aperine, or clivers, has
a fquare, very rough,1 jointed, very weak ftem, two,
three, or four feet long, and adhefive: the branches
are oppofite ; the joints hairy at the bale : the leaves*
confifting of eight or ten at each joint, are narrow*
pointed, above rough, beneath fmooth, and carinated :
the feeds are rough ; flowers white, fmall, few on fen¬
der foot-ftalks on the tops of the branches. It is fre¬
quent in fields by the fides of hedges, &c. The ex-
prefled juice of this plant taken internally, and the
bruifed leaves,applied by way of poultice, are faid to
have been ufed with fuccefs as a cure for the cancer.
The effects being flow, though fure, the courfe,-it is
faid, often requires to be continued for nine or ten
months.
GALL, in the animal economy. See Bile.
Gall, was generally given amongft the Jews, to per-
fons fuffering death under the execution of the law', to
make them lefs fenfible of their pain; but gall and
myrrh are fuppofed to have been the fame thing ; be-
caufe at our Saviour’s crucifixion. St Matthew fays,
they gave him vinegar to drink mingled with gall;
whereas St Mark calls it wine mingled with myrrh :
The truth of the matter perhaps is, that they diilin-
guilhed every thing bitter by the name of gall. The
Greeks and Romans alfo gave fuch a mixture to per-
fons fuffering a death of torture.
A great number of experiments have been made u-
po-n the gall of different animals, but few conclufions
can be drawn from them with any certainty. Dr Per-
cival, however, hath Ihown, that putrid bile may be
perfedtly correfled and fweetened by an admixture of
the vegetable acids, vinegar, and juice of lemons. Thefe,
he obferves, have this effedt much more completely than
the mineral ones: and hence, he thinks, arifes the great
nfefulnefs of the vegetable acids in autumnal difeafes-;
which are always attended with a putrefcent difpofition
of the bile, owing to the heat of the preceding fum-
mer. On this occafion he takes notice of a common
miftake among phyficians, who frequently prefcribe
elixir of vitriol in thofe difeafes, where vinegar or le¬
mon juice w'ould be much more effectual.
Vol.VII. Part. II.
From this effeft of acids on the gall, he alfo thinks*
we may fee why the immoderate ufe of acids is fo per¬
nicious to digeftion. It is neceffary to health that the
gall fliould be in fome degree acrid and alkalefcent:
but as acids have the property of rendering it perfectly
mild and fweet, they muff be proportionably pernici¬
ous to the due conco&ion and aflimilation of the food;
which without an acrid bile cannot be accompliflied.
Hence the body is deprived of its proper nouriflrment
and fupport, the blood becomes vapid and watery*
and a fatal cahexy unavoidably enfues. This hath
been the cafe with many unfortunate perfons, who, in
order to reduce their exceflive corpulency, have indul¬
ged themfelves in the too free ufe of vinegar. From
the mild ftate of the gall in young children. Dr Per-
cival alfo thinks it is, that they are fo much troubled
with acidities.
Gall Bladder. See Anatomy, n° 97.
Gall, in natural hiftory, denotes any protuberance
or tumor produced by the pun&ure of infects on plants
and trees of different kinds.
Thefe galls are of various forms and fixes, and no
lefs different with regard to their internal ftru&ure.
Some have only one cavity, and others a number of
fmall cells communicating with each other. Some of
them are as hard as the wood of the tree they grow
on, whilft others are foft and fpongy ; the firft being
termed gall nuts, and the latter berry galls, or apple-
galls.
The general hiftory of the gall is this. An infedt of#
the fly kind * is inftrudled by nature to take care for the
fafety of her young, by lodging her eggs in a woody
fubftance, where’they will be defended from all inju¬
ries : flie for this purpofe wounds the leaves or tender
branches of a tree ; and the lacerated veffels, difehar-
ging their contents, foon form tumors about the holes
thus madei The external coat of this excrefcence is
dried by the air ; and grows into a figure which bears
fome refemblance to the bow of an arch, or the round-
nefs of a kernel. This little ball receives its nutri¬
ment, growth, and vegetation, as the other parts of
the tree, by flow degrees, and is what we call the gall-
nut. The worm that is hatched under this fpacious
vault, finds in the fubftance of the ball, which is as yet
very tender, a fubfiftence fuitable to its nature ; gnaws
and digefts it till the time comes for its transformation
to a nymph, and from that ftate of exiftence changes
into a fly. After this, the infect, perceiving itfelf du¬
ly provided with all things requifite, difengages itfelf
foon from its confinement, and takes its flight into the
open air. t he cafe, however, is not fimilar with re-
fpecit to the gall-nut that grows in autumn. The
cold weather frequently comes on before the worm is
transformed into a fly, or before the fly can pierce
through its inclofure. The nut falls with the leaves :
and although you may imagine that the fly which lies
wnthin is loft, yet in reality it is not fo 5 on ihe con¬
trary, its being covered up fo clofe, is the means of its
prefervation. Thus it fpends the winter in a warm
houfe, w here every crack and cranny of the nut is well
flopped up ; and lies buried as if were under a heap of
leaves, which preferves it from the injuries of the wea¬
ther. This apartment, however, though fo commo¬
dious a retreat in the winter, is a perfeft prifon in the
fpring. The fly, roufed out of its lethargy by the firft
3 ^ heats*
GAL [ 530 1 GAL
heats, breaks its way through, and ranges where it
pleafes. A very fmall aperture is fuffieient, fince at
this time the fly is but a diminutive creature. Befides,
the ringlets whereof its body is compofed, dilate and
become pliant in the paffage.
Oak galls put, in a very fmall quantity, into a fo¬
liation of vitriol in water, though but a very weak one,
give it a purple or violet colour : which, as it grows
itronger, becomes black; and on this property depends
the art of making our writing ink, as alfo the arts,of
dying and dreffing leather, and other manufa&ures.
See Ink-.
The beft galls come from Aleppo: thefe are not
quite round and fmooth like the other forts, but have
feveral tubercles on the furface. Galls have a very
auftere ftyptic tafte, without any fmell: they are very
Itrong aftringents, and as fuch have been fometimes
made ufe of both internally and externally, but are not
much taken notice of by the prefent pra&ice. Some
recommend an ointment of powdered galls and hog’s
lard as very effe&ual in certain painful ftates of hatmor-
rhois ; and it is alleged, that the internal ufe of galls
has cured intermittents after the Peruvian bark has
failed. A mixture of galls with a bitter and aromatic
has been propofed as a fubllitute for the bark.
Gall (St), a confiderable town in Smfferland, and
in the Upper Thurgow, with a rich and celebrated ab¬
bey, whofe abbot is a prince of the empire. This place
has for fome time been a republic, in alliance with the
Cantons. It is not very large; but is well built, neat,
populous. It contains about 10,000 inhabitants, who
are chiefly employed in the linen manufadture; and
make annually, it is faid, 40,000 pieces of linen, of 200
ells each ; which renders it one of the richeft towns in
Swifierland. The inhabitants are Proteftants ; for
■which reafon there are often great contefts between
them and the abbey about religions affairs. It is
feated in a narrow barren valley, between two moun¬
tains, and upon two fmall ftreams. , E. Long. 29. 5.
N. Lat. 47. 38.
Gall-Fly. SeeCvNiPS.
GALLA, an Abyffinian nation, originally dwelling,
as Mr Bruce fuppofes, under the line, and exerciling
the profefflon of (hepherds, which they ftill continue
to do. For a number of years, our author tells
us, they have been eonftantly migrating northwards,
though the caufe of this migration is not known. At
firft they had no horfes ; the reafon of which was, that
the country they came from did not allow thefe ani¬
mals to breed : but as they proceeded northward and
conquered fome of the Abyffinian provinces, they foon
furniftied themfdves with fuch numbers, that they are
now almoft entirely cavalry, making little account of
infantry in their armies. On advancing to the fron¬
tiers of Abyffinia, the multitude divided, and part di¬
rected their courfe towards the Indian Ocean ; after
which, having made a fettlement in the eaffern part of
the continent, they turned fouthward into the coun¬
tries of Bali and Dawaw, which they entirely conquer¬
ed, and fettled there in the year 1537. Another divifion
having taken a wefterly courfe, fpread themfelves in a
femieircle along the, banks of the Nile ; furrounding
the country of Gojam, and paffing eaftward behind
the country of the Agows, extended their poffeffions
as far as the territories of the Gongas and Gafats.
Since that time the Nile has been the boundary of their GaJTa.
poffeflions; though they have, very frequently plunder-  r—
ed, and fometimes conquered, the A-byffinian provinces1
on the other fide of the river, but have never made
any permanent fettlement in thefe parts. A third di¬
vifion has fettled to the fouthward of the low country
of Shoa, which the governor of that province has per¬
mitted, in order to form a barrier betwixt him and the
territories of the emperor, on whom he fcarcely acknow¬
ledges any dependence.
The Galla are of a brown complexion, and have
long black hair ; but fome of them who live in the
valleys are entirely black. At firft their common food
was milk and butter ; but fince their intercourfe with
the Aibyffinians, they have learned to plough and fovv
their land, and to make bread. They feem to have a-
predilection for the number feven, and each of the
three divifions already mentioned are fubdivided into
feven tribes. In their behaviour they are extremely
barbarous ; and live in continual war with the Abyfii-
nians, whom they murder without mercy as often as
they fall into their hands. They cut off the privities
of the men, and hang them up in their houfes by way
of trophies ; and are fo cruel as to rip up women with
child, in hopes of thus deftroying a male. Yet not-
withftanding their exceflive cruelty abroad, they live
under the ftrifteft difcipline at home ; and every broil
or quarrel is inftantly puniftied according to the nature
of the offence. Each of the three divifions of the
Galla above mentioned has a king of its own; and
they have alfo a kind of nobility, from among whom
the fovereign can only be chofen : however, the com¬
monalty are not excluded from rifing to the rank of
nobles if they diftinguifh themfelves very much in
battle. None of the nobility can be elected till up¬
wards of 40 years of age, unlefs he has with his own
hand kille'd a number of enemies which added to his
own age makes up 40. There is a council of each of
the feven tribes, which meets feparately in its own di-
ftrid, to fettle how many are to be left behind for the
governing and cultivating of the territory, and other
matters of importance. Thefe nations have all a great
veneration for a tree - which grows plentifully in
their country, called wanzey, and which thefe fuper-
ftitious people are even faid to adore as a god. Their
affemhlies for the choice of a king are all held under
one of thefe trees; and when the fovereign is chofen,.
they put a bludgeon of this wood in his hand by way
of fceptre, and a garland of the flowers upon his head.
The Galla are reported to be very good foldiers, e-
fpecially in cafes of furprife ; hut, like moft other bar¬
barians, have no conftancy nor perfeverance after the
firft' attack. They will, however, perform extraordi¬
nary marches, fwimming rivers holding by the horfe’s
tail, and thus being enabled to do very great mifchief
by reafon of the rapidity of their movements. They
are excellent light-horfe for a regular army in an hoftile
country ; but are very indifferently armed on account
of the fcarcity of iron among them. Their principal
arms are lances made of wood .ftiarpened at the end
and hardened in the fire; and their Ihields are com¬
pofed only of one Angle fold of bull’s hide; fo that
they are extremely apt to warp by heat, or become too
foft in wet weather. They are exceedingly cruel;
and make a fhrill horrid noife at the beginning of
every
GAL [ JLJI ] G A L
every engagement, which greatly terrifies the horfes,
and very often the barbarous riders which oppofe
them.
The Galla, according to Mr Bruce’s account, are
fomewhat below the middle fize, but extremely light
and nimble. The women are fruitful; and fuffer fo
little in child-bearing, that they do not even confine
thertifelves for a Angle day after delivery. They
plough, fow, and reap the corn, which is trodden out
by the cattle ; but the men have all the charge of the
cattle in the fields. In their cuftoms they are filthy
to the laft degree ; plaiting their hair with the guts
of oxen, which they likewife twill round their middle,
and which by the quick putrefaftion occafion an abo¬
minable ftench. They anoint their heads and whole
bodies with butter or greafe ; in which, as well as in
other refpe&s, they greatly referable the Hottentots.
It has been fuppofed that they have no religion what¬
ever; but Mr Bruce is of opinion that this is a miftake.
The wanzey, he fays, is undoubtedly vvorlhipped by
all the nations as a god ; and they have likewife cer¬
tain ftones which are worfkipped as gods: befides thefe,
they woifhip the moon, and fome liars, when in certain
pofitions, and at fome particular feafons of the year.
They.all believe in a refurreclion; and have fome faint
notions of a Hate of happinefs, but no idea of future
punilhment. Some of them to the fouthward profefs
the Mahometan religion, but thofe to the call and well
are generally pagans. All of them intermarry with
each other ; but will not allow llrangers to live among
them, though the Moors have at lail found out a me¬
thod of trading fafely with them. The commodities
they deal in are blue Surat cloths, myrrh, and fait;
the laft being the molt valuable article.
The marriages among the Galla are celebrated with
fome of the difgufting cuftoms of the Hottentots ; and
after thefe ceremonies the bridegroom promifes to give
the bride meat and drink while Ihe lives, and to bury
lier when dead. Polygamy is allowed among them;
but it is fingu’ar, that among thefe people the women
folicit their hnlbands to take others to their embraces.
The reafon of this cuftom is, that the men may have
numerous families of children, who may be capable of
defending them againft their enemies; as the Galla,
according to our author, always fight in families, whe¬
ther againft foreign enemies or with cue another.
GALL AND (Anthony), a learned antiquarian,
member of the Academy of Infcriptions, and -wofelfor
of Arabic in the Royal College of Paris, was born of
poor parents at Rollo, a village in Picardy. Having
.ftudied at the Sorbonne and other univerfities, he tra¬
velled into the call; where he acquired greht Ikill in the
Arabic tongue, and in the manners of the Mahome¬
tans. He wrote feveral works; the principal of which
are, I. An Account of the Death of the Sultan Of-
man, and the Coronation of the Sultan Muftapha.
2. A Colle&ion of Maxims, drawn from the works
of the Orientals. 3. A Treatife on the Origin of Cof¬
fee. 4. The Arabian Nights Entertainments, See.
GALLANT, or Galant, a French term adopted
into our language, and lignifying polite, civil, and well-
bred, with a difppfition to pleafe, particularly the la¬
dies. It alfo fignifies brave or courageous.
GALLE, the name of feveral engravers, of whom
the principal was Cornelius, who flourifhed about the
1600. He learned the art of, engraving from his fa- cLlk
ther, and imitated his ftiff ftyle, till he went to Rome, tl
where he refided a confiderahle time, and there acqui-
red that freedom, tafte, and corredlnefs of drawing,
which are found in his heft works. He fettled at
Antwerp upon his return from Italy, where he carried
on a confiderable commerce in prints. His bdl prints
are thofe done after Rubens.
GALLEON, in naval affairs, a fort of ihips em¬
ployed in the commerce of the Weft Indies. The Spa¬
niards fend annually two fleets; the one for Mexico,
which they call theJlota; and the other for Peru, which
they call the galleons. See Flota.
By a general regulation made in Spain, it has been
eftabliftied, that there Ihould be twelve men of war and
five tenders annually fitted out for the armada or gai-
leong ; eight fliips of 600 tons burden each, and three
tenders, one of 100 tons, for the ifland Margarita,
and two of 80 each, to follow the armada ; for the
New Spain fleet, two Ihips of 600 tons each, and two
tenders of 80 each ; and for the Honduras fleet, two
fhips of .500 tons each : and in cafe no fleet happened
to fail any years, three galleons and a tender ftiould be
fentto New Spain for the plate.
They are appointed to fail from Cadiz in January,
that they may arrive at Porto Bello about the middle
of April; where, the fair being over, they may take
aboard the plate, and be at Havannah with it about
the middle of June ; where they are joined by the
flota, that they may return to Spain with the greater*
fafety.
GALLEOTj a finall galley defigned only for chace,
carrying but one mail and two pattereroes; it can
both fail and rovv, and has iS or 20 oars. All the
feamen on board are foldiers, and each has a mufleetby
him on quitting his oar.
GALLERY, in architedlure, a covered place in a
houfe, much longer than broad, and ufually in the wings
of a building; its life being chiefly to walk in.
GALLERIES, in gardening, are certain orna¬
ments made with trees of different kinds; which are
very common in all the French gardens, but are feldom
introduced into the Britifli ones, efpecially fince the
tafte for clipped trees has been exploded. For thofe,
however, who may ftill choofe to have them, Mr Miller
gives the following diredlidns.
In order to make a gallery in a garden with porti¬
coes and arches, a line mull firft be drawn of the length
you defign the gallery to be ; which being done, it is
to be planted with hornbeam, as the foundation of the
gallery. The management of galleries is not difficult.
They require only to be digged round about; and
ftieared a little when there is occaficn. The chief cu-
riofity required is in the ordering the forepart of the
gallery, and in forming the arches. Each pillar of the
porticoes or arches ought to be four feet diftant from
another, and the gallery 12 feet high and to feet wide,
that there may be room for two or three perfons to
walk abreaft, -When the hornbeams are grown to the
height of three feet, the diftance of the pillars well re¬
gulated, and the ground-work of the gallery finiftied,
the next thing to be done is to form the frontifpiece ;
to perform which, you mull ftop the hornbeam between
two pillars for that purpofe, which forms the arch.
As it grows, you muft with your (beers cut off thofe
3X2 Roughs
gal [ 53
Gallery, boughs which outihoot the others. Tn time they will
Gailey~ grow ftrong, and may be kept in form by the (beers.
> Portico-galleries may be covered with lime-trees.
Gallery, in fortification, a covered walk acrofs the
ditch of a town, made of ftrong beams covered over
with planks, and loaded with earth : fometimes it is
covered with raw hides, to defend it from the artificial
fires of the befieged.
Gallf.rt of a Mine, is a narrow palfage or branch of
a mine carried on under ground to a work defigned to
be blown up. See Mine.
Gallery, in a (hip, that beautiful frame, which is
made in the form of a balcony, at the ftern of a (hip
without board; into which there is a paflage out of the
admiral’s or captain’s cabbin, and is for the ornament
of the (hip.
GALLEY, a kind of low flat-built veflTel, furniftied
with one deck, and navigated with fails and oars, par¬
ticularly in the Mediterranean. By the Greek authors
tinder the eaftern empire, this kind of vefl'el was called
yaKcua and and by the Latin authors of the fame
time, gaka; whence, according to fome, the modern
denomination. Some fay it was called gaka, on ac¬
count of a cade or helmet which it carried on its prow,
as Ovid attefts, de Trijiib. The French call it gakrc ;
by reafon, they fay, that the top of the mail is ufually
cut in the form of a hat, which the Italians call galero.
Others derive both galea, and galere, from a fifh by
the Greeks called or ?“?'«?> and by us the
fword-Ji/b, which this vefiel refembles. Laftly, others
derive the galley, galea, galere, galerffe, &c. from the
Syriac and Chaldee and gallin, a man expofed on
the water in a veffel of wood.
The largeft fort of thefe veflels is employed only by
the Venetians. They are commonly 162 feet long
above, and 133 feet by the keel; 32 feet wide, with
23 feet length of ftern-poft. They are furniftied with
three mafts, and 32 banks of oars ; every bank con¬
taining two oars, and every oar being managed by fix
or Even (laves, who are ufually chained thereto. In
the fore-part they have three little batteries of cannon,
of which thelow'eft is of two 36 pounders, the fecond
of two 24 pounders, and the uppermoft of two 2 poun¬
ders: three 18 pounders are alfo planted on each quar¬
ter. The complement of men for one of thefe galleys
is 1000 or 1200. They are efteemed extremely con¬
venient for bombarding or making a defcent upon
an enemy’s coaft, as drawing but little water ; and
having by their oars frequently the advantage of a (hip
of war, in light winds or calms, by cannonading the lat¬
ter near the furface. of the water; by fcouring her
whole length with their (hot, and at the fame time
keeping on her quarter or bow, fo as to be out of the
dire&ion of her cannon.
The galleys next in fize to thefe, which are alfo
called half-galleys, are from 120 to 130 feet long, 18
feet broad, and 9 or 10 feet deep. They have two
mafts, which may be (truck at pleafure ; and are fur¬
niftied with two large lateen fails, and five pieces of
cannon. They have commonly 25 banks of oars, as
defcribed above. A fize (till lets than thefe are called
quarter-galleys, carrying from 1 2 to 16 banks of oars.
There are very few galleys now befides thefe in the
Mediterranean, which are found by experience to be of
2] GAL
little utility except in fine weather; a circumftance Galley,
which renders their fervice extremely precarious. They
generally keep clofe under the fhore, but fometimes v """
venture out to fea to perform a fummer cruife.
Galley IVcrm, in zoology. See Iulus.
GALL1, in antiquity, a name given to the pi lefts
of Cybele, from the river Gallus in Phrygia; but of.
the etymology of the name we have no certain account.
All that we learn with certainty about them is, that
they were eunuchs and Phrygians, and that in their
folemn proceffions they danced, bawled, drummed,
cut and (laftied themfelves, playing upon timbrels,
pipes, cymbals, &c. and driving about an afs loaded
with the facred rites and trumpery of their goddefs.
When a young man was to be initiated, he was to
throw off his cloaths, run crying aloud into the midft
of their troop, and there draw a fword and caftrate
himfelf; after this he was to run into the ftreet with
the parts cut off, in his hand, throw them into fome
houfe, and in the fame houfe put on a woman’s drefs.
Thefe priefts had the names alfo of Curetes, Cory-
lantes, and Daciyli. The chief prieft was called Archi-
Gallus. This order of priefthood is found both amongft
Greeks and Romans. See an account of them in
Lucret. lib. ii. and Juv. fat. vi.
Galli, the Gauls. See Gallia and Gauls.
Galli, five fmall defolate iflands on the coaft of the
Principato Citra of Naples. They are fuppofed to be
the Syrenufas, or iflands once-inhabited by the Sirens,
which Ulyffes paffed with fo much caution and hazard.
Great revolutions, however, have been occafioned in
their (hape, fize, and number, by the effedts of
fubterranean fire ; and fome learned perfons go fo -
far as to affert, that thefe rocks have rifen from the
bottom of the fea fince Homer fang his rhapfodies ;
confequently, that thofe monftcrs dwelt on fome other
fpot, probably Sicily or Capri. The tradition of Si¬
rens refiding hereabouts is very ancipnt and univerfally
, admitted; but what they really were, divefted of their
fabulous and poetical difguife, it is not eafy to difco-
ver. See Siren.
The Sirenufte were only three in number; and there¬
fore if thefe and the Galli be the fame, two more muft
have fince rifen, or the three have been fplit into five by
a fubterraneous convulfion. On the largeft is a watch-
tower, and the next has a deferted hermitage. The
principal ifland is only a narrow femicircular ridge
covered with a (hallow coat of foil ; two other little
iflands and fome jagged rocks juft peeping above the
waves, correfpond with this one fo as to trace the out¬
line of a volcanical crater. The compofition of them
all is at top a calcareous rock extremely (haken, tum¬
bled, and confufed, mixed with maffes of breccia, dif- ‘
pofed in a moft irregular manner ; below thefe is lava,
and the deeper the eye follows it the (Longer are the
marks of fire : below the furface of the water, and in .
fome places above it, the layers are complete blocks of
bafaltes. fience it is fair to prefume, that central fires
have heaved up to light the torrified fubftances that
originally lay near their focus, with all the intermediate
ftrata that covered them from the fea. The layers in¬
cline downwards from eaft to weft ; the air (eems to
have forced its way into part of the mafs while in fu-
fign, and by checking its workings cauied many large
ca.verue ..
GAL
Gallia caverns to be left in it. Thefe iflands are uncultivated
Oalliard. an<j un;nhabited fince the old hermit of St Antonio
(jjecj< Myrtle covers moft of the furface.
GALLIA, a large country of Europe, called Gala~
tia by the Greeks. The inhabitants were called Galli,
Celt#, Celt lien, and Celtqfcythee. Ancient Gaul was di¬
vided into four different parts by the Romans, call¬
ed Gallia Belgica, Narbonenfis, Aquitania, and Celtica.
Gallia Belgica was the largeit province, bounded by
Germany, Gallia Narbonenlis, and the German ocean ;
and contained the modern country of Alface, Lorraine,
Picardy, with part of the low countries, and of Cham¬
pagne, and of the ifle of France. Gallia Narbonenfis,
which contained the provinces now Languedoc^
[Provence, Dauphine. Savoy, was bounded by the Alps
and Pyrenean mountains, by Aquitania, Belgicum, and
the Mediterranean. Aquitania Gallia, now called the
provinces of Poitou, Santonge, Guienne, Berry, Limofin,
t 533 1
GAL
whereof he gives us the fcore or tablature, which is of Galliarda
fix minims, and two triple times. !l .
GALLIARDA, in the Italian mufic, the name of,Gall‘po,1,|I
a tune that belongs to a dance called a galliard. The l"_''
air of it is lively in triple time.
GALLICAN, any thing belonging to France i
thus the term Gallican church denotes the church of
France, or the affembly of the clergy of that king¬
dom.
GALLICISM, a mode of fpeech peculiar to the
French language, and contrary to the rules of gram¬
mar in other languages. With us it is ufed to denote
fuch phrafes or modes of fpeech in Englifh as are
formed after the French idiom.
GALLINACEUS lapis, a glofiy fubftance pro¬
duced by volcanic fires 5 the fame with the lapis objidi-
anus of the ancients. A kind of it is brought from
Paris, of a beautiful black, refembling the colour of a
Gafcogny. Auvergne, See. was fituatedbetween the Ga- .large crow in that country namedgallinaao.
rutnna, the Pyrenean mountains, and the ocean. Gal- GALLIN^E, in ornithology, an order of birds,
lia Celtica, or Lugdunenfis, was bounded by Belgium, See Ornithology.
Gallia Narbonenfis, the Alps, and the ocean. It con- GALLINACIOUS, an appellation given to the
tained the country at prefent known by the name of birds of the order of the gallinas.
Lyonnais, Pouraine, Franche Comte, Senenois, Switzer- GALLING, or Excoriation, in medicine. See
land, and part of Normandy. Befides thefe grand di-
vifions, there is often mention made of Gallia Cifalpi-
na or Citerior, Tranfalpina or Ulterior, which refers
to that part of Italy which was conquered by fome of
Excoriation.
Galling of a Horfe's Bach, a diforder occafioned
by heat, and the dialing or pinching of the faddle.
In order to prevent it, fome take a hind’s fkin well
the Gauls who crofted the Alps. By Gallia Cifalpina, garnifheu with hair, and fit it neatly under the pannd
the Romans underilood that part of Gaul which lies in
Italy, and by Tranfalpina, that which lies beyond the
Alps, in regard only to the inhabitants of Rome. Gal-
of the faddle, fo that the hairy fide may be next the
horfe.
When a horfe’s back is galled upon a journey, take
lia Cifpadana, and Tranfpadana, is applied to a part of out a little of the huffing of the pannel over the fwell-
Italy conquered by fome of the Gauls ; and then It
means the country on this fide of the Po, or beyond
the Po, with refpeft to Rome By Gallia Togata, the
Romans underftood Cifalpine Gaul, where the Roman
gowns toga were ufually worn. Gallia Narbonenfis
was called Braccata, on account of the peculiar covering
of the inhabitants for their thighs The epithet of
Comata is applied to Gallia Celtica, becaufe the people
fuffered their hair to grow to an uncommon length.
The inhabitants were great warriors, and their valour
overcame the Roman armies, took the city of Rome,
and invaded Greece in different ages. They fpread
themfelves over the greatelf part of the world. They
were very fuperftitious in their religious ceremo¬
nies, and revered the facerdotal order as if they had
been gods. They long maintained a bloody war
againft the Romans, and Caefar refided 10 years in
their country before he could totally fubdue them. See
Gaul.
GALLIARD, or Gagliarda, a fort of dance
anciently in great requell; confiding of very diffe¬
rent motions and a&ions, fometimes proceeding terra
a terra or fmoothly along ; fometimes capering ; fome¬
times along the room, and fometimes acrofs. The
word is French, gailliarde, or rather Italian ; and li¬
terally fignifies ‘ gay, merry, fprightly ” This
dance was alfo called Romanefque, becaufe brought from
Rome.
Thoinot Arbeau, in his Orchefography, deferibes it
as confiding of five Heps, and five pofitions of the feet,
which the dancers performed before each other, and
ing, and few a piece of foft white leather on the infide
of the pannel: anoint the part with fait butter, and
every evening wipe it clean, rubbing it till it grow
foft, anointing it again with butter, or, for want of
that, with greafe : wafh the fwelling, or hurt, every
evening with cold water and foap ; and drew it with
fait, which fhould be left on till the horfe be faddled
in the morning.
GALLINULE. See Fulica.
GALLIPOLI, a fea-port town of Italy, in the
kinodom of Naples, and in the Terra-di-Otranto, with
a bifhop’s fee. It Hands on a rocky ifland, joined to
the continent by a bridge. From the remoted anti¬
quity this was a dation fo favourable to commerce,
that every maritime power wifhed to fecure it j and it
is a reproach to government, that nothing has been
done to improve its natural advantages : at prefent,
Mr Swinburn informs us, it has neither harbour nor
flicker for (hipping. Charles II. demolilhed Galli¬
poli for its adherence to Frederick of Aragon. The
Venetians treated it with great cruelty in the 15th
century; and in 1481 it was pillaged by the Turks.
To preferve it from future calamities, Charles V. re¬
paired and drengthened its fortifications; and, fince
that period, it has enjoyed the benefits of peace and
trade, which have rendered it the mod opulent and
gayed town upon the coad, though its inhabitants do
not exceed 6000 in number. Coni'umptions and fpit-
ting of blood are rather frequent here, occafioned by
the great fubtilty of the air, which is ventilated from
every quarter. The buildings are tolerable, and fome
of
GAL [ J34 1 GAL
Gallipoli of the churches have good paintings. The cotton
Gallois tra^e bring8 in about 30,000 ducats a-year. Good
01 * ■ muflins, cotton ftockings, and other parts of apparel,
are manufaftured here, and purchafed by the Proven¬
cals ; for Gallipoli has no direft trade with the metro¬
polis. Silk and faffron were formerly obje&s of
traffic ; but heavy duties and oppreffion have caufed
them to be abandoned. The wine of this territory is
good ; but from drynefs of climate, and fliallownefs of
foil, the vintage frequently fails in quantity; and
then the Gallipolitans have recourfe to Sicily for a
fupply. Oil is the great fupport of the place : two-
thirds of the produce of its olive plantations are ex¬
ported to France, and the north of Italy ; the re¬
mainder is fent to Naples, and other ports of the king¬
dom. Neapolitan merchants, by means of agents fet¬
tled at Gallipoli, buy up the oils, from year to year,
long before an olive appears upon the tree ; and the
price is afterwards fettled by public authority. The
Neapolitans fell their oil to the merchants of Leghorn ;
and, if faithfully ferved by their fadtors in Terra di
Otranto, ought to double their capital in two years.
But, to balance this advantage, they run great rifks,
pay exorbitant intereft, and have frequent bankrupt¬
cies to guard againft. E. Long. 18. 10. N. Lat.
40. 20.
Gallipoli, a fea-port town of Turky in Europe,
in the province of Romania, feated at the mouth of
the fea of Marmura, with a good harbour, and a bi-
(hop’s fee. It contains about 10,000 Turks, 3500
Greeks, befides a great number of Jews. The bazar
or bezeftein, the place where merchandizes are fold,
is a handfome ftrudture, with domes covered with lead.
It is an open place, and has no other defence than a
paltry fquare caille. The houfes of the Greeks and
Jews have doors not above three feet and an half high,
to prevent the Turks riding into their houfes. E.
Long 26. 59. N. Lat. 40. 30.
GALLIUM, in botany. See Galium.
GALLO, an ifland of the South Sea, near the fea-
coaft of Peru, in South America, which was the firft
place pofleffed by the Spaniards when they attempted
the conqueft of Peru; it is alfo the place where the
bucaneers ufed to come for wood and water, and to refit
their veffels when they were in thefe parts. W. Long.
88. o. N. Lat. 2. 30.
Gallo- Grxcia, a country of Afia Minor, near Bithy-
nia and Cappadocia. It was inhabited by a colony of
Gauls, w'ho affumed the name of Gallograci becaufe a
number of Greeks had accompanied them in their
emigration. See Galatia.
GALLOIS (John), born at Paris in 1632, was
an univerfal fcholar; but chiefly noted for having been,
in conjunftion with M. de Sallo who formed the plan,
the firft publilher of the Journal des Sgavans. The
firft journal was publifhed January 5. 1665 ; but thefe
gentlemen criticifed new works fo rigoroufly, that the
whole tribe of authors united and cried it down. De
Sallo declined’ entirely after the publication of the
third number: but Gallois ventured to fend out a
fourth, on January 4th 1666; though not without a
moft humble advertifement at the beginning, wherein
it was declared, that the author “ would not prelume
ta criticife, but fimpl^ give an account of the books.”
This, with the proteftion of M. Colbert, who was Gallon
greatly taken-with the work, gradually reconciled the II ^
public to it: and thus began literary journals, which Gallow8‘
have been continued from that time to this, under '
various titles, and by various writers. Gallois con¬
tinued his journal to the year 1674, when more im¬
portant occupations obliged him to turn it over to o-
ther hands. M. Colbert had taken him into his houfe
to teach him Latin ; and when, he loft his patron in
1683, he was firft made librarian to the king, and
then Greek profeffor in the royal college. He died in
1707-
GALLON, a meafure of capacity both for dry and
liquid things, containing four quarts. But thefe quarts,
and confequently the gallon itfelf, are different, ac¬
cording to the quality of the thing meafured : For in-
ftance, the wine-gallon contains 231 cubic inches, and
holds eight pounds averdupois of pure water; the
beer and ale gallon contains 281 folid inches, and
holds ten pounds theree ounces and a quarter averdu¬
pois of water; and the gallon for corn, meal, &c. 272 J
cubic inches, and holds nine pounds thirteen ounces of
pure water.
GALLOP, in the manege, is the fwifteft natural
pace of a horfe, performed by reaches or leaps; the
two fore-feet being railed almoft at the fame time;
and when thefe are in the air, and juft ready to touch
the ground again, the two hind-feet are lifted almoft
at once. The word is borrowed from the barbarous
Latin calupare, or calpare, “ to run.” Some derive it
from caballicare; others from the Greek xaXT«£^», 0r
%a\-xuv, tofpur a horfe.
GALLOPER, in artillery, is the name of a car¬
riage which ferves for a pound and a half gun. This
carriage has ftiafts fo as to be drawn without a limber,
and is thought by feme to be more convenient and pre¬
ferable to other field carriages; and it may likewife
ferve for our light three and fix pounders.
GALLOWAY, a county of Scotland, which gives
the title of Earl to a branch of the noble family of
Stuart. It is divided into two diftri&s; the weftern,
called Upper Galloway, being the fame with Wigtoir-
Ihire ; and the eaftern, or ftewartry of Kirkcudbright,
called Lower Galloway. See Kirkcudbright and
WlGTONSHIRE.
Mull of Galloway, the fouth cape or promontory
of all Scotland, in the county of Galloway, on the
Irifti fea.
Galloways is the name of a peculiar fort of hor-
fes, fo called from the county of Galloway in Scot¬
land, where they are bred. Tradition reports that
this kind of horfes fprung from fome Spanilh ftallions,.
which fwam on fliore from fome of the fhips of the fa¬
mous Spanilh armada, wrecked on the coaft; and
coupling with the mares of the country, furnilhed the
kingdom with their pofterity. They were much efteem-
ed, and of a middling fize, ftrong, aftive, nervous, and
hardy.
GALLOWS, an inftrument of punilhment, where¬
on perfo ns convitted capitally of felony, &c, are exe¬
cuted by hanging.
Among our anceftors it was called fare a, “ fork ;”
a name by which it is ft ill denominated abroad, parti¬
cularly in France and Italy. In this latter country*
tha
GAL [ J35 ] GAM
the reafon of the name fiill fubfills ; the gallons being
a real fork drove into the ground, acrofs the legs
whereof is laid a beam, to which the rope is tied. See
Furca.
GALLUS (Cornelius), an ancient Roman poet,
born at Forum Julium, now called Frejus, in France,
He was a particular favourite with Auguftus Csefar,
who made him .governor of Egypt: but his mal-
adminiftration there occafioned his baniihment, and
the lofs of his eftate : for grief of which he put an
end to his own life. He wrote four books of love-
elegies j and Virgil has complimented him in many
places.
Gallos, or Cock, in ornithology. See Pha-
SIANtlS.
GALLY, in printing, a frame into which the
compohtor empties the lines out of his compofing-
llick, and in which he ties up the page when it is com¬
pleted.
The gaily is formed of an oblong fquare board, with
a ledge on three fides, and a groove to admit a falfe
bottorn, called a gallyjlice.
GALWAY, or Galloway, a county of Ireland,
which is 82 miles in length, and 42 in breadth, bound¬
ed by the counties of Clare, Tipperary, King’s Coun¬
ty, Rofcommon, and the fea. The river' Shannon
w'afhes the frontiers of the eaft and fouth-eaft, and
forms a lake feveral miles in length. There is another
great lake called Carl}/, or Carib, which is near 20
miles long, and fiv<f broad. The county contains
15,4.20 houfes, 136 parilhes, 17 baronies, and bo¬
roughs ; and fetds 8 members to parliament. The ca¬
pital town is of the fame name.
Galway, a town of Ireland, in the county of the
fame name, and province of Connaught, of which it
is the capital. It is feated on the bay of Galway on the
wellern ocean, 108 miles well of Dublin, and gives title
of Vifcount to the family of Monkton. It is furround-
ed with ftrong walls, has large ftraight ftreets, and the
houfes are generally well built with Hone. It has a
good trade into foreign parts, on account of its har¬
bour, which is defended by a fort. It is governed by
a mayor, fheriffs, and recorder, and returns two mem¬
bers to parliament. It has but one parifh church,
which is a large and beautiful Gothic flrufture ; an
exchange ; banacks for 10 companies of foot, a char¬
ter-fchool, anti an hofpital. This was one of the
ftrongeft towns in the kingdom : it held out fome time
againft general Ginkle, who invefted and took it after
the battle of Aughrim. Its fortifications were then
repaired; the walls are flanked by baftions, but are
moftly gone to decay. The falmon and herring fifh-
eries are carried on here w’ith great fpirit, and employ
700 boats , the quantity of kelp manufactured and ex¬
ported is confiderable; and the growth of the linen
manufacture, though of late introduction, is become
very important. In 1296, Sir William de Burgh
founded a monaftery here for Franeifcan friars, on St
Stephen’s ifland, fituated without the north gate of
the town. In 1381, there being two popes at Rome,
and the people of Ireland being doubtful to which
they fliould pay obedience, pope Urban, to fix them
entirely to his intereft, empowered the guardian of
this monaftery to excommunicate every perfon in the
province of Connaught who fliould adhere to Cle¬
ment VII. who he affured them was anfipope. The Gama
tomb of the founder of this mSnaftery was difcovered II
in June i779> upwards of four feet under ground, with Gamboge,.
his family-arms, and a very long broad fvvord, elegant- ' *•
ly carved thereon; feme of the remains are ftill to be
feen.—Near the weft gate of the town, without the
walls, was the monaftery of St Mary of the hill: on
the nuns forfaking it, the fecular clergy entered into
and kept poffeflion of it for a confiderable time ; but
on the petition of the inhabitants-of the town, to pope
Innocent VIII. it was granted to the Dominican fii-
ars, by a bull dated the 4th December 1488; there
are no remains of this foundation except the. cemetery ;
the whole building having been demoliftied by the
townfmen in the year 1652, in order to prevent Crom.-
well from turning it into a fortification againft them-
felves : there was alfo an Auguftinian friary, on a hill
near this town, founded by Stephen Lynch, and Mar¬
garet his wife, in the year 1508, at the earneft folici-
tation of Richard Nangle, a friar of the fame order,
who afterwards became archbifhop of Tuarri.
GAMA (Vafco de), a Portuguefe adfniral, cele¬
brated for his difeovery of the Eaft Indies by the Cape
of Good Hope, was born at Synes ; and, in 1497, was
fent to the Indies by king Emanuel: he returned in
1502, and failed thither again with 13 veffels richly
laden. He was made viceroy of the Indies by king
John III.; and died at Cochin, on the 24th of De¬
cember 1525. Don Stephen and Don Chriftopherde
Garna, his fons, were alfo viceroys of the Indies, and
celebrated in hiftory.
GAMBIA, a large river of Negroland in Africa,
generally fuppofed to be a branch of the Niger. See
Nile,Niger, and Senegal.
GAMBOGE, is a coftcreted vegetable juice *, * See Gaxt*
partly of a gummy and partly of a refinous nature.
is chiefly brought to us in large cakes or rolls from
Cambaja in the Eaft Indies. The beft fort is of a
deep yellow or orange colour, breaks fliining and free
from drofs: it has no fmell, and very little tafte, un-
lefs kept in the mouth for fome time, when it impref-
Ls a flight fenfe of acrimony. It immediately com¬
municates to fpirit of wine a bright golden colour, and
alfnoft entirely diflolves in it ; Geoffroy fays, except
the fixth part. Alkaline falts enable water to ail up¬
on this fubftance powerfully as a menftruum : the folu-
tion made by their means is fomewhat tranfparent, of a
deep blood-red colour, and paffes the fibre : the dulci¬
fied fpirit of fal ammoniac readily and entirely diffolves
it, and takes up a confiderable quantity ; and what is
pretty remarkable, this folution mixes either with wa¬
ter or fpirit, without growing turbid.
As a pigment, it makes a beautiful yellow, which
is much ufed by the painters. Dr Lewis fays, that it
makes a beautiful and durable citron yellow ftain upon
marble, whether rubbed in fubftance on the hot Hone,
or applied, as dragon’s-blood fometimes is, in form of
a fpirituous tindlure. When it is applied on cold
marble, the ftone is afterwards to be heatedj to make
the colour penetrate.
As a medicine, gamboge evacuates powerfully both
upwards and downwards; fome condemn it as ailing
with too great violence, and occafioning dangerous,
hypercatharfes; whilft others are of a contrary opi¬
nion. Geoffrey feems particularly fond of this medi¬
cine,,.
GAM [ 536 ] GAM
Game. CiY,e, and informs us, that he has frequently given
from two to four grains, without its proving at all
emetic ; that from four to eight grains, it both vo¬
mits and purges, without violence ; that its operation
is foon over; and that if given in a liquid form, and
fufficiently diluted, it Hands not in need of any correc¬
tor ; that in the form of a bolus or pill, it is moft apt
to prove emetic, but very rarely has this effeft if joined
along with mercurms dulcis. He neverthelefs cautions
againft its ufe where the patient cannot eafily bear vo¬
miting.—It has been ufed in dropfy with cream of tar¬
tar or jalap, or both, to quicken their operation. It
isalfo recommended by fome to the extent of 15 grains
with an equal quantity of vegetable alkali in cafes of
the tape-worm. This dofe is ordered in the morning;
and if the worm is not expelled in two or three hours,
it is repeated even to the third time with fafety and
efficacy. It is afierted that it has been given to this
extent even in delicate habits. This is faid to be the
remedy alluded to by Baron Van Swieten, which was
employed by Dr Herenfchward, and with him proved
fo fuccefsful in the removal of the tasnia lata.
GAME, in general, fignifies any diverfion or fport,
that is performed with regularity, and rdlrained to
certain rules. See Gaming.
Games are ufually diftinguiffied into thofe of exer-
cife and addrefs, and thofe of hazard. To the firft
belong chefs, tennis, billiards, &c. and to the latter
thofe performed with cards or dice, as back-gam¬
mon, ombre, picquet, whift, &c. See BacK-Gam¬
mon, See.
Games, in antiquity, were public diverfions, exhi¬
bited on folemn occafions. Such among the Greeks,
were the Olympic, Pythian, Ifthmian, Nemean, Sec.
games ; and, among the Romans, the Apollinarian,
Circenfian, Capitoline, Sec. games. See OurMPic,
Pythian, Funeral, Sec.
Game, in law, fignifies birds, or prey, taken or
killed by fowling or hunting.
The property of fuch animals fur# nature as are
known under the denomination of gams, with the right
ofpurfuing, taking, and deftroying them, is vefted in
the king alone, and from him derived to fuch of his
. fubjeefs as have received the grants of a chace, a park,
or a free warren.
By the law of nature, indeed, every man, from the
prince to the peafant, has an equal right of purfuing,
and taking to his own ufe, all fuch creatures as are
fera nature, and therefore the property of nobody,
'%UclJt. but liable to be feized by the firft occupant. But it
Ctmment. follows from the very end and cdnftitution of fociety,
that this natural right, as well as many others be¬
longing to man as an individual, may be reftrained by
pofitive laws enafted for reafons of ftate, or for the
fuppofed benefit of the community. This reftridlion
may be either with refpeft to the place in which this
right may, or may not, be exercifed ; with refpeft to
the animals that are the fubjefts of this right ; or with
refpeft to the perforn allowed or forbidden to exercife
it. And, in confequence of this authority, we find
that the municipal laws of many nations have exerted
fuch power of reftraint ; have in general forbidden
the entering on another man’s grounds, Tor any caufe,
without the owner’s leave ; have extended their pro-
teftion to fuch particular animals as are ufually the
M° 134.
objects of purfuit; and have inverted the prerogative of GattuS*.
hunting and taking fuch animals, in the fovereign of —^^
the ftate only, and fuch as he fliail authorize. Many
reafons have concurred for making thefe cqnftitutions :
as, 1. For the encouragement of agriculture and im¬
provement of lands, by giving every man an exclu-
five dominion over his own foil. 2. For the prefer-
vation of the feveral fpecies of thefe animals, which
would foon be extirpated by a general liberty. 3. For
prevention of idlenefs and diffipation in hufbandmen,
artificers, and others of lower rank ; which would be
the unavoidable confequence of univerfal licence. 4. For
prevention of popular infurre&ions and refiftance to
the government, by difarming tfce bulk of the people:
which laft is a reafon oftener meant than avowed, by
the makers of foreft or game laws. Nor, certainly, in
thefe prohibitions is there any natural as fome
have weakly enough fuppofed : fincey as Puffendorf
obferves, the law does not hereby take from any man
his prefent property, or what was already his own ;
but barely abridges him of one means of acquiring a
future property, that of occupancy ; which indeed the
law of nature would allow him, but of which the law's
of fociety have in moftinftances very juftly and reafon-
ably deprived him.
Yet, however defenfible thefe provifions in general
may be, on the footing of reafon, or juftice, or civil
policy, we muft, notwithftanding, acknowledge, that,
in their prefent fhape, they owe their immediate ori¬
ginal to flavery. It is not till after the irruption of
the northern nations into the Roman empire, that we
read of any other prohibitions, than that natural one
of not fporting on any private grounds without the
owner’s leave.
With regard to the rife and original of our prefent
civil prohibilions, it will be found, that all foreft and
game laws were introduced into Europe at the fame
time, and by the fame policy, as gave birth to the
feodal fyfteni ; wdien thofeTwarms of barba ians iffued
from their northern hive, and laid the foundation of
moft; of the prefent kingdoms of Europe, on the ruins
of the weftern empire. For when a conquering gene¬
ral came to fettle the economy of a vanquifhed coun¬
try, and to part it out among his foldiers or feuda¬
tories, who were to render him military fervice for fuch
donations; it behoved him, in order to fecure his new
acquifitions, to keep the rujlici or natives of the coun¬
try, and all who were not his military tenants, in as
low a condition as poffible, and efpecially to prohibit
them the ufe of arms. Nothing could do this more
effedtually than a prohibition of hunting and fporting:
and therefore it Was the policy of the conqueror to re-
ferve this right to himfelf, and fuch on whom he
ffiould beftow it ; which were only his capital feudato¬
ries, or greater barons. And, accordingly, w’e find,
in the feudal conftitutions, one and the fame law prohi¬
biting the in general from carrying arms, and
alfo proferibing the ufe of nets, fnares, or other en¬
gines for deftroying the game. This exclufive privie
lege well fuited the martial genius of the conquering
troops, who delighted in a fport which in its purfuit
and (laughter bore fome relemblance to war. Vita
omnis (fays Caefar, fpeaking of the ancient Germans)
in venationibus atque in Jludiis rei militaris cori/ljlit. And'
Tacitus in like manner obferves, that quoties bdla non.
4 ineunt.
GAM F 537 1 O A M
ineunt, multum ’venatibus, plus per otium tranjigunt. And tion : capturam avium per totam Anglhxm interdlxlt *. Game,
indeed, like fome of their modern fuccefibrs, they had The cruel and unfupportable hardihips which thefe fo- v
no other amufement to entertain their vacant hours; reft-laws created to the fubjeft, occafioned our an-*-^,'?>sw»
they defpifing all arts as effeminate, and having no cellors to be as zealous for their reformation, as for3°^‘
other learning, than was couched in fuch rude ditties the relaxation of the fcodal rigours and the other ex-
as were fung at the folemn caroufals which fucceeded aftions introduced by the Norman family; and ac-
thefe antient huntings. And it is remarkable, that, in cordingly we find the immunities of carfa de forejla as
thofe nations where the feodal policy remains the moft warmly contended for, and extorted from the king
unconupted, the foreft or game laws continue in their with as much difficulty, as thofe of magna carta itfelf.
highed rigour. In France, all game is properly the By this charter, confirmed in parliament f, many fo-IjHeaHI;
king’s; and in fome parts of Germany it is death for reds were difafforeded, or dripped of their oppreffive
a peafant to be found hunting in the woods of the no- privileges, and regulations were made in the regimen
fcility. °f flich as remained; particularly killing the king’s
With us in Britain, alfo, hunting has ever been e- deer was made no longer a capital offence, but only
deemed a mod princely diverfion and exefcife. The punifiied by a fine, imprifonment, or abjuration of the
whole ifland was replenidied with all forts of game in realm. And by a variety of fubfequent datutes, toge-
the times of the Britons ; who lived in a wild and pa- ther with the long acquiefcence of the crown without
floral manner, without inclofing or improving their exerting the fored-laws, this prerogative is now be-,
grounds ; and derived much of their fubliitence from come no longer a grievance to the fubjedt.
the chafe, which they all enjoyed in common. But, But as the king referved to himfelf the_/or£/?j for his
when hufbar.dry took place Under the Saxon govern- own exclulive diverfion, fo he granted out from time
ment, ajid lands began to be cultivated, improved, and to time other tra&s of lands to his fubjefts under the
inclofed, the beads naturally fled into the woody and names of chafes or parks ; or gave them licence to
defart tradts, which were called tht forejls; and, ha- make fuch in their own grounds ; which indeed are
ving never beep difpofed of in the fird didribu- fmaller foreffs in the hands of a fubjedf, but not go-
tion of lands, were therefore held to belong to the verned by the fored-laws; and by the common law no
crown. Thefe were filled with great plenty of perfon is at liberty to take or kill any beads of chafe,
game, which our. royal fportfmen referved for their but fuch as hath an ancient chafe or park ; unlefs they
own diverfion, on pain of a pecuniary forfeiture be alfo beads of prey.
for fuch as interfered with their fovereign. But e- As to all inferior fpecies of game, called beajls and
very freeholder had the full liberty of (porting upon fowls of warren ; the liberty of taking or killing them
his territoiies, provided he abffained from the king’s is another franchife or royalty, derived like wife from
foreds. the crown, and CdWiA free-warren; a word-which fig-
However, upon the Norman conqued, a new doc- nifies prefervation or cudody: as the exclufive liberty
trine took place ; and the right of purfuing and ta- of taking and killing fiflr in a public dream or river
king all beads of chafe or venary, and fuch other ani- is called a free-fjhery ; of which, however, no new
mals as were accounted game, was then held to belong franchife can at profent be granted, by the exprefs
to the kin^, or to fuch only as were authorized under provifion of magna carta, c. 16. The principal inten-
him. And this, as well upon the principles of fhe tion of granting a man thefe franchifes or liberties was
fepdal law, that the king is the ultimate proprietor of in order to protedf the game, by giving him a foie and
all the lands in the kingdom, they being all held of exclufive pbwer of killing it himfelf, provided he pre-
him as the chief lord, or lord parampunt of the fee ; vented other perfons. And no man but he who has
and that therefore he has the right of the univerfal foil, a chafe or free-warren, by grant from the crown, or
to enter thereon, and to chafe and take fuch creatures prefcription, which fuppofes one, can judify hunting
at his pleafure : as alfo upon another maxim of the or fporting upon another man’s foil ; nor indeed, in
common law, that thefe animals are hria vacantia, and, thorough flridtnefs of common law, either hunting or
having no other owner, belong to the king by his fporting at all.
prerogative. As therefore the former reafon was held However novel this doflrine may feem, it is a regu-
to veil in the king a right.to purfue and take them lar confequence from what has been before delivered,
any where ; the latter was fuppofed to give the king, that the foie right of taking and dedroying game be-
tmd fuch as he fhould authorize, a fols and exclufive longs exclufively to the king. This appears, as well
right. from the hidorical deduction here made, as becaufe he
This right', thus newly veded in the crown, was ex- may grant to his fubjedls an exclufive right of taking
erted with the utmod rigour, at and after the time of them; which he could not do, unlefs fuch a right was
the Norman eflablifhment; not only in the ancient fo- fird inherent in himfelf. And hence it will follow,
teds, but in the new ones which the conqueror made, that no perfon whatever, but he who has fuch deriva-
by laying together vad trafts of country, depopulated tive right from the crown, is by common law intitled
for that purpofe, and referved folely for the king’s to take or kill any beads of chafe, or other game what-
royal diverfion ; in which were exercifed the mod hor- foever. It is true, that, by the acquiefcence of the
rid tyrannies and oppreffions, under colour of fored- crown, the frequent grants of free-warren in ancient
law, for the fake of preferring the beads of chafe; times, and the introducfion of new penalties of late by
to kill any of which, within the limits of the fored, certain datittes for preferring the game, this exclufive
was as penal as the death of a man. And, in pur- prerogative of the king is little known or confidered ;
fuance of the fame principle, king John laid a total in- every man that is exempted from thefe modern penal-
teididl upon the winged as well as the fourfooted ere a- ties, looking upon himfelf as at liberty to do what he
Vol. VII. Part 11. 3Y pleafei
GAM [ 53^ ] GAM
Game, pleafes with the game: whereas the contrary is ftri&Iy
1 true, that co man, however well qualified he may vul¬
garly be efteemed, has a right to encroach on the royal
prerogative by the killing of game, unlefs he can fliow
a particular grant of free-warren: or a prefcription,
which prefumes a grant; or fome authority under an
aft of parliament. As for the latter, there are but
two inftances wherein an exprefs permiffion to kill
game was ever given by ftatute ; the one by i Jac. I.
e. 27; altered by 7 Jac. I. c. 11. and virtually repeal¬
ed by 22 and 23 Car. II. c. 25. which gave authori¬
ty, fo long as they remained -in force, to the owners
of free-warren, to lords of manors, and to all freehold¬
ers having 40 1. per annum in lands of inheritance, or
Sol. for life or lives, or 4001.' perfonal eftate (and
their fervants), to take partridges and pheafants upon
their own, or their mailer’s free-warren, inheritance,
or freehold : the other by 5 Ann. c. 14. which em¬
powers lords and ladies of manors to appoint game-
keepers, to kill game for the ufe of fuch lord or lady;
which with fome alteration dill fubiiils, and plainly
fuppofes fuch power not to have been in them before.
The truth of the matter is, that thefe game-laws do
indeed qualify nobody, except in the inftance of a
gamekeeper, to kill game : but only to fave the
trouble and formal procefs of an aftion by the perfon
injured, who perhaps too might remit the offence.,
thefe flatutes inftift additional penalties, to be recover¬
ed either in a regular or fummary way, by any of the
king’s fubjefts, from certain perfons of inferior rank
who may be found offending in this particular. But
it does not follow that perfons excufed from thefe ad¬
ditional penalties are therefore authorified to kill game.
The circumftance of having tool, per annum, and the
reft, are not properly qualifications, but exemptions.
And thefe perfons, fo exempted from the penalties of
the game-ftatutes, are not only liable to aftions of
trefpafs by the owners of the land ; but alfo, if they
kill game within the limits of any royal franchife,
they are liable to the aftions of fuch who may have
the right of chafe or free-warren therein.
Upon the whole, it appears, that the king, by. his
prerogative, and fuch perfons as have, under his au¬
thority, the royal franchise of chace, park, or
* 3ee thoft Free-Warren *, are the only perfons who may acquire
articles. any property, however fugitive and tranfitory, in thefe
animals feres natures, while living ; which is faid to be
veiled in them propter pr'mnlegium. And it mu ft alfo
be obferved, that fuch perfons as may thus lawfully
hunt, fiflr, or fowl, rationeprimlegii, have only a qua¬
lified property in thefe animals : it not being abfolute
or permanent, but lading only fo long as the creatures
remain within the limits of fuch refpeftive franchife or
liberty, and ceafing the inftant they voluntarily pafs
out of it. It is held indeed, that if a man Harts any
game within his own grounds, and follows it into ano¬
ther’s, and kills it there, the property remains in him-
felf. And this is-grounded on reafon and natural ju-
ftice : for the property confifts in the poffeffion; which
poffiflion commences by the finding it in his own li¬
berty, and is continued by the immediate purfuit. And
fo, if a itranger Harts game in one man’s chafe or fiee-
warren, and hunts it into another liberty, the proper¬
ty continues in the owner of the chafe or warren; this
property aiifing from privilege, and not being changed
by the aft of a mere ftranger. Or if a man Harts game Game
on another’s private grounds, and kills it there, the I!
property belongs to him in whofe ground it was killed,
becaufe it was alfo ftarted there ; this property arifing v~
ratione foil. Whereas if, after being ftarted there, it is
killed in the grounds of a third perfon, the proper¬
ty belongs not to the owner of the firft ground, be¬
caufe the property is local ; nor yet to the owner of
the fecond, becaufe it was not darted in his fpil; but
it yells in the perfon who ftarted and killed it, though
guilty of a trefpafs againft both the owners. See the
article Game-LAws.
Game-Cock, a fighting cock, or one kept for fport;
a barbarous praftice, which is a difgrace to any civi¬
lized nation. See Cock- Fighting.
GAMELIA, in Grecian antiquity, a nuptial feaft,
or rather facrifice, held in the ancient Greek families
on the day before a marriage ; thus called from a cu-
ftom they had of (having themfelves on this occafion,
and prefenting their hair to fome deity to whom they
had particular obligations.
GAMELION, in the ancient chronology, was the
eighth month of the Athenian year, containing 29;
days, and anfwering to the latter part of our January
and beginning of February. It was thus called, as be¬
ing, in the opinion of the Athenians, the moil proper
feafon of the year for marriage.
GAMING, the art of playing or praftifing any
game, particularly thafe of hazard; as cards, dice,
tables, See.
Gaming has at all times been looked upon as a
thing of pernicious confequence to the commonwealth ;
and is therefore feverely prohibited by law. It is con-
fidered as a praftice generally intended to fupply, or
retrieve, the expences occafioned by luxury : it be¬
ing a kind of tacit confeffion, that the company enga¬
ged therein do, in general, exceed the bounds of their
refpeftive fortunes ; and therefore they call lots to de¬
termine upon whom the ruin (hall at prefent fall, that
the reft may be faved a little longer. But, taken in
any light, it is an offence of the moft alarming nature ;
tending, by neceffary confequence, to promote public
idlenefs, theft, and debauchery, among thofe of a
lower clafs ; and, among perfons of a fuperior rank, it
hath frequently been attended with the hidden ruin and
defolation of ancient and opulent families, an abandon¬
ed prollitution of every principle of honour and virtue,
and too often hath ended in (elf-murder. To reftrain
this pernicious vice among the inferior fort of people,
the llatute 33 Hen.VIII. c. 9. was made; which
prohibits, to all but gentlemen, the games of tennis, ta¬
bles, cards, dice, bowls, and other unlawful diverlions
there fpecified, unlefs in the time of Chriftmas, under
pecuniary pains and imprifonment. And the fame law,
and alfo the ftatute 23 Geo. II. e. 24. inflift pecuni¬
ary penalties, as well upon the mailer of any public
houfe wherein fervants are permitted to game, as upon
the fervaots themfelves who are found to be gaming
there. But this is not the principal ground of modern
complaint: it is the gaming in high life that demands
the attention of the magiftrate ; a pafflon to which
every valuable conlideration is made a facrifice, and
which we feem to ha.ve inherited from our anceftors the
ancient Germans; whom Tacitus deferihes to have
been bewitched with, the fpirit of play to a moft exor-
bitarir
GAM [5
Gaming, bitant degree. “ They addift themfelves (fays he)
to dice (which is wonderful) when fober, and as a
ferious employment; with fuch a mad defire of win¬
ning or lofing, that, when ftript of every thing elfe,
they will ftake at laft their libetty, and their very
felves. The lofer goes into a voluntary flavery ; and,
though younger and ftronger than his antagonill, fuf-
fers himfelf to be bound and fold. And this perfe-
-verance in fo bad a caufe they call the point of ho¬
nour: ea 'eji in repravapervicacia, ipfi Jidem vacant.”
One would almoft be tempted to think Tacitus was de-
fcribing a modern Englilhman. When men are thus
intoxicated with fo frantic a fpirit, laws will be of
little avail: becaufe the fame falfe fenfe of honour that
prompts a man to facrifice hrmfelf, will deter him from
appealing to the magiftrate. Yet it is proper that laws
fhould be, and be known publicly, that gentlemen may
confider what p laities they wilfully incur, and what
a confidence they repofe in iharpers ; who, if fuccefs-
ful in play, are certain to be paid with honour, or, if
unfuccefsful, have it in their power to be ftill greater
gainers by informing. For, hy fiat. 16 Car. II. c. 7.
if any perfon by playing or betting lhall lofe more than
xool. at one time, he (hall not be compellable to pay
the fame ; and the winner lhall forfeit treble the value,
one moiety to the king, the other to the informer.
The ftatute 9 Ann. c. 14. enacts, that all bonds and
other fecurities, given for money won at play, or
money lent at the time to play withal, lhall be utter¬
ly void : that all mortgages and incumbrances of lands,
made upon the fame confideration, lhall be and enure
to the heir of the mortgager: that, if any perfon at
one time lofes 10I. at play, he may fue the winner,
and recover it back by a&ion of debt at law ; and, in
cafe the lofer does not, any other perfon may fue the
winner for treble the fum fo loft ; and the plaintiff in
either cafe may examine the defendant himfelf upon
oath: and that in any of thefe fuits no privilege of
parliament lhall be allowed. The ftatute farther enadts,
that if any perfon cheats at play, and at one time wins
more than 10I. or any valuable thing, he may be in-
didted thereupon, and fhall forfeit five times the value,
lhall be deemed infamous, and fuffer fuch corporal
punilhment as in cafe of wilful perjury. By feveral
ftatutes of the reign of king George II. all private
lotteries by tickets, cards, or dice (and particularly
the games of faro, ballet, ace of hearts, hazard, paf-
fage, roily polly, and all other games with dice, ex¬
cept backgammon), are prohibited under a penalty of
200I. for him that lhall eredt fuch lotteries, and 501.
a-time for the players. Public lotteries, unlefs by au¬
thority of parliament, and all manner of ingenious de¬
vices, under the denomination of fales or otherwife,
which in the end are equivalent to lotteries, were be¬
fore prohibited by a great variety of ftatutes under
heavy pecuniary penalties. But particular defcriptions
will ever be lame and deficient, unlefs all games of
mere chance are at once prohibited ; the invention of
Iharpers being fwifter than the punilhment of the law,
which only hunts them from one device to another.
The ttat. 13 Geo. II. c. 19. to prevent the multipli¬
city of hcrl’e races, another fund of gaming, diredts,
that no plates or matches under 50I. Value lhall be run,
upon penalty of 2001. to be paid by the owner of
eachhorfe running, and tool, by fuch as advertife the
39 ] GAM
plate. By flatute 18 Geo. IT. c. 34. the ftatute Gam
9 Ann. is farther enforced, and foiire deficiencies fup-  v
plied : the forfeitures of that adt may now be reco¬
vered in a court of equity ; and, moreover, if any
man be convidled, upon information or indidlment, of
winning or lofing at any fitting 101. or 201. within 24
hours, he lhall forfeit five times the fum. Thus care¬
ful has the legiftature been to prevent this deftrudfive
vice.: which may Ihow that our laws againft garnin^
are not fo deficient, as ourfelves and our magiftrates in
putting thofe laws in execution.
Chance, or Hazard, in Gaming. Hazard, or cha'nce,
is a matter of mathematical confideration, becaufe it
admits of more and lefs. Gamefters either fetout up¬
on an equality of chance, or are fuppofed to do fo.
This equality may be altered in the courfe of the game,
by the greater good-fortune or addrefs of one of the
gamefters, whereby he comes to have a better chance,
fo that his lhare in the ftakes is proportionably better
than at firft. This more and lefs runs through all the
ratios between equality and infinite difference, or from
an infinitely little difference till it come to an infinitely
great one, whereby the game is determined. The
whole game, therefore, with regard to the iffue of it,
is a chance of the proportion the two lhares bear to
each other.
The probability of an event is greater or lefs, ac¬
cording to the number of chances by which it may hap¬
pen, compared with the number of all the chances by
which it may either happen or fail.
M. de Moivre, in a treatife de Menfura Sortis, has
computed the variety of chances in feveral cafes that
occur in gaming, the laws of which may be underftood
by what follow?.
Suppofe^i the number of cafes in which an event
may happen, and q the number of cafes wherein it may
not happen, both fides have the degree of probability,
which is to each other as p to q.
If two gamefters, A and B, engage on this footing,
that, if the cafes p happen, A ftiall win ; but if q hap¬
pen, B fhall win, and the ftake be a; the chance of
A will be and that of B ; confequently, if
q-Vp _ p+q
they fell the expe&ancies, they fhould have that for
them refpedtively.
If A and B play with a fingle die, on this condition,
that, if A throw two or more aces at eight throws,
he fhall win ; otherwife B fhall win ; What is the ra¬
tio of their chances ? Since there is but one cafe where¬
in an ace may turn up, and five wherein it may not,
let a=i, and bzz^. And again, fince there are eight
throws of the die, let n=8 ; and you will have
a-\-b\n—bn—nabn—I, tobn^-nabn—1 : that is, the
chance of A will be to that of B as 663991 to
10156525, or nearly as 2 to 3.
A and B are engaged at fingle quoits; and, after
playing fome time, A wants 4 of being up, and B 6 ;
but B is fo much the better gamefter, that his chance
againft t\ upon a fingle throw would be as 3 to 2; What
is the ratio of their chances ? Since A wants 4, and
B 6, the game will be ended at nine throws; there--
fore, raife n-f-i to the ninth power, and it will be
n9-f.9 a^ + 36 a7^ + 84 a6b*+\z6 aW+126 a*b\
to 84 -L-1,6 Gab1 6ab* J[-b9 : call a 3, and b 2, and
GAM [ 54c
you will have the ratio of chances in numbers, viz.
1759077 to 194048.
A and B play at fingle quoits, and A is the bell
gamelter, fo that he can give B 2 in 3 : What is the
ratio of their chances at a fingle throw ? Suppofe the
chances as z to, 1, and taife z+i to its cube, which
will be + r* Now lince A could give B
2 out of 3, A might undertake to win three throws
running ; and consequently the chances in this cafe will
be as»3 to + ^ Hence s;3=:3s;J4-3!s-f 1 > or
2a3=:*3+3a;3—3z-j-l. And therefore ev/2 = z4-1 ;
andj Confequently, The chances, there-
V
fore, are ~T2__j, anj refpeftively.
v
Again, fuppofe I have two wagers depending, in
the firft of which I have 3 to 2 the bell of the lay,
and in the fecond 7 to 4 ; What is the probability I
win both wagers ?
1. The probability of winning the firft is that
is the number of. chances I have to win, divided by
the number of all the chances-:, the probability of win¬
ning the fecond is r7T : therefore, multiplying thefe
two frattions together, the produft will be 44, which
is the probability of winning both wagers. Now,
this fraction being fubtrailed from I, the remainder is
44, which is the probability I do not win both wagers :
therefore the odds again!! me are 34 to 21.
2. If I would know what the probability is of win^
ning the fivft, and lofingthe fecond, I argue thus : tlm
probability of winning the firft is f, the probability of
lofing the fecond is -f4r : therefore multiplying-f by A,
the produd ff will be the probability of my winning
the firft, and lofmg the fecond ; which being fubtrad-
ed from 1, there will remain yf, which is the proba¬
bility I do not win the firft, and at the fame time lofe
the fecond.
3. If I would know what the probability is of win¬
ning the fecond, and at the fame time lofing the firft,
I fay,thus: The probability of winning the fecond is
Vi ; the probability of lofing the firft is ~ : therefore,
multiplying thefe two fradions together, the produd
44 is the probability I win the fecond, and alfo lofe
the firft.
4. If I would know what the probability is of
lofing both wagers, T fay, the probability of lofing
the firft is 4, and the probability of lofing, the fe¬
cond A : therefore the probability of lofing them
both is t8t : which, being fubtraded from 1, there
remains 44 : therefore, the odds of lofing both wagers
is 47 to 8.
This way of reafoning is applicable to the happen¬
ing or failing of any events' that may fall under con-
fideration. Thus if I would know what the probability
is of miffing an ace four times together with a die, this
I confider as the failing of four different events. Now
the probability of miffing the firft is |-> ike fecond is
alfo 4, the third 4, and the fourth 4; therefore the
ptobability of miffing it four times together is 4X|X|-
*4= AV5-; which being fubtraded from 1, there will
remain AVV for ike probability of throwing it once or
oftener in four times: therefore the odds of throwing
an ace in four times, is 671 to 625.
But if the flinging of an ace was undertaken in three
times, the probability of miffing it three times would
) 1 GAM
be 4X4X4 = tt4 ! which being fubtraded from 1, there Gaming,
will remain AV f°r ike probability of throwing it once v*~‘
or oftener in three times : therefore the odds againft
throwing it in three times are 125 to 91. Again, fup¬
pofe we would know the probability of throwing an ace
once in four times, and no more : Since the probability
of throwing it the firft time is 4, and of miffing it the
other three times, is 4X4X4-. it follows, that the proba¬
bility of throwing it the firft: time, and miffing it the
other three fucceffive times, is 4X4-X4X4=AVs » but
becaufe it is poffible to hit every throw as well as the
firft, it follows, that the probability of throwing it
once in four throws, and miffing it the other three, is
— 500 . which beingj^ubtraded from x, there
1296 1296
will remain 4/A f°r ike probability of throwing it
once, and no more, in four times. Therefore, if one
undertake to throw an ace once, and no more, in four
times, he has 500 to 796 the worft of the lay, or 5 to
8 very near.
Suppofe two events are fuch, that one of them has
twice as many chances to come up as the other; what
is the probability, that the event, which has the greater
number of chances to come up, does not happen twice
before the other happens once, which is the cafe of
flinging 7 with two dice before 4 once ? Since the
number of chances is as 2 to t, the probability of
the firft happening before the fecond is 4, but the pro¬
bability of its happening twice before it is but yXy or
4 : therefore it is 5 to 4 feven does not come up twice
before four once.
But, if it w'ere demanded, what muft be the pro¬
portion of the facilities of the coming up of two events,
to make that which has the moft chances come up
twice, before the other comes up once ? The anfwer
is, 12 to 5 very nearly : whence it follows, that the
probability of throwing the firft before the fecond is
44, and the probability of throwing it twice is 4tX
44, or At > therefore the probability of not doing,
it is 444 : therefore the odds againft it are as 145 to
144, which comes very near an equality.
Suppofe there is a heap of thirteen cards of one
colour, and another heap of thirteen cards of another
colour ; What is the probability, that, taking one card
at a venture out of each heap, I fhall take out the two
aces ?•
The probability of taking the ace out of the firft
heap is rj, the probability of taking the ace out of the
fecond heap is A ; therefore the probability of taking
out both aces is AXtt=tA’ which being fubtraded
from 1, there will remain 4|t: therefore the odds
againft me are 168 to 1.
In cafes where the events depend on one another,
the manner of arguing is fomewhat altered. Thus,
fuppofe that out of one fingle heap of thirteen cardi
of one colour 1 Ihould undertake to take out firft: the
ace; and, fecondly, the two: though, the probability
of taking out the ace be A* an^ the probability of
taking out the two be likewife Ayet> the ace being
fuppofed as taken out already, there will remain only
twelve cards in the heap, which will make the proba¬
bility of taking oui the two to be A 5. therefore the
probability of taking out the ace, and then the tw'o,
will be AX A*
In this laft queftion the two events have a dependence
on each other; which confifts in this, that one of the
events.
GAN
Gaming events being fuppofcd as having happened, the proha-
II bility of the other’s happening Is thereby altered. But
Ganges, the cafe is not fo In the two heaps of cards.
If the events in quellion be n in number, and be
fach as have the fame number a of chances by which
they may happen, and likewife the fame number b of
chances by which they may fail, raife a-^-b to the pow¬
er n. And if A and B play together, on condition
that if either one or more of the events in queftion
happen, A ihall win, and B lofe, the. probability of
A’s winning will be^dblL _A.; and that of B’s win-
a+b\«
ning will be : ^|- ; for when a-\-b Is a&ually raifed
to the power n, the only term in which a does not oc-
[ 54' 1
GAO
cur is the lait b11 : therefore all the terms but the lad ces of the body.
overflows yearly like tbe Nile ; and renders the king- Ganglion
dom of Bengal as fruitful as that of the Delta in E- ||
gypt. The people in thefe parts hold the water of Gao!-
this river in high veneration ; and it is vifited annually ’
by a prodigious number of pilgrims from all parts of
India. The Engli/h have feveral fettlements on this
river, which will be taken notice of in their proper
places. The greatelt happinefs that many of the In¬
dians vvifh for, is to die in this river.
GANGLION, in anatomy, denotes a knot fre¬
quently found in the courfe of the nerves, and which
is not morbid ; for wherever any nerve fends out a
branch, or receives one from another, or where two
nerves join together, there is generally a ganglion or
plexus, as may be feen at the beginning of all the
nerves of the medulla fpinalis, and in many other pla-
e favourable to A.
Thus if «— 3, raifing a-\-b to the cube a3-j-3«’^+
3a£z-{-i53, all the terms but bl will be favourable to
A ; and therefore the probability of A’s winning will
3—_£3
~_q|3 5 and the proba¬
be ^+3^+3^ (
a-pi ’
But if A and B
bility of B’s winning will be.
play on condition, that if either two or more of the
events in queftion happen, A fhall win ; but in cafe
one only happen, or none, B fhall win ; the probabi¬
lity of A’s winning will be.fi£L
+K
' ; for
the only two terms in which aa does not occur, are
the two laft, viz. naba — ‘ and ba.
GAMMONING, among feamen, denotes feveral
turns of a rope taken round the bowfprit, and reeved
through holes in knees of the head, for the greater
fecurity of the bowfprit.
GAMMUT, Gamut, Gam-uI, in mufic, a fcale
whereon we may learn to found the muiical notes, ut,
re, mi, fa, fol, la, in their feveral orders and difpo-
iitions. See Music-
The invention of this fcale is owing to Guido Are-
tin, monk of Arezzo, in Tufcany, about the- year
1009 ; though it is not To properly an invention, as an
improvement on the diagram or fcale of the ancients.
See Aretin.
Several alterations have been made in the gammut.
M. le Maire, particularly, has added a feventh note
Wx.fi ; and the Englifh ufually throw out both ut and
Ji, and make the other five ferve for all.
GANDER, in ornithology, the male of the goofe-
kind; one of which, it is faid, will ferve five geefe.
See Anas.
GANG-way, is the Teveral paffages or ways from
one part of the fhip to the other; and whatfoever is
laid in any of thofe paffages, is faid to lie in the gang¬
way.
GAGANELLI. See Clement XIV.
GANGES, a large and celebrated river of India.
It has its fource in the mountains which border on Little
Thibet, in 96 degrees of longitude, and 35. 45. of
latitude. It croffes feveral kingdoms, running from
north to fouth ; and falls into the bay of Bengal, by -yyjp HE
Ganglion, in furgery, a hard tubercle, generally
moveable, in the external or internal part of the car¬
pus, upon the tendons or ligaments in that partufu¬
ally without any pain to the patient.
GANGRENE, a very great and dangerous degree
of inflammation, wherein the parts affedled begin to
corrupt, and put on a ftate of pntrefa&ion. See Me¬
dicine, and Surgery.
GANNET, or Soxand Goofe, in ornithology. See
Pelicanus.
GANTLET, or GAUNtLET, a large kind of glove
made of iron, and the fingers covered with fmall plates.
It was formerly worn by the cavaliers, when armed at
all points. The word is derived.of the French gqnte-
let; and that ixam. gand or gant, “glove.”
The cafque and gauntlets were always borne in the
ancient marches in ceremony. Gauntlets were not intro¬
duced till about the 13th century.
The gauntlet was frequently thrown like the glove,
by way of challenge.
GANTLOPE. SeeGAUNTLOPE..
GANYMEDE, "in mythology, a beautiful' youth
of Phrygia, fonofTrosand brother, to Itus ; accord¬
ing to Lucian, he was the fon of Dardanas. Jupiter was
charmed with him; and carrying him away, made hint
his cup-bearer in the room of Hebe. Some fay that
he caufed him to be carried away by an eagle, and o-
thers affirm he was himfelf the raviflier under the form
of that bird. He deified this youth ; and to comfort
his father, made a prefent to him of fome of thoi’e very
fwift horfes that the gods rode upon.
GAOL (Gaola, Fr. Geale, i. e. Caveola, “ a cage
for birds”), is ufed metaphorically for a priibn. It is
a ftrong place or houfe for keeping of debtors, See.
and wherein a man is reftrained of his liberty to an-
fwer an offence done againft: the laws: and every coun¬
ty hath two gaols, one for debtors, which may be any
houfe where the fheriff pleafes ; the other for the
peace and matters of the crown, which is the county
gaol.
If a gaol be out of repair, or infufficient, &c. ju-
ftiees of peace, in their quarter feffions, may contract
with workmen for the rebuilding, or repairing it; and
by their warrant order the fum agreed on for that
purpofe to be levied on the feveral hundreds, and
other riivifions in the county by a-juft rate, n Sc 12
9. See Prison.
feveral mouths. The waters are low-eft in April and Gaol-Delivery. The adminiftration of juftice be-
May, and higheft. before the end of September*. It ffig originally in the crown, in former times our kings-
GAR [ 542 ] GAR
Gaoler in perfon rode through the realm once in feven years, his name ; and in particular the fmall Roman was Garafo
II to judge of and determine crimes and offences; after- byway of excellence known among the printers of 11 .
Garamond. warc}s juftices in eyre were appointed ; and fince, ju- thefe nations by the name of Garamond's fmall Roman. ar“n^
'r~ dices of aflife and gaol-delivery, &c. Acommiflionof By the fpecial command of king Francis I. he founded
gaol-delivery, is a patent in nature of a letter from three fizes of Greek types for the ufe of Robert Ste-
the king to certain perfons, appointing them his juftices, phens, who with them printed all his beautiful editions
or two or three of them, and authorifing them to de- of the NewTeftament, and other Greek authors. He
liver his gaol, at fuch a place, of the prifoners in it : died at Paris in 1561.
fot which purpofe it commands them to meet at fuch GARASSE (Francis), a remarkable jefuitical wri-
a place, at the time they themfelves (hall appoint; and ter, the firft author of that irreconcilable enmity that
informs them, that, for the fame purpofe, the king dill fubfifts between the Jefuits and Janfenifts in the
hath commanded hisfheriff of the fame county to bring church of Rome, was born at Angoulefme in 1585 :
all the prifoners of the gaol, and their attachments, and entered the Jefuits college in 1600. As he had
before them at the day appointed. a quick imagination, a ftronjj voice, and a peculiar
The juftices of gaol-delivery are empowered by the turn to wit, he became a popular preacher in the chief
common law to proceed upon indiftments of felony, cities of France ; but not content with this honour.
trefpafs, &c. and to order to execution or reprieve :
they may like wife difcharge fuch prifoners, as on their
trials are acquitted, and thofe againft whom, on pro¬
clamation being made, no evidence has appeared :
they have authority to try offenders for treafon, and
to puniih many particular offences, by ftatute 2 Hawk.
24. 2 Hale's hij}. Placit. Cor. 35.
GAOLER, the keeper of a gaol or prifon. She¬
riffs are to make fuch gaolers for whom they will be
anfwerable : but if there be any default in the gaoler,
an aftion lies againft him for an efcape, &c. yet the
fheriff is moft ufually charged ; 2 fnft. 592. YVhere a
gaoler kills a prifoner by hard ufuage, it is felony ; 3
Inft. 52. No fee fhall be taken by gaolers, but what
is'allowed by law, and fettled by the judges, who may
determine petitions againft their extortions, &c. 2. Geo.
II. c. 22.
GAONS, a certain order of Jewiflr do&ors, who
appeared in the Eaft, after the clofing of the talmud.
The word Gams fignifies “ excellent, fublime;” as in
the divinity-fchools we formerly had Irrefragable, Sub¬
lime, Refolute, Angelic, and Subtile do&ors. The
Gaons fucceeded the Seburasans or Opiners, about the
beginning of the fixth century. Chanan Meifchtia
was the head, and firft of the excellents. He reftored
the academy of Pandebita, which had been fhut up
for 30 years.
GAR-fish, HoRN-fJh, or Sea-needle. See Esox.
GARAMA (anc. geog.), the capital of the Gara-
mantes in Libya Interior; near the fprings of the Ci-
nyphus, now in ruins. Garamantes the people. It
lay to the fouth of the Gsetulia, extending from the
fprings of the Cinyphus, and the adjacency of the river
Gir, to,the mountains which form at the Vallu Gara-
mantlca (Pliny); or from the fprings of the Bagrades
to the lake Nuba (Ptolemy).
GARAMOND (Claude), a very ingenious letter-
founder, was born at Paris ; where he began, in the
year 1510, to found his printing types free frbm all
the remains of the Gothic, or (as it is generally called)
the Mack letter, and brought them to fuch perfection,
thac he had the glory of furpafling all who went before
him, and of being fcarcely ever excelled by his fuc-
cdfors in that ufeful art. His types were prodigioufly
multiplied ; both by the great number of matrices he
ftruck, and the types formed in refemblance of his
in all parts of Europe. Thus in Italy, Germany,
England, and Holland, the bookfellers, by way of
recommending their books, diftinguilhed the type by
he diftinguifhed himfelf ftill more by his writings,
which were bold, licentious, and produced much con-
troverfy. The moft confiderable in its confequences
was intitled La fomme theologlque des verlte% capitales de
la religion Cretienne; which was firft attacked by the
abbot of St Cyran, who obferving in it a prodigious
number of falfifications of the feriptures and of the
fathers, befides many heretical and impious opinions,
conceived the honour of the church required him to
undertake a refutation. Accordingly he publiihed a
full anfwer to it; while Garaffe’s book was alfo under
examination of the doctors of the Sorbonne, by whom
it was afterwards condemned. Garaffe replied to St
Cyran; but the two parties of Jefuits apd Janfenifts, of
whom thefe were refpectively the champions, grew to
an implacable animofity againft each other, that is not
even now likely to fubfide. The Jefuits were forced
to remove their brother to a diftance from Paris; where,
probably weary of his inadtive obfeurity, when the
plague raged at Poi&iers in 1631, he begged leave of
his fuperior to attend the lick, in which charitable of¬
fice he caught the diforder, and died.
GARBE, in heraldry, a Iheaf of any kind of grain,
borne in feveral coats of arms, and faid to repreferit
fummer, as a bunch of grapes does autumn.
GARBLE, a word ufed to fignify the adlion of
feparating the drofs and dull from fpice', drugs, &c.
Garbling is the cleaniing and purifying the good from
the bad ; and may come from the Italian garbo, i. e.
finery or neatnefs : and hence, probably, we fay, when
» e fee a man in a neat habit, that he is in handfome
garb.
GARCILASSO (de la Vega), a celebrated Spa-
nilh poet, born of a noble family at Toledo in 1500.
He was educated near the emperor Charles V. who had
a particular regard for him, and whom he attended in
all his military expeditions; acquiring as much resown
by his courage as by his poetry. In Provence he com¬
manded a battalion ; and was killed in the 36th year
of his age, by a ftone thrown at his head by a country
man from a turret. He had ftrong natural talents lor
poetry; and not only extended the bounds, but intro-
_ duced new beauties, into that of the Spanilh language.
—We muft net confound this poet with another perfon
of the fame name, a native of Cufco, who wrote in
Spanilh a Hiltory of Florida, and of Peru and the
Incas.
GARCINIA, in botany : A genus of the mono-
gyrsia order, belonging to the dodecandria clafs of
plants;
GAR [ 543 1 GAR
Garcinia plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
  v— 18th order, Blcornes. The calyx is tetraphyllous in¬
ferior; there are four petals; the berry is oftofpermous;
and crowned with a (hield-like ftigma. There is but
one fpecies, the mangoftana, a tree of great elegance,
and producing the moft pleafant fruit of any yet known.
See Plate CCVI.
This tree has been very accurately defcribed by Dr
»In honour Garcin *, in the 35th volume of the Philofophical
ofwhom, asTranfaftions. It grows, he informs us, to about 17
its moft ar-0j. jg feet high, “ with a ftraight taper ftem like a
cu™te ^e; fir/’ having a regular tuft in form of an oblong cone,
nxvsozve compofed of many branches and twigs, fpreading out
it the name equally on all Tides, without leaving any hollow. Its
Garcinia. leaves, he obferves, are oblong, pointed at both ends,
entire, fmooth, of a Ihining green on the upper fide,
and of an olive on the back. Its flower is compofed
of four petals, almoft round, or a little pointed : their
colour refembles that of a rofe, only deeper and lefs
lively. 1 he calyx of this flower is of one piece, expand¬
ed, and cut into four lobes. The two upper lobes are
fomething larger than the lower ones; they aregreenifh
on the outfide, and of a fine deep red within: the red
of the upper ones is more lively than that of the lower
ones. This calyx inclofes all the parts of the flower ;
it is fupported by a pedicle, which is green, and con-
ftantly comes out of the end of a twig above the laft
pair of leaves. The fruit is round, of the fize of a
imall orange, from an inch and an half to two inches
diameter. The body of this fruit is a capfula of one
cavity, compofed of a thick rind a little like that of a
pomegranate, but fofter, thicker, and fuller of juice.
Its thicknefs is commonly of a quarter of an inch. Its
outer colour is of a dark brown purple, mixed with a
little grey and dark greep. The iniide of the peel is
of a rofe colour, and its juice is purple. Laft of all,
this flein is of a ftyptic or ailringent tafte, like that of
a pomegranate, nor does it flick to the fruit it contains.
The infide of this fruit is a furrowed globe, divided
into fegments, much like thofe of an orange, but un¬
equal in fize, which do not adhere to each other. The
number of tbefe fegments is always equal to that of
the rays of the top which covers the fruit. The fewer
there are of thefe fegments, the bigger they are. There
are often in the fame fruit fegments as big again as
any of thofe that are on the fide of them. Thefe
fegments are white, a little tranfparent, flefhy, mem¬
branous, full of juice like cherries or ralberries ; of a
tafte of ftrawberries and grapes together. Each of
the fegments inelofes a feed of the figure and fize of an
almond dripped of its fhell, having a protuberance on
one of its fides. Thefe feeds are covered with two
fmall fkins, the outermoft of which ferves for a balls
to the |filaments and membranes of which the pulp
is compofed. The fubftance of thefe ieeds comes very
near to that of chefnuts, as to their confiftency, colour,
and aftringent quality'.
“ This tree (according to our author) originally
grows in the Molucca iflands, where it is caikd man-
glfian; but has been tranfplanted from thence to the
iliand of Java and Malaca, at which laft place it thrives
very well. Its tuft is fo fine, fo regular, fo equal, and
the appearance of its leaves fo beautiful, that it is at
prefent looked upon at Batavia as the moft proper for
adorning a garden, and affording an, agreeable- lhade.
There are few feeds, however (he obferves), to be Gircinia
met with in this fruit that are good for planting, moft 11
part of them being abortive.”—-He concludes his de- G^den.
feription by mentioning, that one may eat a great deal
of this fruit without any inconvenience ; and that it is
the only one which fick people may be allowed to eat
without any feruple.
Other writers concur in their praifes of this fruit.
Rumphius obferves, that the mangoftan is univerfally
acknowledged to be the beft and wholfomdl fruit that
grows in India; that its fldh is juicy, white, almoft
tranfparent, and of as delicate and agreeable a flavour
as the richeft grapes: the tafte and fmell being fo grate¬
ful, that it is fcarce poffible to be cloyed with eating
it.—He adds, that when fick people have no relifh for
any other food, they generally eat this with great de¬
light ; but fliould they refufe it, their recovery is no
longer expetled. “ It is remarkable (fays he) that
the mangoftan is given with fafety in altnoft every dif-
order. The dried bark is ufed with fuccefs in the dy-
fentery and tenefmus; and an infufion of it is efteemed
a good gargle for a fore mouth or ulcers in the'throat.
The Chinefe dyers ufe this bark for the ground or
bafis of a black colour, in order to fix it the firmer.”
According to Captain Cook, in his Voyage round
the World, vol. iii. p. 737, the garcinia mangoftana of
JLiinnasus is peculiar to the Ealt Indies. It is about the
fize of the crab-apple, and of a deep red wine colour.
On the top of it is the figure of five or fix fmall tri¬
angles joined in a circle ; and at the bottom feveral
hollow green leaves, which are remains of the bloffom.
When they are to be eaten, the Ikin, or rather flefh,
muft be taken off; under which are found fix or feven
white kernels, placed in a circular order; and the pulp
with which thefe are inveloped is the fruit, than which
nothing can be more delicious It is a happy mixture
of the tart and the fweet, which is no lefs wholefome
than pkafant; and, as well as the fweet orange, is al¬
lowed in any quantity to thofe who are afflidted with
fevers either of the putrid or inflammatory kind.
GARCON, or Garsoon, a French term, literally
fignifying a boy or male child any time before his mar¬
riage.*-It is aifo applied to divers inferior officers,
among us called grooms, gargionts. Thus all the fer-
vants in the French king’s chambers, wardrobe, &c.
who do the kffer offices thereof under the properofficers,
are called garsons de la chambre, (le la gar derobe, &c.
GARDANT, orGuAROANT, in heraldry, denotes
any beaft full-faced, and looking right forward.
GARDEN, a piece of ground properly laid out,
cultivated, and ornamented with a variety of plants,
flowers, fruits, &c. See Gardening.
Gardens are uiually diftinguifhed into flower garden,
fruit-garden, and kitchen-garden : the firll of which,
being defigned for pkahire and ornament, is to be pla¬
ced in the moft confpicuous part, that is, next to the
back-front of the houfe; and the two latter, being de¬
figned for ufe, fhould be placed kfs in fight. But
though the fruit and kitchen gardens are here men¬
tioned as two diftindl gardens, yet they are now ufually
in-one; and that with good reafon, fince they both
require a good foil and expofure, and equally require
to be placed out of the view of the houfe. See Kitcben-
Carden.
I n the choice of a place proper for a garden, the
moft
GAR [ 5,
,Gar3e!i. mofl: effential points to be confidered are, tke fituation,
tlie foil, the expofure, water, and pvofpeft.
1 ft, As to the fituation, it ought to be fuch a one
as is wholefome, and in a place neither too high nor
too low ; for if a garden be too high, it will be ex-
pofed to the winds, which are very prejudicial to trees;
and if it be too low, the dampne-fs, the vermin, and
the venomous creatures that breed in ponds and mar-
fliy places, add much to their infalubrity. The moft
happy lituation is on the fide of a hill, efpecially if
the flope be eafy, and in a manner imperceptible; if
a good deal of level ground be near the houfe ; and if
it abounds with fprings of water: for, being fheltered
from the fury of the winds, and the violent heat of the
fun, a temperate air will be there enjoyed ; and the
water that defeends from the top of the hill, either from
fprings or rain, will not only fupply fountains, canals,
and cafcades for ornament, but, when it has perform¬
ed its office, will water the adjacent valleys, and, if
it he not fuffered to ftagnate, will render them fertile
and wholefome.
'adly, A good earth or foil is next to be confidered $
for it is fcarce poffible to make a fine garden in a bad
foil. There are indeed ways to meliorate ground, but
they are very expenfive; and fometimes, when the ex¬
pence has been beftowed of laying good earth three
feet deep over the whole furface, a whole garden has
been ruined, when the roots of the trees have come
to reach the natural bottom. To judge of the quality
of the foil, obferve whether there be any heath, thif-
tles, or fuch like weeds, growing fpontaneoufly in it 5
for^they are certain figns that the ground is poor. Or
if there be large trees growing thereabouts, obferve
whether they grow crooked, ill-lhaped, and grubby ;
and whether they are of a faded green, and full of
mofs, or infefted with vermin : if this be the cafe, the
place is to be rejected. But, on the contrary, if it be
covered with good grafs fit for pafture, you may then
be encouraged to try the depth of the foil. To know
this, dig holes in feveral places, fix feet wide and four
deep ; and if you find three feet of good earth it will
do very well, but lefs than two will not be fufficient.
The quality of good ground is, neither to be ftony nor
too hard to work ; neither too dry, too moift, nor too
fandy and light; nor too ftrong and clayey, which is
the worft of all for gardens.
3dly, The next requifite is water; the want of which
is one of the greateft. inconveniences that can attend a
garden, and will bring a certain mortality upon what¬
ever is planted in it, efpecially in the greater droughts
that often happen in a hot and dry fituation in fummer;
befides its ufefulnefs in fine gardens for making foun¬
tains, canals, cafcades, &c. which are the grtateil or¬
naments of a garden.
qthly, The laft thing to be confidered is the pro-
fpecl of a fine country; and though this is not fo abfo-
lutely necefiary as water, yet it is one of the molt agree¬
able beauties of a fine garden: befides, if a garden be
planted in a low place that has no kind of profpedt, it
will not only be difagreeable, but unwholefome.
In the laying out and planting of gardens, the beau¬
ties of nature flrould always be lludied ; for the nearer
a garden approaches to nature, the longer it will pleafe.
According to Mr Miller, the area of a handfome gar¬
den may take up 30 or 40 acres, but not more ; and
N3I34.
14 ] GAR
the following rules Ihould be obferved in the dif- Card
pofition of it. There ought always to be a defeent v
of at leaft three Heps from the houfe to the gar¬
den ; this will render the houfe more dry and whole¬
fome, and the profpedl on entering the garden more
extenfive. The firlt thing that ought to prefent it-
ftlf to view (hould be an open lawn of grafs, which
ought to be confiderably broader than the front of the
building ; and if the depth be one-half more than the
width, it will have a better effeft s if on the fides of
the lawn there are trees planted irregularly, by way of
open groves, the regularity of the lawn will be broken,
and the whole rendered mote like nature. For the
convenience-of walking in damp weather, this lawn
Ihould be furroundtd with a gravel-walk, on the out-
fide of which (hould be borders three or four feet wide
for flowers: and from the back of thefe the profoeft
will be agreeably terminated by a (lope of ever-green
(hrubs; which, however, fiiould never be fuftered to
exclude agreeable profpe&s, or the view of handfome
buildings. Thefe walks may lead through the different
plantations, gently winding about in an eafy natural
manner; which will be more agreeable than either thofe
long ftraight walks, too frequently feen in gardens, or
thofe ferpentine windings that are twifted about into
fo many (hort turns as to render it difficult to walk in
them; and as no garden can be pleading where there is
a -want of (hade and (belter, thefe walks fnould lead as
foon as poffible into plantations, where perfons may
walk in private, and be flickered from the wind.
Narrow rivulets, if they have a conftant ftream, and
are judicioufly led about a garden, have a better effect
than many of the large (lagnating ponds or canals fo
frequently made in large gardens. When wildcrneffes
are intended, they (hould not be cut into (tars and other
ridiculous figures, nor formed into mazes or labyrinths,
which in a great defign appear trifling.
In (hort, the feveral parts of a garden (hould be di-
verfified ; but in places where the eye takes in the
whole at once, the two (ides (hould be always the
fame. In the bufinefs of defigns, the aim fiiould be
always at what is natural, great, and noble. The ge¬
neral difpofition of a garden and of its parts ought to be
accommodated to the different fituations of the ground,
to humour its inequalities, to proportion the number
and forts of trees and flirubs to each part, and to (hut
out from the view of the garden no obje&s that may
become ornamental. But for a more extended view
of thisfubjedl, fee the article Gardening.
A praftical attention to a garden, is by fome
efteemed a degrading employment. It is true, indeed,
that paftoral and agiicultural manners, if we may
form a judgment from live dignified deferiptions of
Virgil, are greatly degenerated. The employments
of fliepherds and hulbandmen are now become mean
and fordid. The work of the garden is ufoally left
to a peafant. Nor is it unreafonable to affign the la¬
bour, which wearies without amtifement, to thofe who
are fufficiently amufed by the profpedt of their w’ages.
But the operations of grafting, of inoculating, of
pruning, of tranfplanting, are curious experiments in
natural philofophy; and that they are plealing as well
as curious, thole can teftify who remember what they
felt on feeing their attempts in the amuftment of prac*
tical gardening attended with fucccfs. Among the
5 cm-
GAR [
harden, employments fuitable to old age, Cicero lias enume-
rated the fuperintendence of a garden. It requires no
great exertion of mind or body ; and its fatisfaclions
are of that kind which pleufe without violent agita¬
tion. Its beneficial influence on health is an additional
reafon foran attention to it at an age when infirmities
abound.
. In almoft every defcription of the feats of the
blefled, ideas of a garden feem to have predominated.
The word Paradife itfelf is fynonymous with garden.
The fields of Elyfium, that fweet region of poefy, are
adorned with all that imagination can conceive to be
delightful. Some of the mofl; pleafing paffages'of Mil
ton, are thofe in which he reprcfents the happy pair
engaged in cultivating their blifsful abode. Poets have
always been delighted with the beauties of a garden.
Lucan is reprefented by Juvenal as repofing in his
garden. Virgil’s Georgies prove him to have been
captivated with rural fcenes ; though, to the furprife of
his readers, he has not afligned a book to the fubjedt of
a garden. Our Shenftone made it his ftudy ; but, with
all his tafte and fondnefs for it, he was not happy in
it. The captivating fcenes which he created at the
Leafowes, afforded him, it is faid, little pleafure
in the abfence of fpedlators. The truth is, he nude
the eirbelliftiment of his grounds, which fhould have
been the amufemcnt of his life, the bufinefs of it ;
and involved himfelf in fuch troubles, by the ex-
pences it occafioned, as neceffarily excluded tranquil
enjoyment.
It is the lot of few, in comparifon, to poffefs territo-
ties like his, extenlive, and fufficiently well-adapted to
conftitute an ornamented farm. Still fewer are ca¬
pable of fupporting the expence of preferving it in
good condition. But let not the rich fuppoie they
liave appropriated the oleafures of a garden. The
poffeffor of an acre, or a frnaller portion, may receive
a real pleafure, from obfirring the progrefs of vege¬
tation, even in a plantation of culinary plants. A very
-limited trad!, properly attended to, will furniih ample
employment for an individual. Nor let it be thought
a mean care ; for the fame hand that raifed the cedar,
formed the hyfop on the wall. Even the orchard,
cultivated iolely for advantage, exhibits beauties une¬
qualled in the Ihrubbery ; nor can the green-houfe
produce an appearance to exceed the bloffom of the
apple and the almond.
Hanging Gardens, in antiquity, gardens raifed on
arches by Nebuchadn zzar king of Babylon, in or¬
der to gratify his vvife Amydtis, daughter of Afty-
ages king of Media. QAlurtius mak«s them equal in
height to the walls of the city, viz. 50 feet. They
contained a fquare of 400 feet on every fide, and were^
carried up into the air in feveral terraces laid above
one another, and the afcent from terrace to terrace was
by ftairs 10 feet wide. The arches fuftaining the
whole pile were raiffd above one another, and it was
ftrengthened by a wall, furrounding it on every fide,
of 22 feet in thicknefs. The floors of each of the ter¬
races were laid in the following manner : on the top
of the arches weie firft laid large fiat ftones id feet
545 3 GAR
long and 4 broad, and over them was a layer of reed
mixed with a great quantity of bitumen, over which
were two rows of bricks clofely cemented together by
plafter, and over all were laid thick flieets of lead j
and laltly, upon the leacf was laid the mould of the
garden. The mould or earth was of fuch a depth as
to admit the largeft trees to take root and grow; and
it was covered with various kinds of trees, plants, and
flowers. In the upper terrace there was an aqueduft
or engine, whereby water was drawn up out of the river
for watering the whole garden.
Floating Gardens. We are informed by the abbs
Clavigero in his Hiftory of Mexico, that when the
Mexicans were brought under fnbje&ion to the Col-
huan and Tepanecan nations, and confined to the
miferable little iflands on the lake of Mexico, they
ceafed for fome years to cultivate the land, becaufe
they h^d none, until neceffity and induffry together
taught them to form moveable fields and gardens, which
floated on the waters of the lake' The method which
they purfued to make thofe, and which they Hill prac-
tife, is extremely limple. They plait and twill widows
and roots of marfli plants or other materials together,
which are light, but capable of fupporting the earth
of the garden Urmly united. Upon this foundation they
lay fhe light bulhes which float on the lake ; and over
all, the mud and dirt which they draw up from the hot
tom of the fame lake. Their regular figure is quadran¬
gular ; their length and breadth various j but generally
they are about eight perches long, and not more than
three in breadth, and have lefs than a foot of ele vation
above the furface of the water, Thefe were the firft fields
which the Mexicans owned after the foundation of
Mexico; there they firft cultivated the maize, great-pep¬
per, and other plants necelfary for their fupport. In
progrefs of time, as thofe fields grew numerous from
the induftry of the people, there , were among them
gardens of flowers and odoriferous plants, which were
employed in the worlhip of their gods, and ferved foP
the recreation of the nobles. At prefent they culti¬
vate flowers and every fort of garden herbs upon
them. Every day of the year, at fun-rife, innume¬
rable veffels loaded with various kinds of flowers and
herbs, which are cultivated in thofe gardens, are feen
arriving by the canal, at the great market-place of
that capital. All plants thrive there furprifingly
the mud of the lake is an extremely fertile foil, and
requires no water from the clouds. In the largeft gar¬
dens there is commonly a little tree, and even a little
hut.to fhelter the cultivator and defend him from rain
or the fun, When the owner of a garden, or the
Ch'mampa as he is ufually called, wifties to change his
fituation, to remove from a difagreeable neighbour,
or to come nearer to his own family, he gets into his
little veifel, and by his own ftrength alone if the gar¬
den is fmall, or with the affiftance of others if it is
large, he tows it after him, and condudts it wherever
he pleafes with.the little tree and hut upon it. That
part of the lake where thofe floating gardens are, is a
place of infinite recreation, where the fenfes receive the
higheft poffibie gratification.
3Z
Vol. VII. Part It.
GARDENING*
[ 54*5 ]
GARDENING;
r"pHE art of planning and cultivating gardens. In
A jts utmoft extent, whatever contributes to render
the fcenes of nature delightful, is amongft the i'ubje&s
of gardening; and animate as well as inanimate objefts
are circumftances of beauty or character. The whole
range of nature is open to the gardener, from the par¬
terre to the foreft:; and whatever is agreeable to the
fenfes or the imagination, he may appropriate to the
fpot he is to improve : it is a part of his bufmefs to
colled into one place the delights which are generally
difperfed through different fpecies of country.
Hijlory of Gardening.
tJif. of Gardening, Mr Walpole* obferves, was probably
Gar- one 0f the firfl arts that fucceeded to that of building
houfes, and naturally attended property and individual
the 4th vol poffeffion. Culinary, and afterwards medicinal herbs,
of his A«ec- were the obje&s of every head of a family : it became
of convenient to have them within reach, without feeking
ramtiug. tjiem at random in woods, in meadows, and on moun¬
tains, as often as they were wanted. When the earth
ceafed to furnifh fpontaneoufly all thofe primitive luxu¬
ries, and culture became requifite, feparate inclofures
for rearing herbs grew expedient. Fruits were in the
fame predicament; and thofe moft in ufe or that de¬
mand attention muft have entered into and extended
the domeftic inclofure. The good man Noah, we are
told, planted a vineyard, drank of the wine, and was
drunken ; and every body knows the confequences.
Thus we acquired kitchen-gardens, orchards, and vine¬
yards. No doubt the prototype of all thefe forts was
the garden of Eden; but as that Paradife was a good
deal larger than any we read of afterwards, being in-
elofed by the rivers Pifon, Gihon, Hiddekel, and Eu¬
phrates ; as every tree that was pleafant to the fight
and good for food grew in it; and as two other trees
were likewife found there, of which not a flip or fuck¬
er remains; it does not belong to the prefent difcuffion.
After the Fall, no man living was fuffered to enter in¬
to the garden ; and the poverty and nectflities of our
hrft anceftors hardly allowed them time to make im¬
provements in their eilates in imitation of it, fuppofing
any plan had been preferved. A cottage and a flip of
ground for a cabbage and a goofeberry-bufh, fuch as
we feeby the lide of a corotnon, were in all probability
the earl left feats and gardens: a well and bucket fuc-
eeeded to -the Pifon and Euphrates. As fettlements
increafed, the orchard and the vineyard followed ; and
the earlieft princes of tribes poffeffed juft the neceffa-
ries of a modern farmer.
Matters, we may well believe, remained long in this
fituation; and we have reafon to think that for many
centuries the term garden implied no more than a
kitchen-garden or orchard.
The garden of Alcinous, in the Odyfley, is the moft
renowned in the heroic times. Is there an admirer of
Homer who can read his defcription without rapture ?
or who does not form td«his imagination a fcene of de¬
lights more pifturefque than the landfcapes of Tinian
or Juan Fernandez? “ Yet (continues our author) what
was that boafted Paradife with which
the gods ordain’d
To grace Alcinous and his happy land?
Why, divefted of harmonious Greek and bewitching
poetry, it was a fmall orchard and vineyard, with fome
beds of herbs and two fountains that watered them,
inclofed within a quick-fet hedge. The whole compafs
of this pompous garden inclofied—four acres ;
Four acres was th’allotted fpace of ground.
Fenc'd with a green inclofure all around.
The trees were apples, figs, pomegranates, pears, olives,
and vines.
Tall thriving trees confefs’d the fruitful mold;
The red’ning a, pie ripens into gold.
Here the blue fig with lufcious juice o’erflows,
With deeper red rhe full pomegranate glows.
The branch here bends beneath the weighty pear.
And verdant olives flouriih round the year.
# * * * *
Beds of all various herbs, for ever green,
In beauteous order terminate the fcene.
Alcinous’s garden was planted by the poet, enriched
by him with the fairy gift of eternal fnmmer, and no
doubt an effort of imagination furpafiing any thing he
had ever feen. As he has bellowed on the fame happy ‘
prince a palace with brazen walls and columns of lil-
ver, he certainly intended that the gardens Ihould be
proportionably magnificent. We are fure, therefore,
that, as late as Homer’s age, an inclofure of four acres,
comprehending orchard, vineyard, and kitchen-garden,
was a ftretch of luxury the world at that time had
never beheld.”
Previous to this, however, we have in the facred
writings hints of a garden ftill more luxurioufly fur-
niflred. We allude to the Song of Solomon, part of
the fcene of which is undoubtedly laid in a garden f.
Flowers and fruits are particularly fpoken of as the or- t chaP-
naments and the produce of it; and befides thefe, aro-I*
matic vegetables formed a confiderable part of the gra¬
tifications it afforded. The camphor and the cinna¬
mon tree, with all trees of frankincenfe, and all the
chief fpices, flourifhed there Solomon tells us in an- ^ cant.;v.
otherplace ||, That he made him great works;—-gardens 1 j.
and orchards, and planted in them trees of every kind. || £«!
Indeed we muft fuppofe. his gardens to have been both4>J‘
amply and curidufly furniftied, feeing the kinds, nature,
and properties of the vegetable tribes, feem to have
been a favourite ftudy with the royal philofopher, and
to have been deemed a fubjeft worthy of his pen : for
we aire told, that he wrote of plants, from the great
cedar of Lebanon down to the hyffop of the wall$. ^ s ^
Fountains and ftreams of water appear alfo to have had 33. B
a fhare in the compofition, and probably for ornament
as well as ufe:
The hanging gardens of Babylon, mentioned’ in a
preceding article, were a ftill greater prodigy. But as
they are fuppofed to have been formed on terraces and
the walls of the palace, whither foil was conveyed on
purpofe, Mr Walpole concludes, “they were what fump-
tuouj
Hiftory. GARDENING.
547
Apion, 1.
§ 19.
tuous gardens have been m all ages till the prefent, un¬
natural, enriched by art, poffibly with fountains, ftatues,
balluftrades, and fummer-houfes, and were any thing
but verdant and rural.”
Others, however, have allowed them greater praife.
They feem, in many refpefts, to have been laid out
with good tafte. Their elevation not only produced
a variety and extent of view, but was alfo ufeful in mo¬
derating the heat. Such a fituation would likewife
fuit a greater variety of trees and plants than a plain
furface, and would contain a larger as well as a more
diverfilied extent.
The fuiting of the fituation to the nature of the
trees feems, from the account given by Jofephus, to
have been one view * in the eredling the building in
fuch a manner. And the fuccefs feems to have been
anfwerable, as the trees are faid to have flouriihed ex-
f ^ Curt, tremely well f, and to have grown as tall as in their
' native fituations. On the whole, then, however diffe¬
rent thefe may appear frogi modern gardens, they feem
to have been formed with judgment and tafte, and well
adapted to the fituation and circumftances.
It feems probable, from feveral circumftances, that
the eaftern gardens were adjoining to the houfe or pa¬
lace to which they belonged. Thus, king Ahafuerus
goes immediately from the banquet of wine to walk
in the garden of the palace J. The garden of Cyrus,
at Sardis, mentioned by Xenophon ||, was probably con¬
tiguous to the palace; as was that of Attalus, men-
§ L. 36. tioned by Juftinjj. The hanging gardens at Babylon,
c. 4. Were not fo much adjacent to the palace, as a part of
the palace itfelf, fince feveral of the royal apartments
were beneath them
It is not clear what the tafte for gardening was among
the Greeks. The Academus, we know, was a wooded
lhady place ; and the trees appear to have been of the
olive fpecies. It was fituated beyond the limits of the
walls, and adjacent to the tombs of the heroes; and
though we are nowhere informed of the particular man¬
ner in which this grove was difpofed or laid out, it
may be gathered from Paufanias, in his Attica, that it
was an elegant ornamented place. At the entrance
was an altar dedicated to Love, which was faid to be
the firft erefted to that Deity. Within the Academus,
were the altars of Promotheuj, of the Mufes, of Mer¬
cury, of Minerva, and Hercules; and at a fmall di-
ftance was the tomb of Plato. So that, in all proba¬
bility, it was highly adapted by art, as well as nature,
to philofophic refledion and contemplation.
We are told by Plutarch, that before the time of
Cimon, the Academus was a rude and uncultivated
fpot: but that it was planted by that general, and had
water conveyed to it; whether this water was brought
merely for ufe to refrefh the trees, or for ornament, does
not appear. It was divided into gymnafia, or places
of exercife, and philofophic walks, fhaded with trees.
Thefe are faid to have flouriftied very well, until de-
ftroyed by Sylla (when he befieged Athens), as well
as thofe in the Lyceum.
Near the academy were the gardens of the philofo-
phers, ©f Plato and of Epicurus ; which, however,
were probably but fmall. The fcene of Plato’s Dia¬
logue concerning Beauty is elegantly defcribed as be¬
ing on the banks of the river lliffus, and under the
ftiade of the plantane; but no artificial arrangement
JEfthervi
7-
jj Oecon.
1 Dkd. 1.
of obje&s is mentioned, nor any thing which will lead
us to imagine the profpedl to be any other than merely
natural.
Among the Romans, a tafte for gardening, any o-
therwife than as a matter of utility, feems not to have
prevailed till a very' late period ; at leaft the writers on
hufbandry, Cato, Varro, Columella, and Palladius,
make not the leaft mention of a garden as an objedl of
pleafure, but folely with refpeCt to its productions of
herbs and fruits. The Lucullan gardens are the
firft we find mentioned of remarkable magnifi¬
cence ; though probably from the extravagance to
which thefe were arrived, they were not the firft.
Plutarch fpeaks of them as incredibly expenfive, and
equal to the magnificence of kings. They contained
artificial elevations of ground to a furprifing height, of
buildings proje&ed into the fea, and vaft pieces of wa¬
ter made upon land. In ftiort, his extravagance and
expence were fo great, that he acquired thence
the appellation of the Roman Xerxes. It is not im¬
probable, from the above account, and from the con-
fideration of Lucullus having fpent much time in Afia,
in a fituation wherein he had an opportunity of obfer*
ving the moft fplendid conftrudtions of this kind, that
thefe gardens might be laid out in the Afiatic ftyle.
The vaft maffes of building faid to have been eredted,
might have borne fome refemblance, in the arrangement
and ftyle, to the Babylonian gardens; and the epithet
of the Roman Xerxes might be applicable to the tafte*
as well as to the lize and expence of his works.
The Tufculan Villa of Cicero, though often men¬
tioned, is not any where defcribed in his works, fo as
to give an adequate idea of the ftyle in which his gar¬
dens or grounds were difpofed.
There is but little td be traced in Virgil relative to
this fubjedfc. Pines*, it feems probable, were a fa- * F.dog.vii.
vourite ornament in gardens; and flowers f, rofes e-65, &c.
fpecially, were much efteemed, perfumes indeed ha-t ^"*’'^
ving been always highly valued in warm climates. Vir- 11 ‘
gil places Anchifes in Elyfium, in a grove of bays;
and is careful to remark, that they were of the fweet-
feented kind. The Paeftan rofes were chiefly valued
for their excellent odour; and the fame quality ap¬
pears to be the caufe why they were placed by Tibul¬
lus as ornaments to the Elyfian fields. There appears
alfo to have prevailed among the Romans a piece of
luxury relative to gardens, which is equally prevalent
at prefent among us, namely the forcing of flowers at
feafons of the year not fuited to their natural blowing :
and rofes were then, as at prefent, the principal flowers
upon which thefe experiments were tried, as appears
from Martial j: and others. 1 Vide
When Roman authors (Mr Walpole remarks), ^
■whofe climate inftilled a wifti for cool retreats, fpeak
of their enjoyments in that kind, they figh for grottos, and
caves, and the refreftting hollows of mountains, near ir- Lampridiui
riguous and fhady founts; or boaft of their porticos,,n 'uiL £'em
w alks of planes, canals, baths, and breezes from thcs<2 *
fea. Their gardens are never mentioned as affording
(hade and fhelter from the rage of the dog-ftar. Pliny
has left us deferiptions of two of his villas. As he u-
fed his Laurentine villa for his winter retreat, it is not
furprifing that the garden makes no confiderable part
of the account. All he fays of it is, that the geftatio
or place of exercife, which,furrounded the garden (the
3 Z 2 latter
S4&
latter confequently not being very large), was bounded
by a hedge of box, and, where that was periihed, with
rofemary $ that there was a walk of vines j and that
moft of the trees were fig and mulberry, the foil not
being proper for any other forts. On his Tufcan vil¬
la he is more diffufe ; the^, garden makes a confiderable
part of the defcription :—and what was the principal'
beauty of that pleafure-’ground ? Exactly what was the
admiration of this country about threefcore years ago
box-trees cut into monilers, animals, letters, and the
names of the mailer and the artificer. In an age when
archite&ure difplayed all its grandeur, all its purity,
and all its tafte ; when arofe Vefpafian’s amphitheatre,
the temple of Peace, Trajan’s forum, Domitian’s baths,
and Adrian’s villa, the ruins and veftiges of which ftill
excite our aftonilhment and curiofity ; a Roman con-
ful, a polilhed emperor’s friend, and a man of elegant
literature and talle, delighted in what the mob now
fcarce admire in a college-garden. All the ingredients
of Pliny’s correfponded exaftly with thofe laid out by
London and Wife on Dutch principles. He talks of
Hopes, terraces, a vvildernefs, fhrubs methodically trim¬
med, a marble bafon, pipes fpoufing water, a cafcade
falling into the bafon, bay-trees alternately planted
with planes, and a ftraight walk, from whence iffued o-
thers parted off by hedges of box and apple-trees, with
obelilks placed between every two. There wants no¬
thing but the embroidery of a parterre, to make a gar¬
den in the reign of Trajan ferve for a defcription of
one in that of king William. In one pafiage above,
Pliny feems to have conceived that natural irregularity
might be a beauty ; in opere urlaniffimo, fays he, fubita
’uelut iliati ruris imitatio. Something like a rural view
was contrived amidil fo much polifhed compofition.
But the idea foon vanilhed, lineal walks immediately en¬
veloped the flight fcene, and names and infcriptions in
box again fucceeded to compenfate for the daring in-
trodudion of nature.
In the paintings found at Herculaneum are a few
traces of gardens, as may be feen in the fecond volume
of the prints. They are fmall fquare inclofures, formed
by trellis-work and efpaliers, and regularly ornamented
with vafes, fountains, and careatides, elegantly fymme-
trical, and proper for the narrow fpaces allotted to the
garden of a houfe in a capital city.
From what has been faid, it appears how naturally
and infenfibly the idea of a kitchen-garden Aid into
that which has for fo many ages been peculiarly term¬
ed a garden, and by our anceftors in this country di-
ftinguiflied by the name of a pleajure-garden. A fquare
piece of ground was originally parted off in early ages
for the ufe of the family :—to exclude cattle, and af-
certain the property, it was feparated from the fields by
a hedge. As pride and defire of privacy increafed,
the inclofure was dignified by walls; and in climes
where fruits were not lavilhed by the ripening glow of
nature and foil, fruit-trees were affifted and fheltered
from furrounding winds by the like expedient; for the
inundation of luxuries,, which have fwelled into general
neceflities, have almolt all taken their fource from the
Ample fountain of reafon.
When the cuftotn of making fquare gardens inclo-
fed with walls was thus eftabliihed to the exclufion of
nature and profpedt, pomp and folitude combined to
•all for fomething that might enrich and enliven the.
Hlftory.
infipid and unanimated partition. ' Fountains, firft in¬
vented for ufe, which grandeur loves to difguife and
throw out of the queflion, received embellifhments from
coilly marbles, and at laft, to contradict utility, tofled
their wafte of waters into air in fpouting columns.
Art, in the hands of rude man, had at firtt been made
a fuccedaneum to nature ; in the hands of ofientatious
wealth, it became the means of oppofing nature ; and
the more it traverfed the march of the latter, the
more nobility thought its power was demonllrated.
Canals meafured by the line were introduced in lieu of
meandering flreams, and terraces were hoified aloft i»
oppofition to the facile flopes that imperceptibly unite
the valley to the hill. Balullrades defended thefe pre¬
cipitate and dangerous elevatidil, and flights of lleps
rejoined them to the fubjacent flat from which the ter¬
race had been dug. Vafes and fculpture were added
to thefe unneceffary balconies, and ftatues furnifhed
the lifelefs fpot with mimic reprefentations of the ex¬
cluded fons of men. Thus difficulty and expence were
the conllituent parts of thofe fumptuous and felfiflr fo-
litudes; and every improvement that was made, was
but a ttep farther from nature. The tricks of water¬
works to wot the unwary, not to refrelh the panting'
fpeftator, and parterres embroidered in patterns like a
petticoat, were but the childiffi endeavours of faffi.’on
and novelty to reconcile greatnefs to what it had fur-'
feited on. To crown thefe impotent difplays of falfe
tafte, the ffieers were applied to the lovely wildnefs of
form with which nature has diftinguilhed each various
fpecies of tree and flirub. The venerable oak, the ro¬
mantic beech, the ufeful elm, even the afpiring cir?
cuit of the lime, the regular round of the chefnut*
and the almoft moulded orange-tree, were corre&ed
by fuch fantaftic admirers of fymmetry. The com-
pafs and fquare were of more ufe in plantations than
the nurfery-man. The meafured walk, the quincunx,
and the etoile, impofed their unfatisfying famenefs on
every royal and noble garden. Trees were headed, ,
and their fides pared away ^ many French groves feem
green chefts fet upon poles. Seats of marble, arbours,
and fummer-houfes, terminated every villa ; and fyna?
metry, even where the fpace was too large to perrnit-
its being remarked at one view, was fo eflential, that*
as Pope obferved,
 each alley.has a bnther.
And half the garden juft refleds the other.
Knots of flowers were more defenfibiy fubjeftcd to the
fame regularity. Leifure, as Milton- exprefled it,
——in trim gardens took his pltafure.
In the garden of Marfhal de Biron at Paris, confifting
of 14 acres, every vt'alk is buttoned on each fide by
lines of flower-pots, which fucceed in their feafons.
It does not precifely appear what our anceftors meant
by a bower it was probably an arbour; fometiroes it
meant the whole frittered inclofure, and in one inftance
it certainly included a labyrinth, ' Rofamond’s bower
was indifputably of that kind ; though whether com-
pofed of walls or hedges, we cannot determine. A
fquare and a routed labyrinth were fo capital ingredients
of a garden formerly, that in Du Cerceau’s archite&ure,
who lived in the time of Charles IX, and Henry IIL
there is fcarce a ground-plot without one of each.
In Kip’s Views of the Seats of our Nobility and
Gentry, we fee the fame tirefome and returning unir
fortuity..
GARDENI NG.
Hiftory. GARDE
formity. Evf ry houfe is approached by two or three
gardens, confiding perhaps of a gravel-walk and two
grafs-plats or borders of flowers. Each rifes above
the other by two or three fteps, and as many walls and
terraces, and fo many iron gates, that we recolleft
thofe ancient romances in which every entrance was
guarded by nymphs or dragons. Yet though thefe
and fuch prepofterous inconveniences prevailed from
age to age, good fenfe in this country had perceived
the want of fomething at once more grand and more
natural. Thefe reflexions, and the bounds fet to the
wade made by royal fpoilers, gave origin to Parks.
They were contradled forefls, and extended gardens.
Hentzner fays, that, according to Rous of Warwick,
the firft park was that at Wooditock. If fo, it might
be the foundation of a legend that Henry II. fecured
his miftrefs in a labyrinth : it was no doubt more diffi¬
cult to find her in a park than in a palace, where the
intricacy of the woods and various lodges buried in co¬
vert might conceal her aXual habitation.
It is more extraordinary that, having fo long ago
ftumbled on the principle of modern gardening, we
Ihould have perfifted in retaining its reverfe, fymme-
trical and unnatural gardens. That parks "were rare
in other countries, Hentzner, who travelled over great
part of Europe, leads us t© fuppofe, by obferving that
they were common in England. In France they retain
the name, but nothing is more different both in com-
pafs and difpofition. Their parks are ufually fqnare or
oblong inclofures, regularly planted with walks of
chefnuts or limes, and generally every large town has
one for its public recreation.
“ One man, one great man we had (continues Mr
Walpole), on whom nor education nor cuttom could im-
pofe their prejudices; who, ‘ on evil days though fallen,
and with darknefsand folitude compafled round,’judged
that the miftaken and fantaftic ornaments he had feen
in gardens, were unworthy of the Almighty hand that
planted the delights of Paradife. Pie Teems with the
prophetic eye of tafte to have conceived, to have forefeen
modern gardening; as Lord Bacon announced the dif-
coveries Tince made by experimental philofophy. The
defcription.of Eden is a warmer and more juft pidture
of the prefent ftyle than Claud Lorrain could have paint¬
ed from Hagley or Stourhead. The firft lines.we ftiall
quote exhibit btourhead on a more magnificent fcale:
Thro’ E<len went a river targe.
Nor chang’d his couife, but thro’ the iliaggy hill
Pafs’d underneath ingulph’d; for God had thrown
That mountain as his garden mound, high rais’d
Upon the rapid current 
Hagley. feems pictured in what follows:
Which thro’ veins
Of porous earth with kindly thirft updrawn,
Kofe a frefh fountain, and with many a rill
Water’d the garden 
What colouring, what freedom of pencil, what land-
feape in thefe lines!
——from that fa] hire fount the crifped brooks,
K-oiiing on orient pearl and funds of gold,
With mazy error under pendent fhades.
Ran nedlar, vifiting each plant, and fed
Flow’rs worthy of Paiadife, which not nice art.
In beds and curious knots, but nature boon
Pour’d forth profufe on hil! and dale and plain,.
Both where the morning fun firft warmly fmote -
The open field, and where the unpierc’d fha le
Imbrown’d the noon-tide bow’rs.—'Thus was ibis place
A.happy, rural feat of -various view*
N I N G. 54$
Read this tranfporting deferiptiofi, paint to your mind
the feenes that follow, contrail them with the favage
but refpe&able terror with which the poet guards the
bounds of his paradife, fenced
 with the champaign head
Of a deep wildernefs, whoff hairy tides
With thicket overgrown, grotefque and wild,'
Accrfs denied; and over head up.grew
Infuperable height of loftieft {hade,
Cedar and pine, and fir, and branching palm,
A fylvan feene, and, as the ranks afeend,
Shade above fhade, a woody theatre,
Of Hatched view 
and then recoiled, that the author of this fublime vifioR
had never feen a glimpfe of any thing like what he has
imagined; that his favourite ancients had dropped not
a hint of fuch divine feenery ; and that the conceits in
Italian gardens, and Theobalds and Nonfuch, were the
brighteft originals that his memory could furnilh. His
inteiledual eye faw a nobler plan, fo little did he fuffer
by the lofs of fight. It fufficed him to have feen the
materials with which he could work. The vigour of a
boundlefs imagination told him how a plan might be
difpofed, that would embellifh nature, and reftore art
to its proper office, the juft improvement or imitation
of it.
“ Now let us turn to an admired writer, poftbrior to
Milton, and fee how cold, how inlipid, how taftelefs
is his account of what he pronounced a perfed garden.
We fpeak not of his ftyle, which it was not neceflary
for him to animate with the colouring and glow o£
poetry. It is his want of ideas, of imagination, of
tafte, that deferve cenfure, when he didated on a fub-
jed which is capable of all the graces that a knowledge
of beautiful nature can bellow. Sir William Temple
was an excellent man; Milton, a genius of the firft order.
“ We cannot wonder that Sir William declares in fa¬
vour of parterres, fountains, and ftatues, as neceflary to
break the famenefs of large grafs-plats, which he thinks
have an ill effed upon the eye, when'he acknowledges
that he difeovers fancy in the gardens of Alcinous.
Milton lludied the ancients with equal enthuflafm, but
no bigotry ; and had judgment to diftinguilh between
the want of invention and the beauties of poetry. Com¬
pare his paradife with Homer’s garden, both aferibed
to a celeftial defign. For Sir William, it is juft to ob-
ferve, that his ideas centered in a fruit-garden. He
had the honour of giving to his country many delicate
fruits, and he thought of little elfe than difpofing,
them to the bell advantage.
‘ The belt figure of a garden (fays.he) is either a
fquare or an oblong, and either upon a fiat or a de-
feent: they have all their beauties, but the bell I e-
iteem an oblong upon a defeent. The beauty, the
air, the view, make amends for the expence, which is
very great in finifliing and fupporting the terrace-walks,
in levelling the parterres, and in the ftone-ltairs that
are neceffary from one to the other. The perfedeft fi¬
gure of a garden I ever faw, either at home or abroad,
was that of Moor-park in Hertfoidihire, when I knew
it about 30 years ago. It was made by the Countefs
of Bedford, efteemed among the greateft wits of her
time, and celebrated by Dr Donne; and with very-
great care, excellent contrivance, and much colt; but.,
greater fums may be thrown away without effed or ho¬
nour, if there want fenfe in proportion to money, or -
55° ^ ARDENIN O.
‘ if nature be not followed;’ which I take to be the Greenwich Parks—no great monuments of his inven-
great rule in this, and perhaps in every thing elfe, as tion.
far as the conduit not only of bur lives but our govern- “ To do farther juftice to Sir William Temple, we
ments.’ [We fliall fee how natural that admired gar- muft: not omit what he adds. ‘ What I have faid of
den was.] ‘ Becaufe I take the garden I have named the beft forms of gardens is meant only of fuch as are
to have been in all kinds the moft beautiful and per- in fome fort regular; for there may be other forms
fedt, at leaft in the figure and difpofition, that I ever wholly irregular, that may, for aught I know, have
have feen, I will defcribe it for a model to thofe that more beauty than any of the others; but they muft owe
meet with fuch a fituation, and are above the regards it to fome extraordinary difpofitions of nature in the
of common expence* It lies on the fide of a hill, upon feat, or fome great race of fancy or judgment in the
which the houfe Hands, but not very fteep. The contrivance, which may reduce many difagreeing parts
length of the houfe, where the beft rooms and of moft into fome figure, which ftiall yet, upon the whole, be
ufe or pleafure are, lies upon the breadth of the gar- very agreeable. Something of this I have feen in fome
den ; the great parlour opens into the middle of a ter- places, but heard more of it from others, who have li-
race gravel-walk that lies even with it, and which may ved much among the Chinefes, a people whofe way of
lie, as I remember, about 300 paces long, and broad thinking feems to lie as wide of ours in Europe as their
in proportion ; the border fet with ftandard laurels and country does. Their greateft reach of imagination is
at large diftances, which have the beauty of orange- employed in contriving figures, where the beauty ftiall
trees out of flower and fruit. From this walk are three be great and -ftrike the eye, but without any order or
defcents by many ftone-fteps, in the middle and at each difpofition of parts, that ftrall be commonly or eafily ob-
end, into a very large parterre. This is divided into ferved. And though we have hardly any notion of this
quarters by gravel-walks, and adorned with two foun- fort of beauty, yet they have a particular word to ex-
tains and eight ftatues in the feveral quarters. At the prefs it; and when they find it hit their eye at firft
end of the terrace-walk are two fummer-houfes, and the fight, they fay the Sharawadgi is fine or is admirable,
Tides of the parterre are ranged with two large cloifters or any fuch expreflion of efteem : but I fhould hardly
open to the garden, upon arches of Hone, and ending advife any of thefe attempts in the figure of gardens
with two other fummer-houfes even with the cloifters, among us; they are adventures of too hard atchieve-
which are paved with ftone, and defigned for walks of ment for any common hands; and though there may
fliade, there being none other in the whole parterre, be more honour if they fucceed well, yet there is more
Over thefe two cloifters are two terraces covered with diftionour if they fail, and it is twenty to one they will;
lead and fenced with balufters; and the paffage into whereas in regular figures it is hard to make any great
thefe airy walks is out of the two fummer-houfes at the and remarkable faults.’
end of the firft terrace-walk. The cloifter facing the “ Fortunately Kent and a few others were not quite
fo timid, or we might ftill be going up and down ftairs
in the open air. It is true, we have heard much lately,
as Sir William Temple did, of irregularity and imita¬
tions of nature in the gardens or grounds of the C"hi-
nefe. The former is certainly true : they are as whim-
fouth is covered with vines, and would have been proper
for an orange-houfe, and the other for myrtles or other
more common greens, and had, I doubt not, been caft
for that purpofe, if this piece of gardening had been
then in as much vogue as it is now. From the middle
of this parterre is a defeent by many fteps flying on fically irregular, as European gardens are formally
each fide of a grotto that lies between them, covered uniform and unvaried:—but with regard to nature,
with lead and flat, into the lower garden, which is all it feems as much avoided, as in the fquares and oblongs
fruit-trees ranged about the feveral quarters of a wil- and ftraight lines of our anceftors. An artificial perpen-
dernefs, which is very ftiady ; the walks here are all dicular rock ftarting out of a flat plain, and connected
green, the grotto embelliihed with figures of (hell rock- with nothing, often pierced through in various places
work, fountains, and water-works. If the hill had not with oval hollows, has no more pretenfion to be deem¬
ed natural than a lineal terrace or a parterre. The
late Mr Jofeph Spence, who had both tafte and zeal
for the prefent ftyte, was fo perfuaded of the Chinefe
Emperor’s pleafure-ground being laid out on principles
refembling ours, that he tranflated and publifhed, un¬
der the name of Sir Harry Beaumount, a particular
account of that infclofure from' the Collection of the
Letters of the Jefuits. But except a determined irre-
feen in my life, either before or fince, at home or gularity, one can find nothing in it that gives any
abroad.* . idea of attention being paid to nature. It is of vaft
ended with the lower garden, and the wall were not
bounded by a common way that goes through the
park, they might have added a third quarter of all
greens ; but this want is fupplied by a garden on the
other fide the houfe, which is all of that fort, very wild,
fhady, and adorned with rough rock-work and foun¬
tains. This was Moor-park when I was acquainted
with it, and the fweeteft place, I think, that I have
‘ It is unneceflary to add any remarks on this de-
feription. Any man might defign and build as fweet a
garden, who had been born in and never ftirred out of
nature.
circumference, and contains 200 palaces, befides as ma¬
ny contiguous for the eunuchs, all gilt, painted, and
varniftied. There are raifed hills from 20 to 60 feet
Holborn. It was not, however, peculiar to Sir Wil- high, ftreams and lakes, and one of the latter five
liam Temple to think in that manner. How many
Frenchmen are there who have feen our gardens, and
ftill prefer natural flights of fteps and (hady cloifters co-
miles round. Thefe waters are pafied by bridges : 
but even their bridges muft not be ftraight—they fer-
pentize a ^  ' - 1 r
s much as the rivulets, and are fometimes fo
vered with lead ! Le Nautre, the architect of the long as to be furnifhed with retting places, and begin
groves and grottos at Verfailles, came hither on a mif- and end with triumphal arches. The colonades un¬
iion to improve our tafte. He planted St James’s and dulate in the fame manner. In fhort, this pretty gau¬
dy
Hiftory. G A R D f
dy fcene is the work of caprice and whim, and, when
we refledl on their buildings, prefents no image but
that of unfubftantial tawdrinefs. JNor is this all.
Within this fantaftic Paradife is a fquare town, each
fide a mile long. Here the eunuchs of the court, to
entertain his imperial majefty with the buttle and bu-
fmefs of the capital in which he refides, but which it
is not of his dignity ever to fee, aft merchants and all
forts of trades, and even defignedly exercife for his
royal amufement every art of knavery that is praftifed
under his aufpicious government. Methinks this is
the childifh folace and repofe of grandeur, not a retire¬
ment from affairs to the delights of rural life. Here
too his majefty plays at agriculture : there is a quarter
fet apart for that purpofe ; the eunuchs fow, reap, and
carry in their harveft, in the imperial prefence ; and
his majefty returns to Pekin, perfuaded that he has
been in the country.
“ Having thus cleared our way by afcertaining what
have been the ideas on gardening in all ages, as far
as we have materials to judge by, it remains to fhow
to what degree Mr Kent invented the new ftyle, and
what hints he had received to fuggett and conduft his
undertaking.
“ We have feen what Moor-park was, when pro¬
nounced a ftandard. But as no fucceeding generation
in an opulent and luxurious country contents itfelf with
the perfeftion eftablifhed by its anceftors, more perfeft
perfeftion was ftill fought ; and improvements had
gone on, till London and Wife had flocked all our
gardens with giants, animals, monfters, coats of arms,
and mottos, in yew, box, and holly. Abfurdity could
go no farther, and the tide turned. Bridgman, the next
fafhionable defigner of gardens, was far more chafte ;
and whether from good fenfe, or that the nation had
been ftruck and reformed by the admirable paper in
the Guardian, N° 173, he banifhed verdant fculpture,
and did not even revert to the fquare precifion of the
foregoing age. He enlarged his plans, difdained to
make every drvifion tally to its oppofrte ; and. though
he ftill adhered much to ftraight walks with high clip¬
ped hedges, they were only his great lines ; the reft he
diverfified by wildernefs, and with loofe groves of oak,
though ftill within furrounding hedges. As his refor¬
mation gained footing, he ventured, in the royal gar¬
den at Richmond, to introduce Cultivated fields, and
even morfels of a foreft appearance, by the Tides of
thofe endlefs and tirefome walks that ftretched out of
one into another without intermiffion. But this was
not till other innovators had broke loofe too from ri¬
gid fymmetry.
“ But the capital ftroke, the Lading ftep to all that
has followed, was the deftruftion of walls for boun¬
daries, and the invention of foffes—an attempt then
deemed fo affoniihing, that the common people call¬
ed them Ha ! Ha’s ! to exprefs their furprife at find¬
ing a fudden and unperceived check to their walk.
“ A funk fence may be called the lead'mgjlep, for thefe
reafons. No fooner was this fimple enchantment made,
than levelling, mowing, and rolling, followed. The
contiguous ground of the park without the funk fence
was to be harmonized with the lawn within ; and the
garden in its turn was to be fet free from its prim re¬
gularity, that it might affort with the wilder country
: N I N G.
without. The funk fence afcertalned the fpeciiic gar¬
den ; but that it might not draw too obvious a line of
diftinftion between, the neat and the rude, the conti¬
guous out-lying parts came to be included in a kind of
general defign ; and when nature was taken into the
plan, under improvements, every ftep that was made
pointed out new beauties, and infpired new ideas. At
that moment appeared Kent, painter enough to tafte
the charms of landfcape, bold, and opinionative enough
to dare and to diftate, and born with a genius to ftrike
out a great fyftem from the twilight of imperfeft ef-
fays. He leaped the fence, and faw that all nature
was a garden. He felt the delicious contrail of hill
and valley changing imperceptibly into each other,
tafted the beauty of the gentle fwell or concave fcoop,
and remarked how loofe groves crowned an eafy emi¬
nence with happy ornament; and while they called
in the diftant view between their graceful Hems, re¬
moved and extended the perfpeftive by delufive com-
parifon.
“ Thus the pencil of his imagination bellowed all the
arts of landfcape on the feenes he handled. The great
principles on which he worked were perfpeftive, and
light and lhade. Groupes of trees broke too uniform
or too extenfive a lawn ; evergreens and woods were
oppofed to the glare of the champaign ; and where
the view was lefs fortunate, or fo much expofed as to
be beheld at once, he blotted out fome parts by thick
Ihades, to divide it into variety, or to make the richeft
fcene more enchanting by referving it to a farther ad¬
vance of the fpeftator’s ftep. Thus, felefting favou¬
rite objefts, and veiling deformities by fereens of plan¬
tation ; fometimes allowing the rudeft wafte to add
its foil to the richeft theatre: he realifed the compo-
fitions of the greatell matters in painting. Where
objefts were wanting to animate his horizon, his tafte
as an architeft could bellow immediate termination.
His buildings, his feats, his temples, were more the
works of his pencil than of his compafles. We owe the
reftoration of Greece and the diffulion of architefture’
to his Ikill in landfcape.
“ But of all the beauties he added to the face of this
beautiful country, none furpaffed his management of
water. Adieu to canals, circular bafons, and cafcades
tumbling down marble Heps, that laft abfurd magnifi¬
cence of Italian and French villas. The forced eleva¬
tion of catarafts was no more. The gentle ftream was.
taught to ferpentize feemingly at its pleafure ; and
where difeontinued by different levels, its courfe ap¬
peared to be concealed by thickets properly interfper-
fed, and glittered again at a difiance where it might
be fuppofed naturally to arrive. Its borders were
fmoothed, but preferved their waving irregularity. A,
few trees fcattered here and there on its edges fprink-
led the tame bank that accompanied its meanders;
and when it difappeared among the hills, fliaJes de-
feending from the heights. leaned towards its pro-:
grefs, and framed the diftant point of light under
which it was loft, as it turned afide to either hand of
the blue horizon..
“ Thus, dealing in none but the colours of nature, and
catching its moft favourable features, men faw a new
creation opening before their eyes. The living land¬
fcape was chaftened or poliflie4> not transformed.
3 Treedgmt
551
( G A R D
Freedom was given to the forms of trees: they ex¬
tended their branches unreftridted ; and where any emi¬
nent oak, or mafter beech, had efcaped maiming and
furvived the foreft, bufh and bramble was removed, and
all its honours were reilored to diftinguiih and fhade
the plain. Where the united plumage of an ancient
wood extended wide its undulating canopy, and ftood
venerable in its darknefs, Kent thinned the foremoft
ranks, and left but fo many detached and fcattered
trees, as foftened the approach of gloom, and blended
a chequered light with the thus lengthened fhadows of
the remaining columns.
“ Succeeding artifts have added new mafter-ftrokes
to thefe touches; perhaps improved or brought to per¬
fection fome that have been named. The introduc¬
tion of foreign trees and plants, which we owe prin¬
cipally to Archibald Duke of Argyle, contributed ef-
fentially to the richnefs of colouring fo peculiar to our
modern landfcape. The mixture of various greens,
the contrail of forms between onr foreft-trees and the
northern and Weft Indian firs and.pines, are improve¬
ments more recent than Kent, or but little known to
him. The weeping-willow, and every florid flrrub,
each tree of delicate or bold leaf, are new tints in the
compofition of our gardens.
“ But juft as the encomiums are that have been be¬
llowed on Kent’s difeoveries, he was neither without
alfiftance or faults. Mr Pope undoubtedly contributed
to form his tafte. The defign of the Prince of Wales’s
garden at Carlton-houfe was evidently borrowed from
the Poet’s at Twickenham. There was a little of af-
fe&ed modelly in the latter, when he faid, of all his
works he was moll proud of his garden. And yet
it was a lingular effort of art and tafte to im»
prefs fo much variety and feenery on a fpot of five
acres. The palling through the gloom from the
grotto to the opening day, the retiring and again
alfembling lhades, the duiky groves, the larger lawn,
and the folemnity of the termination at the cypreffes
ihat lead up to his mother’s tomb, are managed with
E N X N G. Kiftory*
exquifitejudgment; and though Lord Peterborough
afillled him
To form his quincunx and to rank his vines,
thofe were not the moll pleafing ingredients of his little
perfpe&ive.
“ Having routed profelfed art (for the modern gar¬
dener exerts his talents to conceal his art), Kent, like
other reformers, knew not how to Hop at the juft li¬
mits. He had followed Nature, and imitated her fo
happily, that he began to think all her works were
equally proper for imitation. In Kenfington garden he
planted dead trees, to give a greater air of truth to the
feene—but he was foon laughed out of this excels-
His ruling principle was, that nature abhors a ftraight
line. His mimics, for every genius has his apes, feem-
ed to think that fire could love nothing but what was
crooked. Yet fo many men of taile of all ranks de¬
voted themfelves to the new improvements, that it is
furprifing how much beauty has been ftruck out, with
how few abfurdities. Still in fome lights the reformation
feems to have been pulhed too far. Though an avenue
crofting a park or feparating a lawn, and intercepting
views from the feat to which it leads, are capital faults;
yet a great avenue cut through woods, perhaps before
entering a park, has a noble air, and
Like footmen running before coaches
To tell the inn what lord approaches,
announces the habitation of fome man of diftindtion.
In other places the total banilhment of all particular
neatnefs immediately about ahoufe, which is frequent¬
ly left gazing by itfelf in the middle of a park, is a
defedl. Sheltered and even clofe walks, in fo very un¬
certain a climate as ours, are comforts ill exchanged
for the few pidlurefque days that we enjoy ; and when-,
ever a family can purloin a warm and even fomething
of an old-falhioned garden from the landfcape defigned
for them by the undertaker in falhion, without inter¬
fering with the picture, they will find fatisfadlions oa
thofe days that do not invite ftrangers to come and fee
their improvements.”
Part!. PRINCIPLES of GARDENING.
ARDENING, in the perfedtion to which it has
been lately brought in Britain, is intitled to a
place of conilderable rank among the liberal arts. It
-is (fays Mr Wheatley) as fuperior to landfcape-paint¬
ing as a reality to a reprefentationr it is an exertion of
fancy; a fubjedl for taile; and being releafed now from
the reftraints of regularity, and enlarged beyond the
jrurpofes of domeftic convenience, the moll beautiful,
the moll fimple, the moft noble feenes of nature, are all
within its province. For it is no longer confined to
the fpots from which it takes its name ; but, as alrea¬
dy obferved, regulates alfo the difpofition and embel-
lilhments of a park, a farm, a foreft, See. and the
Bufinefs of a gardener is to feledl and apply whatever
is great, elegant, or charadlerillic, in any of them to
xiifcover, and to fhow all the advantages of the place
iupon which he is employed ; to fupply its defedts, to
jeorredt its faults, and to improve its beauties.
N0 *34.
Sect. I. Materials of Gardening.
These may be divided into'two general claffesf
Natural) and FaQit'ious.
§ 1. Of the Natural Materials.
These, according to Mr Wheatley’s enumeration,
are: Ground, Wood, Water, and Rocks.
I. GROUND. By this is meant that portion of naked
furface which is included within the place to be im¬
proved ; whether that furface be fwamp, lawn, roughet,
or broken ground ; and whether it be a height, a val¬
ley, a plain, ora compofition of fwells, dips, and levels.
The following paffage has been quoted from Mr
Gilpin’s obfervations on the Wye*, as affording a
fublime idea of what ground ought to be.—“ No- • p
thing (fays he) gives fo juft an idea of the beauti¬
ful fwellings of ground as thofe of water, where it
2 has
Part I.
GARDENING.
Wood. ha3 fufficient rootri to undulate and expand. In
U-'Y'—'' ground which is compofed of very refraftory mate¬
rials, you are prefented often with harlh lines, angu¬
lar infeitions, and difagreeable abruptneffes. In water,
whether in gentle or in agitated motion, all is eafy, all
is foftened into itfelf; and the hills and the valleys
play into each other in a variety of the moft beautiful
forms. In agitated water, abruptneffes indeed there
are, but yet they are fuch abruptneffes as in fome part
or other unite properly with the furface around them;
and are on the whole peculiarly harmonious. Now, if
the ocean in any of thefe fwellings and agitations could
be arrefted and fixed, it would produce that pleafing
variety which we admire in ground. Hence it is com¬
mon to fetch our images from water, and apply them
to land : we talk of an undulating line, a playing
lawn, and a billowy furface; and give a much ftrong-
er and more adequate idea by fuch imagery, than plain
language could poffibly prefent.”
The exertions of art, however, are here inadequate;
and the artill ought not attempt to create a mountain,
a valley, or a plain : he fhould but rarely meddle even
with the fmaller inequalities of grounds. Roughets
and broken ground may generally be reduced to lawn,
or hid with wood; and a fwamp may be drained or
covered with water ; whilft lawn may be variegated at
pleafure by wood, and fometimes by water.
II. WOOD, as a general term, comprehends all trees
and {hrubs in whatever difpofition; but it is fpecifically
applied in a more limited fenfe, and in that fenfe we
fhall now ufe it.
Every plantation muff be either a wood, a grove, or
a dump. A wood is compofed both of trees and un¬
derwood, covering a confiderable fpace. A grove con-
fills of trees without underwood. A clump differs from
either only in extent: it may be either clofe or open :
when clofe, it is fometimes called a thicket; when open,
a groupe of trees; but both are equally clumps, what¬
ever may be the ihape or fituation.
Of the fur ®ne t^ie objefts in nature (Mr Wheat-
face of a Jey obferves) is the furface of a large thick wood, com-
wood, manded from an eminence, or feen from below hang¬
ing on the fide of a hill. The latter is generally the
more interefting objeft. Its afpiring fituation gives
it an air of greatnefs ; its termination is commonly
the horizon : and, indeed, if it is deprived of that
fplendid boundary, if the brow appears above it (un-
lefs fome very peculiar effe& charafterifes that brow),
it lofes much of its magnificence: it is inferior to
a wood which covers a lefs hill from the top to the
bottom; for a whole fpace filled is feldom little.
But a wood commanded from an eminence is ge¬
nerally no more than a part of the feene below;
and its'boundary is often inadequate to its greatnefs.
To continue it, therefore, till it winds out of fight, or
lofes itfelf in the horizon, is generally dcfirable : but
then the varieties of its furface grow confufed as it re¬
tires ; while thofe of a hanging wood are all diftinft,
the furtheft parts are held up to the eye, and none
are at a diilance though the whole be extenfive.
The varieties of a furface are effential to the beau¬
ty of it: a continued fmooth (haven level of foliage
is neither agreeable-nor natural ; the different growths
of trees commonly break it in reality, and their flia-
Vol. VII. Part II.
dows ftill more in appearance. Thefe (hades are fo
many tints, which, undulating abont the furface, are ’
its greateft embelliflrment; and fuch tints may be pro¬
duced with more effe&, and more certainty, by a ju¬
dicious mixture of greens; at the fame time an addi¬
tional variety may be introduced, by grouping and
contrafting trees very different in (hape from each
other; and whether variety in the greens or in the
forms be the defign, the execution is often eafy, and
feldom to a certain degree impoffible. In raifing a
young wood, it may be perfeft. In old woods, there
are many fpots which may be either thinned or thick¬
ened ; and there the chara&eriftic diftin&ions (hould
determine what to plant, or which to leave; at the leaft
will often point out thofe which, as blemifftes, ought
to be taken away ; and the removal of two or three
trees will fometimes accomplifli the defign. The num¬
ber of beautiful forms, and agreeable »naffes, which
may decorate the furface, is fo great, that where the
place will not admit of one, another is always ready ;
and as no delicacy of finifhing is required, no minute
exa&nefs is worth regarding ; great effefts will not be
difconcerted by fmall obitrucSions and little difap-
pointments.
The contrails, however, of maffes and of groupes
mud not be too ftrong, where greatnefs is the charac¬
ter of the wood; for unity is effential to greatnefs i
and if direft oppofites be placed clofe together, the
wood is no longer one objeft; it is only a confufed col-
leftion of feveral feparate plantations. But if thepro-
grefs be gradual from the one to the other, fliapes and
tints widely different may affemble on the fame fur¬
face ; and each (hould occupy a confiderable fpace : a
fingle tree, or a fmall clufter of trees, in the midft: of
an extenfive wood, is in fize but a fpeck, and in colour
but a fpot; the groupes and the maffes muff be large
to produce any fenfible variety.
When, in a romantic fituation, very broken ground
is overfpread with wood, it may be proper on the fur¬
face of the wood to mark the inequalities of the
ground. Rudenefs, not greatnefs, is the prevailing
idea ; and a choice dire&ly the reverfe of that which
is produ&ive of unity, will produce it. Strong con-
trafts, even oppofitions, may be eligible; the aim is
rather to disjoint than do conne& : a deep hollow may
fink into dark greens ; an abrupt bank may be (hown
by a rifing ftage of afpiring trees, a (harp ridge by a.
narrow line of conical (hapes: firs are of great ufe
upon fuch occafions; their tint, their form, their fin-
gularity, recommend them.
A hanging wood of thin forefl-trees, and feen from
below, is feldom pleafing: thofe few trees are by the
perfpeftive brought nearer together; it lofes the beauty
of a thin wood, and is defe&ive as a thick one : the
mod obvious improvement, therefore, is to thicken it.
But, when feen from an eminence, a thin wood is often
a lively and elegant circumftance in a view; it is full
ofobje&s; and every feparate tree (hows its beauty.
To increafe that vivacity, which is the peculiar excel¬
lence of a thin wood, the trees (hould be chara&eriffi-
cally diftinguiffied both in their tints and their (hapes;
and fuch as for their airinefs have been proferibed in a
thick wood, are frequently the mod eligible here.
Differences alfo in their growths are a further fource
of variety j each (hould be confidered as a didinft ob-
4 A jefil.
554
GARDENING. p,,rtr
t Wood. je<fk, unlefs where a fmall number are grouped toge-
’ ther ; and then all that compofe the little duller mull
agree: but the groupes themfelves, for the fame reafon
as the feparate trees, Ihould be ftrongly contrafted;
the contin ied underwood is their only connection, and
a that is not affe&ed by their variety.
Of the out- - Though the furface of a wood, when commanded,
line of a deferves all thefe attentions, yet the outline more fre-
wooa. quently calls for our regard : it is alfo more in our
power; it may fometimes be great, and may always
be beautiful. The firft requifite is irregularity. That
a mixture of trees and underwood fhould form a long
straight line, can never be natural; and a fucceffion of
6afy fweeps and gentle rounds, each a portion of a
greater or lefs circle, compofing all together a line li¬
terally ferpentine, is, if poffible, worfe. It is but a
number of regularities put together in a diforderly
manner, and equally dillant from the beautiful both
of art and of nature. The true beauty of an outline
confifts more in breaks than in fweeps; rather in angles
than in rounds; in variety, not in fucceflion.
Every variety in the outline of a wood mull be a
prominence or a recefs. Breadth in either is not fo im¬
portant as length to the one and depth to the other.
If the former ends in an angle, the latter diminifhes to
a point; they have more force than a fiiallow dent, or
a dwarf excrefcence, how wide foever. They are
greater deviations from the continued line which they
are intended to break ; and their effedl is to enlarge
the wood itfelf, which feems to flxetch front the moil
advanced point, back beyond the moil diftant to which
•it retires. The extent of a large wood on a flat, not
commanded, can by no circumilance be fo manifeftly
fhown as by a deep recefs.; efpecially if that recefs
wind fo as to conceal the extremity, and leave the ima¬
gination to purfue it. On the other hand, the poverty
of a (hallow wood might fometimes be relieved by here
and there a prominence, or clumps which by their ap¬
parent jundlion (hould feem to be prominences from it.
A deeper wood with a continued outline, except when
commanded, would not appear fo conliderable.
Wheatley's An inlet into a wood feems to have been cut, if the
Obfervat. oppoflte points of the entrance tally ; and that (how of
•/i Modern art depreciates its merit: but a difference only in the
Gardening. £tuat;on 0f th0fe points, by-bringing one more forward
than the other, prevents the appearance, though their
forms be fimilar. Other points, which diflinguifh the
great parts, (hould in general be ftrongly marked : a
Siort turn has more fpirit in it than a tedious circuity;
and a line broken by angles has a precifipn and (irm-
nefs, which in an undulated line are wanting ; the
angles (hould indeed commonly be a little foftened ;
the rotundity of the plant which forms them is fome¬
times fufficient for the purpofe ; but if they are mel¬
lowed down too much, they lofe all meaning. Three
or four large parts thus boldly diftinguiftied, will break
a very long outline. When two woods are oppofed
on the fides of a narrow glade, neither has fo much
occafion for variety in itfelf as if it were Angle; if they
are very different from each other, the contrail fupplies
the deficiency to each, and the interval between them
is full of variety. The form of that interval is indeed
of as much confequence as their own : though the
outlines of both the woods be feparately beautiful, yet
if together , they do not caft the. open fpace into an
agreeable figure, the whole feene 'is not pleafing ; and
a figure, is never agreeable, when the fides too clofely
correfpond ; whether they are exaflly the fame, or
exa£l!y the reverfe of each other, they equally appear
artificial.
Every variety of outline hitherto mentioned may
be traced by the underwood alone ; but frequently the
fame effedls may be produced with more eafe, and
with much more beauty, by a few trees (landing out
from the thicket, and belonging,’or feeming to belong,
to the wood, fo as to make a part of its figure. Even
where they are not wanted for that purpofe, detached
trees are fuch agreeable objedls,. fo didindl, fo light,
when compared to the cove#about them, that dart¬
ing along it in fome parts, and breaking it in others;
they give an unaffefted grace, which can no otherwife
be given to the outline. They have a ftiUUf’Jither
effeift, when they ftretch acrofs the whole breadth of
an inlet, or before part of a reeefs into the wood;
they are themfelves drown to advantage by the fpace
behind them ; and that fpace, feen between their ilems,
they in return throw into an agreeable perfpedlive. 3
2. The prevailing charadler of a wood is generally Of a Grove
grandeur : the principal- attention therefore which ’
it requires, is to prevent the exceffes of that charafter,
to diverlify the uniformity of its extent, to lighten
the unwieldinefs of its bulk, and to blend graces with
greatnefs. The chara&er of a grove is beauty. Fine
trees are lovely objefls: a grove is an affemblage
of them ; in which every individual retains much off
its own peculiar elegance, and whatever it lofes is
transferred to the fuperior beauty of the whole. To
a grove, therefore, which admits of endlefs variety in
the difpofition of the trees, differences in their (hapes
and their greens are feldom very important, and fome¬
times they are detrimental. Strong contrails fcatter
trees which are thinly planted, and which have not
the conneftion of underwood ; they no longer form
one plantation ; tl^y are a number of Tingle trees. A
thick grove is not indeed expofed to this mifehief,
and certain fituations may recommend different (hapes ' - x
and different greens for their effects upon the furface ;
but in the outline they are feldom much regarded.
The eye attracted into the depth of the grove, paffes
by little circumitances at the entrance; even varieties
in the form of the line do not always engage the atten¬
tion : they are not fo apparent as in a continued thicket,
and are fearcely feen if they are not confiderable.
But the furface and the outline are not the only cir-
cumftances to be attended to. Though a grove be
beautiful as an objeCl, it is befides delightful as a fpot
to walk or to fit in ; and the choice and the difpo¬
fition of the trees for effedls within, are therefore a
principal ,confideration. Mere irregularity alone will
not pleafe : ftridl order is there more agreeable than
abfolute confufion : and fome meaning better than
none. A regular plantation has a degree of beauty ;
but it gives no fatisfa&ion, becaufe we know that the
fame number of trees might be more beautifully ar¬
ranged. A difpofition, however, in which the lines
only are broken, without varying the diftances, is
equally improper. The trees (hould gather into
groupes, or (land in various irregular lines, and de-
feribe feveral figures : the intervals, between them
(hould be contrafted both in (hape and in dijnen-
4 fionst
P&rtlv G A R Ef
Wood fions S a large fpace fliould in fome places be quite o-
'mm—v—^—' pen ; in others the trees fhould be fo clofe together,
Ibid. ag hardly to leave a palFage between them ; and in o-
thers as far apart as the connedion will allow. 1 n the
forms and the varieties of thefe groupes, thefe lines,
and thefe openings, principally confifts the interior
beauty of a grove.
The force of them is inofl ftrongly illu'lrated at
• New Claremont* : where the walk to the cottage, though de-
Eflrer in ilitute of many natural advantages, and eminent for
Surry. none ; though it commands no profped ; though the
water below it is a trifling pond; though it has no¬
thing, in fliort, but inequality of ground to recom¬
mend it; is yet the fineft part of the garden : for a
grove is there planted in a gently curved direCt'on, all
along the tide of a hill, and on the edge of a wood,
which rifes above it. Large recefles bteak it into fe-
veral clumps, which hang down the declivity ; fome of
them approaching, but none reaching quite to the bot¬
tom. Thefe recefles are fo deep as to form great open¬
ings ill the midft of the grove ; they penetrate almoft
to the covert : but the clumps being all equally fuf-
pended from the wood ; and a line of open plantation,
though fometimes narrow, running conftantly along the
top; a continuation of grove is preferved, and the con¬
nedion between the parts is never broken. Even a
groupe, which near one of the extremities Hands out
quite detached, is ftill in ftyle fo fimilar to the reft as
not to lofe all relation. Each of thefe clumps is cocn-
pof^d of feveral others ftiil more intimately united :
each is full of groupes, fometimes of no more than two
trees, fometimes of four or five, and now and then in
larger clufters : an irregular waving line, iffuing from
fome little crowd, lofes itfelf in the next; or a few fcat-
tered trees drop in a more diflant fuccefiion from the
one to the other. The intervals, winding here like a
glade, and widening there into broader openings, dif¬
fer in extent, in figure, and diredion ; but all the
groupes, the lines, and the intervals, are colleded to¬
gether into large general clumps, each of which is at'
the fame time both compad and free, identical and va¬
rious. The whole is a place wherein to tarry with fe-
cure delight, or faunfer with perpetual amufement.
The grove at Efher-place was planted by the fame
mafterly hand; but the neceffity of accommodating the
young plantation to Tome large trees which grew there
before, has confined its variety. The groupes are few
and final!; there was not room for larger or for more :
there were no opportunities to form continued narrow
glades between oppofite lines; the vacant fpace are
therefore chiefly irregular openings Ipreading every
way, and great differences of dittance between the trees
are the principal variety; but the grove wind's along
the bank of a large river, oh the fide and at the foot
of a very fudden afcent, the upper part of which is co¬
vered with wood. In one place, it preffes clofe to the
covert; retires from it in another ; and ftretches in a
third acrofs a bold recefs, which runs up high into the
thicket. The trees fometimes overfprcad the flat be¬
low ; fometimes leave an open fpace to the river ; at
other times crown the brow of a large knole, climb up
a fteep, or hang on a gentle declivity. Thefe varieties
in the fituation more than compenfate for the want of
variety in the difpofition of the trees ; and the many
Liippy circumftauces which concur
ENIN G. 555
   in Efher’s peaceful grove, Wood. ■
Where Kent and nature vie for Pelham’s love, 1 V ”
render this little fpot more agreeable than any at Clare¬
mont. But though it was right to preferve the trees
already Handing, and not to facrifice great prefent
beauties to ftill greater in futurity; yet this attention
has been a reftraiut; and the grove at Claremont, con-
fidered merely as a plantation, is in delicacy of tafte,
and fertility of invention, fuperior to that at Efher.
It is, however, poflible to fecure both a prefent and a
future effedljby fixing firft on a difpofition which will be
beautiful when the trees are large, and then, interming¬
ling another which is agreeable while they are fmall.
Thefe occafional trees are hereafter to be taken away ;
and muff be removed in time, before they become pre¬
judicial to the others.
The confequence of variety in the difpofition, is va¬
riety in the light and (hade of the grove ; which may
be improved by the choice of the trees. Some are im¬
penetrable to the fierceft fun-Beam ; others let in
here and there a ray between the large maffes of their
foliage ; and others, thin both of boughs and of leaves,
only chequer the ground. Every degree of light and
fllade, from a glare to obfeurity, may be managed,
partly by the number, and partly by the texture, of the
trees. Differences only in the manner of their growths
liave alfo correfponding effects: there is a clofenefs
under thofe whole branches defeend low, and fpread
wide ; a fp,ace and liberty where the arch above is high;
and frequent traniitions from the one to the other are
very pleafing. Thefe ftill are not all the varieties of
which the interior of a grove is capable : trees, indeed,
whofe branches nearly reach the ground, being each a
fort of thicket, .are inconfiftent with an open planta- ,
tion : but though fome of the charatfteriftic diftindlions
are thereby excluded,' other varieties more minute fuc-
ceed in their place ; for the freedom of paffage through¬
out brings every tree in its turn near to the eye, and
fubjefts even differences in foliage to obfervation.
Thefe,flight as they may feem, are agreeable when they
occur: it is true, they are not regretted when wanting;
but a defedl of ornament is not neceffarily a blemifli. 4
3. It has been already obferved, that Clumps differ of Clumps,
only in extent from woods, if they are clofe; or from
groves, if they are open: they are fmall woods, and fmall
groves, governed by the fame principles as the larger,
after allowances made for their dimenfions. But be-
fides the properties they may have in common with
woods or with groves, they have others peculiar to
themfelves which require examination.
They are either independent or relative : when inde¬
pendent, their beauty, as Angle obje&s, is folely to be
attended to ; when relative, the beauty of the indivi¬
duals muff be facrificed to the efletft of the whole, which
is the greater confideration.
The occajions on which independent clumps may be
applied, are many. They are often ddirable as beau¬
tiful objects in themfelves ; they are fometimes necef-
fary to break an extent of lawn, or a continued line
whether of ground or of plantation ; but on all occa-
fions a jealoufy of art ponftantly attends them, which
irregularity in their figure will not always alpne re¬
move. Though elevations fliow them to advantage,
yet a hillock evidently thrown up on purpofe to be
crowned with a clump, is artificial to a degree of dif-
4 A' 2 gufti
5.'S GARDE
t Water. gU{^ . fOIne of the trees (hould therefore be planted on
" ' the fides, to take off that appearance. The fame ex-
iblJ* pedient may be applied to clumps placed on the brow
of a hill, to interrupt its famenefs : they will have lefs
oflentation of defign, if they are in part carried down
either declivity. The objeftion already made to plant¬
ing many along fuch a brow, is on the fame principle:
a fingle clump is lefs fufpe&ed of art ; if it be an open
one, there‘can be no finer utuation for it, than juft at
the point of an abrupt hill, or on a promontory into a
lake or a river. It is in either a beautiful termination,
diftinft by its pofition, and enlivened by an expanfe of
Iky or of water about and beyond it. Such advan¬
tages may balance little defeats in its form : but they
are loft if other clumps are planted near it; art then
intrudes, and the whole is difpleafing.
But though a multiplicity of clumps, when each is
an independent objeft, feldom feems natural; yet a
number of them may, without any appearance of art,
be admitted into the fame fcene, if they bear a rela¬
tion to each other : if by their fucceffion they diverfify
a continued outline of wood, if between them they
form beautiful glades, if all together they call an ex-
tenfive lawn into an agreeable fhape, the cjfed prevents
any fcrutiny into the means of producing it. But when
the reliance on that effe<S is fo great, every other con-
fideration muft give way to the beauty of the whole.
The figure of the glade, of the lawn, or of the wood,
are principally to be attended to : the fineft clumps, if
they do not fall eafily into the great lines, are blemilhes;
their connexions, their contrafts, are more important
than their forms.
Of SLake. III. WATER. All inland water is either running
or Jlagnated. When ftagnated, it forms a lake or a
pool, which differ only in extent; and a pool and a
pond are the fame. Running waters are either a rivu¬
let, a river, or a rill; and thefe differ only in breadth :
a rivulet and a brook are fynonymous terms; aJlream and
a current are general names for all.
l. Space or expanfion is effential to a I^aie. It can¬
not be too large as a fubjeft of defcription or of
contemplation ; but the eye receives little fatisfaXion
when it has not a form on which to reft: the ocean
itfelf hardly atones by all its grandeur for its infinity ;
and a profpeX of it is, therefore, always moft agree¬
able, when in fome part, at no great diftance, a reach
of ftrore, a promontory, or an ifland, reduces the
immenfity into Ihape. An artificial lake, again,
may be comparatively extravagant in its dimenfions.
It may be fo out of proportion to its appenda¬
ges, as to feem a wafte of water; for all fize is in
dome refpeXs relative : if this exceeds its due dimen¬
fions, and if a flatnefs of Ihore beyond it adds ftill to
the drearinefs of the fcene ; wood to raife the banks,
and objeXs to diftinguifh them, are the remedies to be
employed. If the length of a piece of water be too great
for its breadth fo as to deftroy all idea of circuity, the
extremities fhould be confidered as too far off, and made
important to give them proximity; while at the fame
time the breadth may be favoured, by keeping down
the banks on the fidcs. On the fame principle, if the
lake be too fmall, a low ftiore will, in appearance, in-
ereafe the extent.
But it is not neceffary that the whole fcene be
KING. Parti.
bounded : if form be impreffed on a confiderable part, Water,
the eye can, without difguft, permit a large reach to
ftretch beyond its ken ; it can even be pleafed to ob-
ferve a tremulous motion in the horizon, which fhows
that the water has not there yet attained its termina¬
tion. Still fhort of this, the extent may be kept in
uncertainty ; a hill or a wood may conceal one of the
extremities, and the country beyond it, in fuch a man¬
ner as to leave room for the fuppofed continuation of
fo large a body of water. Opportunities to choofe this
lhape are frequent, and it is the moft perfeX of any :
the fcene is clofed, but the extent of the lake is undeter¬
mined ; a complete form is exhibited to the eye, while
a boundlefs range is left open to the imagination.
But mere form will only giife content, not delight:
that depends upon the outline, which is capable of
exquifite beauty ; and the bays, the creeks, and the
promontories, which are ordinary parts of that outline,
together with the accidents of ijlands, of inlets and of
outlets to rivers, are in their ftiapes and their combina¬
tions an inexhauftible fund of variety.
Bays, creeks, and promontories, however, though
extremely beautiful, {hould not be very numerous: for
a (bore broken into little points and hollows has no
certainty of outline ; it is only ragged, not diverfi-
fied ; and the diftinXnefs and fimplicity of the great
parts are hurt by the multiplicity of fubdivifions.
But iflands, though the channels between them be
narrow, do not fo often derogate from greatnefs : they
intimate a fpace beyond them whofe boundaries do
not appear ; and remove to a diftance the ftrore which
is feen in perfpeXive between them. Such partial
interruptions of the fight fuggeft ideas of extent to
the imagination. g
2. Though the windings of a River are proverbially of a River,
deferiptive of its courfe ; yet without being perpetu¬
ally wreathed, it may be natural. Nor is the charaXer
expreffed bnly by the turnings. On the contrary, if
they are too frequent and fudden, the current is redu¬
ced into a number of feparate pools, and the idea ©f
progrefs is obfeured by the difficulty of tracing it.
Length is the ftrongeft fymptom of continuation :
long reaches are therefore charaXeriftic of a river, and
they conduce much to its beauty ; each is a confider¬
able piece of water, and variety of beautiful forms may
be given to their outlines.
A river requires a number of accompaniments. The
changes in its courfe furniftr a variety of fituations;
while the fertility, convenience, and amenity, which
attend it, account for all appearances of inhabitants
and improvement. Profufion of ornament on a fiXL-
tious river, is a juft imitation of cultivated nature. E-
very fpecies of building, every ftyle of plantation, may
abound on the banks; and whatever be their charac¬
ters, their proximity to the water is commonly the
happieft circumftance in their fituation. A luft're is
from thence diffufed on all around; each derives an
importance from its relation to this capital feature ^
thofe which are near enough to be refleXed, immedi¬
ately belong to itY thofe at a greater diftance ftill
(hare in the animation of the fcene; and objeXs total¬
ly detached from each other, being all attradted towards
the fame interefting connexion, are united into one
compofition.
In the front of Blenheim was ? deep broad valley/
which,
GARDENING.
which abruptly (eparatcd the cattle from the lawn and
the plantations before it; even a dired approach could
not be made without building a monftrous bridge over
the vaft hollow : but this forced communication was
only a fubjeft of raillery ; and the fcene continued
broken into two parts, abfolutely diftind from each
other. This valley has been lately flooded : it is not
filled; the bottom only is covered with water: the
fides ai e ftill very high ; but they are no longer the
ftteps of a chafm, they are the bold fhores of a noble
river. The fame bridge is Handing without altera¬
tion : but no extravagance remains; the water gives
it propriety. Above it the river firft appears, wind¬
ing from behind a fnvall thick wood, in the valley ;
and foon taking a determined courfe, it is then broad
enough to admit an ifland filled with the finelt trees :
others, correfponding to them in growth and difpofi-
tion, Hand in groupes on the banks, intermixed with
younger plantations. Immediately below the bridge,
the river fpreads into a large expanfe: the fides are
open lawn. Oh that furtheft from the houfe formerly
flood the palace of Henry II. celebrated in many an
ancient ditty by the name of Fair Rofamond’s Bower.
A little clear fpving, which rifes there, is by the
country people ftill called Fair Rofamond’s Well. The
fpot is now marked by a Angle willow. Near it is a
fine collateral ftream, of a beautiful form, retaining its
breadth as far as it is feen, and retiring at laft behind
a hill from the view. The main river, having received'
this acceffion, makes a gentle bend ; then continues
for a confidei able length in one wide direft reach; and,
juft as it difappears, throw’s itfelf down a high cafcade,
which is the prefent termination. On one of the
banks of this reach is the garden : the fteeps are there
diverfified wuth thickets and with glades; but the co¬
vert prevails, and the top is crowned with lofty trees.
On the other fide is a noble hanging wrood in the park:
it was depreciated when it funk into a hollow, and
was poorly loft in the bottom ; but it is now a rich
appendage to the river, falling down an eafy flope
quite to the water’s edge, where, without overfhadow-
ing, it is reflefted on the furface. Another face of
the fame wood borders the collateral ftream, with an
outline more indented and vaticus ; w’hile a very large
irregular clump adorns the oppofite declivity. This
clump is at a confiderable diftance from the principal
river: but the ftream it belongs to brings it down to
conned! with the reft ; and the other objedls, which
were before difperfed, are now, by the intereft of each
in a relation which is common to all, colledted into
one illuftrious fcene. The caftle is itfelf a prodigious
pile of building ; which, with all the faults in its
architedture, will never feem lefs than a truly princely
habitation ; and the confined fpot where it was placed,
on the edge of an abyfs, is converted into a proud fitua-
tion, commanding a beautiful profpedf of water, and
open to an extenfive lawn, adequate to the manfion,
and an emblem of its domain. In the midlt of this
lawn Hands a column, a (lately trophy, recording the
exploits of the duke of Marlborough, and the grati¬
tude of Britain. Between this pillar and the caille is
the bridge, which now, applied to a fubjedt worthy of
it, is eftabliftred in all the importance due to its great-
*ef$. The middle, arch is wider than the Rialto, but
not too wide for the occafion; and yet this is the nar¬
rowed part of the river : but the length -of the reaches
is every where proportioned to their breadth. Each
of them is alone a noble piece of water ; and the laft,
the fined of all, lofes itfclf gradually in a wood, which
on that fide is alfo the boundary of the lawn, and rifes
into the horizon. All rs great in tire front of Blen¬
heim : but in that vaft fpace no void appears; fo im¬
portant are the parts, fo magnificent the objedts. The
plain is extenfive, the valley is broad, the wood is deep.
Though the intervals between the buildings are large,
they are filled with the grandeur which buildings of
fuch dimenfions and fo tnuch pomp^iffufe all around
them; and the river, in its long varied courfe, approach¬
ing to every objedl, and touching upon every part,
fpreads its influence over the whole.
In the compofition of this fcene, the river, both as
a part itfelf, and as uniting the orher parts, has a
principal (hare. But water is not loft though it be
in fo confined or fo concealed a fpot as to enter into
no view ; it may render that fpot delightful. It is
capable of the mod exquifite beauty in its form ; and
though not in fpace, may yet in difpofition have pre-
tenfions to greatnefs j for it may be divided into feve-
ral branches, which will form a clufter of iflands ail
connedfed together, make the whole place irriguous,.
and, in the (lead of extent, fupply a quantity of water.
Such a fequeftiated fcene ufually owes its retirement
to the trees and the thickets with .which it abounds
but, in the difpofition of them, one diftindlion (hould
be cosiftantly attended to. A river flowing through a
wood which overfpreads one continued furface of
ground, and a river between two woods, are in very
different circumfiances. In the latter cafe,, the woods
are feparate ; they may be contrafted in their forms
and their charadters, and the outline of each (hould be
forcibly marked. In the former, no outline ought to
be difcernible ; for the river paffes between trees, not
between boundaries; and though, in the progrefs or
its courfe, the (tyle of the plantations may be often
changed, yet on the oppofite banks a fimilarity (hould
conftantly prevail, that the identity of the wood may
never be doubtful.
A river between two woods may enter into a view ;
and then it muft be governed by the principles which
regulate the condudt and the accompaniments of a rN
ver in an open expofure. But when it runs through a
wood, it is never to be feen in profpedlthe place is
naturally full of obftrudlions ; and a continued open¬
ing, large enough to receive a long reach, would fetm
an artificial cut. The river muft therefore neceffarilv
wind more than in eroding a lawn, where the paffage
is entirely free. But its influence will never extend (o
far on the fides: the buildings muft be near the banks;
and, if numerous, will feem crowded, being all in one.
track, and in iituations nearly alike. The fcene, how¬
ever, does not want variety : on the contrary, none is
capable of more. The objedfts are not indeed fo differ¬
ent from each other as in an open view; but they are
very different, and in much greater abundance: for
this is the interior of a wood, where every tree is an
objeft, every combination of trees a variety, and no
large intervals are requifite to diftinguifli the feveral
difpofitions ; the grove, the thicket, or the groupes,
may;
5^8 G A R » I
Water, may prevail, and their forms and their relations may
'“‘"""■y"-he conftantly changed, without reftraint of fancy, or
Ibid. limitation of number.
Water is fo univerfally and fo defervedly admired
in a profpeft, that the mod obvibus thought in the
management of it, is to lay it as open as poffible, and
purpofely to conceal it would'generally feem a fevere
felf-denial: yet fo many beauties may attend its paf-
fage through a wood, that larger portions of it might
be allowed to fuch retired .feenes than are commonly
fpared from the view, and the different parts in dif¬
ferent ftyles would be fine contrails to each other. If the
• Vale of water at Wotton* were all expofed, a walk of near two
Aylefbury, miles along the banks would be of a tedious length,
hanrfhiie ^rorn the Want of thofe changes of the feene which
now fupply through the whole extent a fucceflion of
perpetual variety. That extent is fo large as to admit
of a divifion into four principal parts, all of them great
in ftyle and in dimenfions, and differing from each
mther both in charadler and fituation. The two firfl
-areSthe leaft. The one is a reach of a river, about the
third of a mile in length, and of a competent breadth,
flowing through a lovely mead, open in fome places
to views of beautiful hills in the country, and adorned
in Others with clumps of trees, fo large, that their
■branches ftretch quite acrofs, and form a high arch
■over the water. The next feems to have been once a
formal bafin encompaffed with plantations, and the
appendages on either fide ftill retain fome traces of
regularity ; but the fhape of the water is free from
them : the fize is about 14 acres; and out of it iffue
two broad collateral -ftreams, winding towards a large
river, which they are feen to approach, and fuppofed
to join. A real junction is however impoflible, from
the difference of the levels ; but the terminations are
fo artfully concealed, that the deception is never fuf-
pedled, and when known is not eafily explained. The
■river is the third great divifion of the water 5 a lake
into which it falls, is the fourth. Thefe two do ac¬
tually join 5 but their characters are diredtly oppo¬
site ; the feenes they belong to are totally diftinCt;
and the tranfition from the one to the other is very
gradual: for an ifland near the conflux, dividing the
breadth, and concealing the end of the lake, mode¬
rates for fome way the /pace; and permitting it to ex¬
pand but by degrees, raifes an idea of greatnefs, from
uncertainty accompanied with increafe* The reality
does not difappoint the expeQation ; and the ifland,
which is the point of view, is itfelf equal to the feene:
it is large, and high above the lake ; the ground is ir¬
regularly broken; thickets hang-on the fides; and to¬
wards the top is placed ah Ionic portico, which com¬
mands a noble .extent of water, not lefs than a mile
in circumference, bounded on one fide with wood, and
open on the other to two Hoping lawns, the leaft of
an hundred acres, diverfified with clumps, and bor¬
dered by plantations. Yet this lake, when full in view,
and with all the importance which fpace, form, and
■fituation can give, is not more interefting than the
fequeftered river, which has been mentioned as the
third great divifion of the water. It is juft within the
verge of a wood, three quarters of a mile long, every
where broad, and its courfe is fuch as to admit of in¬
finite variety without any confufion. The banks are
cleared of underwood j but a few thickets ftill remain,
. N I N G. rml,
and on one fide an impenetrable covert foon begins: Water,
the interval isa beautiful grove of oaks, fcattered over
a green fward of extraordinary verdure. Between thefe
trees and thefe thickets the river feems to glide gently
along, conftantly winding, without one fhort turn or
one extended reach in the whole length of the way.
This even temper in the ftieam fuits the feenes through
which it paffes; they are in general of a very fober
caft, not melancholy, but grave; never expofed to a
glare ; never darkened with glodm ; nor, by ftrong
contrafts of light and (hade, exhibiting the excefs of
either. Undifturbed by an extent of profpeft without*
or a multiplicity of objefts within, they retain at all
times a mildnefs of character ; which is ftill more for¬
cibly felt when the fhadows growfaint as they lengthen,
when a little milling of birds in the fpray, the leap¬
ing of the fi(h, and the fragrancy of the woodbine,
denote the approach of evening ; while the fetting fun
fhoots its laft gleams on a Tufcan portico, which is
clofe to the great bafin, but which from a feat near
this river is feen at a diftance, through all the obfeu-
rity of the wood, glowing on the banks, and. reflected
on the furface of the water. In another ftill more
diftinguilhed fpot is built an elegant bridge, with a
colonnade upon it, which not only adorns the place
where it Hands, but is alfo a piclurefquc objeil to an
odlagon building near the lake, where ic is ftiown in
a fingutar fituation, over-arched, encompaffed, and
backed with wood, without any appearance of the
water beneath. This building in return is alio an
object from the bridge ; and a Chinefe room, in a
little ifland juft by, is another: neither of them are
confiderable, and the others which are vifible are at a
diftance, but more or greater adventitious ornaments are
not required in a fpot fo rich as this in beauties pecu¬
liar to its character. A profufion of water pours in
from all fides round upon the view; the opening of the
lake appears; a glimpfe is caught of the large bafin ;
One of the collateral ftreams is full in fight, and the
bridge itfelf is in the midft of the fineft pait of the
river: all feem to communicate the one with the other.
Though thickets often intercept, and groupes perplex;
the view, yet they never break the connexion between
the feveral pieces of water; each may ftill be traced
along large branches, or little catches ; which in fome
places are overfhadowed and dim ; in others gliften
through a glade, or glimmer between the boles of
trees in a dillant perfpettive 5 and in one, where they
are quite loft to the view, fome arches of a ftone-
bridge, but partially feen. among the wood, preferve
their connexion. • ^
3. If a large river may. fometimes, a fmaller current of a Rill
Undoubtedly may often, be conduced through a wood: and a Riva
it feldom adorns, it frequently disfigures, a profpeft,'et-
where its cauife is marked, not by any appearance of
water, but by a confufed line of clotted grafs, which
difagrees with the general verdure. A Rivulet may,
indeed, Have conftderation enough rfor a hoihe feene,
though it be open; but a Rill is always moll agreeably
when moft retired ifrom public view. Its charatlenfUc
excellencies are vivacity atid variety, which require at¬
tention, letfure, and lilence, that the eye may pore
upon the little beauties, and the ear lifteu to the loyv
murmurs of the ftream without interruption. To fucli
indulgence a confined fpot only is favourable ; a dole
Part T. G ■ A R D 1
Water, copfe is therefore often more acceptable than a high
^—  ' wood, and a fequeftered valley at all times preferable
Ibid. t() afly 0pen gxpofare a Angle rill at a very little di-
ilance is a mere water:cOurfe ; it. lofes all its charms ;
it has no importance in itfelf, and bears no proportion
to the fcene. A number of little ftreams have indeed an
'effeft in any fituation, but not as objefts; they are inte-
reiiing onlyon account of the charafter they exprefs,the
irriguous- appearance which they give to the whole.
• The full tide of a large river has more force than
a&ivity, and feems too unwieldy to allow of very
quick tranfitions. But in a rill, the agility of its mo¬
tion account's for every caprice : frequent windings
difguife its infignificarice ; Ihort turnings Ihow its vi¬
vacity ; hidden changes in the breadth are a fpecies of
its variety ; and however fantaftically the channel may
be wreathed, contra&ed; and widened, it ilill appears
to be natural. We find an amufement in tracing the
little ftream through all the intricacies of its courfe,
and in feeing it force a palfage through a narrow
firait, expatiate on every opportunity, ftruggle with
obftruifions, and puzde out its way. A rivulet,
which is the mean betwixt a river and a rill, partakes
of the chara&er of both : it is not licenfed to the ex¬
travagance of the one, nor under the fame reftraints as
the other: it may have more frequent bends than the
river, longer reaches than a rill: the breadth of a
ftream determines whether the principal beauty refults
from extent or from variety.
The munnuts of a rill are amongft the moft plea-
fing circumllances which attend it. If the bed of the
ftream be rough, mere declivity will occafion a con-
ftant ripling noife : when the current drops down a
defcent, though but of a few inches, or forcibly
bubbles up from a little hollow, it has a deep gurgling
tone, not uniformly continued, but incefiantly repeat¬
ed, and therefore more engaging than any. The
flatted of all, is that found rather of the fplafhing than
the fall of water, which an even gentle flope, or a tame
obftruition, will produce : this is lefs pleaiing than
the others ; but none fhould be entirely excluded : all
in their turns are agreeable ; and the choice of them
is much in our power. By obferving their caufes, we
may often find the means to ftrengthen, to weaken, or
to change them; and the addition or removal of a Angle
ftone, or a few pebbles, will fometimes be fufficient for
g the purpofe.
GfCafcades. A rill cannot pretend to any found beyond that of
a little water-fall: the roar of a cafcade belongs only
to larger ftreams ; but it may be produced by a rivu¬
let to a confiderable degree, and attempts to do more
have generally been unfuccefsful. A vain ambition to
imitate nature in her' great extravagancies betrays the
weaknefs of art. Though a noble river, throwing it¬
felf headlong down a precipice, be an obje& truly
magnificent, it muft however be confefied, that in a
fingle fheet of water there is a formality which its vaft-
nefs alone can cure. But the height, not the breadth,
is the wonder: when it falls no more than a few feet,
the regularity prevails ; and its extent only ferves to
expofe the vanity of affefting the ftyle of a cataraft in
an artificial cafcade. It is lefs exceptionable if divided
into feveral parts: for then each feparate part may be
wide enough for its depth ; and in the whole, variety,
not greatncfs, will.be the predominant character. But
• N r N G: ssg
a ftruckure of rough, large, detached ftones, cannot Rocks,
eaiily be contrived of ftrength fufficient to fupport a. ‘ ^
great weight of water : it is fometimes from neceffiiy
almoft fmooth and uniform, and then it lofes much of
its effedf. Several little falls in fucceffion are preferable
to one great cafcade which in figure or in motion ap¬
proaches to regularity.
When greatnefs is thus reduced to number, and
length becomes of more importance than breadth, a ri¬
vulet vies with a river; and it more frequently runs in
a continued declivity, which is very favourable to fuch a
fucceffion of falls. Half the expence and labour which
are fometimes bellowed on a river, to give it at the heft
a forced precipitancy in one fpot only, would animate
a rivulet through the whole of its courfe. And, after
all, the moft iuterefting circumilance in falling waters
is their animation. A great cafcade fills us with fur-
prife: but all furprife muft ceafe ; and the motion, the.
agitation, the rage, the froth, and the variety of the
water, are finally the objedls which engage the atten¬
tion ; for thefe a rivulet is fufficient ; and they may
there be produced without that appearance of effort
which raifes a fufpicion of art.
To obviate fuch a fufpicion, it may be fometimes
expedient to begin the defcent out of fight; for the
beginning is the difficulty : if that be concealed, the
fubfequent falls feem but a confequence of the agitation
which charadlerifes the water at its firfl: appearance ;
and the imagination is, at the fame time, let loofe to
give ideal extent to the cafcades. When a ftream iffues
from a wood, fuch management will have a great ef-
fe<T: the bends of its courfe in an open expofure may
afford frequent opportunities for it; and fometimes a
low broad bridge may furnifh the occafion a little
fall hid under the arch will create a diforder; in con-
fequence of which, a greater cafcade below will appear
very natural.
TV. ROCKS. Rocks are themfelves too" vaft and 0f
too ftubborn to fubmit to our controul; but by the ad¬
dition or removal of appendages which we can com¬
mand, parts may be Ihown or concealed, and the cha-
ratlers with their impreffions may be weakened or en-
forced : to adapt the accompaniments accordingly, is
the utmoft ambition of art when rocks are the fubjeft.
Their moft diftinguiflied characters axe, dignity, ter¬
ror, and fancy: the expreffions of all are conftantly
wild : and fometimes a rocky fcene is only wild, with¬
out pretenfions to any particular character.
Rills, rivulets, and cafcades, abound among rocks :
they are natural to the fcene ; and fuch fcenes com¬
monly requite every accompaniment which can be pro¬
cured for them. Mere rocks, unlefs they are peculiarly
adapted to certain impreffions, though they may fur¬
prife, cannot be long engaging, if the rigour of their
charatler be not foftened by circumftances which majr
belong either to thefeor to more cultivated fpots : and
when the drearinefs is extreme, little ftreams and wa¬
ter-falls are of themfelves infufficient for the purpofe ‘T
an intermixture of vegetation is alfo neceffary, and on
fpme occafions even marks of inhabitants are proper.
Large clefts, Hoping or precipitous, with a dale at
bottom, furniffi fcenes of the vvildeft nature. In fuch-
fpots, verdure alone will give fome-relief to the dreari¬
nefs of the fcene.: and flirubs or bufhes, without trees.
560
GARDENING.
Part I.
Rocks.
are a fufficiency of wood : the thickets may alfo be ex¬
tended by the creeping plants) fuch as pyracantha,
vines, and ivy, to wind up the fides or duller on the
tops of the rocks. And to this vegetation may be add¬
ed fome fymptoms of inhabitants, but they mult be
flight and few ; the ufe of them is only to cheer, not
to dellroy, the folitude of the place; and fuch there¬
fore Ihould be chofen as are fometimes found in fitua-
tions retired from public refort ; a cottage may be
lonely, but it mull not here feem ruinous and neglect¬
ed ; it Ihould be tight and warm, with every mark of
comfort about it, to which its pofition in fome thelter-
ed recefs may greatly contribute. A cavity alfo in the
rocks, rendered eafy of accefs, improved to a degree
of convenience, and maintained in a certain Hate of
prefervation, will fuggeft fimilar ideas of protection
from thebittereft inclemencies of the Iky,[and even of oc-
cafional reftdhment and repofe. But we may venture
ftill further; a mill is of neceffity often built at fome
di dance from the town which it fupplies ; and here it
would at the fame time apply the water to a ufe, and
increafe its agitation. The dale may betides be made
the haunt of thofe animals, fuch as goats, which are
fometimes wild, and fometimes domeftic; and which
accidentally appearing, will divert the mind from the
fenfations natural to the fcene, but not agreeable if
continued long without interruption. Thefe and fuch
other expedients will approximate the fevered retreat
to the habitations of men, and convert the appearance
of a perpetual banilhment into that of a temporary re¬
tirement from fociety.
But too ftrong a force on the nature of the place al¬
ways fails. A winding path, which appears to be worn,
not cut, has more effeCt than a high road, all artificial
and level, which is too weak to overbear, and yet con¬
tradicts, the general idea. The obje&s therefore to be
introduced mull be thofe which hold a mean between
folitude and population; and the inclination of that
choice towards either extreme, Ihould be directed by
the degree of wildnefs which prevails; for tho’ that
runs fometimes to an excefs which requires correction,
at other times it wants encouragement, and at all times
it ought to be preferved : it is the predominant charac¬
ter of rocks, which mixes with every other, and to which
all the appendages mult be accommodated ; and they
may be applied fo as greatly to increafe it: a licenti¬
ous irregularity of wood and of ground, and a fantallic
conduCt of the llreams, neither of which would be to¬
lerated in the midtt of cultivation, become and improve
romantic rocky fpots ; even buildings, partly by their
fiyle, but ftill more by their pofition, in ftrange, dif¬
ficult, or dangerous fituations, diltinguilh and aggra¬
vate the native extravagancies of the fcene.
Greatnefs is a chief ingredient in the character of
dignity, with lets of wildnefs than in any other. The
elfeCt here depends more upon amplitude of furface,
than variety of forms. The parts, therefore, -mull be
large : if the rocks are only high, they are but ftupen-
dous, not majeitic: breadth is equally effential to their
greatnefs ; and every flender, every grotefque ft)ape,
is excluded. Art may interpofe to fliow thefe lafge
parts to the eye, and magnify them to the imagina¬
tion, by taking away thickets which ftretch quite a-
cfols the rocks, fo as to difguife their dimenfions; or
by filling with wood the fmall intervals between them,
N° 134- *
and thus, by concealing the want, preferving the ap¬
pearance of continuation. When rocks retire from the
eye down a gradual declivity, we can, by raifing the
upper ground, deepen the fall, lengthen the perfpec-
tive, and give both height and extent to thofe at a
diltance : this effeCt may be ftill iucreafed by covering
that upper ground with a thicket, which (hah ceafe,
or be lowered, as it defcends. A thicket, on other
occafions, makes the rocks which rife out of it feem
larger than they are. If they ftand upon a bank over-
fpread with (hrubs, their beginning is at the lead un¬
certain ; and the prefumption is, that they Hart from
the bottom. Another ufe of this brulhy underwood
to conceal the fragments and rubbilh which have fallen
from the fides and the brow, and which are often un-
fightly. Rocks are feldom remarkable for the ele¬
gance of their forms ; they are too vaft, and too rude,
to pretend to delicacy : but their fhapes are often a-
greeable ; and we can affedft thofe lhapes to a certain
degree, at lead we can cover many blemifhes in them,
by conducing the growth of fhrubby and creeping
plants about them.
For all thefe purpofes mere underwood fuffices: but
for greater effeds larger trees are requifite : they are
worthy of the fcene ; and not only improvements, but
acceffions to its grandeur : we are ufed to rank them
among the nobleft objeds of nature; and when we fee
that they cannot afpire to the midway of the heights
around them, the rocks are raifed by the comparifon.
A fingle tree is, therefore, often preferable to a clump:
the fize, though really lefs, is more remarkable : and
clumps are beiides generally exceptionable in a very
wild fpot, from the fufpicion of art which attends them ;
but a wood is free from that fufpicion, and its own
charader of greatnefs recommends it to every fcene of
magnificence.
On the fame principle, all poffible confideration
Ihould be given to the dreams. No number of little
rills are equal to one broad river ; and in the principal
current, fome varieties may be facrificed to importance:
but a degree of ftrength (hould always be preferved ;
the water, though it needs not be furious, Ihould not
be dull; for dignity, when moil ferene, is not languid;
and fpace will hardly atone for want of animation.
This charader does not exclude marks of inhabi¬
tants, though it never requires them to tame its wild¬
nefs : and without inviting, it occafionally admits an
intermixture of vegetation. It even allows of build*
ings intended only to decorate the fcene: but they
mud be adequate to it, both in fize and in charader.
And if cultivation is introduced, that too fhould be
conformable to the reft ; not a fingle narrow patch
cribbed out of the wafte ; but the confines of a coun¬
try {helving into the vale, and fuggefting the idea of
extent: nothing trivial ought to find admittance. But,
on the other hand, no extravagance required to fup*
port it: ftrange flrapes in extraordinary pofitions, enor¬
mous weights unaccountably fuftained, trees rooted ill
the fides, and torrents raging at the foot of the rocks,
are at the beft needlefs exceffes. There is a temperance
in dignity, which is rather hurt by a wanton violence
on the common order of nature.
The terrors of a fcene in nature are like thofe of a
dramatic reprefentation : they give an alarm ; but the
fenfations are agreeable, fo long as they are kept to
fuck
Parti. GARDENING. s6i
Rocks, fiich as are allied only to terror, unmixed with any that
1—  are horrible and difgufting-. Art may therefore be u-
Ibid. fed to heighten them, to difplay the obje&s which are
diftinguiflied by greatnefs, to improve the circumftan-
ces which denote force, to mark thofe which intimate
danger, and to blend with all here and there a caft
of melancholy.
Greatnefs is as effential to the character of terror as
to that of dignity : vaft efforts in little objefts are but
ridiculous; nor can force be fuppofed upon trifles inca¬
pable of refiftance. On the other hand, it mult be al¬
lowed, that exertion and violence fupply fome want of
fpace. A rock wonderfully fupported, or threatening
to fall, acquires a greatnefs from its fituation, which
it has not in dimenfions; fo circumftanced, the fize ap¬
pears to be monftrous: a torrent has a confequence
which a placid river of equal breadth cannot pretend
to: and a tree, which would be inconfiderable in the
natural foil, becomes important when it burfts forth
from a rock.
Such circumftances fhould be always induftrioufly
fought for. It may be worth while to cut down feve-
ral trees, in order to exhibit one apparently rooted in
the flone. By the removal perhaps of only a little
bruflrwood, the alarming difpofition of a rock, ftrange-
ly undermined, rivetted, or fufpended, may be flrown ;
and if there be any foil above its brow, fome trees
planted there, and impending over it, will make the
obje& ftill more extraordinary. As to the ftreams,
great alterations may generally be made in them: and
therefore it is of ufe to afcertain the fpecies proper to
each fcene, becaufe it is in our power to enlarge or
contraft their dimenfions; to accelerate or retard their
rapidity; to form, increafe, or take awayobftruttions;
and always to improve, often to change, their cha-
radiers.
Inhabitantsfurnifh frequent opportunitiesto ftrength-
en the appearances of force, by giving intimations of
danger. A houfe placed at the edge of a precipice,
any building on the pinnacle of a craig, makes that
fituation feem formidable, which might otherwife have
been unnoticed : a fteep, in itfelf not very remarkable,
becomes alarming, when a path is carried aflant up the
fide : a rail on the brow of a perpendicular fall, (hows
that the height is frequented and dangerous: and a
common foot-bridge thrown over a cleft between rocks
has a ftill ftronger effe&. In all thefe inftances, the
imagination immediately tranfpoits the fpe&ator to the
fpot, and- fuggefts the idea of looking down fuch a
depth : in the laft, that depth is a chafm, and the fi¬
tuation is diredtly over it.
In other inftances, exertion and danger feem to at¬
tend the occupations of the inhabitants :
 Half way down
Hangs one that gathers Samphire; dreadful trade!
is a circumftance chofen by the great poet of nature,
to aggravate the terrors of the fcene he defcribes.
The different fpecies of rocks often meet in the
fame place, and compofe a noble fcene, which is not
diftinguiflied by any particular character: it is only
when one eminently prevails, that it deferves fuch a
preference as to exclude every other. Sometimes a
fpot, remarkable for nothing but its wildnefs, is highly
romantic: and when this wildnefs rifes to fancy; when
the moft fingular, the moft -oppolite forms and combi-.
Vox.. VII. Part II.
nations are thrown together; then a mixture alfo of fe- Rocks,
veral charadters adds to the number of inftances which ——v——
there concur to difplay the inexhauftibie variety of na¬
ture.
So much variety, fo much fancy, are feldom found
within the fame extent as in Dovedale f. It is about t NearAfh-
two miles in length, a deep, narrow, hollow valley: '?
both the fides are of rock; and the Dove in its paffage Der y irc‘
between them is perpetually changing its courfe, its
motion, and appearance. It is never lefs than ten,
nor fo much as twenty yards wide, and generally about
four feet deep; but tranfparent to the bottom, except
when it is covered with a foam of the pureft white,
under water-falls, which are perfectly lucid. Thefe
are very numerous, but very different. In fome places
they ftretch ftraight acrofs, or aflant the ftream : in
others, they are only partial: and the water either
dafhes againft the ftones, and leaps over them, or,
pouring along a fteep, rebounds upon thofe below ;
fometimes it rufhes through the feveral openings be¬
tween them; fometimes it drops gently down; and at
other times it is driven back by the obftrudtion, and
turns into an eddy. In one particular fpot, the val¬
ley almoft doling, leaves hardly a paffage for the ri¬
ver, which pent up, and ftruggling for a vent, rages,
and roars, and foams, till it has extricated itfelf from
the confinement. In other parts, the ftream, though
never languid, is often gentle; flows round a little
defart ifland, glides between bits of bulrufhes, dif-
perfes itfelf among tufts of grafs or of mofs, bubbles
about a water-dock, or plays with the {lender threads
of aquatic plants which float upon the furface. The
rocks all along the dale vary as often in their ftru&ure
as the ftream in its motion. In one place, an extended
furface gradually diminifhes from a broad bafe almoft to
an edge; in another, a heavy top hanging forwards,
overfhadows all beneath : fometimes many different
fhapes are confufedly tumbled together ; and fome¬
times they are broken into flender fharp pinnacles,,
which rife upright, often two or three together, and
often in more numerous clufters. On this fide of the
dale, they are uniyerfally bare; on the other, they are
intermixed with wood; and the vaft height of both the
Tides, with the narrownefs of the interval between
them, produces a further variety: for whenever the
fun fhines from behind the one, the form of it is di-
ftinftly and completely caft upon the other ; the rug¬
ged furface on which it falls diverfifies the tints; and
a ftrong reflected light often glares on the edge of the
deepeft fliadow. The rocks never continue long in
the fame figure or fituation, and are very much fepa-.
rated from each other: fometimes they form the fides
of the valley, in precipices, in fteeps, or in ftages;
fometimes they feem to rife in the bottom, and lean
back againft the hill; and fometimes they ftand out
quite detached, heaving up in cumbrous piles, or flatt¬
ing into conical fhapes, like vaft fpars, 100 feet
high; fome are firm and folid throughout; fome are
cracked ; and fome, fplit and undermined, are wonder¬
fully upheld by fragments apparently unequal to the
weight they fuftain. One is placed before, one over
another, and one fills at fome diilance behind an in¬
terval between two. The changes in their difpofition
are infinite; every ftep produces fome new combina¬
tion ; they are continually croffing, advancing, and re-
4 B tiring:
j62 GARDENING. Part T
Hi ck*, tiring : the breadth of the valley i* never the fame 40 neeeflary ; yet the eye diflikes conflraint. Our ideas Fence, &c
—. "• yards together : at the narrow pafs which has been of liberty carry us beyond our own fpecies : the ima- —v——
mentioned, the rocks almoft meet at the top, and the gination feels a diflike in feeing even the brute creation
Iky is feen as through a chink between them : juft by in a ftate of confinement. The birds wafting them-
this gloomy abyfs, is a wider opening, more light, felves from wood to grove are obje&s of delight; and
more verdure, more cheerfulnefs, than any where elfe the hare appears to enjoy a degree of happinefs un-
iu the" dale. Nor are the forms and the fituations of known to the barriered flock. Befides, a tall fence
the rocks their only variety : many of them are per- frequently hides from the fight objedfs the moft plea-
forated by large natural cavities, fome of which open fing; not only the flocks and herds thetnfelves, but
to the fl<y, fome terminate in dark rtceffcs, and through the furface they graze upon. Thefe confideratioiiSi.
fome are to be feen fcveral more uncouth arches, and have brought the unfeen fence into general ufe.
rude pillars, all detached, and retiring beyond each This fpecies of barrier it muft be allowed incurs a
other, with the light • fhining in between them, till a degree of deception, which can fcarcely be warranted
rock far behind them clofes the perfpedtive: the noife upon any other occafion. In^this inilance, however,
of the cafcades in the river echoes among ft them; the it is a fpecies of fraud which we obferve in nature’s
water may often be heard at the fame time gurgling
near, and roaring at a diftance ; but no other founds
difturb the fiience of the fpot: the only trace of men
is a blind path, but lightly and but feldom trodden, by
thofe whom curiofity leads to fee the wonders they
have been told of Dovedale. It feems indeed a fitter
haunt for more ideal beings : the whole has the air of
enchantment. The perpetual ftufting of the fcenes ;
the quick tranfiticms, the total changes; then the forms
all around, grotefque as chance can caft, wild as nature
can produce, and various as imagination can invent-;
the force which feems to have been exerted to place
fnme of the rocks where they are now fixed immove¬
able, the magic by which others appear ftill to be fuf-
pended ; the dark caverns, the illuminated receffes, the
fleeting ftiadows, and the gleams of light glancing on
the fides, or trembling on the ftream ; and the loneli-
nefs and the ftillnefs of the place, all crowding toge¬
ther on the mind, almoft realize the ideas which natu¬
rally prefent themfelves in this region of romance ami
of fancy.
The folitude of fuch a fcene is agreeable, on ac¬
count of the endlefs entertainment which its variety
affords, and in the contemplation of which both the
eye and the mind are delighted to indulge : marks of
inhabitants and cultivation would difturb that folitude;
and ornamental buildings are too artificial in a place
fo abfolutely free from reftraint. The only accom¬
paniments proper for it are wood and water ; and by
thefe fometimes improvements may be made. When
two rocks fimilar in ftiape and pofition are near toge¬
ther, by fkirtlng one of them with wood, while the
other is left bare, a material diftin&ion is eftablilhed
between them: if the ftreams be throughout of one
chara&er, it is in our power, and fhould be our aim,
to introduce another. Variety is the peculiar pro¬
perty of the fpot, and every acceffion to it is a valuable
acquifition. On the fame principle, endeavours fhould
be ufed not only to multiply, but to aggravate differen¬
ces, and to increafe diftinftions into contrafts : but
the fubjeft will impofe a caution againft attempting
too much. Art muft almoft defpair of improving
a fcene, where nature feems to have exerted her in¬
vention.
Tragical § 2. Of FACTITIOUS jicCOMTANIMENTS. ^
Flailing These confift of Fences, Walks, Roads, Bridges,
and Garden. Seats, and Buildings.
P-593,
&c' “ I. The FENCE, where the place is large, becomes
pracfice : how often have we feen two diftin<?l herds
feeding to appearance in the fame extended meadow ;
until coming abruptly upon a deep funk rivulet, or an
unfordabfe river, we drfcover the deception.
Befides the funk fence, another fort of unfeen bar¬
rier may be made, though by no means equal to that,
efpecially if near the eye. This is con ft rutted of pa¬
ling, painted of the invifible green. If the colour of
the baek-ground were permanent, and that of the paint
made exadlly to concfpond with it, the deception
would at a diftance be complete ; but back-grounds
in general changing with the feafon, this kind offence
is the lefs eligible.
Clumps and patches of woodinefs fcattered promif-
cuoufly on either fide of an unfeen winding fence, affilt
very much in doing away the idea of conftraint. For
by this means
The wand’ring flocks thatt bronfe between the (hades,
Seem oft to pals their bounds, the dubious eye
Decides not if they crop tire mead or lawn. Mason.
“ II. The WALK, in extenfive grounds is as necef-
fary as the fence. The beauties of the place are difclofect
that they may be feen ; and it is the office of the walk
to lead the eye from view to view; in order that whilft
the tone of health is preferved by the favourite exer-
cife of nature, the mind may be thrown into unifonby
the harmony of the furrounding obje&s.
The direftion of the walk muft be guided by the
points of view to which it leads, and the nature of the
ground it pafifes over: it ought to be made fubfervient
to the natural impediments (the ground, wood, and
water) which fall in its way, without appearing to
have any direction of its own. It can feldom run with,
propriety any diftance in a ftraight line; a thing which
rarely occurs In a natural walk. The paths of the Ne¬
groes and the Indians are always crooked; and thofe of
the brute creation are very fimilar. Mr Mafon’s de»
fcription. of this path of nature i®. happily conceived.
The { eafant driving through each (hadowy lane
His team, that bends beneath th’ incumbent weight
Of laughing Ceres, marks it. with his wheel;
At night and morn, the milk-maid’s carclefs ftep
Has, through yon paflure green, from ftile to ftile
Impreft a kindred curve : the feudding hare
Diaws to her dew-fprent feat, o’er thymy heaths,
A path as gently waving. Eng. Card. v. 60.
“ III. The ROAD may be a thing of neceffity, as
an approach to themanfion ; ora matter ofamufement
only, as a drive or a ride, from which the grounds and
the furrounding country may be feen to advantage..
It
Part I, G A R D
Badge, &c. It fhould be the fludy of the artift to make the fame
w—v—- roa£j anfwer, as far as may be, the two-fold purpofe.
Ibid. 'p,j)e roa(j ancj wa]]< are fubjeft to the fame rule
of nature and ufe. The direttion ought to be
natural and eafy, and adapted to the purpofe in¬
tended. A road of neceffity ought to be itraighter
than one of mere convenkncy: in this, recreation is
the predominant idea; in that, utility. But even io
this the dire& line may be difpenfed with. The na¬
tural roads upon heaths and open downs, and the gralfy
glades and green roads acrofs forefts and extenfive
waftes, ate proper fubjedls to be ftudied.
“ IV. TheBRIDGE fhould never be feen where it is
trot wanted : a ufelefs bridge is a deception; deceptions
are frauds; and fraud is always hateful, uniefs when
praftifed to avert fome greater evil. A bridge with¬
out water is an abfurdity ; and half an one fj.uck up
as an eye-trap is a paltry trick, which, though it may
ftfike the ftranger, cannot fail of difgufting when the
fraud is found out.
In low fituations, and wherever water abounds,
bridges become ufeful, and are therefore pleating ob¬
jects: they are looked for; and ought to appear not
as obje&sof ornament only, but likewife as'matters of
utility. The walk or the road therefore ought to be
directed in fuch a manner as to crofs the water at the
point in which the,bridge will appear to the greateil
advantage.
In the conftru&ion of bridges alfo, regard muft be
had to ornament and utility. A bridge is an artificial
production, and as fuch it ought to appear. It ranks
among the nobleft of human inventions ; the fhip and
the fortrefs alone excel it. Simplicity and firmnefs
are the leading principles initsconfiruftion. Mr Wheat¬
ley’s obfcrviition is juft when he fays, “ The fingle
wooden arch, now much in faftiion, feems to me gene¬
rally mifapplied. Elevated without occafion fo much
above, it is totally ,detached from the river ; it is
often feen ftraddling in the air, without a glimpfe
of water to account for it; and the oftentation of it
as an ornamental objeCt, diverts all that train of ideas
which its ufe as a communication might fuggeft.”
But we beg leave to differ from this ingenious writer
when he tells us, “ that it is fpoiled if adorned ; it is
disfigured if only painted of any other than a dufky
colour.” In a ruftic fcene, where Nature wears her
own coatfe garb, “ the vulgar foot bridge of planks
only guarded on one hand by a common rail, and fup-
ported by a few ordinary piles,” may be in charader;
but amid ft a difplay of ornamented nature, a contri¬
vance of that kind would appear mean and paltry; and
would be an affectation of limplicity rather than the
lovely attribute itfelf. In cultivated feenes, the bridge
ought to receive the ornaments which the laws of
architectural tafte allow ; and the' more poliftied the
iituation, the higher fhould be the ftyle and finifhings.
“ V. SEATS have a two-fold ufe; they are ufeful as
places of reft and converfation, and as guides to the
points of view in which the beauties of the funound-
ing fcene are difclofed. Every point of view fliould
be marked with a feat; and, {peaking generally, no
feat ought to appear but in fome t favourable point of
E N I N G. 563
view. This rule may not be invariable, but it ought Buildings,
feldom to be deviated from. ^ ~ -J
In the ruder feenes of negleded nature, the fimple 1!jid.
trunk, rough from the woodman’s hands, and the
butts or ftools of rooted trees, without any other mark*
of tools upon them than thofe of the faw which fe¬
vered them from their ftems, are feats in chara&er;
and in romantic or reclufe fituations, the cave or the
grotto are admiffible. But wherever human defiga
has been executed upon the natural objeCls of the place,
the feat and every other artificial accompaniment ought
to be in unifon ; and whether the bench or the alcove
be chofen, it ought to be formed and finiftted in fuch a
manner as to unite with the wood, the lawn, and the
walk, which lie around it.
The colour of feats ftrould likewife be fuited to fi¬
tuations : where uncultivated nature prevails, the na¬
tural brown of the wood itfelf ought not to be altered;
but where the rural art prefides, white or {lone colour
has a much better effed.”
“ VI. BUILDINGS probably werefirft introduced
into gardens merely for convenience, to afford refuge
from a fudden {bower, and fhelter againft the wind; or, Mr Wheat-
at the moft, to be feats for a party; or for retirement./e/i Obfcr-
They have fince been converted into objeCls, and now,'‘2^onj re“
the original ufe is too often forgotten in the greater^umet*'
purpofes to which they are applied : they are confi-
dered as objeCls only ; the infide is totally negleCled,
and a pompous edifice frequently wants a room bare¬
ly comfortable. Sometimes the pride of making a
lavifh difplay to a vifitor" without any regard to the
owner’s enjoyments,.and fometimes too fcrupulous an
attention to the ftyle of the ftruCture, occafions a po¬
verty and dullnefs within, which deprive the buildings
of part of their utility. But in a garden they ought
to be confidered both as beautiful objeCts and as a-
greeable retreats : if a charaCler becomes them, it is
that of the fcene they belong to; not that of their
primitive application. A Grecian temple, or Gothic
church may adorn fpots where it would be affecta¬
tion to preferve that folemnity within which is pro¬
per for places of devotion : they are not to be exaCt
models, fubjeCts only of curiofity or ftudy : they arc
alfo feats : and fuch feats will be little frequented by
the proprietor ; his mind muft generally be indifpofed
to fo muc]^ fimplicity, and fo much gloom, in the
midft of gaiety, richnefs, and variety.
But though the interior of buildings ftiould not be
difregarded, it is by their exterior that they become
objeBs; and fometimes by the one, fometimes by the
other, and fometimes by both, they are intitled to be
confidered as char ciders. lQ
t. As objeCls, they are defigned either to dfingui/h, of build¬
er to break, or to adorn, the feenes to which they are ings intend-
applied. * ^ !ifQr °^*
The differences between one wood, one lawn, one)e s'
piece of water, and another, are not always very appa- f
rent; the feveral parts of a garden would, therefore, of¬
ten feem fimilar, if they were not diftinguifhed by build¬
ings : but thefe are fo obfervable, fo obvious at a
glance, fo eafily retained in the memory, they mark
the fpots where they are placed with fo much ftrength,
they attraCt the relation of all around with fb much
% B 2 powet,
Buildmpf. power, that parts thus diftinguKhed can never be con*
founded together. Yet it b)r no means follows, that
therefoie every fcene muft have its edifice: the want
of one is fometimes a variety; and other circumftances
are often fufficiently chara&eriftic : it is only when
thefe too nearly agree, that we muft have recourfe to
buildings for differences : we can introduce, exhibit,
or contrail them as we pleafe : the moil ftriking ob¬
ject is thereby made a mark of diftin&ion; and the
force of this firft impreffion prevents our obferving the
points of refemblance.
. • The uniformity of a view may be broken by fimi-
Ob/erv.on j means an(j on fame principle : when a wide
Mod. Car- , ^ .
dening. heath, a dreary moor, or a continued plain, is in pro-
fpedt, objects which catch the eye fupply the want of
variety : none are fo effectual for this purpofe as build¬
ings. Plantations or water can have no very fen-
fible effect, unlefs they are large or numerous, and
• almotl change the charadter of the fcene: but a fmall
{ingle building diverts the attention at once from the
famenefs of the extent; which it breaks, but does not
divide; and diverfifies, without altering, its nature.
The defign, however, muft not be apparent. The me¬
rit of a cottage applied to this purpofe, confifts in its
being free from the fufpicion : and a few trees near it
will both enlarge the objedt, and account for its pofi-
tion. Ruins are a hackneyed device immediately de-
tedled, unlefs their ftyle be fingular, or their dimen-
fions extraordinary. The femblance of an ancient
Britifh monument might be adapted to the fame end,
with little trouble, and great fuccefs. The materials
might be brick, or even timber plaftered over, if
{tone could not eafily be procured : whatever they
were, the fallacy would not be difcernible ; it is an
objedl to be feen at a diftance, rude, and large, and
in charadler agreeable to a wild open view. But no
building ought to be introduced, which may not in
reality belong to fuch a fituation: no Grecian tem¬
ples, no Turkilh mofques, no Egyptian obelilks or py¬
ramids ; none imported from foreign countries, and
unufual here. The apparent artifice would deftroy an
efftCl, which is fo nice as to be weakened, if obje&s
proper to produce it are difplayed with too much often-
tation ; if they feem to be contrivances, not accidents;
and the advantage of their pofition appear to be more
laboured than natural.
But in a garden, where obje&s are intended only
to adorn, every fpecies of architedlure may be admit¬
ted, from the Grecian down to the Chinefe ; and the
choice is fo free, that the mifchief moft te be appre¬
hended is an abufe of this latitude in the multiplici¬
ty of buildings. Few fcenes can bear more than two
or three: in feme a fingle one has a greater effetft than
any number : and a carelefs glimpfe, here and there,
of fuch as belong immediately to different parts, fre¬
quently enliven the landfcape with more fpirit than thofe
which are indufirioufly fhown. If the effect of a par¬
tial fight, or a dill ant view, were more attended to,
many fcenes might be filled, without being crowded ;
a greater number of buildings would be tolerated,
when they feemed to be cafual, not forced ; and the
animation, and the richnefs of the objeifts, might be
bad without pretence or difplay.
Too fond an oftentation of. buildings, even of thefe
Part I.
which are principal, is a common error ; and when all Buildings,
is done, they are not always fiiown to the greatell ad- 1
vantage. Though their fymmetry and their beauties
ought in general to be diftin&ly and fully feen, yet an
oblique is fometimes better than a direft view : and
they are often lefs agreeable objeds when entire, than
when a part is covered, or their extent is interrupted ;
when they are bofomed in wood, as well as backed
by it ; or appear between the Items of trees which rife
before or above them: thus thrown into perfpe&ive,
thus grouped and accompanied, they may be as impor¬
tant as if they were quite expofed, and are frequently
more pi&urefque and beautiful.
But a ftill greater advantage arifes from this ma¬
nagement, in conneding them with the fcene: they
are confiderable, and different from all around them ;
inclined therefore to feparate from the reft ; and.yet
they are fometimes ft ill more detached by the pains
taken to exhibit them : that very importance which is
the caufe of the diftindion ought to be a reafon for
guarding againft the independence to which it is natu¬
rally prone, and by which an objed, which ought to
be a part of the whole, is reduced to a mere indivi¬
dual. An elevated is generally a noble fituation.
When it is a point or a pinnacle, the ftmdure may be a
continuation of the afeent; and on many occafions, feme
parts of the building may defeend lower than others,
and multiply the appearances of connedion : but an
edifice in the midft of an extended ridge, commonly
feems naked alone, and impofed upon the brow, not
joined to it. If wood, to accompany it, will not
grow there, it had better be brought a little way down
the declivity ; and then all behind, above, and about
it, are fo many points of contad, by which it is in¬
corporated into the landfcape.
Accompaniments are important to a building; but
they lofe much of their effed when they do not ap¬
pear to be cafual. A little mount juft large enough
for it; a fmall piece of water below, of no other ufe
than to refled it; and a plantation clofe behind, evi¬
dently placed there only to give it relief; are as arti¬
ficial as the ftrudure itfelf, and alienate it from the
fcene of nature into which it is introduced, and to
which it ought to be reconciled. Thefe appendages
therefore fhould be fo difpofed, and fo conntded with
the adjacent parts, as to anfwer other purpofes, though
applicable to this: that they may be bonds of union,
not marks of difference; and that the fituation may
appear to have been chofen at the moft, not made, for
the building.
In the choice of a fituation, that which ftiows the
building beft ought generally to be preferred : emi¬
nence, relief, and every other advantage which can
be, ought to be given to an objed of fo much coniide-
ration: they are for the moft part defirable ; fometimes
neceflary ; and exceptionable only when, inftead of ri-
fing out of the fcene, they are forced into it, and a
contrivance to procure them at any rate is avowed
without any difguife. There are, however, occafions,
in which the moft tempting advantages of fituation
muft be waved ; the general compofition may forbid a
building in one fpot, or require it in another ; at o-
ther times, the intereft of the particular groupe it be¬
longs to, may exad a facrifice of the opportunities to
exhibit
GARDENING
Parti. CARD
Build,tigs, exhibit its beauties and importance : and at all times,
the pretenlions of every individual objed mull give
Ibid. way t0 greater effed of the whole.
z. The fame ftrudure which adorns as an objed, may
1 alfo be expreffive as a charaEler. Where the former is
ex^efflve not wante^> t'ie ^atter may defirable : or it may be
ofcharac- wea’4 f°r one purple, and ftrong for the other; it
ter. may be grave, or gay ; magnificent, or fimple ; and,
according to its ftyle, may or may not be agreeable to
the place it is applied to. But mere confiftency is not
all the merit which buildings can claim : their charac¬
ters are fometimes ftrong’ enough to determine, improve,
or correct, that of the fcene : and they are fo conl'picu-
ous, arid fo diftinguiftied, that whatever force they
have is immediately and feniibly felt. They are fit
therefore to make a firft imprefiion ; and when a fcene
is but faintly charaderifed. they give at once a caft
which fpreads over the whole, and which the weaker
parts concur to fupport, though perhaps they were not
able to produce it.
Nor do they flop at fixing an uncertainty, or re¬
moving a doubt ; they raife and enforce a charader
already marked : a temple adds dignity to the nobleft,
a cottage fimplicity to the moft rural, fcenes; the
lightnefs of a fpire, the airinefs of an open rotunda,
the fplendor of a continued colonnade, are lefs orna¬
mental than expreflive ; others improve cheerfulnefs
into gaiety, gloom into folemnity, and richnefs into
profufion: a retired fpot, which might have been paffed
unobferved, is noticed for its tranqu llity, as foon as it
is appropriated by fome ftrudure to retreat; and
the moft unfrequented place feems lefs folitary than
one which appears to have been the haunt of a fingle
individual, or even of a fequeftered family, and is
marked by a lonely dwelling, or the remains of a de-
ferted habitation.
The means are the fame, the application of them only
is different, when buildings are ufed to corred the cha-
rader of the fcene ; to enliven its dulnefs, mitigate its
gloom, or to check its extravagance; and, on a variety of
occafions, to foften, to aggravate, or to counterad, par¬
ticular circumftances attending it. But care muit be ta¬
ken that they do not contradid too ftrongly the prevail¬
ing idea: they may leffen the dtearinefs of a watte, but
they cannot give it amenity ; they may abate horrors,
but they will never convert them into graces; they may
make a tame fcene agreeable, and even interefting, not
romantic ; or turn folemnity into cheerfulntfs, but not
into gaiety. In thefe, and in many other inftances,
they corred the charader, by giving it an inclination
towards a better, which is not very different; but
they can hardly alter it entirely: when they are to¬
tally inconfiftent with it} they are at the beft nuga¬
tory.
The great effeds which have been afcribed to build¬
ings do not depend upon thofe trivial ornaments and
appendages which are often too much relied on; fuch
as the furniture of a hermitage, painted glafs in a
Gothic church, and fculpture about a Grecian tem¬
ple ; grotefque Or bacchanalian figures to denote
gaiety, and death’s-heads to fignify melancholy.
Such devices are only defcriptive, not exprefiive, of
charader ; and muft not be fubftituted in the ftead of
thofe fuperior properties, the want of which they ac¬
knowledge, but do not fupply. They beiides often
E N I N G. S6S
require time to trace their meaning, and to fee their Buildings.
application ; but the peculiar excellence of buildings
is, that their effeds are inftantaneous, and therefore
the impreflions they make are forcible. In order to
produce fuch effeds, the general ftyle of the ftruc-
ture, and its pofition, are the principal confiderations :
either of them will fometimes be ftrongly charaderi-
ftic alone; united, their powers are very great; and
both are fo important, that if they do not concur, at
leaft they muft not contradid one another. ,2
Every branch of architedure furnifiies-, on different Species and
occafions, objeds proper for a garden; and there is no fixations
reftraint on our feledion, provided it be conform-01 bulld*
able to the ftyle of the fcene, proportioned to its ex-II1SS"
tent, and agreeable to its charader.
The choice of fituations is alfo very free. A hermi¬
tage, indeed, muft not be clofe to a road ; but whether it
be expofed toview on thefide of a mountain, or concealed
in the depth of a wood, is almott a matter of indifference;
that it is at a diftance from public refort is fufficient.
A cattle muft not be funk in a bottom ; but that it
fhould Hand on the utmoft pinnacle of a hill, is not ne-
ceffary : on a lower knole, and backed by the rife, it
may appear to greater advantage as an objed, and be
much more important to the general compofition.
Many buildings, which from their fplendor beft become
an open expofure, will yet be fometimes not ill bellow¬
ed on a more fequeftered fpot, either to charaderife or
adorn it; and others, for which a folitary would in ge¬
neral be preferred to an eminent fituation, may ocea-
fionally be objeds in very confpicuous politions. A
Grecian temple, from its peculiar grace and dignity,
deferves every diftindion ; it may, however, in the
depth of a wood, be fo circumftanced, that the want
of thofe advantages to which it feems intitled will not
be regretted. A happier fituation cannot be devifed,
than that of the temple of Pan on the fouth lodge on
Enfield chace. It is of the ulual oblong form, encom-
paffed by a colonnade ; in dimenfions, and in ftyle, it
is equal to a moft extenfive landfcape : and yet by the
antique and rullic air of its Doric columns without
bafes ; by the challity of its little ornaments, a crook,
a pipe, and a ferip, and thofe only over the doors; and
by the fimplicity of the whole both within and without;
it is adapted with fo much propriety to the thickets
which conceal it from the view, that no one can wilh
it to be brought forward, who is fenlible to the charms
of the Arcadian fcene which this building alone has
created. On the otheV hand, a very fpacious field, or
ftieep-walk, will not be difgraced by a farm-houfe, a
cottage, or a Dutch barn ; nor will they, though frnall
and familiar, appear to be inconfiderable or infignifi-
cant objects. Numberlefs other inftances might be ad¬
duced to prove the impoffibility of reftraining particu¬
lar'buildings to particular fituations, upon any general
principles : the variety in their forms is hardly greater
than in their application. Only let not their ufes be
difguifed, as is often abfurdly attempted with the hum¬
bler kinds. “ A barn * dreffed up in the habit of a
country-church, or a farm-houfe figuring away in the *
fiercenefs of a cattle, are ridiculous deceptions. A diniug,
landfcape daubed upon a board, and a wooden fteepipp. 5^8.
ftuck up in a wood, are beneath contempt.”
Temples, thofe favourite and moft coftly objects in
gardens, too generally merit cenfure for their inutility;
their-
SC6 CARD
Baildi'igs. tbe'r profuficn, or the impropriety of their purpofe.
~ “ Whether they be dedicated to Bacchus, Venus, Pria-
pus, or any otlier demon of debauchery, they are in
this age, enlightened with regard to- theological and
fcientific knowledge, equally abfdrd. Archite&ure,
in this part of its fphere, may more nobly, and with
greater beauty and effedt, be txercifed upon a chapel,
a maufoleum, a monument, judicioufly difpofed among
/<W. p. J99. the natural ornaments. The late S-ir William Plar-
bord, has given us a model of the firft kind, at Gun-
ton, in Norfolk ; the pariih-church Handing in his
park, and being an old unfightly building, he had it
taken down, and a beautiful temple, under the direc¬
tion of the Adams’s eredled upon its file for the fame
facred purpofe :—The maufoleum at Caftle-Howard,
in Yorkfhire, the feat of the earl of Carlifle, is a noble
iirudture :—And as aa inftance of the la!t fort, may be
mentioned the Temple of Concord and Vidlory at
Stowe, eredted to the memory of the great lord Chat¬
ham and his glorious war; a beautiful monumental
building, fuited to the greatnefs of the occalion.”
To the great variety above mentioned mult be added,
Mr Wheatley obferves, the many changes which may
be made by the means of ruins. They are a clafs by
themfelves, beautiful as objefts, expreflive as charadlers,
and peculiarly calculated to connedf with appendages
into elegant groupes. They may be accommodated
with eafe to irregularity of ground, and their diforder
is improved by it. They may be intimately blended
with trees and thickets; and the interruption is an ad-
ObfcrvationsVantage : for imperfection and obfcurity are their pro-
Mod. perties; and to carry the imagination to fomething
Gardening, greater than is feen, is their effect. They may for any
of thefe purpofes be feparated into detached pieces ;
contiguity is not neceffary, nor even the appearance
of it, if the relation be preferved; but Itraggling ruins
have a bad effedt, when the feveral parts are equally
confiderable. There fhould be one large mafs to raife
an idea of greatnefs, to attradt the others about it, and
to be a common centre of union to all: the fmaller
pieces then mark the original dimeniions of one exten-
five ftrudtuVe ; and no longer appear to be the remains
of feveral little buildings.
All remains excite an inquiry into the former ftate
of the edifice, and fix the mind in a contemplation'of
the ufe it was applied to ; befides the chara&ers ex-
preffed by their Ityle and pofition, they fuggelt ideas
which would not arife from the buildings if entire.
The purpofes of many have ceafed : an abbey, or a
caftle, if complete, can now be no more than a dwell¬
ing ; the memory of the times, and of the manners
to which they are adapted, is preferved only in hffto-
ry, and in ruins ; and certain fenfations of regret, of
veneration, or compaffion, attend the recollection.
Nor are tLefe confined to the remains of buildings
which are now in difufe : thofe of an old manfion raite
reflections on the domeftic comforts once enjoyed, and
the ancient hofpitality which reigned the^e. What¬
ever building we fee in decay, we naturally contrail
its prefent to its former ftate, and delight to ruminate
on the comparifon. It is true that fueh effe&s pro¬
perly belong to real ruins; they are however pro¬
duced in a certain degree by thofe which are fictitious:
the impreffions are not fo ftrong, but they are exactly
fimilar; and the reprefentation, though it does not
E N I N G. Parti
prefent fads to the memory, yet fuggefts fubjeds to Buildings
the. imagination. But, in order to affed the fancy, '
the fuppofed original defign Ihould be clear, the ufe
obvious, and the form eafy to be traced : no frag¬
ments fhould be hazarded without a precife meaning,
and an evident connedion ; none ftiould be perplexed
in their conftrudion, or uncertain as to their applica¬
tion. Conjedures about the form, raife doubts about
the exiftence of the ancient ftrudure : the mind mull
not be allovsed to hefitate; it muft be hurried away
from examining into the reality, by the exadnefs and
the force of the refemblance.
In the ruins of Tintern abbey f, the original con-f Betweea
ftmdion of the church is perfedlv marked ; and it is'-hcpftow
principally from this circumftance that they are cele-
brated as a fubjed of curiofity and contemplation.
The walls are almoft entire ; the roof only is fallen in,
but moll of the columns which divided the ayles are
Hill Handing : of thofe which have dropped down, the
bafes remain, every one exadly in its place; and in the
middle of the nave four lofty arches, which once fup-
ported the fteeple, rife high in the air above all the
reft, each reduced now to a narrow rim of Hone, but
completely prefefving its form. The fhapes even of
the windows are little altered : but fome of them are
quite .obfcured, others partially (haded, by tuft-s of
ivy ; and thofe which arc moft clear, are edged with
its (lender tendrils, and lighter foliage, wreathing
about the fides and the divifions : it winds round the
pillars ; it clings to the walls ; and in one of the ayles
clufters at the top in bunches, fo thick and fo large as
to darken the fpace below. The other ayles, and the
great nave, are expofed to the (ky : the floor is entire¬
ly overfpread with turf; and to keep it clear from
weeds and bullies, is now its higheft prefervation.
Monkifh tomb-ftones, and the monuments of bene-
faftors long fince forgotten, appear above the green
fward; the bafes of the pillars which have fal¬
len, rife out of it; and maimed effigies, and fculp-
ture worn with age and weather, Gothic capitals, car¬
ved cornices, and various fragments, are fcattered a-
bout, or lie in heaps piled up together. Other (bat¬
tered pieces, though disjointed and mouldering. Hill
occupy their original places ; and a (lair-cafe much
impaired, which ltd to a tower now no more, is fuB
.pended at a great height, uncovered and inacceffible.
Nothing is perfect; but memorials of every part Hill
fubfift ; all certain, but all in decay ; and fuggefting
at once every idea which can occur in a feat of devo¬
tion, folitude, and defolation. Upon fuch models,
fidlitious ruins fhould be formed : and if any parts are
entirely loft, they (horrid be fuch as the imagina¬
tion can eafily fupply from thofe which are ftill re¬
maining. Diftindft traces of the building which is fup¬
pofed to have exifted, are lefs liable to the, fufpicion of
artifice, than an unmeaning heap of confufion. Pre-
cifion is always fatisfadlory, but in the reality it is
only agreeable; in the copy it is efiential to the imi¬
tation.
A material circumftance to the truth of the imita¬
tion is, that the ruins appear to be very old. The idea
is befides interefting in itfelf: a monument of antiquity
is never feen with indifference ; and a femblage of age
may be given to the reprefentation by the hue of the
materials, the growth of ivy and other plants, and
cracks
Parti. GARDENING. 567
Arts, &c cracks and fragments feemingly occafioned rather by /cape. The landfcape-painter feldom, if ever, finds it Chara&er.
decay than by deftruftion. An appendage evidently perfedled to his hands ;—fome addition or alteration
^‘d. tnoie modern than tire principal llrufture will fome- is almoft always wanted. Every man who has made
times corroborate the effeft: the Hied of a cottager his obfervations upon natural fcenery, knows that the
amidtt the remains of a temple, is a contraft both to mifletoe of the oak occurs almoft as often as a perfect
the former and to the prefent ftate of the building ; natural landfcape ; and to attempt to make up ariifi-
and a tree ftouriftiing among ruins, (hows the length of cial landfcape upon every occafion is unnatural and ab-
time they have lain negle&ed. No circumftance fofor- furd.
If, indeed, the eye were fixed in one point, the
trees could be raifed to their full height at command,
and the fun be made to ftand ftill, —the rural artift
might work by the rules of light and {hade, and com-
pofe his landfcape by the painter’s law. But, whilft
cibly marks the defolation of a fpot once inhabited,
the prevalence of nature over it:
Campos ubi Troja fuit,
is a fentence which conveys a ftronger idea of a city
totally overthrown, than a defeription of its remains
hut in a reprefentation to the eye, fome remains muft the fun continues to pour forth its light impartially,
appear ; and then the peryerfion of them to an ordi- a'id the trees to rife with flow progreffion, it would be
nary ufe, or an intermixture of a vigorous vegetation, ridiculous to attempt it. Let him rather feek out, inu-
intimates a fettled defpair of their reiloration. tate, and afibciate, fitch ftriking paflages in nature as
are immediately applicable to the place to be impro-
Sect. II. Principles of SeleEHon and Arrange- ved> ™th t0 ruIes of ^ndfeape, merely human ;
meat in the Subjects of Gardening. an et lim’ in this and all
!, and free, as Nature’s feif. Mason,
I. Of ART. In the lower claffes of rural improve- , „ 7 7 " , 7 - f ,
ments, artfhouldbe feen as little as may be ; and in the Inftead f the natural beauties of the ph
more negligent feenes of nature, every thing ought to 7 one formal landfcape, let every ftep difclofe frefh
appear as if it had been done by the general laws of chVm9 unfought for.
nature, or had grown out of a feries of fortuitous
cumftances. But in the higher departments, art can-
hot be hid; and the appearance of defign ought not to
be excluded. A human produflion cannot be made
perfe&ly natural; and held out as fuch it becomes an
impofition. _ Our ait lies in endeavouring to adapt the
productions of nature to human tafte and perceptions ;
III. Of CHARACTER. Chara&er is very recon-
ciieable with beauty ; and, even when independent of
it, has attra&ed fo much regard, as to occafion feve-
ral frivolous attempts to produce it: ftatues, inferip- Whmtlays
tions, and even paintings, hi (lory and mythology, and Observations*
a variety of devices, have been introduced for this
vjuu«~tiv/uv> v/i iiaiuit. tv/ uuuiaii taut anu l/vi c-cuiiuns j J . i • • i i i i 14
and if much art be ufed, do not attempt to hide it. Art PurPu i c T l ^ d“T Of
feldom fails to pleafe when executed in a mafterly man- fore iad ,leveralrplaCCS) afll^ned 7 threm, inLthe n’ati^
ner: nay, it is frequently the defign and execution, woods and the lawns of a garden: naturS^ cafcades have charadlers.
more than the produdion itfelf, thatftrikes us. It is been disfigured with mer-gods, and columns ere&ed on-
the artifice, not the defign, which ought to be avoid- ^ receive quotations; the compartime.its of a fum¬
ed. It is the labour and not the art which ought to rner-houfe have been filled with pidures of gambols and
be concealed. The rural artift ought, therefore, up- revels’ as />f gaiety ; the cyprels, becaufe
on every occafion, to endeavour to avoid labour; or, !? ^ °Jnce lfd ln i,nelra bas beCn thought pecu-
if indifpenfably neceffary, to conceal it. No trace barly adapted ^melancholy ; _and t!.e decorations, the
fhould be left to lead back the mind to the expenfive
furniture, and the environs of a building, have been
toil. A mound raifed, a mountain levelled, or‘a ufe- c™wde? w3ith Puen!i’7 unde;, P^f/nce of propnety.
lefs temple built, convey to the mind feelings equally ^il thefe dcV!ees are enMemaUcal thzii expreffivet
difffuftinff. they may be ingenious contrivances, and recal abfent
ideas to the recolledlion ; but they make no immediate
II. PICTURESQUE BEAUTY. Tho’the aids ™preffiou : for they muft be examined, pmuared,
y- of art are as effential to gardening, as education is to perhaps explained, before the who e defign of them is
manners ; yet art may do too much: (he ought to be wel1 u"der(tood: 4"d a» t0 a fav°y‘lte
confidered as the hand-maid, not as the miftrefs, of na- ®r weU knovvn fobJc? f hlfto.U’ of P0f.tr^.0r °/ tra-
ture; and whether (he be employed in carving a tree dltl0n’ f?7a'ld then annate or dignity aicene;
into the figure of an animal, or in (haping a view into yet 38 ^ *°CS *ot natllrally bf!o«g .toaSa,r:
the form of a piAure, (he is equally culpable. The den’ th7 alll7°n hould "l* be principal: it (hould
nature of the place is facred. Should this tend to f«m to have been fuggefted by the feene; a tranfitory
landfcape, from fome principal point of view, affift «nage, which irrefiftihly occurred ; not fought for, not
laboured ; and have the force of a metaphor, free from
the detail of an allegory.
Another fpeeies of chara&er arifes from dire& mi- of imita-
tation ; when a feene or an objeft, which has been ce- five cha-
lebrated in defeription, or is familiar in idea, is repre- fa&vrs.
fented in a garden. Artificial ruins, lakes, and rivers,
fall under this denomination. The air of a feat extend¬
ed to a diftance, and feenes calculated to raife ideas of
Arcadian elegance or of rural fimplicity, with many
Nature fcarcely knows the thing mankind call Aland- mote which have been occafionally mentioned or will
j obvioufly.
hature and perfe& it ; provided this can be done with¬
out injuring the views from other points. But do not
disfigure the natural features of the place:—do not fa-
crifice its native beauties, to the arbitrary laws of land¬
fcape painting.
Great Nature fcorns controul; (he will not bear
One beauty foreign to rhe fpot or foil
She gives thee to adorn : ’Tis thine alone
To mend, not change her features. Mason.
568
Chara&er. obvioufly dccur, may be ranked in this clafs. They
' '''*— are all reprefentations. But the materials, the dimen-
fions, and other circumftances, being the fame in the
copy and the original, their effedts are fimilar in both:
and if not equally ftrong, the defedf is not in the re-
femblance; but the confcioufnefs of an imitation
checks that train of thought which the appearance na¬
turally fuggefts, Yet an over-anxious folicitude todif-
guife the fallacy is often the means of expofmg it: too
many points of likenefs fometimes hurt the deception;
they feem ftudied and forced; and the affectation of
refemblance deftroys the fuppofition of a reality. A
hermitage is the habitation of a reclufe ; it fhould be
diftinguifhed by its folitude, and its fimplicity : but
if it is filled with crucifixes, hour-glaffes, beads, and
every other trinket which can be thought of, the
attention is diverted from enjoying the retreat to ex¬
amining tile particulars : all the collateral circumftan¬
ces which agree with a chara&er, feldom meet in one
fubjeft; and when they are induftrioufly brought to¬
gether, though each be natural, the colledlion is ar-
tificial.
Of original But the art of gardening afpires to more than imi-
shara&ers. ration: it can create original characters, and give ex-
preffions to the feveral fcenes fuperior to any they can
receive from allufions. Certain properties, and certain
difpofitions, of the objedts of nature, are adapted
to excite particular ideas and fenfations: many of
them have been occafionally mentioned, and all are
very well known. They require no difcernment,
examination, or difcuffion; but are obvious at a
glance, and inftantaneoufly diftinguifhed by our feel¬
ings. Beauty alone is not fo engaging as this fpecies
of charadter : the imprefiions it makes are more tran-
fient and lefs interefting; for it aims only at delighting
the eye, but the other affedts our feniibility. An af-
femblage of the moft elegant forms in the happieft fi-
tuations is to a degree indifcriminate, if they have not
been feledted and arranged with a defign to produce
certain expreffions; an air of magnificence, or of fim¬
plicity, of cheerfulnefs, tranquillity, or fome other ge¬
neral charadter, ought to pervade the whole ; and ob-
jedts pleafing in themfelves, if they contradidf that
character, fhould therefore be excluded : thofe which
are only indifferent, muft fometimes make room for
fuch as are more fignificant; many will often be in¬
troduced for no other merit than their expreffion; and
fome, which are in general rather- difagreeable, may
occafionally be recommended by it. Barrennefs itfelf
may be an acceptable circumftance in a fpot dedicated
to folitude and melancholy.
The power of fuch charadlers is not confined to the
ideas which the objedts immediately fuggeft; for thefe
are connedted with others, which infenfibly lead to
fubjedts far diftant perhaps from the original thought,
and related to it only by a fimilitude in the fenfations
they excite. In a profpedi enriched and enlivened
with inhabitants and cultivation, the attention is
caught at firft by the circumftances which are gayeft
in their feafon, the bloom of an orchard, the feftivity
of a hay-fteld, and the carols of harveft-home ; but the
cheerfulnefs which thefe infufe into the mind, expands
afterwards to other objedts than thofe immediately
prefented to the eye ; and we are thereby difpofed to
receive, and delighted to purfuc, a variety of pleafing
135.
Part I.
ideas, and every benevolent feeling. At the fight of a General ar-
ruin, refledtions on the change, the decay, and the tan^tment’
defolation before us, naturally occur ; and they intro- ' 'l-
duce a long fuccefiion of others, all tindlured with that
melancholy which thefe have infpired ; or if the mo¬
nument revive the memory of former times, we do
not ftop at the limple fadi which it records, but recoi¬
led! many more coeval circumftances, which we fee,
not perhaps as they were, but as they are come down
to us, venerable with age, and magnified by fame. E-
ven without the afiiftance of buildings or other ad¬
ventitious circumftances, nature alone furnifhes mate¬
rials for fcenes which may be adapted to almoft every
kind of expreffion : their operat^pn is general, and their
confequences are infinite: the mind is elevated, deprefs-
ed, or compofed, as gaiety, gloom, or tranquillity,
prevails in the feene ; and we foon lofe fight of the
means by which the charadter is formed; we forget the
particular objedts it prefents ; and giving way to their
effedts, without recurring to the caufe, we follow the
track they have begun, to any extent which the difpo-
fition they accord with will allow. It fuffices that the
fcenes of nature have a power to affedt our imagina¬
tion and our fenfibilicy ; for fuch is the conftitutioa
of the human mind, that if once it is agitated, the
emotion fpreads far beyond the occafion; when the
paffions are roufed, their courfe is unreftrained; when
the fancy is on the wing, its flight is unbounded ; and,
quitting the inanimate objedts which firft gave them
their fpring, we may be led by thought above
thought, widely differing in degree, but ftill corre-
fponding in charadter, till we rife from familiar fub-
jedts up to the fublimeft conceptions, and are rapt in
the contemplation of whatever is great or beautiful,
which we fee in nature, feel in man, or attribute to
divinity.
IV. GENERAL ARRANGEMENT. Notwith-
ftanding the nature of the_place, as already obferved,
ought not to be facrificed to theknanfion ;—the houfe
muft ever be allowed to be a principal in the compofi-
tion. It ought to be confidered as the centre of the
fyftem ; and the rays of art, like thofe of the fun, anTolr-
ftiould grow fainter as they recede from the centre, dating.
The houfe itfelf being entirely a work of art, its im-
ihediate environs ffiould be highly finifhed ; but as the
diftance increafes, the appearance of defign fhould
gradually diminifh, until nature and fortuitoufnefs have
full poffeffioii of the feene.
In general, the approach fhould be to the back-
front, which, in fuitable fituations, ought to lie open
to the pafture-grounds. On the Tides more highly or¬
namented, a well-kept gravel-walk may embrace the
walls; to this the fhaven lawn and fhrubbery fucceed ;
next, the grounds clofely paftured; and, laftly, the fur¬
rounding country, which ought not to be confidered as
out of the artift’s reach: for his art confifts not more
in decorating particular fpots, than in endeavouring
to render the whole face of nature delightful.
Another reafon for this mode of arrangement is, ob¬
jedts immediately under the eye are feen more diftindt-
ly than thofe at a diftance, and. ought to be fuch as
aie pleafing in the detail. The beauties of a flower ca»
be difeerned on a near view only ; whilft at a diltance
a loughet of coppice-wood, and the molt elegant ar-
J range ment
GARDENING.
Part II. GARDENING.
Hunting- rangement of flowering-ftirubs have the fame effeft.
,Box’ &:c^, The molt rational entertainment the human mind ia
v capable of receiving, is that of obferving the operations
ibht. of nature. The foliation of a leaf, ihe blowing of
p. 606. flowcrs> an(j the maturation of fruit, are among the
molt delightful fubjefts that a contemplative mind can
be employed in. Thefe proceffes of nature are flow ;
and except the objedt fall fpontaneoufly under the eye
of the obferver, the inconveniences of viliting it in a
remote part, fo far interfere with the more important
employments of life, as to blunt, if not deftroy, the
enjoyment. This is a ftrong argument in favour
of ihrubs and flowers being planted under or near
our windows, efpecially thofe from whence they
may be viewed during the hours of leifure and tran¬
quillity.
Further, the vegetable creation being fubjeft to the
animal, the fhrub may be cropt, or the flower trodden
down in its day of beauty. If therefore we wilh to
converfewith nature in private, intruders muft be kept
oft',—the Ihrubbery be fevered from the.ground ;—yet
not in fuch a manner as to drive away the pafturing
flock from our fight. For this reafon, the lhaven lawn
ought not to be too extenfive, and the fence which in-
clofes it Ihould be fuch as will not interrupt the view :
but whether it be feen or unfeen, fufpe&ed or unfuf-
pefted, is a matter of no great import: its utility in
'protefting the Ihrubs and flowers,—in keeping the
horns of the cattle from the window, and the feet of
the (beep from the gravel and broken ground,—in pre-
ferving that neatnefs on the outfide, which ought to
correfpond with the finiftungs and furniture within,—
render it of fufficient importance to become even a part
of the ornament.
Part II. EXECUTION of the GENERAL SUBJECTS.
TMprovements in general may be claffed under the
■*- following heads : The Hunting-Box, The Ornamented
Cottage,' the Villa, and the Principal Refidence.
But before any ftep can be taken towards the exe¬
cution of the defign, be it large or fmall, a map or
plan of the place, exaftly as it lies in its unimproved
ftate, fliould be made; with acorrefponding Iketch, to
mark the intended improvements upon. Not a hovel
nor a twig ftrould be touched, until the artift has ftu-
died.maturely the natural abilities of the place, and has
decidedly fixed in his mind, and finally fettled on his
plan, the propofed alterations : and even then, let him
“ dare with caution.”
• 1. Of Improvements adapted to a Hunting-Box.
Here art has little to do. Hunting may be called
the amufement of nature ; and the place appropriated
to it ought to be no farther altered from its natu¬
ral ftate than decency and conveniency require :—
With men who live in the prefent age of refinement,
“ a want of decency is a want of fenfe.”
Ibid. The ftyle throughout (hould be mafculine. If fhrubs
5*. 610, ge reqU(recJ? they flrould be of the hardier forts; the
. box, the holly, the lauruftinus. The trees {hould be
the oak and the beech, which give in autumn an agree¬
able variety of foliage, and anticipate as it were the
feafon of diverfion. A fuite of paddocks ftiould be
feen from the houfe ; and if a view of di’flant covers
can be caught, the back-ground will be complete.
The ftable, the. kennel, and the leaping-bar, are the
faftitious accompaniments; in the conftru&ion of which
fimplicity, fubftantialnefs, and csnveniency, {hould pre¬
vail.
2. Of the Styles of an Ornamented Cottage.
Neatness and fimplicity ought to mark the ftyle
of this rational retreat. Oftentation and {how {hould
be cautioufly avoided; even elegance {hould not be
attempted ; though it may not be hid, if it offer itfelf
fpontaneoufly.
Nothing, however, fliould appear vulgar, nor flioutd
frmplicity be pared down to baldnefs ; every thing
whimfical or expenfive ought to be ftudioufly avoid-
;—chaflenefs and frugality fliould appear in every
part.
Vgl. VII. Part. II.
Near the houfe a ftudied neatnefs may take place ;
but at a diflance, negligence fliould rather be the cha-
rafteriftic.
If a taile for botany lead to a colleftion of native
flirubs and flowers, a ihrubbery will be requifite ; but
in this every thing ftiould be native. A gaudy exotic
. ought not to be admitted; nor fliould the lawn be kept
clofe {haven; its flowers {hould be permitted to blow ;
and the herbage, when mown, ought to be carried off,
and applied to fome ufeful purpofe.
In the artificial accompaniments, ornament muft be
fubordinate; utility muft preftde. The buildings, if any
appear, {hould be thofe in aftual ufe in rural econo¬
mics. If the hovel be wanted, let it appear; and, as
a fide-fcreen, the barn and rick-yard are admiflible;
whilft the dove-houfe and poultry-yard may enter more
freely into the compofition.
In fine, the ornamented cottage ought to exhibit
cultivated nature in the firft ftage of refinement. It
ranks next above the farm-houfe. The plain garb of
rufticity may be fet off to advantage; but the ftudi’ed
drefs of the artift ought not to appear. That becoming
neatnefs, and thofe domeftic conveniences, which ren¬
der the rural life agreeable to a cultivated mind, are
all that {hould be aimed at.
3. Of the EmlcHjfhments of a Villa.
This demands a ftyle very different from the pre¬
ceding. It ought to be elegant, rich, or grand, ac¬
cording to the ftyle of the houfe itfclf, and the ftate
of the forrounding country ; the principal bufinefs of
the artift being to conneii thefe two in fuch a manner,
that the one {hall not appear naked or flareing, nor the
other defolate and inhofpitable.
If the houfe be {lately, and the adjacent country
rich and highly cultivated, a ftirubbery may intervene,
in which art may {how her utmoft {kill.' Here', the
artift may even be permitted to play at landfcape : for
a place of this kind being fuppofed to be fraall, the
purpofe principally ornamental, and the point of view
probably confined {imply to the houfe, fide fcreens may
be formed, and a fore-ground laid out fuitable to the
beft diftance that cdn be caught.
If buildings or other artificial ornaments abound in
the effscape, fo as to mark it ftrongly, they ought alfo
4 C to
570 CARD
Principal to appear more or lefs in tbe fore-ground : if the dif-
Refidence. tance abound with wood, the fore-ground (hould be
• " * ’ thickened, left baldnefs ftiould offend; if open and
naked, elegance rather than richnefs ought to be ftudi-
ed, left heavinefs fliould appear.
Hid. it Js far from being any part of our plan to cavil
unneceffarily at artifts, whether living or dead; we
cannot, however, refrain from expreffing a concern for
the almoft total negle£t'of the principles here in or¬
namenting the vicinages of villas. It is to be regret¬
ted, that in the prefent praftice thefe principles feem
to be generaly loft fight of. Without any regard to
uniting the houfe with the adjacent country, and, in¬
deed, feemingly without any regard whatever to the
offscape, one invariable plan of embellilhment prevails;
namely, that of ftripping the fore-ground entirely
naked, or nearly fo, and furrounding it with a wavy
border of fimibs and a gravel walk; leaving the
area, whether large or fmall, one naked Iheet of
green fward.
In fmall confined fpots, this plan may be eligible.
But a fimple border round a large unbroken lawn only
ferves to Ihow what more is wanted. Simplicity in
general is pleafing ; but even fimplicity may be carried
to an extreme, fo as to convey no other idea than that
of poverty and baldnefs. Befides, how often do we
fee in natural fcenery, the holly and the fox-glove
flourifhing at the foot of an oak, and the primrofe and
the campion adding charms to the hawthorn fcattered
over the paftured lawn ? And we conceive that fingle
trees footed with evergreens and native flowers, and
clumps as well as borders of fhrubs, are admifftble in.
ornamental as well as in natural fcenery..
The fpecies of fhrub will vary with the purpofe. If
the principal intention be a winter retreat, evergreens
and the early-blowing fhrubs fhould predominate; but
in a place to be frequented in fummer and autumn, the
deciduous tribes, ought chiefly to be planted.
4. Of the Principal Residence.
Here the whole art centres. The artift has here
full fcope for a difplay of tafte and genius. He has
an extent of country under his eye, and will endea¬
vour to make the moft of what nature and accident
have fpread before him.
Round a principal refidence, a gentleman may be
fuppofed to have feme confiderable eftate, and it is
not a fhrubbery and a ground only which fall under
the confideration of the artift he ought to endeavour
to difclofe to the view, either from the houfe or fome
other point, as much as he conveniently can of tjie ad¬
jacent eftate. The love of poffefllon is deeply planted
in every man’s breaft ; and places fhould bow to the
gratification of their owners. To curtail the view by
an artificial fide-fcreen, or any other unnatural ma¬
chinery, fo as to deprive, a man of the fatisfa&ion of
over looking his own eftate, is an abfurdity which no
artift ought to be permitted to be guilty of. It is
very different, however, where the property of another
intrudes upon the eye : Here the view may, with fome-
colour of-propriety, be bounded by a.woody fcreen.
The grounds, however, by a proper management,
may be made independent of whatever is external; and
though profpeifts are no where more delightful than
fiom a point, of view which is alfo a beautiful fpot, yet
3
E N I N G. Part II.
if in the environs of fuch a garden they fhould be Principal
wanting, the elegant, pioturefque, and various fcenes Refidence.
within itfelf, almoft fupply the deficiency. s,— 1 J
“ This (fays Mr Wheatley) is the chara&er of the Mr Wheats
gardens at Stowe : for there the views in the country %’1'f-
are only circumftances fubordinate to the fcenes ; and"^^0”
the principal advantage of the fituation is the variety dens. ^
of the ground within the inclofure. The houfe ftands
on the brow of a gentle afcent; part of the gardens lie
on the declivity, and fpread over the bottom beyond
it : tliis eminence is feparated by a broad winding val¬
ley from another which is higher and fteeper; and
the defcents of both are broken by large dips and hol¬
lows, Hoping down the fides of the hills. The whole,
fpace is divided into a number of .fcenes, each diftin-
guifhed with tafte and fancy; and the changes are fo-
frequent, fo fudden, and complete, the tranfitions fo
artfully conduced, that the fame ideas are never com
tinned or repeated to fatiety.
Thefe gardens were begun when regularity was in
fafhion ; and the original boundary is ftill prefer-ved,
on account of its magnificence : for round the whole
circuit, of between three or four miles, is cairied a very
broad gravel-walk, planted with rows of trees, and open
either to the park or the country ; a deep funk fence
attends it all the way, and comprehends a fpace of near
400 acres. But in the interior fcenes of the garden,,
few traces of regularity appear; where it yet remains
in the plantations, it is generally difguifed: every
fymptom, almoft, of formality is obliterated from the
ground ; and an oftagon bafin in the bottom is now
converted into an irregular piece of water, which re¬
ceives on one hand two beautiful ftreams, and falls ofc
the other down a cafcade into a lake.
In the front of the houfe is a confiderable lawn,
open to the water: beyond which are two elegant Do¬
ric pavilions, placed in the boundary of the garden,
but not" marking it, though they correfpond to each
other ; for ftill further back, on the brow of fome
rifing grounds without the inclofure, ftands a noble
Corinthian arch, by which the principal approach is
conducted, and from which all the gardens are feen,
reclining back againft their hills: they are rich with
plantations ; full of obje&s ; and lying on both fides
of the houfe almoft equally, every part is within a
moderate diftance, notwithftanding the extent of the
whole.
On the right of the lawn, but concealed from the.
houfe, is a perfect garden-fcene, called the queen’s
amphitheatre, where art is avowed, though formality
ia avoided. The fore ground is fcooped into a gentle
hollow. The plantations on the fides, though but juft
refcued from regularity, yet in ftyle are contrafted to
each other:, they are, on one hand, chiefly thickets,
Handing out from a wood ; on the other, they are
open groves, through which a glimpfe of the water is
vifible. At the end of the hollow on a little knole,
quite detached from all appendages, is placed an open
Ionic rotunda : beyond it, a large lawn flop.es acrofs the
view; a pyramid ftands on the brow; the queen’s
pillar, in a recefs on the defcent; and all the three
buildings, being evidently intended for ornament alone,
are peculiarly adapted to a garden-fcene. Yet their
number does not render it gay : the dufky hue of the
pyramid, the retired fituation of the queen’s pillar, and
the
Part IT. G A Pv D :
Principal the folitSry appearance of the rotunda, give it an air of
Refidence- gravity ; it is encompaffed with wood ; and all the ex-
11 v ternal views are excluded ; even the opening into the
lawn is but an opening into an inclofure.
At the king’s pillar, very near to this, is another
lovely fpot; which is fmall, but not confined ; for no
termination appears; the ground one way, the water
another, retire under the trees out of fight, but no¬
where meet with a boundary. The view is fijft. over
fame very broken grouifd, thinly and irregularly
planted; then between two beautiful clumps, which
feather down to the bottom ; and afterwards acvofs a
glade, and through a little grove beyond it, to that
part of the lake where the thickets, clofe upon- the
brink, fpread a tranquillity over the furface, in which
their fhadows are reflected. Nothing is admitted to
dillurb that quiet : no building obtrudes; for objedts
to fix the eye are needlefs in a fcene which may be
comprehended at a glance ; and none would fuit the
paftoral idea it infpires, of elegance too refined for
a cottage, and of fimplicity too pure for any other
edifice.
The fituation of the rotunda promifes a profpedt
more enlarged ; and in fadl molt of the objedts on this
fide of the garden are there vifible : but they want
both connedlion and contrail; each belongs peculiarly
to fome other fpot: they all are blended together in
this, without meaning ; and are rather ihown on a
map, than formed into a pidlure. The water only is
capital; a broad expanfe of it is fo near as to be feen
under the little groupes on the bank without interrup¬
tion. Beyond it is a wood, which in one place leaves
the lake, to run up behind a beautiful building, of
three pavilions joined by arcades, all of the Ionic
order : it is called Kent's Building. And never was a
defign more happily conceived: it feems to be cha-
radleiiftically proper for a garden; it is fo elegant,
fo varied, and fo purely ornamental: it diredtly fronts
the rotunda, and a narrow rim of the country appears
above the trees beyond it. But the eifed even of this
noble objed is fainter here than at other points: its
pofition is not the moil advantageous; and it is but
one among many other buildings, none of which are
' principal.
The fcene at the temple of Bacchus is in charader
diredly the reverfe of that about the rotunda, though
the fpace and the objeds are nearly the fame in both :
but in this, all the parts concur to form one whole.
The ground from every fide flielves gradually towards
the lake ; the plantations on the further bank open to
(how Kent’s building, rife from the water’s edge to-
■wards the knole on which it Hands, and clofe again
behind it. That elegant ftrudure, inclined a little from
a front view, becomes more beautiful by being thrown
into perfpedive; and though at a greater dillance, is
more important than before, becaufe it is alone in the
view: for the queen’s pillar and the rotunda are re¬
moved far afide ; and every other circumftance refers
to this interelting objed: the water attrads, the
ground and the plantations dired, the eye thither:
and the country does not juft glimmer in the offscape,
but is clofe and eminent above the wood, and conned-
ed by clumps with the garden. The fcene all together
is a nWl animated landfcape ; and the fplendor of the
building ; the refledion in the lake j the tranfparency
ENIN G. 57I
of the water, and pidurefque beauty of its form, di- Principal
verfified by little groupes on the brink, while on the Refideiice-
broadeft expanfe no more trees call their ihadows than
are fufficient to vary the tints of the furface; all
thefe circumftances, vying in luftre with each other,
and uniting in the point to which every part of the
fcene is related, diffufe a peculiar brilliancy over the
whole compofition.
The view from Kent’s building is very different
from thofe which have been hitherto defcribed. They
are all direded down the declivity of the lawn. This
rifes up the afcent: the eminence being crowned with
lofty wood, becomes thereby more confiderable; and
"the hillocks into which the general fall is broken.
Hoping further out this way than any other, they alfo
acquire an importance which they had not before;
that, particularly, on which the rotunda is placed,
feems here to be a profound fituation ; and the ftruc-
ture appears to be properly adapted to fo open an ex-
pofure. The temple of Bacchus, on the contrary,
which commands fuch an illuftrious view, is itfslfa re¬
tired objed, clofe under the covert. The wood rifing
on the brow, and defeending down one fide of the hill,
is ftrown to be deep ; is high, and feems to be higher
than it is. The lawn too is extenfive; and part of
the boundary being concealed, it fuggefts the idea of a
ftill greater extent. A fmall portion only of the lake
indeed is vifible ; but it is not here an objed: it is a
part of the, fpot; and neither termination being in
light, it has no diminutive appearance : if more water
had been admitted, it might have hurt the charader
of the place, which is fober and temperate; neither
folemn nor gay; great and fimple, but elegant; above
rufticity, yet free from oftentation.
Thefe are the principal feenes on one fide of the
gardens. On the other, clofe to the lawn before the
houfe, is the winding valley abovementioned: the
lower part of it is afligned to the Elyfian fields. Thefe
are watered by a lovely rivulet; are very lightfome,
and very airy, fo thinly are the trees fcattered about
them ; are open at one end to move water and a lar¬
ger glade ; and the reft of the boundary is frequently
broken to let in objeds afar off, which appear ftill
more diftant from the manner of Ihowing them. The
entrance is under a Doric arch, which coincides with
an opening among the trees, and forms a kind of
villa, through which a Pembroke bridge juft below,
and a lodge built like a caftle in the park, are feen in
a beautiful perfpedive. That bridge is at one extre¬
mity of the gardens ; the queen’s pillar is at another;
yet both are vifible from the fame ftation in the Elyfian
fields: and all thefe external objeds are unaffededly
introduced, divefted of their own appurtenances, and
combined with others which belong to the fpot. The
temple of Friendihip alfo is in fight, juft without the
place ; and within it, are the temples of ancient Vir¬
tue, and of the BrTdlh worthies; the one in an ele¬
vated fituation, the other low down in the valley, and
near to the water : both are decorated with the effi¬
gies of thofe who have been moll diftinguilhed for mi¬
litary, civil, or literary merit; and near to the former
Hands a roftral column, facred to the memory of Cap¬
tain Grenville, who fell in an adion at fea: by pla¬
cing here the meed of valour, and by filling thefe fields
with the reprefentations of thofe who have deferved
4 C 2 beft
572 G A R D I
Principal bcft of mankind, the charafter intended to be gi?en to
Reiidence. t}je fpQt ;s ju{lly and poetically expreffed; and the
number of the images which are prefented orexcited,
perfectly correfponds with it. Solitude was never rec¬
koned among the charms of Elyfium ; it has been al¬
ways pictured as the manfion of delight and of joy :
and in this imitation, every circumftance accords with
that eftablilhed idea. The vivacity of the ftream which
flows through the vale ; the glimpfes of another ap¬
proaching to join it; the fprightly verdure of the
green fward, and every bull of the Britifh worthies
reflefted in the water ; the variety of the trees ; the
lightnefs of the greens; their difpofition ; all of them
diftindt obje&s, and difperfed over gentle inequalities
of the ground ; together with the multiplicity of ob-
jeiSts both within and without, which embellifli and
enliven the feene ; give it a gaiety, which the imagi¬
nation can hardly conceive, or the heart wifli to be ex¬
ceeded.
■ Clofe by this fpot, and a perfedt contrail to it, is
the alder grove ; a deep recefs in the midil of a lhade,
which the blaze of noon cannot brighten. The water
feems to be a ftagnated pool, eating into its banks ;
and of a peculiar colour, not dirty but clouded, and
dimly refledling the dun hue of the horfe chefnuts and
alders which prefs upon the brink : the Hems of the
latter, rifing in clufters from the fame root, bear one
another down, and flant over the water. Milhapen
elms and ragged hrs are frequent in the wood which
encompafles the hollow ; the trunks of dead trees are
left Handing amongft them ; and the uncouth fumach,
and the yew, with elder, nut, and holly, compofe the
underwood : fome limes and laprels are intermixed ; but
they are not many : jjpe wood is in general of the
darkeft greens ; and the foliage is thickened with ivy,
which not only twines up the trees, but creeps alfo
over the falls of the ground : thefe are Jteep and a-
brupt : the gravel-walk is covered with mofs ; and a
grotto at the end, faced with broken flints and pebbles,
preferves, in the fimplicity of its materials, and the
dulkinefs of its colour, all the charafter of its fituation:
two little rotundas near it were better away ; one
building is fufacient for fuch a feene of folitude as this,
in’ which more circumftances of gloom concur than
were ever perhaps collefted together.
Immediately above the alder-grove is the principal
eminence in the gardens. It is divided by a great dip
into two pinnacles; upon one of which is a large Go¬
thic building. The fpace before this ftrudture is an
extenfive lawn : the ground on one fide falls imme¬
diately into the dip ; and the trees which border the
lawn, finking with the ground, the houfe rifes above
them, and fills the interval: the vaft pile feems to be
Hill larger than it is; for it is thrown into perfpeftive,
and between and above the heads of the trees, the up¬
per ftory, the porticoes, the turrets and balluflrades,
and all the flated roofs, appear in a noble confufion.
On the other fide of the Gothic building, the ground
flopes down a long-continued declivity into a bottom,
which feems to be perfedtly irriguous. Divers ftreams
wander about it in feveral dire&ions: the conflux of
that which runs from the Elyfian fields with another
below it, is full in fight; and a plain wooden bridge
thrown over the latter, and evidently defigned for a
paflage, impofes an air of reality on the river, I3e-
: N I N G. Part I f.
yond it is one of the Doric porticoes which front the Principal
houfe ; but now it is alone ; it ftands on a little bank RelldenC'C*
above the water, and is feen under fome trees at a di- 11
fiance before it: thus grouped, and thus accompanied,
it is a happy incident, concurring with many other
circumflances to diftihguifh this landfcape by a charac¬
ter o- cheerfulnefs and amenity.
From the Gothic building a broad walk leads to
the Grecian valley, which is a feene of more grandeur
than any in the gardens. It enters them from the
park, fpreading at iirft to a confiderable breadth ; then
wdnds ; grows narrower, but deeper; and lofes itfelf
at lafl in a thicket, behind fome lofty elms, which in¬
terrupt the fight of the termination. Lovely woods
and groves hang all the way on the declivities: and
the open fpace is broken by detached trees; which,
near the park, are cautioufly and fparingly introduced,
left the breadth ftrould be contradled by them ; but as
the valley finks, they advance more boldly down the
fides, ftretch acrofs or along the bottom, and clufter
at times into groupes and forms, which multiply the
varieties of the larger plantations. Thofe are fome-
times clofe coverts, and fornttimes open groves : the
trees rife in one upon high Hems, and feather down to -
the bottom in another; and between them are ftrort
openings into the park or the gardens. ' In the midft
of the feene, juft at the bend of the valley, and com¬
manding ft on both fides, upon a large, eafy, natural
rife, is placed the temple of Concord and Vidtory : at
one place its majeftic front of fix Ionic columns, fup-
porting a pediment filled with has relief, and the point*
of it crowned with ftatues, faces the view ; at another,
the beautiful colonnade, on the fide, of ten lofty pillars,
retires in perfpedtive. It is feen from every part ; and
imprefling its own character of dignity on all around,
it fpreads an awe over the whole : but no gloom, no
melancholy, attends it: the fenfations it excites are ra¬
ther placid ; but full of refpedl, admiration, and fo-
lemnity : no water appears to enliven, no diftant pro-
fpedl to enrich the view ; the parts of the feene are
large, the idea of it fublime, and the execution hap¬
py ; it is independent of all adventitious circumftances,
and relies on itfelf for its greatnefs.
Tfie feenes which have been deferibed are fuch as
are moft remarkable for beauty or charadler; but the
gardens contain many more ; and even the obje6t§ in
thefe, by their feveral combinations, produce very dif¬
ferent effetls, within the diftance fometimes of a few
paces, from the unevennefs of the ground, the variety
©f the plantations, and the number of the buildings.
The multiplicity of the laft has indeed been often urged
as an objection to Stowe ; and certainly, when all are
feen by a ilranger in two or three hours, twenty or
thirty capital llmdtures, mixed with others of inferior
note, do feem too many. But the growth of the wood
every day weakens the objedlion, by concealing them
one from the other: each belongs to a dillindl fcene-;
and if they ard confidered-feparately, at different times,
and at leifure, it may be difficult to determine which
to take away. Yet ftill it mull be acknowledged that
their, frequency deftroys all ideas of filej.ee and retire¬
ment. Magnificence and fplendor are the charadlerif-
tics of Stowe : it is like one of thofe places celebrated
in antiquity, which were devoted to the purpofes of
religion, and filled with faered groves, hallowed foun¬
tains.
Fart II.
Principal tains, and temples dedicated^to feveral deities; the
Rtftdence refort 0f diftant nations, and the objedl of veneration
v ' to half the heathen world : this pomp is, at Stowe,
blended with beauty'; and the place is equally diflin-
guifhed by its amenity and its grandeur.
In the midit of fo much embelliihment as may be
introduced into this fpecies of garden, a plain field, or
a iheep-waik, is fometimes an agreeable relief, and e-
ven wilder fcenes-may occafionally be admitted. Thefe
indeed are not properly parts of a garden, but they
maybe comprehended within the verge of it; and the
proximity to the more ornamented fcenes is at leaft a
convenience, that the tranfition from the one to the
other may be eafy, and the change always in our op¬
tion. For though a fpot in the highell ftate of im¬
provement be a neceffary appendage to a feat; yet, in
a place which is perfect, other charafters will not be
wanting : if they cannot be had on a large fcale, they
are acceptable on a fmalkr; and fo many circumftan-
ces are common to all, that they may often be inter¬
mixed; they may always bprder on each other.”
But on this head it would be in vain to attempt to
lay down particular rules : different places are marked
Pi-aBTreat.^y fets .of features as different from each other as are
en Planting thofe in mens faces. Much muft be left to the fkill
an.i Garden- ^ni tafte of the artift; and let thofe be what they may,
r"g> P- 615. nothing hut mature ftudy of the natural abilities of the
particular place to be improved can render him equal
to the execution, fo as to make the moft of the mate¬
rials that are placed before him.
Some few general rules may neverthelefs be laid
down. The approach ought to be conducted in fuch
a manner, that the ftriking features of the place fhall
burft upon the view at once : no trick however fhould
be made ufe of: all fhould appear to fall in natnrally.
In leading towards the houfe, its diredtion fhould not
be fully in front, nor exaftly at an angle, but fhould
pafs obliquely upon the houfe and its accompaniments;
fo that their pofition with refpedt to each other, as
well as the perfpedtive appearance of the houfe itfeif,
may vary at,every ftep : and having fhown the front
and the principal wing, or other accompaniment, to
advantage, the approach fhould wind to the back-front,
which, as has been already obferved, ought to lie open
to the park or paftured grounds.
The improvements and the rooms from which they
are to be feen fhould be in unifon. Thus, the view
from the drawing-room fhould be highly embellifhed,
to correspond with the beauty and elegance within :
every thing here fbould be feminine, elegant, beautb
fal, fuch as attunes the mind to politenefs! and lively
converfation. The breakfafting-room fhould have more
mafculine objects in view : wood, water, and an ex*
tended country for the eye to roam over; fuch as ab
lures us imperceptibly to the ride or the chace. The
- eating and banqueting rooms need no exterior allure¬
ments.
There is a harmony in tafte as in mufic: variety,
and even wildnefs upon fo me occafions, may be ad¬
mitted ; but difcord cannot be allowed. If, therefore-,
a place be fo circumftanced as to confift of properties,
totally irreconcileable, the parts ought, if poffible, to
be feparated in fuch a manner, that, like the air and
the recitative, the adagio and the allegro, in mufic,
they may fet off each other’s charms by the contraft:.—-
• • ’ - ” ' 2.
. S'3
Thefe obfervations, in the elegant performance whence Principal
theyare extradled, the author illuftrates by the following ^eiideucc,
defeription and propofed improvement of Perfefield, the ^ ;
feat of Mr Morris, near Chepftow in Monmouthfhire ; 0f perfe_
a place upon which nature has been peculiarly lavifh field, M/V/.
of her favours, and which has been fpoken of by Mr p. 6ro, &c»
Wheatley, Mr Gilpin, and other writers, in the moft;
flattering terms.
‘ Perfefield is fituated upon'thebanks of the river Wye,
which divides Gioucefterlhire and Monmouthflnre, and
which was formerly the boundary between England
and Wales. The general tendency of the river is from
north to fouth ; but about Perfefield it deferibes by its
winding courfe the letter S, fomewhat compreffed, fo
as to reduce it in length and increafe its width. The
grounds of Perfefield are lifted high above the bed of
the river; fhelving, and form the brink of a lofty and
fteep precipice, towards the fouth-weft.
“ The lower limb of the letter is filled with Perfe-
wood, which makes a part of Perfefieid; but is at pre¬
fect an impenetrable thicket,of coppice-wood. This
dips to the fouth-eaft down to the water’s edge ; and,
feen from the top of the oppofite rock, has a good ef-
fe&.
“ The upper limb receives the farms of Llancot: rich
and highly cultivated : broken into inclofures, and
fcattered with groupes and fingle trees: two well look¬
ing farm-houfes in the centre, and a neat white chapel
on one fide : altogether a lovely little paradifaical fpot, .
The lowlinefs of its fituation ftamps it with an aif of
meeknefs and humility ; and the natural barriers which
furvound it adds that of peacefulnefs and fecurity„
Thefe pi&urefque farms do not form a low flat bot¬
tom, fubjeft to be overflowed by the river; but take
the form of a gorget, rifing fulleft in the middle, and
falling on every fide gently to the brink af the Wye;
except on the eaft:-fide, where the top of the gorget
leans in an eafy manner againft a range of perpendicu¬
lar rock ; as if to fhow its diik with advantage to the
walks of Perfefield.
“ This rock ftretches acrofs what may be called the
IJlhmus, leaving only a narrow pals down into the fields
of LlanCot, and joins the principal range of rocks at
the lower bend of the river.
“ To the north, at the head of the letter, ftands aa
immenfe rock (or rather a pile of immenfe rocks heap¬
ed one above another) called WlnckUJf ; .the top of
which is elevated as much above the grounds of Perfe-
field as thofe are above the fields of Llancot. ■
“ ThefeTeveral rocks, with the-wooded precipices
on the fide of Perfefield, form a circular fin do lure',
about a mile in-diameter, including Perfe-wood, Llan¬
cot, the Wye; and a fmali meadow lying at the foot '
of Windciiff.
“ The grounds are divided into the upper and low¬
er lawn, by the approach to the houfe ; a fmall irre¬
gular building, Handing near the brink of the preci-.
pice, but facing down the lower lawn, a beautiful
ground, falling * precipitately every way into a valley
which fltelves down in- the middle,’ and is fcattered
with grpupes and fingle trees in an excellent ftyle.
“ The view from the houie is foft, rich, and- beau¬
tifully picturefque ; the lawn and woods of Perfefield
and the oppofite banks' of the river; the Wye, near
its mouth, winding through ‘ meadows-green as erw*
raLd/T
GARDENING.
574 . t
Pnnapu! raid,’ in a manner peculiarly graceful; the Severn,
. ' •i;ilcg' here very broad, backed by. the wooded and highly
~ 'r~~' cultivated hills of Glo.ucefterfhire, Wiltfhire, and So-
jnerfetihire. Not one rock enters into the compoii-
tion. The whole view eonfifts of an elegant arrange¬
ment of lawn, wood, and water.
“ The upper lawn is a lefs beautiful ground, and
the view from it, though it command the ‘ cultivated
hills and ricb valleys of Monmouthflrire,’ bounded by
•the Severn and backed by the Mendip-hills, is much
inferior to that from the houfe.
- “ To give variety to the views from Perfefreld, to
difclofe the native grandeur which furrounds it, and
to fet oh its more ftriking features to advantage, walks
have been cut through the woods and on the face of
■the precipice which border the grounds to the fouth
and eaft. The viewer enters thefe walks at the lower
corner of the lower lawn.
“ The firft point of view is marked by an alcove,
from which are feen the bridge and the town of Chep-
iftow, with its callle fituated in a remarkable manner
on the very brink of a perpendicular rock, walhed by
the Wye ; and beyond thefe the Severn Ihows a fmall
portion of its filvery furface.
“ Proceeding a little farther along the walk, a view
is caught which the painter might call a complete laad-
fcape : The cadle with the ferpentine part of the Wye
below Chepilow, intermixed in a peculiar manner with
the broad waters of the Severn, form the fore-ground;
■which is backed by diltant hills ; the rocks, crowned
with wood, lying between the .alcove and the caftle, to
the right; and Caftlehill farm, elevated upon the op-
polite banks of the river, to the left, form the two
frde-fereens. This point is not marked, and muft fre¬
quently be loft, to the ftranger.
“ The grotto, fituated at the head of Perfe wood,
commands a near view of the oppofite rocks; mag¬
nificent beyond defeription ! The littlenefs of human
art was never placed in a more humiliating point of
v ew ; the caft'e of Chepftow, a noble fortrefs, is, com¬
pared with thefe natural bulwarks, a mere houfe of cards.
“ Above the grotto, upon the ifthmus of the Perfe-
field fide, is a Ihrubbery ; ftrangely mifplaced ! an
unpardonable intrufion upon the native grandeur of
this feene. Mr Gilpin’s obfervations upon this, as
upon every other occafion, are very juft. He fays,
‘ It is pity the ingenious embelliflier of thefe feenes
could not have been fatisfied with the great beauties
of nature which he commanded. The ftmibberies he
has introduced in this part of his improvements I fear
will rather be efteemed paltry.’ ‘ It is not thelhrub
which offends; it is the formal introduction of it.
Wild underwood may be an appendage of the grandeft
feene ; it is a beautiful appendage. A bed of violets
or of lilies may enamel the ground with propriety at
the foot of an oak; but if you introduce them artificially
in a border, you introduce a trifling formality, and dif-
grace the noble objeCt you wifli to adorn.’
“ The walk now leaves the wood, and opens upon
the lower lawn, until coming near the houfe it enters
the alarming precipice facing Llancot ; winding along
the face of it in a manner which does great honour to
the artift. Sometimes the fragments of rock which
fall in its way are avoided, at other times partially re¬
moved, fo as to conduCt the path along a ledge carved
Part If,
out of the rock; and in one inflance, a huge frag- Principal
ment, of a fomewhat conical fliape and many yards
high, is perforated ; the path leading through its bafe. ' v™—*
This is a thought which will hand down to future
times the greatnefs of Mr Morris’s tafte ; the defign
and the execution are equally great; not a mark of a
tool to be feen ; all appears perfectly natural. The
arch-way is made winding, fo that on the approach
it appears to be the mouth of a cave; and, on a near¬
er view, the idea is ftrengthened by an allowable de¬
ception ; a black dark hole on the fide next the cliff,
which, feen from the entrance before the perforation is
difeovered, appears to be the darkfome inlet into the
body of the cave.
“ From this point, that vaft inclofure of rocks and
pi*ecipices which marks the peculiar magnificence of
Perfefield is feen to advantage. The area, contain¬
ing in this point of view the fields of Llancot and the
lower margin of Perfe-wood, is broken in a manner
peculiarly pi&urefque by the graceful winding of the
Wye; here wafhing a low grafly fhore, and theirfweep-
ing at the feet of the rocks, which rife in fome places
perpendicular from the water; but in general they have
a wooded offset at the bafe ; above which J they rife to
one, two, or perhaps three oribur hundred feet high ;
expofing one full face, filvered by age, and bearded
with ivy, growing out of the wrinkle-like feams and
fiffures. If one might be allowed to compare the
paltry performances of art with the magnificent works
of nature, we fiiould fay, that this inclofure refemales
a prodigious fortrefs which has lain long in ruins. It
is in reality one of nature’s ftrong holds; and as fuch
has probably been frequently made ufe of. Aerofs the
ifthmus on the Gloucefterflure fide there are the re¬
mains of a deep intrenchment, called to this day the
Bulwark ; and tradition ftill teems with the extraor¬
dinary warlike feats that have been performed among
this romantic feenery.
“ From the perforated rock, the walk leads down
to the cold-bath (a complete place), feated about the
mid- way of the precipice, in this part lefs fteep ; and
from the cold-bath a rough path winds down to the
meadow, by the fide of the Wye, from whence the
precipice on the Perfefield fide is feen with every ad¬
vantage ; the giant fragments, hung with Ihrubs and ivy,
r.fe in a gaftly manner from amongft the underwood, and
Ihow themfelves ia all their native favagenefs.
“ From the cold-bath upward, a coach-road (very
fteep and difficult) leads to the top of the cliff, at the
upper corner of the upper lawn. Near the top of the
road is a point which commands one of the moil plea-
fing views of Perfefield : The Wye fweeping through
a grafly vale which opens to the left :—Llancot back¬
ed by its rocks, with the Severn immediately behind
them ; and, feen in this point of view, feems to be
divided from the Wye by only a Iharp ridge of rock,
with a precipice on either fide ; and behind the Se¬
vern, the vale and wooded hills of Gloucellerftiire.
“ From this place a road leads to the top of Wind-
cliff—aftonilhing fight! The face of nature probably
affords not a more magnificent feene! Llancot in all
its grandeur, the grounds of Perfefield, the caftle and
town of Chepftow, the graceful windings of the Wye
below, and its conflux with the Severn; to the left
the foreft of Dean ; to the right, the rich marfhes and
pi&urefque
GARDENING.
GARDENING.
Part If.
Principal piSurefque mountains of South Wales; a broad view
Refidence. 0f tfje Severn, opening its fea-like mouth ; the con-
flux 0f the Avon, with merchant (hips at anchor in
' King-road, and veffels of different defcriptions under
fail; Auft-Cliff, and the whole vale of Berkeley, back¬
ed by the wooded fwe’us of Gloucefterlhire, the^ view-
terminating in clouds of diftant hills, riling one behind
another, until the eye becomes unable to didinguifh the
earth’s billowy furface from the clouds themfelves”.
The leading principle of the improvement propofed
by our author is, to “ feparate the fublime from the
beautiful; fo that in viewing the one, the eye might not
fo much as fufpedt that the other was near.
“ Let the hanging walk be conducted entirely along
the precipices, or through the thickets, fo as to dif-
dofe the natural fcenery, without once difcovering the
lawn or any other acquired foftnefs. Let the path be
ais rude as if trodden only by wild beads and favages,
and the refting places, if any, as ruftic as poffible.
“ Erafe entirely the prefent (hrubbery, and lay out
another as elegant as nature and art could render it
before the houfe, fwelling it out into the lawn towards
the (fables ; between which and the kitchen-garden
make a narrow winding entrance. -
“ Convert the upper lawh into a deer-paddock, dif¬
fering it to run as wild, rough, and foreft-like as total
negligence would render it.
“ The viewer would then be thus conduced : He
would enter the hanging-walk by a fequeftered path at
the lower corner of the lawn, purfuing it through the
wood to beneath the grotto, and round the head-land,
or winding through Perfewood, to the perforated rock
and the cold-bath, without once conceiving an idea (if
poflible) that art, or at lead that much art, had been
made ufe of in difcloling the natural grandeur of the
furrounding objefts; which ought to appear as if they
prefented themfelves to his view, or at mod as if no¬
thing was wanted but his own penetration and judge¬
ment to find them out. The walk (liould therefore
be conducted in fflch a manner, that the breaks might
be quite natural; yet the points of view obvious, or
requiring nothing but a block or a done to mark them.
A dranger at lead wants no feat here; he is too eager,
in the early part of his walk, to think of lounging up¬
on a bench.
“ From the cold-bath he would afcend the deep,
near the top of which a commodious bench or benches
might be placed: the fatigue of afcending the hill
would require a reding-place; and there are few points
which afford a more pleafing view than this; it is grand,
without being too broad and glaring,
“ From thefe benches he would enter the fared
part. Here the idea of Nature in her primitive date
would be drengthened: the roughneffes and deer to
the right, and the rocks in all their native wildnefs to
the left. Even Llancot might be (hut oup-from the
view by the natural (brubbery of the cliff. The Lover’s
Leap, however (a tremendous peep), might remain ;
but no benches, nor other work of art, (hould here be
feen. A natural path, deviating near the brink of the
precipice, would bring the viewer down to the lower
corner of the park; where benches (hould be placed in
a happy point, fo as to give a full view of the rocks
and native wildneffes,and at the fame time hide the fann-
houfes, fields, and other acquired beauties of Llancot.
“ Having fatiated himfelf with this favage fcene, he
would be led, by a dill rudic path, through the laby- Principal"
rinth—when the (hrubbery, the lawn, with alt its ap- R-ehdence.
pendages, the graceful Wye, and the broad filver Se-  'r~~*
vern, would break upon the eye vs ith every^advantage of
ornamental nature: the tranfition could not fail to flrike.
“From this foft fcene he would be (hown to the top
of Windcliff, where in one vad view he would unite the
fublime and beautiful of Perfefield.’,
Only one other particular remains to be noticed be¬
fore doling this article. A place which is the refidence
of a family all the year is very defective, if fome por¬
tion of it be not fet apart for the enjoyment of a fine
day, for air, and escercife, in winter. To fuch a fpot
(belter is abfolutely effential; and evergreens beino- the
thicked covert, are therefore the bed: their verdure
alfo is then agreeable to the eye ; and they may be ar¬
ranged fo as to produce beautiful mixture of greens,
with more certainty than deciduous trees, and with ai¬
med equal variety: they may be colle&ed into a wood;
and through that wood gravel-walks may be led along
openings of a confiderable breadth, free from large treest
which would intercept the rays of the fun, and wind¬
ing in fuch a manner as to avoid any draft of wind,
from whatever quarter it may blow. But when a re¬
treat at all times is thus fccured, other fpots may be
adapted only to occafional purpofes; and be (hdtered
towards the north or the ead on one baud, while they
are open to the fun on the other. The few hours of
cheerfulnefs and warmth which its beams afford are fo
valuable asto judify the facrifice even of the principles
of beauty to the enjoyment of them ; and therefore no
objections bf famenefs or formality can prevail againd
the pleafantnefs of a draight walk, under a thick hedge?
or a fouth wall. The eye may, however, be diverted
from the (kreen by a border before it, where the aco¬
nite and the fhowdrop, the crocus and hepatica, brought
forward by the warmth of the (ituation, will be wel¬
come harbingers of fpring; and on the oppofite fide of
the walk, little tufts of laurudines, and of variegated
evergreens, may be planted. The fpot thus enlivened
by a variety of colours, and even a degree of bloom,
may be dill further improved by a green-houfe. The
entertainment which exotics afford peculiarly belongs
to this part of the year; and if amongd them be inter-
fperfed fome of our earlied flowers, they will there
blow before their time, and anticipate the gaiety of
the feafon which is advancing. The walk may alfo
lead to the doves, where the climate and the plants are
always the fame. And the kitchen-garden (hould not
be far off; for that is never quite deditute of produce,
and always an aSive fcene: the appearance of bufmefs
is alone engaging ; and the occupations there are an
earned of the happier feafons to which they are prepa¬
rative. By thefe expedients even the winter may be
rendered cheerful in a place where (belter is provided
againd all but the bittered inclemencies of the (ley, and
agreeable obje&s and intereding amufements are con¬
trived for every hour of tolerable weather.
For the particular operations in gardening, fee
Planting, Pruning, Grafting, Inoculating;
Kitchen-Garden^ Orchard, Green-Honfe, HoT-Hovfe,
Inarching, Espalier, &c. and the culture and ma¬
nagement of different plants under their refpedtive
names.
GARDINER,
G A R •[ si
GARDINER (Sicpfccn), bia-.op of Winchcft./r,
and lord chancellor of England, born at Bury St Ed¬
munds in Suffolk, natural fon to Richard Woodville,
~ brother' to queen Elizabeth wife to Edward IV. was
learned in the canon and civil laws, and in divinity. Ele
' iigned the divorce of Henry VIII. from Katharine of
Spain; abjured the pope’s fupremacy; and writDe vs-
ra et falfa obediential in Behalf of the king; yet in
Edward’s reign he oppofed the reformation, and was
punilhed with imprifonment ; but queen Mary coming
to the throne, <he enlarged him. He drew up the ar¬
ticles of marriage between the queen and Philip of
Spain, which were very advantageous to England. Ele
' was violent againft the reformers; but on his death bed
was diffatisfied with his life, and often repeated thefe
words : Erravi cum Petro, fed non Jlevi cum Petro. He
died in 1555. ~ ■ '
GARGARISM (from y^p^p‘l«, “ to wafh the
mouth;”) a gargle. Its ufe is for walking the mouth
and throat with, when inflammations, ulcerations, &c.
are there. A fmall quantity may be taken into the
mouth, and moved brilkly about, and then fpit out;
or if the patient cannot do this to any advantage, the
liquor may be inje&ed by a fyringe. When gargles
are required, their ufe Ihould be more frequently re¬
peated than is done in common pr'kdlice,
GARGET, a difeafe of cattle, confifting in a fwel-
ling of the throat and the neighbouring parts; to pre-
1 vent which bleeding in the fpring is recommended.
GARGIE, a ditlemper in geefe, which by Hopping
the head frequently proves mortal. Three or four
cloves of garlic, beaten'in a mortar, with fweet butter,
and made into little balls, and given the creature fait-
• ing, are the ordinary cure.
GARIDELLA, in botany : A genus of the tri-
gynia order, belonging to the decandria clafs of plants;
and in the natural metnod ranking under the 26th or¬
der, Muliijdiqua. The calyx is pentaphyllous, with
leaves refembling flower-petals; there are five bilabiate
and bifid neftaria ; the capfules are poly fpermous, and
adhering together.
GARIZIM, Gert/im, or Gerijim, (anc. geog.) a
mountain of Samaria, at the foot of which Hood Sichem;
fo near, that Jot ham could be heard by the Sichemites
from its top, (Judges ix. 7.) Famous for the temple
built on it by Sanballet, in favour of his fon-in-law
Manaffeh, by the permiffion of Alexander the Great,
and 200 years after deftroyed by John Hyrcanus, fon
of Simon, the fourth in fuccefiion of the Afmoneans
(Jofephus).
GARLAND, a fort of chaplet made of flowers,
feathers, and fometimes precious ftones, worn on the
head in manner of a crown.—The word is formed of
the Yrzneh. guirlande, and that of the barbarous Latin
garlanda, or Italian gbirlanda. Menage traces its ori¬
gin from gyrus, .through] gyrulus, to gyrulare, gyrlan-
dum, ghirlandum; and at length ghirlanda and guir-
lande ; fo that guirlande and garland are defeended in
the fixth or feventh degree from jyinw.—Hicks reje&s
this derivation, and brings the word from gardelhiinda,
which in the northern languages fignify a nofegay artfully
wrought with the hand.
Garland alfo denotes ornaments of flowers, fruits*
and leaves, intermixed; anciently much ufed at the
gates of temples, where feaffs and folemn rejoicings
N'UJ-
6 ] -GAR
were held ; or at any other place where marks of pub- Gar’k
lie joy or gaiety were required, as at triumphal arches,
tournaments, dec. Garrick.
GARLIC. See Ahum. "' ~v "
G ARMENT, that wherewith any perfon is clothed.
See Dress and Habit.
GARNET, in natural hiflory, a very beautiful gem,
of a red colour, with au admixture of blue. See Gra-
nate.
When pure and free from blemifbes, it is little infe¬
rior in appearance to the oriental ruby, thmigh only of
a middle degree of hardnefs between the fapphire and
common cryftal. It is found of various fiizes, from that
of a pin’s head to an inch in diameter. -
Among our lapidaries and jewellers, genuine garnets
are known by different names according to their dif¬
ferent degrees of colour, r. The garnet, Amply fo
called, is the fineft and molt valuable kind, being of a
very deep .blood-red, with a faint admixture of blue.
2. The rock-ruby.; a name very improperly given to
the garnet when it Is of a very ffrong but not deep red,
and has a fairer caft of the blue : this is a very beauti¬
ful gem, 3, The forane or ferain garnet; that of a
yet brighter red, approaching to the colour of native
cinnabar, with a faint blue tinge. 4. The almandine,
a garnet only a little paler than that called the ro<;k-
ruby.
Garnet-Colour. See Colouring of Glass.
To imitate Garnets. The making the counterfeit
garnet in pafte is done as follows.—Take prepared cry¬
stal two ounces, common red-lead fix ounces, manga-
nefe 16 grains, zaffre three grains; mix all well, put
them into a crucible, cover it with lute, and fet it in
a potter’s kiln for 24 hours. Or take.cryftal two oun¬
ces, minium five ounces and a half, manganefe 15
grains, zaffre four grains: mix them well together; and
let all be baked, in a pot well luted, in a potter’s kiln
24 hours.
GARONNE, a large river of France, which ta¬
king its rife in the Pyrenean mountains, runs north-
weft by the city of Tholoufe, divides the provinces of
Guienne and Gafcony, and, vifiting the city of Bour-
deaux, falls into the Bay of Bifcay, about 60 miles
below that city. It has alfo a communication with
the Mediterranean, by means of the royal canal of
Louis XLV. The tide flows up this river 20 miles
above Bourdeaux.
GARRICK (David), Efq; the great Rofcius of this
age find country, who for near 40 years hath flione the
brighteft luminary in the hemifphere of the itage, was
born at the Angel Inn at Hereford, in the year 1716.
Elis father, Captain Peter Garrick, was a French re¬
fugee, and had a troop of horfe which were then quar¬
tered in that city. This rank he maintained in the ar¬
my for feveral years,, and had a majority at the time of
his death; that event, however, prevented him from
ever enjoying it. Mr Garfick received the firft rudi¬
ments of his. education at the free-fehool al^Litchfidd;
which he afterwards completed at Rochelter, under
the celebrated Mr Coifon, fince mathematical profeffor
at Cambridge. Dr Johnfon and he were fellow-ftu-
dents at the fame fchool; and it is a curious fadt, that
thefe two celebrated geniufes came up to London, with
the intention of puihing themfelves into aftive life, in
the fame coach. On the 9th of March 1736, he was
entered
GAR [ 577 1 GAR
entered at the honourable foeiety of Lincoln’s-Inn.
The ftudy of the law, however, Tie foon quitted ; and
followed for fome time the employment of a wine-mer¬
chant: but that too difguftinghim, he gave way at laft
to the irrefiftible bias' of his mind, and joined a travel¬
ling company of comedians at Ipfwich in Suffolk, where
he went by the name of Lyddle. Having in this poor
fchool of Apollo got fome aquaintance with the theatric
art, he burft at once upon the world, in the year
1740-1, in all the luftre of perfe&ion, at the little
theatre in Goodman’s Fields, then under the direftion
of Henry Giffard.
The charafter he firft performed was Richard III.
in which, like the fun burfting from behind a cloud,
he difplayed in the earlieft dawn a fomewhat more than
meridian brightness. His excellence dazzled and afto-
nifhcd every one ; and the feeing a young man, in no
more than his 24th year, and a novice in reality to
the ftage, reaching at one Angle flep to that height of
perfection which maturity of years and long practical
experience had not been able to bellow on the then
capital performers of the Englifh ftage, was a pheno¬
menon that could not but become the objedt of uni-
verfal fpeculation and of as univerfal admiration. The
theatres at the, weft end of the town were deferted;
Goodman’s Fields, from being the rendezvous of citi¬
zens and citizens wives alone, became the refort of all
ranks of men; and Mr Garrick continued to a<ft till
the clofe of the feafon.
Having very advantageous terms offered him for the
performing in Dublin during fome part of the fummer
(1741), he went over thither, where he found the
fame juft homage paid to his merit which he had re¬
ceived from his own countrymen. To the fervice of
the latter, however, he efteemed himfelf more imme¬
diately bound; and therefore, in the enfuing winter,
engaged himfelf to Mr Fleetwood, then manager of
Drury-Lane: in wdiich theatre he continued till the
year 1745, when he again went over to Ireland, and
continued there the whole feafon, joint manager with
Mr Sheridan in the dire&ion and profits of the theatre-
royal in Smock Alley. From thence he returned to
England, and was engaged for the feafon of 1746 with
Mr Rich at Covent-Garden. This was his laft per¬
formance as an hired aftor : for in the clofe of that
feafon, Mr Fleetwood’s patent for the management of
Drury-Lane being expired, and that gentleman having
no inclination further to purfue a defign by which,
■from his want of acquaintance with the proper con-
du£l of it, or fome other caufe, he had conliderably
impaired his fortune 5 Mr Garrick, in conjundlion
with Mr Lacy, purchafed the property of that theatre,
together with the renovation of the patent; and in
the winter of 1747, opened it with thegreateft part of
Mr Fleetwood’s company, and with the great addi¬
tional ftrength of Mr Barry, Mrs Pritchard, and'
Mrs Cibber, from Covent-Garden.
Were we to trace Mr Garrick through the feveral
occurrences of his life,—a life fo a£live, fo bufy, and
fo full of occurrences as his, we ihould fwell this account
to many pages. Suffice it to fay, he continued in the
unmolefted enjoyment of his fame and unrivalled ex¬
cellence to the moment of his retirement. His univer-
fality of excellence was never once attacked by compe¬
tition. Tragedy, comedy, and farce, the lover and
Vol.VII. Part II.
the hero, the jealous huftand who fufpe&s his wife
without caufe, and the thoughtlefs lively rake who
attacks it without defign, were all alike his own. Rage
and ridicule, doubt and defpair, tranfport and tender-
nefs, compaffion and contempt; love, jealoufy, fear*
fury, and limplicity ; all took in turn poffeffion of his
features, while each of them in turn appeared to be
the foie poffeffor of his heart. In the feveral charac¬
ters of Lear and Hamlet, Richard, Dorilas, Romeo,
and Lufignane; in his Ranger, Bayes, Drugger, Kite-
ly, Brute, and Benedick, you faw the mufcular con¬
formations that your ideas attached to them- all. In
ffiort, Nature, the miftrefs from whom alone this great
performer borrowed all his leffons, being in herfelf in-
exhauftible, this her darling fon, marked out for her
trueft reprefentative, found an unlimited fcope for
change and diverfuy in his manner of copying from
her various produClions. There is one part of theatri¬
cal condudl which ought unqueftionably to be recorded
to Mr Garrick’s honour, fince the caufe of virtue and
morality, and the formation of public manners, are
conftderably dependent upon it; and that is, the zeal
with which he aimed to baniih from the ftage all thofe
plays which carry with them an immoral tendency,
and to prune from thofe which do not abfolutely, on
the whole, promote the interefts of vice, fuch feenes
of licentioufnefs and liberty, as a redundancy of wit
and too great livelinefs of imagination have induced
fome of our comic writers to indulge themfelves in, and
which the fympathetic difpofition of our age of gallan¬
try and intrigue has given fandlion to. The purity of
the Engliih ftage has certainly been much more fully
eftabliffied during the adminiftration of this theatrical
minifter, than it had ever been during preceding ma¬
nagements. He feems to have carried his modeft, mo¬
ral, chafte, and pious principles with him into the
very management of the theatre itfelf, and refeued per¬
formers from that obloquy which ftuck on the profef-
fion. Of thofe who were accounted blackguards, un¬
worthy the affociation of the world, he made gentle¬
men, united them with fociety, and introduced them
to all the domeftic comforts of life. The theatre was
no longer efteemed the receptacle of all rice ; and the
moral, the ferious, the religious part of mankind, did
not hefxtate to partake of the rational entertainment of
a play, and pafs a cheerful evening undifgufted with
the licentioufnefs, and uncorrupted by the immorality,
of the exhibition.
Notwithftanding the numberlefs and laborious avo¬
cations attendant on his profeffion as an after, and his
ftation as a manager; yet ftill his active genius was
perpetually burfting forth in various little productions
in the dramatic and poetical way, whofe merit cannot
but make us regret his want of time for the purfuance
of more extenfive and important works. It is certain,
that his merit as an author is not of the firft magni¬
tude : but his great knowledge of men and manners, of
ftage-effeft, and his happy turn for lively and ftriking
fatire, made him generally fuccefsful; and his pro¬
logues and epilogues in particular, which are almoft in¬
numerable, poffefs fuch a degree of happinefs, both in
the conception and execution, as to ftand unequalled.
His Ode on the death of Mr Pelham run through four
editions in lefs than fix weeks. His Ode on Shake-
fpeare is amafterly piece of poetry; and when deliver-
4 D ed
GAR i; 578 J GAR
Garrick by himfelf, was a moft capital exhibition. His al-
_ || terations of Shakefpeare and other authors have been
t_ _ g‘ at times fuccefsful, and at times exploded. The cut¬
ting out the grave-diggers fcene from Hamlet will ne-
■ ver be forgot to him by the inhabitants of the gallery
at Drury. Though neceffary to the chaftenefs of the
fcene, they cannot bear to lofe fo much true fterling
wit and humour; and it muft be owned, that exube-
* ranees of that kind, though they hurt the uniformity,
•yet increafe the luxuriance of the tree. Among his
alterations the following are part: Every Man in his
Humour, altered from Ben Johnfon ; Romeo and Ju¬
liet, Winter’s Tale, Catherine and Petruchio, Cymbe-
line, Hamlet, &c. altered and made up from Shake¬
fpeare ; Gamefters, a comedy, from Shirley ; Ifabella,
from Southerne. To thefe we add, as original pro-
duftions, The Farmer’s Return, and Linco’s Travels,
interludes ; Guardian, Lethe, Lying Valet, Mifs in
her Teens, Male Coquet, Irifh Widow, and other co¬
medies in two a&s ; Enchanter, a mufical entertain¬
ment; Lilliput; the Chriftmas Tale is aferibed to him,
and many others.
We now bring him to the period of .his retir ement
in thefpring of 1776; when, full of fame, with the ac¬
quirement of a fplendid fortune, and growing into
years, he thought proper to feek the vale of life, to
enjoy that dignified and honourable eafe which was
compatible with his public fituation, and which he had
fo well, earned by the a&ivity and the merits of his
dramatic reign. But very fliort indeed was the period
allotted to him for this precious enjoyment, for on
the 20th of January 1779, he departed this life ; lea¬
ving no one rival in excellence upon earth to compen-
fate for his lofs, or a hope of our ever meeting with
his like again.
GARRISON, in the art of war, a body of forces,
difpofed in a fortrefs, to defend it againft the enemy,
or to keep the inhabitants in.fubjcftion; or even to be
fubfrfted during the winter-feafon: hence garrifon and
•winter-quarters are fometimes ufed indifferently for the
fame thing; and fometimes they denote different things.
In the latter cafe, a garrifon is a place wherein forces
are maintained to fecure it, and where they keep re¬
gular guard, as a frontier town, a citadel, callle, tower,
&c. The garrifon fttould be always ftronger than the
townfmen. '
Du Cange derives the word from the corrupt Latin
garnifw, which the latter writers ufe to fignify all man¬
ner of munition, arms, vidtuals, &c. necelfary for the
defence of a place, and fuftaining of a fiege.
Winter-quarters fignify a place where a number of
forces are laid up in the winter feafon, without keeping
the regular guard.
GARSTANG, a town in Lancafhire, 223 miles
from London, in the poll road between Prefton and
Lancafter. It is &. large populous place, near a mile
in length, but built in a very irregular manner, with
dirty ftreets, and very indifferent houfes. The church
is a ftately Gothic ftru&ure. By the late inland na¬
vigation, it has communication with the rivers Merfey,
Dee, Ribble, Oufe, Trent, Darwent, Severn, Hum¬
ber, Thames, Avon, &c. which navigation, including
its windings, extends above 500 miles, in the counties
of Lincoln, Nottingham, York, Weltmoreland, Chefter,
Stafford, Warwick, Leicefter, Oxford, Worcefter, &c.
GARTER, a ligature for tying up the ftocking; Garter,
but particularly ufed for the badge of a noble order of —y—
knights, hence denominated the
Order of the Garter, a military order of knight¬
hood, the moft noble and ancient of any lay-order in
the world, inftituted by Edward III. The knights-
companions are generally princes and peers ; and the
king of England is the fovereign or caief of the order.
The number of knights was originally 26; but fix
were added in 1786, on account of the increafe. of the
royal family. They are a college or corporation, ha-
ving a great and little feal.
Their officers are a prelate, chancellor, regifter, king
at arms, and uflier of the blacl^rod. They have alfo
a dean, with 12 canons, and petty canons, vergers, and
26 penfioners or poor knights. The prelate is the
head. This office is veiled in the biftiop ofWinche-
fter, and has ever been fo. Next to the prelate is the
chancellor ; which office is veiled in the bilhop of Sa-
lifbury, who keeps the feals, &c. The next is the re¬
gifter, who by his oath is to enter upon the regiftry,
the ferutinies, eledlions, penalties, and other acts of
the order with all fidelity: The dean of Windfor is al¬
ways regifter ex officio. The fourth officer is Garter
and King-at-arms, being two dillindl offices united in
one perfon. Garter carries the rod and feeptre at v-
the feaft of St George, the protector of this order,
when the fovereign is prefent. He notifies the elec¬
tions of new knights, attends the folemnity of their
inftallations, carries the garter to the foreign princes,
&c. He is the principal officer within the college of
arms, and chief of the heralds. See KiNa at-Anns.
All thefe officers except the prelate have fees and
penfions. The college of the order is feated in the
caftle of Windfor, within the chapel of St George, and
the charter-houfe, ere&ed by the founder for that
purpofe. The habit and enfign of the order are, a
garter, mantle, cape, george, and collar. The three
firft were affignedthe knights companions by the foun¬
der ; and the george and collar by Henry VIII.
The garter challenges pre-eminence over all the
other parts of the drt fs, by reafon that from it the
noble order is denominated ; that it is the firft nart of
the habit prefented to foreign princes and abfent
knights, who, and all other-knights-eledl, are there¬
with firft adorned ; and it is of fo great honour and
grandeur, that by the bare inveftiture with this noble
enfign, the knights are efteemed companions of the
greateft military order in the world. It is -worn on
the left leg bet.veen the knee and calf, and is ena-
nielled with this motto, Honi soit qui mal y pense.;
i. e. Shame to him that thinks evil hereof: Tire meaning
of which is, that king Edward having laid claim to the
kingdom of France, retorted flrame and defiance upon
him that ffiould dare to think amifs of the juft enter-
prife he had undertaken, for recovering his lawful right
to that crown ; and that the bravery of thofe knights
whom he had eledled into this order, was fuch as
would enable him to maintain the quarrel againft thofe
that thought ill of it.
The mantle is the chief of thefe veftments made ufe
of upon all folemn occafions. The colour of the man¬
tle is by-the ftatutes appointed to be blue. The length
of the train of the mantle only diilinguifhes the fove¬
reign from the knights-companions. To the collar of
the.
GAR L 579 1 GAR
the mantle is fixed a pair of long firings, anciently-
wove with blue filk only, but now twilled round, and
made of Venice gold and filk, of the colour of the
robe, with knobs or buttons, and taflels at the end.
The left Ihoulder of the mantle has from the inftitu-
tion been a'dornedjwith a large garter, with the device,
Honi soit, &c. Within this is the crofs of the or¬
der, which was ordained to be worn at all times by
king Charles I. At length the liar was introduced,
being a fort of crofs irradiated with beams of lilver.
The collar is appointed to be compofed of pieces of
gold in fafiiion of garters, the ground enamelled blue,
and the motto gold.
When the knights wear not their robes, they are to
have a filver liar on the left fide ; and they commonly
bear the pi&ure of St George, enamelled on gold, and
befet with diamonds, at the end of a blue ribbon, crof-
fmg the body from the left fhoulder. They are not to
appear abroad without the garter, on penalty of 6s. 8d.
paid to the regifter.
The manner of electing a knight-companion into
this moll noble order, and the ceremonies of invefti-
ture, are as follow. When the fovereign defigns to
eleft a companion of the garter, the chancellor belong¬
ing to this order draws up the letters, which, palling
both under the fovereign’s iign-manual and lignet of the
order, are fent to the perfon by Garter principal king
at arms ; and are in this manner, or to the fame effect:
“ We, with the companions of our moll noble order
of the garter, affembled in chapter, holden this prefent
day at our callle at Windfor, conlidering the virtuous
fidelity you have Ihown, and the honourable exploits
you have done in ourfervice, by vindicating and main¬
taining our right, &c. have eledled and chofen you one
of the companions of our order. Therefore, we re¬
quire you to make your fpeedy repair unto us, to re¬
ceive the enfigns thereof, and be ready for your inllal-
lation upon the — day of this prefent month, &c.”
The garter, which is of blue velvet bordered with
fine gold-wire, having commonly the letters of the
motto of the fame, is, at the time of eleftion, buckled
upon the left leg, by two of the fenior companions,
who receive it from the fovereign, to whom it was
prefented upon a velvet cufhion, by Garter king at
arms, with the ufual reverence, whilft the chancellor
reads the following admonition, enjoined by the lla-
tutes : “ To the honour of God omnipotent, and in
memorial of the blelled martyr St George, tie about
thy leg, for thy renown, this noble garter; wear it as
the fymbol of the moll illuftrious order, never to be
forgotten or laid afide ; that thereby thou mayell be
admonifhed to be courageous; and having undertaken
a juft war, in which thou lhalt be engaged, thou
mayeft Hand firm, valiantly fight, and fucceffively con¬
quer.” The princely garter being then buckled on, and
the word of its fignification pronounced, the knight-eledl
is brought before the fovereign, who puts about his
neck, kneeling, a dark blue ribbon, whereunto is ap¬
pendant, wrought in gold within the garter, the image
of St George on horfeback, with his fword drawn,
encountering with the dragon. In the mean time, the
chancellor reads the following admonition : “ Wear
this ribbon about thy neck, adorned with the image of
the bleffed martyr and foldier of Chrift St George,
by whofe imitation provoked, thou mayeft fo overpaifs
both profperous and adverfe adventures, that having
ftoutly vanquifhed thy enemies both of body and foul,
thou mayeft not only receive the praife of this tran-
fient combat, but be crowned with the palm of eternal
viftory.” Then the knight elebled kifles the fovereign’s
hand; thanks his majefty for the great honour done him)
rifes up, and falutes all the companions feverally, who
return their congratulations. See a reprefentation of
the above infignia, among others, on the plate belong¬
ing to Orders of Knighthood.
Since the inftitution of this order, there have been
eight emperors and twenty-eight kings, befides nu¬
merous fovereign princes, enrolled as companions
thereof. Its origin is fomewhat differently related.
The common account is, that the countefs of Salilbury
at a ball happening to drop her garter, the king took
it up and prefented it to her with thefe words, “ Ho¬
ni foit qui mal y penfei. e. Evil to him that evil
thinks. This accident, it is faid, gave rife to the order
and the motto ; it being the fpirit of the times to mix
love and war together : but as in the original ftatutes
of this order there is not the leaft conje&ure to coun¬
tenance fuch a feminine inftitution, credit cannot be
given to this tradition. Camden, Fern, &c. take it
to have been inftituted on occafion of the vidtory ob¬
tained by Edward over the French at the battle of
Creffey : that prince, fay fome hiftorians, ordered his
garter to be difplayed, as a fignal of battle; in com¬
memoration whereof, lie made a garter the principal
ornament of the order erefted in memory of this fig¬
nal vidtory, and a fymbol of the indiffoluble union of
the knights.
It appears from Raftel’s chronicle, lib. vi. quoted
by Granger in the fupplement to his Biographical
Hiftbry, that this order was devifed by Richard I. at
the fiege of the city of Acres, when he caufed twenty-
fix knights, who firmly Hood by him, to wear thongs
of blue leather about their legs, and that it was per-
fedted in the nineteenth year of Edward III.
In 1551, Edward VI. made fome alterations in the
ritual of this order: that prince compofed it in La¬
tin, the original whereof is ftill extant in his own
hand-wAting. He there ordained, that the order
fhould no longer be called the order of St George, but
that of the garter ; and, inftead of the George, hung
at the collar, he fubllituted a cavalier, bearing a book
on the point of his fwordj with the wordproleRio gra¬
ven on the fword, and verbum Dei on the.book ; with
a buckle in the left-hand, and the word Jides thereon.
Larrey.
Garter, principal King at Arms. This office was in¬
ftituted by Henry V.
Garterj and principal king at arms, are two diftindl
offices united in one perfon : Garter’s employment is
to attend the fervice of the order of the garter ; for
which he is allowed a mantle and badge, a houfe in
Windfor-caftle, and penfions both from the fovereign
and knights, and, lailly, fees. Fie alfo carries the rod
and feeptre at every feaft of St George, when the fove¬
reign is prefent, and notifies the eledlion of fuch as
are new chofen ; attends the folemnity of their inftal-
lations, and takes care of placing their arms over their
feats ; and carries the garter to foreign kings and
4 D 2 princes,
GAR [ 580 1 GAS
Garter's oath relates only to fervices being perform¬
ed within the order, and is taken in chapter before the
fovereign and knights. His oath, as king at arms, is
taken before the earl marfhal.
Garter is alfo a term in heraldry, fignifying the
moiety or half of a bend.
GARTH is ufed in fome parts of England for a
little backfide or clofe. It is an ancient Britifh word.
Gardd, in that language, fignilres^ar^f«, and is pro¬
nounced and written garth. This word is alfo ufed for
a dam dV wear, &c.
Garth men is ufed in our ftatutes for thofe who
catch fifh by means of fHh garths, or wears. By fta-
tute it is ordained, that no fifner, nor garth-man, fhall
ufe any nets or engines to deftroy the fry of fifh, &c.
17 Ric. II. cap. 9. The word is fuppofed by Tome
to be derived from the Scotch word gart, which figni-
fies forced or compelled; becaufe fifh are forced by the
wear to pafs in a loop, where they are taken.
Garth (Sir Samuel), an excellent Englifh poet
and phyfician, was defcended from a good family in
Yorkfhire. He was admitted into the college of phyfi*
cians at London in 1693. He at that time zealoufiy pro¬
moted and encouraged the ere&ing of the difpenfary
for the relief of the fick poor, by giving them advice
gratis, and medicines at low rates. This work of cha¬
rity having expofed him and many other phyficians to
the envy and refentment of feveral perfons of the fame
faculty as well as apothecaries, he ridiculed them, with
a peculiar fpirit and vivacity, in a poem called the
Difpenfary, in fix cantos, highly efteemed. He was
one of the mod eminent members of the famous fo-
ciety called the Kit-Kat Club, which confided of
noblemen and gentlemen didinguifhed by their excel¬
lent parts and affeftion to the houfe of Hanover.
Upon the accefiion of George I. he was knighted,
and made phyfician in ordinary to his majedy, and
phyfician general to the army. Nor were thefe more
than jud reyvards even of his phyfical merit. He had
gone through the office of cenfor of the college in
1702 ; and had pradtifed always with great reputation,
and a dridl regard to the honour and intered of the
faculty, never dooping to proditute the dignity of
his profeffion, through mean and fordid views of felf-
intered, to any even the mod popular and wealthy
apothecaries. In a deady adherence to this noble
principle, he concurred with the much celebrated Dr
Radcliffe, with whom he was alfo often joined in phy¬
fical confultations. He had a very extentive practise,
but was very moderate in his views of advancing his
own fortune ; his humanity and good-nature inclin¬
ing him more to make ufe of the great intered he had
with perfons in power, for the fupport and encourage¬
ment of other men of letters. He chofe to live with
the great in that degree of independency and freedom
which became a man poffeffed of a fuperior genius,
whereof he was daily giving frdh proofs to the pub¬
lic. One of his lad performances in polite letters,
was his tranflation of the whole fourteenth book, and
the dory of Cinnus in the fifteenth book, of Ovid’sMe-
tamorphofes. Thefe, together with an FngHffi ver-'
ison of the red, were publiftied in 17175 and he has
prefixed an excellent preface to the whole, wherein Garumna,’
he not only gives an idea of the work, and points out G3S*
its principal beauties, but Ihows the ufes of the poem,
and how it may be read to mod profit. The didem-
per which feized him the enfuing year, and ended not
but with his life, caufed a general concern ; which
was particularly tedified by lord Lanfdown, brother-
poet, though of a different party, in fome admirable
verfes written on the occafion. He died, after a diort
illnefs, which he bore with great patience, in January
1719.
GARUMNA, a noble and navigable river of Gaul,
which rifing from the Pyrenees, formerly bounded A-r
quitain on the north (Csefar;) but by the new regula¬
tion of Augudus divided it in the middle, emptying it*
felf, to the north of Burdegala, into the Aquitanic
ocean. Now the Garonne. Mela obferves concern¬
ing it, that unlefs it is fwelled by winter rains, or the
melting of the fnow, it is for a great part of the year
flioaly and fcarce navigable : but when increafed by
the meeting tide, whereby its waters are repelled, it is
fomewhat fuller, and the farther the river advances,
it is broader, till at length it refembies a large frith or
arm of the fea ; not only bearing large veffcls, but al¬
fo fwdling like a raging fea, toffes them extremely, e-
fpecially if the diredtioa of the v/ind be one way and
that of the current another.
GAS, a general name for all fluids of the aerial
kind, excepting the common air we breathe. It is de¬
rived from the German gafeht or* gajl, fignifying an
eruption of wind, or the ebullition attending the ex-
pulfion of eladic fluids from fubdances in a date of fer¬
mentation or effervefcence. It was originally given by
Van Heimont to the vapour of charcoal, the fame
with the fluid now called fixed air, and fome other
factitious airs ; and from him has been employed by
modern philofophers as a general term for all the fluids
about which aerology is converfant.
Under the article Aerology, the nature and pro¬
perties of thefe fluids are explained at large ; here,
however, for the more eafy comprehenfion of the fub-
jeft, we {hall give a lid of thefe fluids, with a general
account of the mod remarkable particulars hitherto
difcqvered concerning them. The gafes, or perma¬
nently eladic fluids, as yet known, are,
1. Common or atmofpherical air.
2. Fixed air.
3. Inflammable air.
4. Nitrous air.
5. Dephlogillicated air..
6. Vitriolic-acid air.
7. Marine-acid air.
8. Nitrous-acid air.
9. Fluor-acid air.
10. Vegetable-acid air.
11. Alkaline air.
12. Dephlogidicated nitrous air.
13. Sulphurated inflammable air.
14. Hepatic air.
15. Phlogiiiicated air.
The mod remarkable properties of thefe are as follow.
1. Atmofpherical air fupports both animal and vege¬
table life ; and furrounding the whole globe to a com-
fiderable height, is one of the great agents employed
by nature for executing her mod. important purpofes.
6 It
GAS [ j8i ] GAS
Gas. It is compofed of one part of dephlogifticated air, and
  three or more of phlogifticated air.
2. Fixed air is produced in great plenty in all kinds
of combuftion. If the combuilible body be fet on tire
in pure dephlogifticated ah, the fixed air is proportion-
ablypure; but if in the common atmofphere the produce
is contaminated by the whole quantity of phlogifticated
air contained in that portion of the atmofphere by which
the combuftion was fupported, it proves fatal to ani¬
mals in a very fhort tijnsh but is favourable to vegeta¬
tion. It is abforbed in confiderable quantities by wa¬
ter, to which it communicates an agreeable acidulous
tafte, and a power of diffolving iron ; and is the prin¬
cipal ingredient in mineral waters. It is taken up in
great quantity by pure alkaline falls whether fixed or
volatile; by'calcined magnefia, lime, or calcareous
earth ; all of which it naturalizes, and forms with them
falls of different kinds. Lime abforbs it more readily
either when quite dry or entirely diffolved in water
than when expofed to it in a moift mafs, and lime-wa¬
ter is readily precipitated by it; but magnefia attracts
it more readily when in a moift mafs; and the fixed al¬
kalies equally well in either cafe, unkfs when violently
' air is contained in great quantity in ferment¬
ed liquors, to which it gives their agreeable tafte and
brifknefs ; and by impregnating them with.it, they
may be recovered from a vapid ftate, and rendered
bride and agreeable as before. It has a confiderable
antifeptic power; and notwithftanding its pernicious
qualities when taken into the lungs, has been found fer-
viccableinpufriddifeafes when fwallowcd, or when injec¬
ted by wayof glyfter. Being a natural product of com¬
buftion, it is met with in great quantities in the neigh¬
bourhood of volcanoes, or mountains which have for¬
merly been volcanoes, where it often produces mif-
chievous effedls. It is alfo met with in mines, where
it often proves fatal to the workmen. In the artificial
way it is procured from fermenting liquors ; from the
calcination of magneiia and calcareous earths by heat;
and from a mixture of thefe earths with acids, chiefly
the vitriolic. When procured from large quantities
©f fermenting liquors, it lies in a large body on the fur-
face of the liquor, generally nine inches or a foot thick,
and affords an amufimg appearance on extinguiftiing
lighted candles or chips of wood in it. In thefe expe¬
riments the {jnoke readily unites with the gas, fo that
little or none of it can difperfe itfelf into the atmo¬
fphere : and it is remarkable, that the upper furface of
this fmoke which floats in the fixed air is fmooth and
well defined, but the under part is ragged, and fome-
times even colleifting itfelf into balls connected with
the upper furface by flender threads. Sometimes the
fmoke will form itfelf into broad flakes parallel tojLe
furface of the liquor, and at different diftances from it,
exa&ly like clouds ; and thefe appearances will con¬
tinue for upwards of an hour with very little variation.
DrPrieftley tried the fmoke of gun-powder, rofin, ful-
phur, and other ele&ric fubftances ; and found them
all retained equally by the fixed air, as well as the
fmoke of vitriolic acid raifed by putting a burning coal
in it.
Fixed air does not very readily unite with common
air. It is near twice as heavy as atmofpheric air, and
acquires a proportionably greater elafticity by heat. It
is compofed of dephlogifticated air and plilbgifton; Gas,
which two ingredients are partly feparated by the'elec- ——y—
trie fpatk. It may be kept for any length of time in
veffels inverted into quickfilver, or even into water, with -
a coat of oil about half an inch thick on its furface.
3. Inftatrlmable air is compofed ofphlogifton and wa¬
ter rarefied by heat. It is the lighted fluid known iu
nature, being id or 12 times fpecifieally lighter than
the common atmofphere. It is pernicious to animals,
but fupports vegetable life. By itfelf it extinguifhes
flame 5 but when mixed with a certain quantity of com¬
mon air, the whole explodes violently, and a final!
portion of nitrous acid is produced. If dephlogifticated
air be ufed inftead of common air, the explofion is
much more violent; Dr Prieftley fays 50 times. It is
very readily abforbed by the calces of fome metals,
particularly lead, to which it reftores its metallic
form; and is even decompofed by keeping it long in a
tube made of white glafs, to which it communicates a
black colour by its attraction for the lead in itscompo-
iition. It is produced naturally in coal-pits and other
mines ; where, being mixed with common air, and fre¬
quently inflamed by the lights which the miners hav‘e
along with them, it explodes with prodigious vio¬
lence, and often produces much mifehief. Sometimes
it rifes out of marihes, or from the mud at the bottom
of fprings and rivers; in which cafe the water willfeem
to take fire on holding a lighted candle to its furface.
It is produced from the vapours of rancid oil; whence
it has fometimes been colle&ed in the large bellows
ufed in founderies, and burft them with explofion. It
feems alfo to be a natural produCI of putrefaCIion of
every kind, being fometimes met with in jakes and
privies, where it has exploded as ufual on the approach
of a candle. When mixed with common air it may be
fired by an eleCIric fpark, but lefs readily by one from,
flint and ftcel; though there are inftances of its taking
fire in this manner alfo. In the artificial way, it is moft
ufually procured from iron-filings and diluted vitrio¬
lic acid ; and lately from the fleam of water conveyed
over iron-filings through a red-hot tube. It is like-
wife obtained by diftillation of wood, coal, &c. and
by diffipating charcoal with the heat of a burning glafs
in vacuo. Dr Pennington of Philadelphia informs us,
that it refifts putrefaCIion ; but its virtues in this way
have not been particularly examined.
4. Nitrous air is produced from inflammable fubftan¬
ces combined with the nitrous acid; and, according to
that clafs of philofophers fly led Phlogi/lians-, cor) fills of
nitrous acid fuperfaturated with phlogifton paccordino-
to the yLit'phlogifllans, it confifts of the fame acid, de¬
prived of a part of its oxygenous principle, the fame
with what the other party call the balls of dephlogifti¬
cated air. This is the moft noxious of .all the kinds 0/'
air hitherto difeovered ; being not only inftantiy fatal
to animal life, but to vegetables alfo, as well as ex-
tinguilhjng flame in the moft perfedi manner. It has
a ftrong offenfivefmell; and when mixed with a quantity,
of dephlogifticatcd or common atmofpheric air, a very
confiderable diminutionof the latte, takes place, attended
with heat, red fumes, and the production of nitrous acid*
The diminution is greateft of all when pure dephlogifti¬
cated air is made ufe of; and with atmofpheric air is.
greater or lefs, according to its degree of purity or
the quantity of dephlogifticated air. it contains. This.
kind:
GAS [ 582 1 G A S
kind of air is a moft powerful antifeptic ; and has been
tried, but without fuccefs, to preferve meat frelh for a
long time ; though for a week or two it might per¬
haps be ufeful. It is heavier than common air.
5. Dephlogijlicated ah- fupports animal life and flame
in the moft perfeft manner, but is lefs friendly to ve¬
getables ; though it feems not to poflefs any property
abfolutely detrimental to them, further than as it con¬
tains none, or only a fmall quantity, of that phlogiftic
matter, which is now found to be the proper food of
plants. The heat produced by it in burning bodies feems
to be very little if at all inferior to that of a large burn¬
ing mirror. It unites with water but in fmall quantity;
but attaches itfelf ftrongly to iron when fired in it,
caufing the metal to burn with a bright flame, and be¬
ing diminiftied by this combuftion to a furprifing de¬
gree. With other inflammable matters it produces fix¬
ed air. It is naturally found in fea-water, and rifes in
fome waters through the earth. It is produced in the
day-time by the leaves of many plants ; but not in the
night. It is alfo produced from water expofed to the
fun’s light, efpecially if certain fubftances be put into
it, of which a particular account is given under the ar¬
ticle Aerology. It is alfo produced by the diftillation
of nitre, manganefe, and other fubftanccs.
6. Vitriolic-acid air is not effentially different ftom
the fumes of burning fulphur, only that the latter are
always mixed with Common air. It is very heavy,
and deftruftive both to animal and vegetable life; ex-
tinguilhing flame alfo ; and uniting in large quantity
with water, from which, however, it is eafily expelled
by heat. By virtue of its properties as an acid, it
readily unites with alkaline fairs. It diffolves alfo
camphor, reducing it to a tranfparent liquor ; from
which, however, the camphor feparates on the affufion
of water. It is produced by diftilling oil of vitriol
mixed with inflammable fubftances with a gentle heat.
7. Marine-acid air is no other than the vapour of
marine acid, which may be procured either by diftilling
the marine acid with a very gentle heat, or the mix¬
ture of vitriolic acid, and common fait ufually made
rife of for procuring that acid. It is abforbed largely
by water ; fo that a very ftrong and fmoking acid li¬
quor can thus be obtained. It is pernicious to animal
and vegetable life, but lefs fo than the two former. It
likewife extinguilhes flame: but a candle will burn in
common air, though mixed with a large proportion of
it; in which cafe the flame appears of a moft beautiful
blue or green colour.
8. Nitrous-acid air has been but little examined on
account of its extreme corrofive property, by which
it deftroys all kinds of liquids wherewith we attempt to
confine it. By the addition of a certain quantity of
phlogifton it is converted into phlogifticated air, as Dr
Priellley found on attempting to confine it by meads
of whale oil. It is abforbed by water, and forms ni¬
trous acid; being the vapour of that, as the marine
acid air is the vapour of the concentrated marine
acid.
9. The jluor-acid air is not diftinft from the vapour
of that acid loaded with filiceous earth, which it plen¬
tifully diffolves. A full account of its properties is gi¬
ven under the article Chemistry.
10. Vegetable-acid air was procured from an exceed¬
ingly concentrated acetous acid, but with more diffi¬
culty than the others on account of the volatility of
the' liquid. It extinguifhes flame, unites with alkalies,
and performs every other thing that could be expe&ed
from the acetous acid, manifefting its inferior acid
power even in its aerial ftate. It is very readily im¬
bibed, by water and by charcoal. It is likewife ab¬
forbed pretty readily by olive oil, on which it has a
remarkable effeft. The oil takes tip about ten times
its bulk of the air ; and, from being of a yellowifh co¬
lour, turns almoft as clear as water, lofing alfo fome-
what of its vifeidity, and approaching to the confiftence
of an effential oil.
A Angular appearance was obferved by Dr Prieftley
on attempting to determine how much of this air a
certain quantity of water wotfld imbibe. Having put
the liquid into a glafs tube clofed at one end, and in¬
troduced it to the vegetable acid air, a fmall bubble of
common air which appeared at the bottom began to
expand, and continued to do fo till all the water was
thrown out of the tube. The fame effeft took place
when the tube was hermetically fealed at the end.
With fpirit of wine it was the fame, and with oil of
turpentine the effedf took place more quickly ; but
with olive oil it was more flow.
11. Alkaline air is lighter than that of the common
atmofpherc, and much more expanfible by heat. It is
now found to be compofed of inflammable and phlo¬
gifticated air. It has all the properties of cauftic vo¬
latile fpirits, uniting with acids and forming neutral
falls. It is obtained from a mixture of fal ammoniac
and lime by diftillation with a very gentle heat; or it
may be had in great quantity by diftilling fpirit of
wine with volatile alkaline fpirit. It is inflammable
when mixed with common air, but burns without any
explofion.
12. Dephlogijlicated nitrous air is produced from the
nitrous kind expofed to liver of fulphur, or for a longer
time to iron. It may alfo be produced diredfly in the
operation for making nitrous air from the acid and
iron. After a great quantity of nitrous air has been
extricated from this mixture without heat, the dephlo-
gifticated nitrous air will come over by the applica¬
tion of heat. It is remarkable for being able to
fuftain flame, without fupporting animal life. In this
kind of air a candle burns fometimes naturally, and
fometimes with an enlarged flame of a blue or green
colour. It is lefs proper as a teft for the purity of the
atmofpbere than common nitrous air*
I 3. Sulphurated injlammable air is a late difeovery of
Df Prieftley’s, and feems to be compofed of inflam¬
mable and hepatic air mixed together.
14. Hepatic air is the fteam which arifes' from liver
of fulphur on the addition of water, but ftill more co-
pioufly on the addition of an acid. It is fatal to animal
life, and burns without explofion. Its effeft on vege¬
tables is not well known ; it is remarkable for the
property of giving a black colour to fome metallic cal¬
ces, whence it has the property of rendering fympathe-
tic ink vifible.
15. Phlogijlicated air is one of the component parts
of the atmofphere ; and is produced in great plenty by
all the proceffes of putrefaction, calcination of metals,
and many cafes of combuftion. It is very deftruftive
to animal life, and hkewife extinguifhes flame ; but it
is exceedingly proper for the fupport of vegetables,
which
GAS L 583 J GAS
which thrive much better in it than in the common
air. There are difputes concerning its compofition; the
Antiphlogiftians fuppofing it to be a primary element,
and.their antagonifts that it is compofed in great part
qf phlogillon; though theyhave not been able to prove
this part of their dodfrine either by reviving the calces
of metals, or purifying it in fuch a manner as to make
it refpirable. It is fomewhat lighter than atmofphe-
rical air. Mixed with dephlogifticated and inflam¬
mable air, it produces nitrous acid by detonation. In¬
flammable, nitrous, and alkaline air, may be partly con¬
verted into it.
, Having thus briefly recapitulated the properties of
the different gafes hitherto difcovered, we fhall next pro¬
ceed to confider the apparatus neceflary for making the
various experiments with thefe gafes, which have been
for fome time in fo much repute among modern phito-
fophers. Thefe experiments may be reduced to the
following clafies. 1. The production and preferva-
tion of the gafes themfelves. 2. The impregnating
water or other fluids with them. 3. Trying their ef¬
fects upon animals and vegetables. 4. The effeCts
produced on them by deCtricity. 5. "I’heir capacities
for conducting heat.
Where one can have accefs to large quantities of
fermenting liquor, fixed air may be eafily procured of
tolerable purity, by filling a vial or tumbler with wa¬
ter, and then emptying it below the furfaoc of the
mephitic atmofphere which floats above the furface of
the liquor, the fixed air occupying the place of the
water as it is difcharged from the veffel. It may then
be preferred by flopping the mouth of th,e vial with
a cork; or, if it is a wide-mouthed veffel, by inverting
it in quickfilver, or in water covered with oil. In
moft cafes, however, the different kinds of air may be
for a fhort time preferved in veffels. inverted in water
alone without any oil. For experiments, therefore,
on thofe kinds of airs which may be preferved in wa¬
ter, Dr Pridlley made ufe of an oblong trough of
wood, fuch as is reprefented, Plate CCVII. fig. 1. The
dimenfions were generally two feet in length, 18 inches
in breadth, and 11 inches in depth. About an inch
below the top is a wooden fhdf all round, for the pur-
pofe of fetting the inverted vials or jars of air upon
it. The veffels he commonly made ufe of were fuch
iars as he had been accudomed to ufe in his eleCtrical
batteries, about 10 inches long and 2^ wide ; though
for different experiments he had them of various fhapes
and fizes. When he had occafion to remove veffels of
air from the large trough, he' put them into pots or
difhes of the form reprefented fig. 2.; thefe difhes be¬
ing firfl put under water, and the jars then flid off the
fhelf upon them. For the mere removal of jars of air
from one place to another, where they are to dand on¬
ly for a few days, he makes ufe of common tea-difnes,
which hold water enough, unlefs the air be in a' date
of diminution by any procefs going on in the veffel..
When any thing, as a gallipot, is to be fupported in
a jar full of air, wire-dands, fuch as are reprefented
fig. 3. may be conveniently made ufe of. They an-
fwer better than any others, on account of their taking
up lefs room, and being eafily bent into any fhape.
When there is occafion to pour a quantity of air from,
one veffel to another, a funnel, fig. 4. mud be made
ufe of. Thus the operation is rendered exceedingly
4.
eafy, by firft filling the veffel in which the air is to be
conveyed with water, and holding the month of it
together with the funnel both under water with one
hand, while the other is employed in pouring the air;
which, attending through the funnel up into the vef-
fal, makes the water defcend, and takes its place. It
will be convenient to have feveral of thefe funnels of
different fizes. They are bed made of glafs. An im¬
provement on this part of the apparatus was made by
the Duke de Chaulnes, and confids in having the under
part of the ihelf hollowed out into the fhape of a fun¬
nel, with-an hole over the middle, on which the vial
is to be placed, and the air afcends without any trouble.
When there is occafion to transfer air from a jar
ftanding in the trough of water to a veffel handing in
quickfilver, or any other fituation whatever, the appara¬
tus reprefented fig. 5. may be made ufe of. It coufids
of a bladder furnilhed at one end with a fmall glafs-tube
bent, and at the other with a cork perforated in fuch
a manner as juil to admit the fmall end of the funnel.
When the common air is carefully preffed out of this
bladder, and the funnel thrud tightly into the cork, it
may be filled with any kind of air as eafily as a glafs
jar. A firing being then tied above the cork in which
the funnel is inferted, and the orifice in the other cork
clofed by prefling the bladder againd it, it may be
carried any where; and if the tube be carefully wiped,,
the air may be conveyed quite free from moidure
through a body of quickiilver or any thing elfe.
When it is wanted to try whether a candle will burn
in any kind of air, a cylindrical glafs veffel,. fig. 6.
may be ufed, with a bit of a wax candle a fadened
to the end of a wire b, and turned up in fuch a
manner as to be let down into the veffel with the
flame upwards. The veffel fhould be kept carefully co¬
vered till the moment the candle is admitted. In this
manner, theDodlor tell us, he has frequently extinguifh-
ed a candle more than 20 times fucceflively ; though it
is impoflible to dip the candle into it without giving
the external air an opportunity qf mixing more or
lefs with that in the infide. The candle c at the other
end is very convenient for holding under a jar iland-
ing in water, in order to burn as long as the inclofed
air can fupply it; for the moment that it is extin-
guifhed, it may be drawn through the water before
any fmoke can have mixed with.the air. To draw
the air out of a veflel which has its mouth immerfed
in water, and thereby to raife the liquid to any
height that may, be required, a glafs fyphon is very
convenient, fuch as is reprefented, fig. 8. putting one
of the legs up into the vefiel, and drawing, the air out
at the other end by the mouth, or rather, as moll of
the gafes have a noxious quality, by a fyringe properly
faftened to it. Dr Hales fometimes made ufe of a
valve at the top of the veflel; but Dr Prieftley does
not think this can be altogether depended upon. If,,
however, a very fmall hole be made at the top of a
glafs veflel, it may be filled to any height by holding
it under water while the air is iifuing out at the hole,
which is then to be clofed with wax or cement. When ;
the gas employed in the experiment is of fuch a na¬
ture that it will neither be abfo;.bed by water, nor di-
minilh common air, it may be convenient to put part
of the materials which generate the gas into a cup, as .
at./, fig. t. Then having, by means of a fyphon,.
drawn j
GAS
drawn the air to a convenient height, the fmall glafs
vefiel m*.y be eafily pufhed into the cop by a wire in¬
troduced through the water. The contents of the
fmall veffel may be difcharged into the larger by a
variety of contrivances; and the diftance between ihe
boundary of air and water, before and after the ope¬
ration, will fhow the quantity of the generated air.
The effefl; of fuch fubltances as diminilh air may alfo
be tried by this apparatus. When air is to be admit¬
ted to any thing that will not bear wetting, and yet
cannot be conveniently put into a vial, and efpecially
if it be in the form of powder, and mull be placed up¬
on a Hand (as in thofe experiments in which the focus
of a burning mirror is to be thrown upon it), the re¬
ceiver in which it is to be placed mull firft be exhauft-
ed ; then having a glafs tube bent for the purpofe, as
in fig. 9. it is fcrewed to the transfer of an air-pump
on which the receiver had been exhaufted ; and in¬
troducing it through the water into ajar of air of that
kind with which the receiver is to be filled, the pur¬
pofe is gained by only turning the cock: but in this
way, unlefs a great deal of care be taken, fome com¬
mon air is apt to get into the receiver. If it is wilhed
to try the goodnefs of any particular kind of air, two
meafures of it mull be put into a jar Handing in wa¬
ter ; and having marked on the glafs the exadl place
of the boundary of the air and water, a meafure of
nitrous air is put to it; and after waiting a proper
time, the quantity of its diminution is to be noted. If
two kinds of air nearly alike are to be compared toge¬
ther after mixing them in a large jar, the mixture is
transferred into a long glafs tube, by which the fcale
can be lengthened as much as we pleafe. When the
quantity of air, the goodnefs of which we wilh to
afcertain, happens to be fo fmall that it is contained
in a portion of a glafs-tube from which water will not
run out, as a fig. to. the length of the column of air in
the tube is firfl. to be meafured with a pair of compafies,
the remaining part being filled with water. The
length of the column is then to be laid down upon a
fcale; and then thrufting into the tube a wire of a
proper thicknefs l, it is drawn out again by means of
a thin plate of iron bent to a (harp angle c, when the
whole of this little apparatus has been introduced
through the water into a jar of nitrous air, and the
wire being drawn out, the air from the jar mull fupply
its place. The length of this column of nitrous air is
then to be meafured, and laid down upon the fcale,
fo as to know the exadl length of both the columns.
After this, holding the tube under water, the two co¬
lumns of air are to be forced into contaft by means of
a fmall wire ; and when they have been a fufficient
time together, the length of the whole is meafured
and compared with the length of both columns taken
together.
In many experiments, the matters from w hich air is
to be expelled mull be fubjedl to a very confiderable
degree of heat. In thefe cafes Dr Prieilley frequently
made ufe of a gun-barrel, fig. 11. Into this he put
the fubflance from which the air was to be extracted;
then filling it up with dry fanxl fo that very little air
could be lodged in the barrel, and having alfo previ-
oully burned the fand, fo that no air could come from
it, he luted to the open end the Hem of a tobacco-
pipe or fmall glafs tube. Then having put the cloftd
N° 135.
GAS
end of the tube which contains the materials into the Gas.
fire, the generated air, iffuing through the tube, may “-v"
be received into a veffel of quickfilver, with its mouth
inverted into a bafon of the fame.fufpended all together
by wires as reprefented in the figure. Any other
fluid fubllance may be ufed inltead of quickfilver.
The bed method, however, of procuring air from
feveral fubltances by means of heat, is to put them in¬
to vials full of quickfilver, with their mouths immerfed
in the fame, and then throwing the focus of a burning
mirror Upon them. For this purpofe the vials Ihould
have round bottoms very thin, that they may not be
liable to break on any hidden application of heat. It
it is wanted to expel air from-any liquid, a vial is to be
nearly filled with it; then having a cork perforated,
a bent glafs-tube is put through it and fecured with
cement, reprefented at e, fig. 1. The vial is then put
into a kettle of water, which is fet upon the fire and
made to boil. The air expelled by the heat iflues
through the tube, and is received in the bafon of quick¬
filver, fig. 11. But inllead of this fufpended bafon,
the Ample apparatus of a flaccid bladder, tied to the
end of the tube in order to receive the generated air,
may fometimes be advantageoufly made ufe of. To
produce air by the folution of metals, or any fimilar
procefs, the materials are to be put into a vial pre¬
pared in the manner reprefented at e, fig. 1. and the
end of the glafs-tube put under the mouth of any
veffel into which it is wanted to convey the air. Heat
may be eafily applied while it hangs in this pofition,by
means of a candle or red-hot poker.
In making experiments on fuch kinds of air as are
readily imbibed by water, quickfilver muft always be
made ufe of, as reprefented fig. 12. where a is the ba¬
fon of quickfilver, b a glafs veffel containing quickfilver
with its mouth immerfed in it, c a vial containing the
ingredients from which the air is to be produced, and
d a fmall recipient or glafs veffel to intercept any li¬
quor that may come over along with the air, which
mud be tranfmitted as free from moiflure as poffible
into the veffel b. If there be no danger of moifture,
however, the glafs-tube only is made ufe of in the
manner reprefented at a, fig. 1. To invert the veffel
fig. 12. it muft firft be filled with quickfilver, and its
mouth then carefully covered with a piece of foft leather;
after which it may be turned upfide down without any
danger of admitting the air ; and the leather may be
withdrawn when it is plunged into the quickfilver.
The figures aaa, fig. 13. reprefent a kind of vials much
ufed by Dr Prieftley in all his experiments. They are
made round and very thin at the bottom, and the mouth
is to be ground fmooth, fo that they may be ei;her
ufed with a cork, or will ftand firm when inverted after
being filled with quickfilver or any other fluid. When
ufed as common vials with corks, they will bear the
application of a fudden heat without breaking, much
better than the common vials which are thickeft at
the bottom. Thefe veffels are particularly ufeful in
extradling air from any fubftance confined by quick¬
filver 1 for, {landing with their mouths downwards,
and the fubftances with which the experiment is made
lying upon the furface of the metal, juft under the
thinned part of the glafs, they are eafily fubjefted to
the adlion of a burning-glafs without any danger of
breaking the vial which contains them. Care mull be
taken.
r j84 1
GAS [ 585 I GAS
Gas. taken, however, not to put them at once into the
—v—» very focus, left the glafs fhould give way. In moft
cafes this moderate heat will produce a confiderable
quantity of air; by which means there will be fome
fpace left between the glafs and the fubftance from
which the air is to be extrafted, fo that the greateft
heat of the glafs may eafily be direfted upon the fub¬
ftance itfelf, independent of the glafs which contains
it; whence the latter is in no danger of being broken
or melted. “ A ikilful operator (fays Dr Prieftley)
will be able to fill his veflel with the newly generated
air by this means: but in general, he will do well to
content himfelf with getting it half-full, or lefs; for
as the glafs is neceffarily thicker towards the mouth,
there will be fome danger of breaking it when the rays
are tranfmitted near that place, and of lofing the air
that has been perhaps with great trouble and difficulty
procured. If. the fubftance on which the experiment
is made be in the form of a powder, fuch as red-lead,
and even many very light fubftances, it wifi be moft
convenient to put them into the veflel firft ; and the
quickfilver may, with care, be poured upon them af¬
terwards, fo as to keep the fubftance at the bottom ;
and yet when the veflel is inverted it will remain up-
permoft. When the light matter will not He clofe,
it will not be difficult fometimes to intercept it in the
ftrait part of the vial at the neck ; but it will often be
moft convenient to form thefe light matters into fmall
balls, and put them into the veflel through the quick¬
filver with which it has been previoufly filled. I would
obferve with refpe£t to this procefs, and every other
in v/hich vefiels are to be filled with quickfilver, and
then to be placed inverted in bafons of the fame, that
no operation is eafier (unlefs the mouth of the veflel
be exceedingly wide) when the mouth of it is covered
with foft leather, and, if neceflary, tied on with a
firing, before it be turned upfide down; and the lea¬
ther may be drawn from under it when it is plunged
in the quickfilver. If the mouths of the veflels be very
narrow, it will be fufficient, and moft convenient, to
cover them with one’s finger. In this procefs there
remains lefs doubt of the generated air coming from
the materials on which the experiment is made, than
when the focus of the lens is thrown upon them in va¬
cuo ; becaufe there will often be room to fufpedt, that
common air may get into the receiver in the courfe
of a long procefs, at fome place not fufficiently guard¬
ed ; and befides it is a great fatisfa&ion to fee the
quantity of air that is generated at any particular time,
during the courfe of a procefs, that the operator may
flop when he fees he has got a quantity fufficient for
his purpofe, whereas unlefs he has a gage connedled
with his transferer (which may be inconvenient), he
mud admit water into his receiver before he can cer¬
tainly tell whether he has obtained any air or not;
and then it will be liable tb be affected by the water,
or by the air contained in the water, and which will be
fet loofe very copioufly on its firft admiffion into the
receiver. But in cafes where the air is apt to corrode
the quickfilver, which always happens when the nitrous
acid is concerned, recourfe muft then be had to the va¬
cuum : and for this purpofe it is neceflary to have the
receivers made as thin as poffible, the thick ones being
very apt to break by the heat of the lens. Care muft
be taken in thofe experiments to place the materials
Von. VII. Part II.
on a crucible, a piece of glafs, or fome fubftance of Gas,
that kind which yields no air.” ——v—.
A vial, with a ground-ftopper, having the latter per¬
forated with a number of fmall holes, will be found of
excellent ufe to convey any liquid, or even any kind of air
contained in it, through the water into ajar Handing
with its mouth inverted in the liquid, without admit-'
ting any mixture of common air or even of the water,
and yet the generated air will have a fufficient outlet.
Fig. 14. r, reprefents a kind of vial of the fame form
with thofe fhown at a a a, fig. 13. but fitted with a
ground ftopper terminating in a tube, and which is
occalionaily to be ufed inllead of that marked e, fig. 1.
In moft cafes this is preferable to the corks and tubes
the Do&or formerly employed ; but in fome the latter
are full to be preferred, particularly where the fluor acid
-s to be ufed, which would foon corrode any of thofe
thin vials. For experiments with this acid, therefore,
the Do&or recommends the ufe of common vials made
very thick, efpecially as no great degree of heat or
fudden application of it is ever wanted. The vial c
will be found fufficient for any purpofe that does not
require more heat than can be given by the flame of
a candle held clofe to the bottom of it; but if there be
occafion to place the vial in a fand-heat, and confe-
quently if it muft be put into a crucible placed on the
fire, it will be neceflary to have the tube in which the
ground-ftopple terminates made as long as pofiible,
that the veflel which receives the air may not be
too near the fire. Nine or twelve inches will be
a fufficient length for the purpofe. la fuch expe¬
riments, however, as are not worth the expence of
thefe vials and {toppers, and yet where gun-barrels can¬
not be fafely trufted, the Do£tor has recourfe to a vial
made narrower at the open end than the other, of about
9 or 12 inches in length, and of an equal thicknefs
throughout. When thefe vials are put into a crucible
with fand, the bottom may be made red-hot, while
the top is fo cold that a common cork into which a
glafs-tube is inferted will not be affedled by the heat.
When the materials are put into this veflel, it muft be
filled up to the mouth with fine fand that will give no
air by the application of heat ; and the cork muft be
thruft clofe down upon the fand. The air is to be re¬
ceived in the fame manner as directed for the gun-
barrel.
For the purpofe of making a quantity of air pafi
through a body of water or any other fluid, it is con¬
venient to have a number of vials of the form repre-
fented fig. 15. the tube which conveys the air into the
vial going nearly to the under part, and that which
delivers it perforating only the upper part. Thus the
air is forced to go through the whole body of the wa¬
ter or powder with which the vial may be filled.
Thefe vefiels may be of various fizes, from a pint
down to half an ounce ; the larger end may generally
be flopped with a cork, though in fome cafes it will
be neceftary to have this ftopper alfo of glals, with
only two perforations for inferting the tubes, home-
times he had occafion to ufe a number of thefe vefi'els
placed together, as reprefented fig. 16. that the fame air
might pals through them all; and fometimes it was
found improper to ufe any kind of lute or cement, fo
that all the Hoppers, large as well as fmall, were’ fit¬
ted by grinding j which made the apparatus very ex-
4 penfivc.
GAS [ 586 ] GAS
Gas. penfive. The long vial annexed to this apparatus was
 * chiefly made ufe of where the nitrous acid was con¬
cerned. It was made deep in order to admit of a hid¬
den and violent effervefcence without any danger of
the liquid being thrown over; and the tube proceed¬
ing from it ought to be long enough to go to the bot¬
tom of any vefl’el in which the'vapo'ur is to be deli¬
vered.
Plate Fig. 17. reprefents a fimple apparatus, being no
CCV1II. other than a frame of wood lb difpofed about a veffel
containing quickfilver, that the latter may admit of
feveral glafs-tubes which fupport themfelves again!! its
fides, and thus may be employed in experiments all at
the fame time.
Fig. t8. fliows a cylindrical veflel of tin perforated
with holes, and enclofing another of iron wire. A
charcoal fire may be made in the outer one, while a
vial containing any quantity of air which it is wiflied
to heat may be put within the frame of iron wire.
Thus an equable heat will be produced on every part
of the glafs, without heating the bottom more than
the reft ; which in many cafes is greatly to be wiflred
for.
Fig. 19. ftiowsthe apparatus by which were made the
principal experiments relating to the apparent converfion
of water into air, on which DrPrieftley beftowed confi-
* See Wa- derable attention, tho’ hefound it at laft to be a miftake*.
It confifts of an earthen veflel; the bulb of which, con¬
taining moiftened clay, is fixed in the infide of a glafs
veflel, through which the heat of a burning lens may
be thrown upon it; while the infide has a communi¬
cation with a bafoh of water or of quickfilver, in which
veflels may be placed to receive the air that is forced
through the body of the earthen veflel, while the wa¬
ter or mercury in the bafon in which the glafs ftands
rifes to fupply its place.
Fig. 20. (hows the apparatus for tranfmitting fleam
through a red-hot tube containing iron or other fub-
ftances. The contrivance is evident from an infpec-
tion of the figure; only the veflel which receives the
air muft be much larger in proportion than is here re-
prefented., Inftead of the finall furnace, one of Ar-
gand’s lamps may be advantageoufly ufed. Fig. 21.
fhow's a method of receiving the air under a funnel,
when large balloons are to be filled for the purpofes of
aeroftation.
Thefe are the principal parts of the apparatus ufed
by Dr Prieftley in his numerous experiments for the
produdlion of airs, of all different kinds, from a vaft
variety of fubftances, and for preferving, transferring,
or mingling them with one another as occafion requi¬
red. On this part of his apparatus no improvement of
any confequence has ever been made. It has been other-
wife, however, with the method he propofed for im¬
pregnating water with the various gafes, efpecially
fixed air, which for fome time engroffed a confiderable
fhare of the public attention. In this operation a prin¬
cipal requifite is to expofe as large a furface of the water
as pofiible to the aftion of the air; for it is only in
proportion to the expanded furface, and not to the
depth of the liquid, that the air is taken up. It is alfo
requifite to fave the air as much as poffible, by flop¬
ping every outlet, and at the fame time to prevent the
veffels from burfting, which they might otherwife be
apt to do. The firft apparatus invented by Dr Prieft¬
ley, and which feems to have alfo been the firft ever made Gas.
ufe of by any perfon, is reprefentedfig. 22. It coniifts of ’—'v—
a glafs veffel a, with a pretty narrow neck, but fo form¬
ed that it will Hand with its mbuth downwards; and
having filled it with water, lay a flip of clean paper or
thin pafteboard upon it : then if they be prefled
clofe together, the veflel may be turned upfide down
wnthout danger of admitting common air into it; and
when it is thus inverted, it muft be placed in another
veffel in the form of a bowl or bafon 3, with a little
water in it, fo much as to permit the flip of paper or
pafteboard to be withdrawn, and the end of the pipe c
introduced. The pipe ufea by the Dodfor was at firft
made of leather, that by mtfans of its flexibility he
might be able to (hake the veffel d containing the ef-
fervefcing mixture ; but afterwards he found it more
convenient to ufe one of glafs, making ufe of tyvo blad¬
ders inftead of the one reprefented'in the figure at d.
Thefe two are joined together by a perforated cork,
and give room enough for fhaking the veflel, which
one would fcarcely admit of. Having put the oil of
vitriol to the calcareous earth in the bottle e, the fixed
air will very foon diftend the bladder or bladders
which muft then be prefled out into the veflel a, but
will not fuddenly be abforbed by it. A quantity pro¬
portionable to the bulk of the air will therefore de-
fcend into the bafon ; and after the bottle a has thus
been about half emptied, it will be neceflary to (hake
it brilkly ; when the agitation will caufe the air to be
imbibed, and the water will reafcend into the bottle.
This is to be repeated till the water will not take up
any more; after which it ought to be put into a bottle ®
well corked and cemented; the air being very apt to
efcape after being once taken up.
Though this apparatus muft evidently anfwer the
purpofe of impregnating water with fixed air very ef-
feftually, yet it is troublefome on account of the at¬
tendance required; and objeftions were alfo made to
the ufe of bladders in it, as being apt to communicate
a difagreeable tafte to the liquor. The latter ob-
jeftxon was particularly infifted upon by Dr Nooth ;
who from his own experience declared, that the ufe
of them communicated fome degree of urinous flavour
to the impregnated water. Dr Prieftley made light
of this obje&ion, but allowed the validity of that from
the attendance neceffary during the impregnation.
Though he reckoned Dr Nooth’s apparatus therefore
inferior to his own with regard to its power, and tho’
flower in its operation as well as more expenfive, he
conftantly ufed it himfelf in his after experiments; and
it has now become almoft univerfally employed for the
purpofe of impregnating fmall quantities of water with
this kind of gas.
Dr Nooth’s apparatus, with fome improvements in
it by Mr Parker, is reprefented fig. 23. and is all made
of cryftal glafs. The lowermoft veflel contains the
chalk and diluted oil of vitriol; the middle one the
water to be impregnated ; and the upper one is de-
figned to give vent to fuch part of the air as cannot
be imbibed. The air is admitted to the water through
a number of holes, fo fmall that the water cannot get
through them on account of the refiftance made by the
afeending gas. The uppermoft veffel is filled to a cer¬
tain height with water, which is prevented from de-
fcending into the middle veffel by the refiftance of the
GAS [ 587 ] GAS
Gas. a!r in the empty part. As the gas afcends, that part
—v  of it which is not condenfed compreffes the water, and
forces it up into the upper veffel, leaving thereby a
greater fpace for the air to expand in ; at the fame
time that a confiderable preffure is made by the weight
of the incumbent water, which very much promotes
the abforption of this or any other gas. The effer-
vefcing materials may be renewed, and the water drawn
off, by the cocks reprefented in the figure. Fig. 24.
fhows a farther improvement upon this apparatus by
Mr Blades of Ludgate-hill. The only difference is in
the fhape of the veffels, and having a glafs cock for
letting off the impregnated water inltead of a tube clofed
with a cork.
Another apparatus, capable of anfwering the pur-
pofe at lead as well as that of Dr Nooth, and much
lefs expenfive, was invented by Dr Withering, and is
reprefented fig. 25. A, is a glafs-veffel about 10
inches high in the cylindrical part, and 64- inches dia¬
meter. B, a glafs-veffel about 12 inches high in the
conical part, i-|- in the neck, and 5 inches diameter
at the bottom. C, a copper pipe palling through the
ftopper of the veffel B, and tied fad into the fiexible
tube D. This tube is made of drong leather, and
kept hollow by means of a fpii al wire running through
its whole length. E, a conical brafs-pipe, with a dop-
cock fadened to the tube D. F, a' conical pipe, wdth
a dop-cock G; having the end of the tube E^accu-
rately ground to it fo as to be air tight. G, the dop-
cock cutting off all communication wuth the atmo-
fphere when the pipe E is removed. H H, twm large
hog’s bladders, each of which ought to contain two
quarts. 1, a dop-cock to prevent the water from ri-
fing into the bladders when the veffel A is agitated.
K, a bladder tied to the crooked tube with the dop-
cock L, which occafionally opens or flruts the commu¬
nication with the veffel B. M, a glafs funnel accu¬
rately fitted with the glafs-dopple N. O, the aper¬
ture fitted with a glafs-dopper, from which the im¬
pregnated water is to be drawn for ufe ; or, indead of
the glafs-dopper, a filver-cock may be more conve¬
niently applied. P, the tube opening into the vef¬
fel A.
.To make ufe of this apparatus, wt 'mud, 1. Fill the
veffel A with pure water, adding fuch other ingredi¬
ents as are neceffary along with the jgas. The veffel
is calculated to hold five quarts conveniently for im¬
pregnation. 2. Put into the veffel B as much marble
or whiting in fmall lumps as will cover its bottom to
the height of two inches, then pour in water to the
height reprefented by the dotted line. 3. Let all the
bladders be tied round their refpedtive tubes, fo that
they may be perfectly air-tight. 4. Fit the mouth of
the vtffel A tight with a cork, and through a hole in
this pafs the tube P; putting on the cork fome fealing-
wax of the iofteft kind, or elfe modelling w^ax, fo that
the whole may be made air-tight. 5. Stop the mouth
of the veffel B with a piece of mahogany prepared in
the following manner. Let the wood be fird turned
in a lathe of a conical figure, but a little larger than
the mouth of the glafs will admit. Put this piece of
wood into melted bees-wax, and heat the Wax until
the wood begins to grow black. When cool, turn it
again in a lathe until it fits the mouth of the veffel.
The tubes C, L, and M, are fitted into holes bored
through the wooden dopper previous to its being im-
merfed in the melted bees-wax. 6. Pudr thefe tubes
through their refpe&ive holes in the wooden dopper ;
prefs their dopper into the orifice of the veffel B,
and cement the whole with fealing or modelling wax.
7. Shut the ftop-cocks I and L, having previdufly
preffed the air out of the bladder K; open the dop-
cocks G and E ; then fqueeze the air out of the blad¬
der H H ; and afterwards prefs the conical pipe E in¬
to the pipe F. 8. Pour about a large fpoonful of oil
of vitriol through the funnel M, and dop it with its
ftopper N : on this the fixed air rifing through the
tube C paffes into the bladders H H, and didends
them. 9. When the bladders are didended, open the
dop-cock I, and draw off about a quart of water from
the aperture at O. The empty fpace left by the wa¬
ter will quickly be filled with gas, which the remain¬
ing water will begin to abforb, and the abforption
will dill be fupplied by frefh gas from the bladders ;
for which reafon thefe mud be kept pretty fully di¬
dended, by adding more oil of vitriol when they be¬
gin to grow flaccid. 10. If it be required to impreg¬
nate the water quickly, turn the dop-cocks at G and
E, and open that at L ; then feparate the pipe E from
the tube F, and agitate the veffel A. During this
time the fixable air that is produced -paffes into the
bladder K, from whence it may be afterwards preffed
into the other bladders when the parts of the appara¬
tus are again united. 11. During the agitation clofe
the ftop-cock at I, opening it only occafionally to re¬
place from the bladders H H the air abforbed by the
water. 12. If a ftrong impregnation be ddired, the
temperature of the room where the operation is carried
on ought not to be more than 48° of Fahrenheit.
13. That the cocks may contimie perfeftly air-tight,
it will be neceffary to fupply them once a-year with a
very fmall quantity of unfalted lard. Modelling wax,
of which mention is made in this defeription, may be
made by adding two ounces of tallow and one of tur¬
pentine to half a pound of bees-wax. It may be co¬
loured with red-lead or Spanifh-brown ; and the mix¬
ture muff be kept ftirring till cold.
Thefe are the principal difeoveries which have yet
been made concerning the method of impregnating
water with fixed air, and they may undoubtedly bd
applied to the impregnation of that fluid with any
other kind of gas which it will take up ; only it mult
be obferved, that where any of the acids are concern¬
ed, that of ffuor alone excepted, there is an abfolute
neceflity for having all parts of the apparatus made of
glafs.
For making experiments on vegetables, the large
cylindrical glafs, fig. 2. is very proper. When it was 3
wiihed to try how long a fmall animal would live in a
certain quantity of air, Dr Prieftley found a large beer-
glafs, fuch as is reprefented at d, fig. 1. very conveni¬
ent. The animals he moft commonly made experi¬
ments upon were mice; and in a beer-glafs containing
between two and three ounces, he found that one of
thefe creatures would live 20 minutes or half an hour.
To obtain mice for fueh experiments, he direfts that
they flrould be caught in wire-traps, from whence they
may be eafily taken. To get them into the air, they
mull be palfed through the water into the veffel con¬
taining it. The wet they fuftain on this occafion does
4 E 2 them
GAS [ 588 ] GAS
0^3. them no hurt; but if the air is of fueh a quality that
v-™. ;s expefted tbe moufe can live any time, it muft have
fomething to fit upon out of the reach of the water.
Where this is not the cafe, it will be proper to hold
the animal by the tail, in order to withdraw it as foon
as poffible; but if the air has been thoroughly noxious,
it will be irrecoverable by a fingle infpiration. The
mice are kept in receivers open at top and bottom,
flanding upon plates of tin perforated with many holes,
and covered with others of the fame kind to admit the
air, kept down with weights, as in fig. 26. A quan¬
tity of paper or tow muft be put into the veflel, and
changed every two or three days in order to clean it;
for which purpofe it is proper to have another receiver
of the fame kind ready cleaned to hold them in. Thefe
^animals muft be kept in a place of a moderate tempe¬
rature, either too much heat or too much cold being
rejudicial to them. The place where Dr Ptieftley
ept his had a temperature of about 70° of Faihren-
heit. When they had been made to pafs through wa¬
ter, it was neceffary to give them a confiderable de¬
gree of heat in order to dry and warm them. In the
courfe of his experiments he found, that mice will live
entirely without water; for though he kept them for
three or four months, and feveral times offered them
water, they would never tafte it; notwithftanding which
they continued in perfedl health and vigour. Two or
three of them wall live very peaceably together in the
fame veffel; though the Do&or had one inftance of
a moufe tearing another almoft in pieces, when there
was plenty of provifions for both.
Some difficulty may occur in opening the mouth of
a phial containing any kind of fubftance to which
water muft not be admitted in a jar of air: but this
will eafily be overcome, by having a cork cut tapering
with a ftrong wire thruft through it, as in fig. 27. for
thus it will eafily fit the mouth of any phial; and by
holding the phial in one hand, and plunging both in¬
to the trough of water, the phial can eafily be con¬
veyed through the water into the jar; which muft ei¬
ther be held by an affiftant, or be faftened by firings
with its mouth proje&ing over the ffielf. When the
phial is thus conveyed into the jar, the cork may eafily
be removed, and put in again at pleafure.
Plate Fig. 28. reprefents an apparatus for determining
CCVIII. the conducting power of air with regard to heat. It
confifts only of a jar, which may be filled with any
kind of air, with a very fenfible thermometer inferted
in it, as is reprefented in the figure. The fcale of
this was fo large, that the Doctor could mark upon
it 20 divifions, each larger than half an inch, between
the mean temperature of the atmofphere and a heat
much below that of boiling water. By frequent trials
he at laft adjufted it in fuch a manner, that having
idled the veffel with any kind of air, he could plunge
it firft in hot and then in cold water, fo that the
mercury would rife to the divifion 20 and fall to that
of 6 or 7 in no great time ; and thus, by means of a
clock which beat feconds, he could not well make a
miftake of more than two in noting down any parti¬
cular divifion. The hot water was always made to
boil, and the cold water was always brought frelh from
the fame pump. The mouth of the air-veffel was
placed iu a cup of mercury kept always at the fame
height; fo that he could thus try any kind of air with Gas,
as much accuracy as one would think were poffible. Gaft°igne.
Notwithftanding this, however, he could not thorough-
ly fatisfy himfelf with the refults ; at lead he has not
yet thought proper to publiffi fully the refults of his
experiments. The differences, he fays, were lefs ftri-
king than he expe&ed. Inflammable air, however,
appeared to conduct heat better than any other ; the
mercury afcending the fame fpace in half the time in
it that it took up in common air. Fixed air, and all
the acid airs, were confiderably worfe than common
air. Alkaline air was a little better, and dephlogifti-
cated air a little worfe, than common air; but the re-
fult of this laft experiment was uncertain.
The ele&ric fpark is eafily taken in any kind of air
by filling a fmall tube with the air defired, with two
wires approaching within ftriking-diftance of each
other in the middle.
We lhall clofe this account of the apparatus for ma¬
king experiments on gafes with an account of an in-
ftrument invented by Dr Pearfon of London for col-
ledting air of any kind which efcapes in bubbles from
the furface of fprings or rivers. It confifts of a funnel
inferted into a phial in fuch a manner that the gas as
it iffues through the water may come under the funnel,
and thus rife into the phial. For the convenient hold¬
ing it to receive the air from any place where it may
iffue copioufly, it is furniflied with a handle and a ring,
to which the funnel is tied by fprings, as reprefented
fig. 29.
GASCOIGNE (Sir William), chief juftice of the
court of king’s bench under Henry IV. A moft
learned and upright judge: who being infulted on the
bench by the then prince of Wales, afterwards Hen¬
ry V. with equal intrepidity and coolnefs committed
the prince to prifon ; and by this feafonable fortitude
laid the foundation of the future glory of that great
monarch, who from' this event dated his refonnation
from the licentioufnefs of his youth. It is not well
authenticated that the prince (truck Sir William, as
recorded by Shakefpeare ; but all authors agree, that
he interrupted the courfe of juftice to fcreen a lewd
fervant. Sir William died in 1413.
Gascoigne (George), an Engliflr poet of fome
fame in the early part of the reign of queen Elizabeth,
was born at Walthamftovv in Effex, of an ancient fa¬
mily, and educated at both univeifities, but principally
at Cambridge. From thence he removed to Gray’s Inn,
and commenced (Indent of the law ; but having a ge¬
nius too volatile for that ftudy, he travelled abroad, and
for fome time ferved in the army in the Low Countries.
He afterwards went to France ; where he became ena¬
moured of a Scottifti lady, and married her. Being
at length, fays Wood, vueary of thofe vanities, he re¬
turned to England ; and fettled once more in Gray’s
Inn, where he wrote moft of his dramatic and other
poems. The latter part of his life he fpent in his na¬
tive village of Walthamftow, where he died in the year
1578. He had the character of a polite gentleman,
an eloquent and witty companion, et vir inter poetas fui
feculipruejlantijfmus. His plays, firft printed feparately,.
were afterwards, with feveral other poems, &c. re¬
printed in two volumes 4to; ^the firft volume in 1577,.
the fecond in 15.87,
GASCOIN,
GAS. Plate CCYHT.
'
%
GAS [ 589 ] GAS
Gafcoki GASCOIN, or Gascoign, denotes the hinder thigh
11 of abode, which begins at the ftifle, and reaches to
GalTendi. t]ie ply 0l- bending of the ham.
t“—GASCONADE, a boaft or vaunt of fomething
very improbable. The term has its rife from the Gaf-
coons, or people of Gafcony in France, who it feems
have been diftinguifhed for bragging and rhodomon-
tado.
GASCONY, the moft fouth-weft province of France,
is bounded by Gflienne on the north, by Languedoc
on the eaft, by the Pyrenees which feparate it from
Spain on the fouth, and by the Bay of Bifcay on the
weft. It had its name from the ancient inhabitants
called Gafcones, or Vafcones; by the moderns Bafques,
or Vafques, After thefe were fubdued by the Franks,
they had for feme time dukes of their own, who were
fubjedt to the dukes of Aquitaine ; but both were at
laft difpoflefled by the kings of France. Th.e country
produces corn, wine, fruits, tobacco, hemp, brandy,
prunes, &c. The inhabitants are noted for a corrupt
and vicious pronunciation of the French tongue, as well
as their vain-glorious boafting.
GASSENDI (Peter), one of the moft celebrated
philofophers France has produced, was born at Chan-
terfier, about three miles from Digne in Provence, in
1592. When a child, he took particular delight in
gazing at the moon and ftars as often as they appeared
in clear unclouded weather. This pleafure frequently
drew him into bye-places, in order to feaft his eye
freely and undifturbed ; by which means his parents
had him often to feek, not without many anxious fears
and apprehenfions. They therefore put him to fchool
at Digne; where, in a ftiort time, he made fuch an
extraordinary progrefs in learning, that fome perfons,
who had feen fpecimens of his genius, refolved to have
him removed to Aix, in order to ft tidy philofophy
under Fefay, a learned minor friar. This propofal
was fo difagreeable to his father, who intended to breed
him up in his own way to country-bufmefs, as being
more profitable than that of a fcholar, that he would
confent to it only upon condition that he fhould return
home in two years at fartheft. Accordingly young
Gaflendi, at the end of the appointed time, repaired
to Chanterfier: but he had not been long there when
he was invited to be profefibr of rhetoric at Digne, be¬
fore he was 16 years of age; and he had been
engaged in that office but three years; when his mafter
Fefay dying, he was made profeffor in his room at Aix.
When he had been there a few years, he compofed his
Paradoxical Exercitations; which, coming to the hands
of Nicholas Peirefc, that great patron of learning
joined with Jofeph Walter prior of Valette in promo¬
ting him ; and he having entered into holy orders, was
firft made canon of the church, of Digne and dodtor of
divinity, and then obtained the wardenflup or redfor-
fhip of that church. GaiTendi’s fondnefs for aftrono-
my grew up with his years ; and his reputation daily
increafing, he was in 1645 appointed royal profeffor
of mathematics at Paris. This inftitution being chiefly
defigned for aftronomy, our author read ledtures on
that fcience^ to a crowded audience. However, he
did not hold this place long; for a dangerous cough
and inflammation of the lungs obliged him, in 1647,
to return to Digne for the benefit of his native air.—
Gaflendi wrote againft the metaphyfical meditations of
Des Cartes ; and divided with that great man the phi¬
lofophers of his time, almoft all of whom were Carte-
flans or Gaffendians. He joined to his knowledge of
philofophy and the mathematics an acquaintance
with the languages and a profound erudition. He
wrote, 1. Three volumes on Epicurus’s Philofophy;
and fix others, which contain his own philofophy. 2. A-
llronomical Works. 3. The Lives of Nicholas de
Peirefc, Epicurus, Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, Puer-
bachius, and Regiomontanus, 4. Epiftles, and other
treatifes. Ali bis works were collected together, and
printed at Lyons in 1658, in fix volumes folio. He
died at Paris in 1655, ag£d 63.
GASTEROSTEUS, the stickle-back, in ich¬
thyology, a genus of fifties belonging to the order of
thoracici. There are three rays in the membrane of
the gills ; the body is carinated; and there are fome
diftindt'prickles before the back-fin. There are 11
fpecies diftinguifhed’by the number of prickles on the
back. One of thefe fpecies, the aculeatus, ftickleback,
bajcfticle, or fharpling, is common in many of the Bri-
tifh rivers. In the fens of Lincolnfhire, and fbme ri¬
vers that proceed from them, they are found in prodi¬
gious quantities. At Spalding there are once in feven
or eight years amazing fhoals that appear in the Wel¬
land, and come up the river in form of a vaft column.
They are fuppofed to be the multitudes that have been
waflied one of the fens by the floods of feveral years,
and collefted in fome deep hole, till overcharged with
numbers, they are periodically obliged to attempt a
change of place. The quantity is fo great, that they
are ufed to manure the land, and trials have been made
to get oil from them. A notion may be had of this vaft
ftioal, by being informed, that a man being employed
by the farmer to take them, has got for a conftderable
time four ftnllings a-day by felling them for a half¬
penny per bufliel.—This fpecies feldom reaches the
length of two inches; it hath three (harp fpines on the
back, that can be raffed or depreffed at pleafure. The
colour of the back and ftdes is an olive-green; the bel¬
ly white ; but in fome the lower jaws and belly are of
a bright crimfon.
GAST-hound. See GAZE-Hound.
GASTRELL (Francis), bifhop of Chefter, was
born in 1662, appointed preacher to the fociety of
Lincoln’s Inn in 1694, and made bifhop of Chefter
in 1714. He preached a courfe of fermons for Boyles’s
lectures; engaged in the Trinitarian controverfy with
Mr Collins and Dr Clarke; and publiftied two excellent
pieces, the one, intitled, Chriftian Inftitutes, and the
other, A Moral Proof of a Future State. He vindi¬
cated the rights of. the univerfity of Oxford againft the
archbifhop of Canterbury, in the appointment of the
warden of Manchefter college; and oppofed the violent
proceedings againft bifhop Atterbury in the houfe of
lords, though he difliked the bifhop as a man of arbi¬
trary principles. He died in 1725.
GASTRIC, in general, fomething belonging to the
ftomach.
Gastric-Juke, a thin pellucid liquor, which diftils
from certain glands in the ftomach, for the dilution,.
&c. of the food. See Anatomy, Sedt. XIII.
GASTROCNEMIUS, in anatomy. See Anato¬
my, Table of the Mufcles.
GASTROMANCY, or Gastromantia, a kind of
I ' divination:
Gaftero-
tteus
r
Gaftro-
mancy.
GAT r 590 1 GAT
Oaftro- divination praftifcd among the ancients by means of
raP!iy words coming or feeming to come out of the belly.
Gate. word is Greek, firpoputluet, compofed of y«-mp
lelly, and divination.
There is another kind of divination called by the
fame name gnjlromancy, u'hich is performed by means
of glaffes or other round tranfparent veffels, within
which certain figures appear by magic art. It is thus
called, becaufe the figures appear as in the belly of the
veflels.
GASTRORAPHY, in furgery, the operation of
fewing up wounds of the abdomen. See Surgery.
GASTROTOMY (of and r,^o, / cut), the
operation of cutting open the belly ; otherwife called
the Ctefarian feBion. See Midwifery.
GATAKER (Thomas), a learned critic and di¬
vine, was born at London in 1574, and fludied at
St John’s college, Cambridge. He was afterwards
chofen preacher at Lincoln’s Inn; which he quitted in
16n, for the re&ory of Rotherhithe in Surry. In
1620, he made a tour through the Low Countries ;
and in 1624, publifhed at London a book, intitled,
Tranfubftantiation declared by the Confeflion of the
Popifh Writers to have no neceffary foundation in
God’s Word : he wrote likewife a defence of this dif-
courie. In 1642, he was appointed one of the affem-
bly of divines, and was engaged with them in writing
annotations upon the Bible. He died in July 1654,
in the 80th year of his age. Befides the above works,
he publifhed, 1. A Diflertation upon the Style of the
New Teftament. 2. De nomine tetragrammata. 3. De
dipthongis,Jive bivocalibus. 4. An Edition and Tranf-
lation of the Emperor Marcus Antoninus’s Medita¬
tions. 5. A Colleftion of Sermons, in folio; and ma¬
ny other works. His piety and charity were very ex¬
emplary; andhismodefty fo great, that he declined all
ecclefiaftical dignity and court-preferments. Plis ex-
tenfive learning was admired by Salmafius and other
great men abroad; his houfe was a private feminary
for young gentlemen of this nation, and many fo¬
reigners reforted to him to receive advice in their
fludies.
GATE, in architedlure, a large door, leading or
giving entrance into a city, town, caltle, palace, or
other confiderable building. See Architecture.
Thebes, in Egypt, was anciently known by the ap¬
pellation with a hundred gates. In ancient Rome there
was a triumphal gate, porta triumphalis. In modern
Rome there is \\\z jubilee gate, which is only opened in
the year of a grand jubilee.
The gates of London were many of them converted
into gaols or prifons, as Ludgate, Newgate, &c. but
they are now removed. The lefler or by-gates are
called Gates, through which coaches, &c.
are to pafs, fhould not be lefs than 7 feet broad, nor
more than 12; the height to be i-J the breadth.
Gate, or Gait, in the manege, called in French
train, is ufed for the going or pace of a horfe.
Gate, in a military fenfe, is made of ftrong planks,
with iron bars, to oppofe an enemy. They are gene¬
rally made in the middle of the curtin, from whence
they are feen, and defended by the two flanks of the
baltions. They fhould be covered with a good rave¬
lin, that they may not be feen or enfiladed by the
enemy. Thefe gates, belonging to a fortified place,
are paffages through the rampart, which may be fhut Gats
and opened by means of doors and a portcullis. They II '
are either private or public.’
Private gates are thofe paflages by which the troops 1
can go out of the town unfeen by the enemy, when
they pafs to and from the relief of the duty in the
outworks, or on any other occafion which is to be
concealed from the hefiegers.
Public gates are thofe paflages through the middle
of fuch curtins, to which the great roads or public
ways lead. The dimenfions of thefe are ufually about
13 or 14 feet high, and 9 or 10 feet wide, continued
through the rampart, with proper recefles for foot
paflengers to Hand in out of the way of wheel-car-
riages. _ * . . .
Gates of Hell. This expreffion is ufed in feripture,
to denote figuratively either the grave or the powers
of darknefs, i. e. the devil and his angels.
The Mahometans ufe the expreffion literally, and
fuppofe that hell has feven gates. The firft is that
where Muffulmans, who incur the guilt of fin, will be
tormented. The fecond is for the Chriftians. The
third is for the Jews. The fourth for the Sabians.
The fifth for the Magians or worihippers of fire. The
fixth for Pagans and idolaters. And the feventh for
hypocrites, who make an outward fhow of religion,
but have none.
GATESHEAD, in the county of Durham, is as
it were the fuburbs of Newcaftle, though it lies in an¬
other county, being divided by the river Tyne; over
which there is a fine ftone-biidge, with an iron-gate
in the middle, having the arms of Durham on one
fide, and thofe of Newcaflle on the other, which is
the boundary between the bifhoprick and Northum¬
berland. The church is a fine building, with a very high
tower, feen at a great diftance ; and in the church¬
yard are feveral ancient rqpnuments. There are few
traces left of its ancient monaftery, except a flone
gateway, or rather a modern eredfion. The houfe
covered two acres and a half of land. Here live the
coal-pit men.
GATH, or Geth (anc. geog.), a celebrated city of
the Philiftines, and one of their five principalities. It is
famous for having given birth to Goliah. David made
a conquefi of it in the beginning of his reign over all
Ifrael ; and it continued fubjedt to the kings his fuc-
ceffors till the decleiifion and decay of the kfngdom of
Judah. Rehoboam rebuilt or fortified it-; king Uz-
ziah retook it, and Hezekiah once more reduced it
under his fubjedtion.
Gath flood about five or fix miles from Jamnia,
about 14 fouth of Joppa, and 32 weft of Jerufalem.
Hence fome authors (among whom is F. Calmut)
have committed an egregious miftake in making Gath
the molt fouthern, and Ekron the moll northern, of
the Philiftine cities; as if thefe two had been the two
boundaries of their dominions, whereas thefe two ci¬
ties are not above five miles afunder; and Gaza is the
laft of the five fatrapies fouth. And Jofephus (in the
place already quoted) exprefles himfelf plainly enough,
when he fays, that Hezekiah took ail the Philiftine
cities from Gaza to Gath ; there being many more
cities of that name, which lignilies in the Hebrew a
wine-prefs. Several more of the name of Geth or
Gath are mentioned in Eufebius and St Jerom, whofe
5 fituation.
Gath
II
G A U f 591 ] G A U
fituation, according to them, plainly fhows them to narchy and epifcopacy. In this fpirit he was one of Gauden,
have been different places from this, and from each thofe divines who figned a protection to the army, , G-Vcl- ^
, Gamlen. . befldes thofe which had an adjunft to diftin- againfl the violent proceedings that affected the life of
guifh them. the king : and a few days after his execution publifhed
This city recovered its liberty and luftre in time of the famous E'*"' Portraiture of his Sacred
the prophets Amos and Micah ; but was afterwards Majcfly in his Solitude and Sufferings; which ran through
demolifhed by Hazael king of Syria, fince which it 50 editions in the courfe of a year. Upon the return
became of but little confideration till the time of the of Charles II. he was promoted to the fee of Exeter;
holy war, when Fulk king of Jerufalem built a caltle
on its ruins.
G/iTH-Opher, GjTH-Epher, or Gath, in the canton
of Opher, in Galilee, was the birth-place of the pro-
and in -1662 was removed to Worcefter, much to his
regret, having flattered himfelf with the hopes of a
ranflation to Winchefter; and his death happened the
fame year. He wrote many controveriial pieces fuited
phet Jonah. Jofhua makes this city (so be part of the to the circumftances of the times, and to his 0
tribe of Zebulun ; and St Jerom, in his preface upon from them. The Eikon Bctfilike above mentioned he
Jonah, fays, that it was two miles from Sephoris, other- publilied as the king’s private meditations: though on
wife called Diocafarea. this point there has been a long; controverfy. After
GATH-Rimmon, a city belonging to the tribe of the bifhop’s death, his widow, in a letter to one of her
Dan. St Jerom places it ten miles from Diofpolis on fons, calls it The Jewel; and faid, her hufband had
the way from Eleutheropolis. It was given to the hoped to make a fortune by it ; and that fhe had a
Levitts of Kohath’s family. letter of a very great man’s, which would clear up that
GATH-Rimmon, was alfo a city in the half-tribe of he writ it. This affertion, as the earl of Clarendon
Manaffeh, on this fide Jordan, and was alfo given for had predi&ed, was eagerly efpoufedby the anti-royal-
a place of abode to the Levites of Kohath’s family. ills, in the view of difparaging Charles I. ' But it has
GATH-Rimmon, was like wife a city in the tribe of been obferved, that Gauden had too luxuriant an ima-
Ephraim, given to the Kohathites.
GATTON, a borough in the county of Surry, 19
miles fraffh London. It lies under the fide of a hill
going to Reygate ; and is fuppofed to have been
known to the Romans by reafon of their coins and
giiiation, which betrayed him into a ranknefs of ftyle
in the Afiatic way ; and from thence, as bilhop Bur¬
net argues with others, it may be certainly concluded,
that not he, but the king himfelf, was the true author
of the, E'*"* - in which there is a noblenefs and
other antiquities that have been found here. It is a juftnefs of thought, with a greatnefs of ftyle, that made
borough by prefcription ; and has fent members to it be looked on as the beft written book in the Englifti
parliament ever fince the 29th of Henry VI. It was language.
formerly a large town; but is now a mean village,- GAVEL, or Gabel, among builders. See Gabel.
with a fmall church, and without either fair or market. Gavel, in law: tribute, toll, Cuftom, or yearly
The members are returned by its conftable, who is an- revenue ; of which we had in' old time feveral kinds.,
nually chofen at the lord of,the manor’s court. See Gabel.
GAUBIUS (HieronymusDavid), a celebrated phy- GAVF.L-Kind,\
fician of Holland. He ftudied under the illuftrious Bo-
erhaave ; and became fo much the favourite of his pro-
feffor, that he refigned the chemical chair in his favour.
1 tenure or cuftom belonging to lands
in the county of Kent. The word is faid by Lambard
to be compounded of three Saxon words, gyfe, eal, kyn,,
"• omnibus cognationeproximis data.” Verftegan calls it
He taught at Leyden with great applaufe for 40 years, gavelkind, quafi “ give all kind,” that is,, to each child
In the year 1775 heHaid down his office, as being no
longer able to fupport the fatigues of it. He was
fucceeded by John David Hahn, then profeffor at
Utrecht. His reputation was extended all Over Eu¬
rope by feveral valuable publications, particularly by
his Injlitutiones Pathologia Medicinalis, and his Adver-
faria, which have contributed not a little to the im¬
provement both of the theory and pra&ice of medicine.
his part : and Taylor, in his hiftory of gavelkind, de¬
rives it from the Britifh gavel, i. e. a hold or tenure,
and cenned, “ gcneratio aut familia /” ard fo gavel cen-
ned might fignify tenura generationis.—It is univerfally
known what ftruggles the Kentiftv men made to pre-
ferve their ancient liberties, and with how much fuc-
cefs thofe ftruggles were attended. And as it is prinv
cipally here that we meet with the cuftom of g ivel-
He died at Leyen 29th November 1780, in the 76th kind (though it was and is to be found in fome other
year of his age.
GAUDEN (Dr Jofeph), fon of John Gauden vi¬
car of Mayfield in Effex, was born there in 1605. At
the commencement of the civil war, he was chaplain to
Robert earl of Warwick; who taking part with the
parts of the kingdom), we may fairly conclude, that
this was a part of thefe liberties ; agreeably to Mr Sel-
den’s opinion, that gavelkind, before the Norman con-
queft, was the general cuftom of the realm. The di-
ftinguifhing properties of this tenure are various: fome
parliament againft the king, was followed by his chap- , of the principal are thefe. 1. The tenant is of age
lain. Upon the eftabliftiment of the Prefbyterian mo-/ fufficient to alienate his eftate by feoffment, at the age
del of church-government, he complied with the! ruling of 15. 2. The eftate does not efcheat in cafe of an
powers, and was nominated one of the affembly of di- attainder and execution for felony; their maxim being,,
vines who met at Weftminfter in J643, and took the “ the father to the bough, the fon to the plough.”
covenant; yet having offered fome fcruples a,nd qbjec- 3. In moft places he had a power of deviling lands by
tions to it, his name was afterwards ftruck out of the will, before the ftatute for that purpofe was made,
lift. Nor did he efpoufe the parliament caufe any 4. The lands defcend, not to the eldeft, youngeft, or
longer than they adhered to their firft avowed princi- any one fon only, but to all the fons together; which
pies of rel&nning only, inftead of deftroying, mo- was indeed anciently the moft ufual courfe of defcent
all!
G A U L 592 ] G A U
Gavelet aU over England, though in particular places particu-
c U. lar cuftoms prevailed.
GAVELET, in law, an ancient and fpecial ceffa-
vit ufed in Kent, where the cuftom of gavelkind con¬
tinues, by which the tenant, if he withdraws his rent
and fervices due to the lord,- forfeits his land and te¬
nements.
The procefs of the gavelet is thus. The lord is firft
to leek by the lleward of his court, from three weeks
to three weeks, to find fome diftrefs upon the tene¬
ment, till the fourth court; and if at that time he
find none, at this fourth court it is awarded, that he
take the tenement in Iris hand in name of a diftrefs,
and keep it a year and a day without manuring; with¬
in which time, if the tenant pay his arrears, and make
reafonable amends for the with-holding, he lhall have
and enjoy his tenement as before: if he come not be¬
fore the year and day be paft, the lord is to go to the
next county-court, with witneffes of what had palled
at his own court, and pronounce there his procefs, to
have further witnefles; and then by the award of his
own court, he lhall enter and manure the tenement as
bis own : fo that if the tenant defired afterwards to
have and hold it as before, he muft agree with the
lord; according to this old faying: “ Has he not fince
any thing given, or any thing paid, then let him pay
five pound for his were, e’re he become healder again.”
Other copies have the firft part with fome variation ;
“ Let him nine times pay, and nine times repay.”
Gavelet, in London, is a writ ufed in the huft-
ings, given to lords of rents in the city of London.
Here the parties, tenant and demandant, appear by
Jcire facias, to Ihow caufe why the one Ihonld not have
his tenement again on payment of his rent, or the other
recover the lands on default thereof.
GAUGAMELA, (anc. geog.), a village of Atu-
ria, lying between the rivers Lycus and Tigris ; fa¬
mous for Alexander’s vi&ory over Darius. It is faid
to have been allowed to Darius Hyftafpus for the
maintenance of a camel; and hence the name. It was
not far from a more confiderable place called Arlela ;
whence the latter gave the name to the vidtory. See
Arbela.
GAUGE-point of a folid meafure, the diameter of
a circle whofe area is equal to the folid content of the
fame meafure.
GAUGER, a king’s officer, who is appointed to
examine all tuns, pipes, hoglheads, and barrels, of
wine, beer, ale, oil, honey, &c. and give them a
mark of allowance, before they are fold in any place
within the extent of his office.
GAUGING, See Geometry.
Gjvgjng-RocI, an inftrument ufed in gauging or
meafuring the contents of any veflel. That ufually
employed rs the four-foot gauging-rod. It is com¬
monly made of box, and confifts of four rules, each a
foot long and about three-eighths of an inch fquare,
joined together by three brafs joints ; by which means
the rod is rendered four feet long when the four rules
are quite opened, and but one foot when they are all
folded together. On the firlt face of this rod, mark¬
ed 4, are placed two diagonal lines; one for beer and
the other for wine : by means of which the content of
any common veffcl in beer or wine gallons may be rea¬
dily found, by putting the rod in at the bung-hole of
135.
the velfel till it meets the interfe&ion of the head of Ganging,
the veffel with the (laves oppofite to the bung-hole. v—
For diftifidtion of this line, there is written thereon,
beer and wine gallons. On the fecond face, 5, are a Plate
line of inches and the gauge-line ; which is a line ex-
preffing the areas of circles, whofe diameters are the
correfpondent inches in ale-gallons. At the beginning
is written, ale area. On the third face, 6, are three
fcales of lines; the firft, at the end of which is written
hogfhead, is for finding how many gallons there are in
a hoglhead when it is not full, lying with its axis pa¬
rallel to the horizon. The fecond line, at the end of
which is written ih L. figsifying a butt lying, is for the
fame ufe as that for the hogihead. The third line is
to find how much liquor is wanting to fill up a butt
when it is Handing: at the end of it is written B. S.
fignifying a buttJlanSng. In the half of the fourth
face of the gauging-rod, 7, there are three fcales of
lines, to find the wants in a firkin, kilderkin, and bar¬
rel, lying with their areas parallel to the horizon.
They are diftinguilhed by letters F. K. B. fignifying a
firkin, kilderkin, and barrel.
Ufe of the diagonal lines on this rod. To find the
content of a velfel in beer or wane gallons, put the
braftd end of the gauging-rod into the bung-hole of
the cade, with the diagonal lines upwards, and thruft
this brafed end to the meeting of the head and ftaves;
then with chalk make a mark at the middle of the
bung-hole of the veflel, and alfo on the diagonal lines
of the rod, right againft, over one another, when the
brafed end is thruft home to the head and ftaves: then
turn the gauging-rod to the other end of the veflel,
and thruft the brafed end home to the end, as before.
Laftly, fee if the mark made on the gauging-rod come
even with the mark made on the bung-hole when the
rod was thruft to the other end; which if it be, the
mark made on the diagonal lines will, on the fame
lines, (how the whole content of the calk in beer or
wine gallons.
If the mark made on the bung-hole be not right
againft that made on the rod when you put it the
other way, then right againft the mark made on the
bung-hole make another on the diagonal lines; and
the divifion on the diagonal line between the two
chalks will Ihow the veficl’s whole contents in beer or
wine gallons. Thus, e. gr. if the diagonal line of a
veflel be 28 inches four-tenths, its contents in beer gal¬
lons will be near 51, and in wine gallons 62.
If a veflel be open, as a half-barrel, tun, or copper,
and the meafure from the middle on one fide to the
head and ftaves be 38 inches, the diagonal line gives
122 beer-gallons; half of which, viz. 61, is the con¬
tent of the open half tub.
If you have a large veflel, as a tun or copper, and
the diagonal line taken by a long rule proves 70 inches;
the content of that veflel may be found thus: Every
inch at the beginning-end of the diagonal-line call ten
inches* Thus ten inches becomes 100 inches; and
every tenth of a gallon call 100 gallons; and every
whole gallon call xooo gallons.
Example. At 44.8 inches on the diagonal beer¬
line is 200 gallons ; fo that 4 inches 48 parts, now
called 44 inches 8-tenths, is juft two-tenths of a gallon,
now called 200 gallons.: fo alfo if the diagonal line be
76 inches and 7-tenths, a dole calk of fudi diagonal
will
GAO r 593 1 GAO
©aage, w;il hold l oog beer-gallons; but ah open caik but half
t Gaul- fo much; ■ok- 500 beer-gallons.
Ufe of the Gauge-Line. To find the content of any
cylindrical veffel in ale-gallons : feek the diameter of
the vefiel in inches, and juft againit it on the gauge¬
line is the quantity of ale-gallons contained in one inch
deep: this multiplied by the length of the cylinder
will give its content in ale-gallons.
For example, fuppofethe length of the vefiel 32.06,
-and the diameter of its bafe 25 inches; to find what
is the content in ale-gallons ? Right againft 25 inches
on the gauge-line is one gallon and 745 of a gallon ;
which multiplied by 32.06, the length, gives 55.9447
gallons for the content of the vefiel.
The bung diameter of a hogfhead being 25 inches,
the head diameter 22 inches,' and the length 32.06
-inches; to find the quantity of ale-gallons contained in
it ?—Seek 25, the bungdiameter, on the line of inches;
and right againft it on the gauge-line you will find
1.745 : ta^e one-third of it, which is .580, and fet it
down twice: feek 22 inches in the head diameter, and
■againft it you will find on the gauge-line 1.356 ; one-
third of which added to twice .580, gives 1.6096;
-which multiplied by the length 32.06, the produdl
will be 51.603776, the content in ale-gallons. Note,
this operation fuppofes, that the aforefaid hoglhead is
in the figure of the middle fruftum of a fpheroid.
The ufe of the lines on the two other faces of the
rod is very eafy ; you need only put it downright in¬
to the bung-hole (if the vefiel you defire to know the
quantity of ale-gallons contained therein be lying) to
the oppofite ftaves ; and then where the furface of
the liquor cuts any one of the lines appropriated to
that veflel, will be the number of gallons contained in
that vefiel.
GAUL, thename given bythe Romans to the country
that now forms the kingdom of France.—The original
inhabitantsweredefcendedfromthe Celtesor Gomerians,
by whom the gieateftpart of Europe was peopled ; the
name of GalLor Gauls, being probably given them long
after their fettlement in that country. See Gallia.
The ancient hiftoiy of the Gauls is entirely wrap¬
ped up in obfcurity and darknefs; all we know con¬
cerning them for a long time is, that they multiplied
fo faft, that, their country being unable to contain
them, they poured forth in vaft multitudes into other
countries, which they generally fubdued, and fettled
themfelves in. It often happened, however, that thefe
' colonies were fo molefted by their neighbours, that
they were obliged to fend for alltftance to their native
country. This was always very eafily obtained. The
Gauls were, upon every occafion, ready to fend forth
great numbers .of new adventurers ; and as thefe fpread
defolation wherever t.hey came, the very name of
Gauls proved terrible to moft of the neighbouring na-
Account of tions.—The earlkft excurfion of thefe people, of which,
the Gaulifli we have any diftineft account, was into Italy, under a
inxcurfions famed leader, named Bellovefus, about 622 years be-
iiuo Italy, Qhrift. He crofled the Rhone and the Alps, till
then unattempted ; defeated the Hetrurians; and fei-
zed upon that part of their country, fince known by
the names of Lombardy and Piedmont.—The fecond
grand expedition was made by the Ccenomani, a.people
dwelling between the rivers Seine and Loire, under a
general named Elitonis. They fettled in thofe parts of
Italy now known by the names of Brefciano, Cremo-
Vol.VII. Part II.
nefi, Mantuan, Carniola, and Venetian.—In a third Gaul.
excurfion, two other Gaulifh nations fettled on both » •
fides of the river Po ; and in a fourth, the Boii and
Lingones fettled in the country between Ravenna and
Bologna. The time of thefe three lail expeditions is
uncertain.
The fifth expedition of the Gauls was more remark¬
able than any of the former, and happened about 200
years after that of Bellovefus. The Senones, fettled
between Paris and Meux, were invited into Italy by an
Hetrurian lord, and fettled themfelves _ in Umbria.
Brennus their king laid fiege to Clufium, a city in al¬
liance with Rome; and this produced a war with the
Romans, in which the latter were at firft defeated, and
their city taken and burnt; but at length the whole
army was cut off by Camillus, infomuch that not a
fingle perfon efcaped.
Some other expeditions the Gauls undertook againft
the Romans: in which, though they always proved un-
fuccefsful, by reafon of their want of military difci-
pline ; yet their fiercenefs and courage made them fo
formidable to the republic, that, on the firft news of
their march, extraordinary levies of troops were made,
facrifices and public fupplications offered to the gods,
and the law which granted an immunity from military
fervice to priefts and old men, was, for the time, abo-
liftied. _
Againft the Greeks, the expeditions of the Gauls
were very little more fuccefsful than againft the Ro- Greeks,
mans. The firft of thefe we hear of was about 279
years before Chrift, in the year after Pyrrhus had in¬
vaded Italy. At this time, the Gauls finding them¬
felves greatly overftocked at home, fent out three great
colonies to conquer new countries for themfelves. One
of thefe armies was commanded by Brennus, another
by Ceretbrius, and the third by Belgius. The firft en¬
tered Pannonia or Hungary; the fecond Thrace;
and the third marched into Illyricum and Macedonia.
Here Belgius at firft met witli great fuccefs ; and en¬
riched himfelf by plunder to fuch a degree, that Bren-
r.us envying him, refolved to enter the fame countries,
in order to ftiare the fpoil. In a fhort time, however,
Belgius met with fuch a total defeat, that his army
was almoft entirely deftroyed; upon which Brennus
haftened to the fame place. His army at firft confift-
ed of 150,000 foot and 15,000 horfe : but two of his
principal officers revolted, and carried off 20,000 men,
with whom they marched into Thrace ; where, having
joined Cerethrius, they feized on Byzantium and the
weftern coaft of Propontis, making the adjacent parts
tributary to them.—To retrieve this lofs, Brennus fent
for frefii fupplies from Gaul; and having increafed his
army to 150,000 foot, and upwards of 60,000 horfe,
he entered Macedonia, defeated the general who op-
pofed him, and ravaged the whole country. He next
marched towards the ftraits of Thermopyls, with a
defign to invade Greece ; but was flopped by the
forces fent to defend that pafs againft him. He paf-
fed the mountains, however, as Xerxes^ had formerly
done; upon which the guards retired, to avoid being
furrounded. Brennus then, having ordered Xciche-
rius, the next to him in command, to follow at a di-
ftance with part of his army, marched with the bulk
of the forces to Delphi, in order to plunder the rich
temple there. This enterprife proved exceedingly urf-
fortunate: a great number of his men were deftroyed
4F by
G A u [ SO-
©anl. by a dreadful dorm of hail, thunder, and lightning ;
V. ■ ■ v—' another part of his^ army was deilroyed by an earth-
3 11 quake ; and the remainder, fome how or other, ima-
fi-e oTtheir §‘n'nS themfelres attacked by the enemy, fought a-
army. gaind each other the whole night, fo that in the morn¬
ing fcarce one half of them remained. The Greek
forces then poured in upon them from all parts ; and
that in fuch numbers, that though ^xichorius came
up in due time with his forces, Brennus found himfeif
unable to make head againft the Greeks, and was de¬
feated with great .(laughter. He himfeif was def-
perately wounded ; and fo diflieartened by his mif-
fortune, that, having afiembled all his chiefs, he advifed
them to ki!l all the wounded and difabled, and to make
the heft retreat they could ; after which he put an end
,to his own life. On this oecafion, it is faid that 20,cco
of thefe unhappy people were executed by their own
countrymen. Acichorius then fet out with the re¬
mainder for Gaul; but by being obliged to march
through the country of their enemies, the calamities
they met with by the way were Co grievous, that not
one of them reached their own country. A juft judge¬
ment, fay tbe Greek and Roman authors, for their ia-
crilegious intentions againft Delphi.
Gaul^in- ^ Romans having often felt the effeds of tbe
vaded by Gaulifh ferocity and courage, thought proper at laft,
the Ro- Jn order to humble them, to invade their country,
mans. Their firft fuccefsful attempt was about 118 years before
Chrift, under the command of, Quintus Marciijs, fur-
named Rex. He opened a way betwixt the Alps and
the Pyrenees, which, laid the foundation for conquer¬
ing the whole country. This was a work of immenfe
labour of itfelf, and rendered ftill more difficult by the
oppofition of the Gauls, efpccially thofe called the
Staeni, who lived at the foot of the Alps. Thefe peo¬
ple finding themfelves overpowered by the confular ar¬
my, fet fire to their houfes, killed their wives and chil¬
dren, and then threw themfelves into the flames. Af¬
ter this Marcius built the city of Narbonne, which be¬
came the capital of a province. His fucceflbr Scaurus
alfo conquered fome Gaulifii nations ; and in order to
facilitate the fending troops from Italy into that coun¬
try, he made feveral excellent roads between them,
which before were almoft impaffable. Thefe fuccefles
gave rife to the invafion of the Cimbri and Teutones;
an account of whofe unfortunate expedition is given un-
derthe articles Cimbri, Rome, Tuetones, &c.
From this time, the Gauls ceafed to be formidable
to the Romans, and even feem to have been for fome
lime on good terms with them. At laft, however,
the Helvetii kindled a war with the republic, which
brought Caefar over the Alps, and ended in the total
Surprifmg fubiedion of the country. Orgetorix was the firft
fuccefs of caiife of it ; who had engaged a vaft number of his
Julius Cae- countrymen to burn their towns and villages, and to
*ar» go in learch of new conquefts. Julius Caefar, to whofe
lot the whole country of Gaul had fallen, made fuch
hafte to come and fupprefs them, that he was got to
the Rhone in eight days ; broke down the bridge of
Geneva, and, in a few days more, finifhed the famed
wall between that city and mount Jura, now St Claude,
which extended feventeen miles in length, was fixteen
teet high, fortified with towers and caftles at proper
ftiftances, and a ditch that ran the whole length of
it. If his own account of it may. be relied upon, he
f 3 G A U
did not fet out till the beginning of April; and yet
this huge work was finiflied by the ides or 13th of the ”
month : fo that, fubtra&ing the eight days he was a-
coming, it muft have been all done in about five days s
a prodigious work, confidering he had but one legion
there, or even though the whole country had given
him affiftance. Whilft this was doing, and the rein¬
forcements he wanted were coming, he amufed the
Helvctii, who had fent to demand a pafiage through
the country of the AHobroges, till he had got his re¬
inforcements ; and then flatly refufed it to them 1
whereupon a dreadful battle enfued ; in which they loft
one hundred and thirty thoufand men, in fpite of all'
their valour ; befides a number of prifoners, among
whom was the wife and daughter of Orgetorix, the
leader of this unfortunate expedition. The reft fub-
nhtted, and begged they might be permitted to go-
and fettle among the Ai.dnri, from whom they original¬
ly fprung ; and, at the requeft of thefe laft, were per¬
mitted to go.
The Gauls were conftantly in a date of variance wn'th
one another ; and Csefar, who knew how to make the
moft of theft inteftine broils, foon became the protec¬
tor of the opprefled, a terror to the opprefibr, and the
umpire of all their contentions.. Among thofe who
applied to him for help, were his allies the Aidui; a-
gainft whom Arioviftus, king of the Germans, joined
with the Averni, who inhabited the banks of the Loire,
had taken the country of the Sequani from them, and
obliged them to fend hoftages to him. Caefar forth¬
with fent to demand the reftitution of both, and, in an
interview which he foon after obtained of that haughty
and treacherous prince, was like to have fallen a facri-
fice to his perfidy ; tipjon which he beut his whole
power againft him, forced him out of his ftrong in-
trenchments, and gave him a total overthrow. Ario¬
viftus efcaped, with difficulty, over the Rhine ; but his
two wives, and a daughter, with a great number of
Germans of diftin&ion, fell into the conqueror’s hand.
Csefar, after this fignal viftory, put his army into win¬
ter-quarters, whilft he went over the Alps to make the
neceflary preparations for the next campaign. By this ^
time all the Belgse in general were fo terrified at his confederacy
fuccefs, that they entered into a confederacy againft againft
the Romans as their common enemy. Of this, Labi- hira*
enus, who had been left in Gaul, fent Caefar notice ;
upon which he immediately left Rome, and made
fuch difpatch, that he arrived upon their confines in a-
bout fifteen days. On his arrival, the Rhemi fubmit-
ted to him ; but the reft, appointing Galba, king of
the Sueffones, general of all their forces, which a-
mounted to one hundred and fifty thoufand men,
marched directly againft him. Caefar, who had feized
on the bridge of the Axona, now Aifne, led his light
horfe and infantry over it; and whilft the others were y
encumbered in croffing that river, made fuch a terrible The Gauli-
flaughter of them, that the river was filled with their (5e/e^t,;t^a
dead, infomuch that their bodies ferved for a bridge to
6
5 A general
thofe who efcaped. This new vi&ory ftruck fuch ter¬
ror into the reft, that they difperfed themfelves; im¬
mediately after which, the Sueflbnes, Bellovaci, Am-
biones, and fome others, fubmitted to him. The Ner-
vii, indeed, joined with the Atrebates and Veromun-
dui againft them ; and having firft fecured their wives
and children, made a. vigorous refiftance for fome time;
but
G A U l 59S ] G A U
Gaul, but Were at lengtli defeated, and the greateft part of
  them flain. 'I he reft, with their wives and old men,
furrendered themfelves, and were allowed to live in their
own cities and towns as formerly. The Aduatici were
next fubdued ; and, for their treachery to the conquer¬
or, were fold for flaves, to the number of fifty thou-
fand. Young Craffus, the fon of the triumvir, fub¬
dued likewife feven other nations, and took poffeffion
of their cities ; which not only completed the conqueft
of the Bel^te, but brought feveral nations from beyond
the Rhine to fubmit to the conqueror. The Venet’,
or ancient inhabitants of Vannes in Brittany, who had
been likewife obliged to fend hoftages to the conquer-
cr, were, in the mean time, making great preparations
by fea and land to recover their liberty. Ctefar, then
in Illyricum, was forced to equip a fleet on the Loire ;
and having given the command of it to Brutus, went
and defeated them by land, as Brutus did by fea ; and
having put their chief men to death, fold the reft for
flaves. The Unelli, with Veridorix their chief, toge¬
ther with the Lexosii and Aulercii, were about the
fame time fubdued by Sabinus, and the Aquitani by
Craffus, with the lofs of thirty thoufand men. There
remained nothing but the countries of the Morini and
Menapii to be conquered of all Gaul. Casfar marched
himfelf againft them : but he found them fo well in¬
trenched in their inaccefhble fortreffes, that he con¬
tented himfelf with burning and ravaging their coun¬
try ; and having put his troops into winter-quarters,
again paffed over the Alps, to have a more watchful eye
on fume of his rivals there. He was, however, foon
after obliged to come to defend his Gaulifh conquefts
againft fome nations of the Germans, who were coming
to fettle there, to the number of four hundred thoufand.
Thefe he totally defeated, and then refolved to carry
his conquering arms into Germany : but for an ac-
g Count of his exploits there, fee the article Germany.
The Gauls Upon his* return into Gaul, he found it labouring
revolt, but under a great famine, which had caufed a kind of uni-
are tub- verfal revolt. Cotta and Sabinus, who were left in
<lut ‘ the country of the Eburones, now Liege, were betray¬
ed into an ambufh by Ambiorix, one of the Gaulifti
chiefs, and had mod of their men cut off. The Adu¬
atici had fallen upon Cicero, who was left there
with one legion, and had reduced him to great fti aits:
at the fame time Labienus, with his legion, was at¬
tacked by Indutiomarus, at the head of the Rheni
and Senones ; but had better luck than the reft, and,
by one bold fally upon them, put them to flight, and
killed their general. Csefar acquired no fmall credit by
quelling all thefe revolts; but each vidtory loft the lives of
fo manyof his troops, that he was forced to have recourfe
to Pompey fora frefli fupply, who readily granted him
two of his own legions to fecure his Gaulilh conquefts.
A ftcond But it was not long before the Gauls, ever reftlefs
revolt. under a foreign yoke, raifed up a new revolt, and 0-
bliged him to return thither. His fear left Pompey
fttould gain the affedtions of the Roman peopie, had
obliged him to ftrip the Gauls of their gold and lilver,
to bribe them over to his intereft ; and this gave no
ftnall handle to thofe frequent re\'olts which happened
during his abfence. He quickly, however, reduced
the Ncrvii, Aduatici, Menapii, and Treviri; the laft
of whom had raifed the revolt, under the command of
Ambiorix: but .he found the flame fpread much
farther, even to the greateft part of the Gaulif, who Caol.
had chofen Vercingetorix their generaliflimo. Ctefar
was forced to leave Infubria, whither he had retired
to watch the motions of Pompey, and, in the midll
of winter and fnow, to repafs the Alps into the pro¬
vince of Narbonne. Here he gathered his fcattered
troops with all poffible fpeed; and, in fpite of the hard
weather, befiged and took Noviodunum, now Noy-,
ons; and defeated Vercingetorix, Who was come to
the relief of that place. He next to Jc the city of
Avaricum, now Bourges, one of the ftrongeft in Gaul,
and which had a garrifon of forty thoufand men ; of
whom he made fuch a dreadful flaughter, that hardly
eight hundred efcaped. Whilft he was befit ging Ger-
govia, the capital of the Arverni, he was informed
that the Nitiobriges, or Agenois, v/ere in arms; and
that the iEdui were fending to Vercingetorix ten thou¬
fand men, which they were to have fent to reinforce
Csefar. Upon this news, he left Fabius to carry on
the fiege, and matched againft the iEdui. Thefe,
upon his approach, fubmitted, in appearance, and
were pardoned ; but foon after that whole nation rofe
up in arms, and murdered all the Italian troops in their
capital. Ctefar, at this, was in great ftraits what
meafures to take ; but refolved at length to raife the
fiege of Gergovia, and at once attack the enemy’s
camp, which he did with fome fuccefs; but when he
thought to have gone to Noviodunum, or Noyons,
where his baggage, military cheft, &c. were left, he
heard that the JEdui had carried it off, and burnt the
place. Labienus, juftly thinking that Caefar would
want his affiftance in the condition he now was, went
to join him, and in his way defeated a Gaulifh gene¬
ral named Camulogeno, who came to Oppofe his march :
but this did not hinder the revolt from fpreading itfelf
all over Celtic Gaul, whither Vercingetorix had ferit
forfrefti fupplies, and, in the mean time, attacked Cae¬
far ; but was defeated, and forced to retire to Alefia,
a ftrong place, now Alife in Burgundy, as is fuppo-
fed. Hither Caefar haftened, and befieged him ; and,
haring drawn a double circumvallation, with a defign
to ftarve him in it, as he was likely to have done, up¬
on that account refufed all offers of a furrender from
him. At length, the long-expe&ed reinforcement
came, confifting of 160,000 men, under four gene¬
rals : thefe made feveral fruitlefs attacks on Caefar’s r»
trenches; but were defeated in three feveral battles,They are
which at length obliged Vercingetorix to furrender at ^ral" fub'
diferetion. Caefar ufed all his prifoners with great fe- UC ‘
verity, except theiEdui and Arverni, by whofe means
he hoped to gain their nations, which were the mofl
potent of Celtic Gaul: nor was he difappointed ; for
both of them fubmitted to him, and the former re¬
ceived him into the capital, where he fpent the winter,
after he put his army into winter-quarters. This
campaign, as it proved one of the hardeft he ever had,
fo he gained more glory by it than any Roman gene¬
ral had done before: yet could not at all by this pro¬
cure from the fervile fenate, now wholly dedicated to
his rival, a prolongation of his proconfulfhip ; upon
which he is reported to have laid his hand upon his
fword, and faid, that that fhould do it.
He was as good as his word ; and the Gauls, upon
their former ill fuccefs, refolving to have as many fe-
parate armies as provinces, in order to embarrafs him
4 F 2 the
G A U [ CC.6 ] G A U
t’ne more, Cacfar, and his generals Labienus and Fa-
v—"‘- bins, were forced to fight them one after another ;
which they did, however, with 1'uch fuccefs, that,
notwithllanding the hardnefs’ of the feafon, they fub-
dued the Bituriges, Carnuti, Rhemi, and Bellovaci,
with their general Corretis, by which he at once quiet¬
ed all the Belgic provinces bordering on Celtic Gaul.
The next who followed were the Treviri, the Eburo-
n.es, and the Andes, under their general Dunmarus.
The/laft place which held out againlt him was Uxel-
lodunum ; which was defended by the two lall acting
generals of the Gauls. Drapes, the Senonian, and
Luterius the Cadurcean. The place being llrong,
and well garrifoned, Caefar was obliged to march thi¬
ther, from the fartheft part of Belgic Gaul; and foon
after reduced it, for want of water. Here again he
caufed the right-hands of all that were fit to bear
ix arms to be cut off, to deter the reft from revolting a-
Gaul redu- frefh. Thus was the conqueft of Gaul finiflied from
ced to a A]pS an3 Pyrenees to the Rhine, all which vaft:
vince. ” traftwas now reduced to a Roman province under the
government of a praetor. During his feveral expedi¬
tions into Gaul, Caefar is faid to have taken Bco cities;
to have fuhdued 300 different nations; and to have de¬
feated, in feveral battles, three millions of men, of
whom one million were killed, and another taken pri-
foners.—The hiltory of the country, from the time of
its conqueft by the Romans to the prefent, is given
Ia under the articles Rome and France.
Charaifter, The.Gauls anciently were divided into a great num-
&c of the her of different nations, which were continually at war
™ with one another, and at variance among themfelves.
aU ** Ctefar tells us, that not only all their cities, cantons,
and diftridts, but even almoft all families, were divided
and torn,by fadtions ; and thus undoubtedly facilitated
the conqueft; of the whole. The general charadler
of all thefe people was an exceffive ferocity and love of
liberty. This laft they carried to fuch an extreme,
that either on the appearance of fervitude, or incapa¬
city of adtion through old age, wounds, or chronic
difeafes, they put an end to their own lives, or pre¬
vailed upon their friends to kill them. In cities, when
they found themfelves fo ftraitly befie.ged that they
Could hold out no longer, inftead of thinking how to
obtain honourable terms of capitulation, their chief
care very often was to put their wives and children to
death, and then to kill one another, to avoid being
ltd into flavery. Their exceffive love of liberty and
contempt of death, according to Strabo, very muck,
facilitated their conqueft by Caefar for pouring their
numerous forces upon fuch an experienced enemy as
Caefar, their want of condu<9t very foon proved the ruin
of the whole.
The chief diverfion of the Gauls was hunting ; and.
indeed, ponfidering the «aft forefts with which, their,
country abounded, and the multitude of wild beafts
which lodged in them, they were under an abfolute
neceffity to bunt and deftroy them, to prevent the
\ country from being rendered totally uninhabitable.
Befides this, however, they had alfo their hippodromes,
horfe and chariot races, tilts and tournaments; at all
of which the bards affifted with their poems, fougs,..
and mufical inftruments.-^For an account of their re¬
ligion, fee the article Druid.
The Gauls were exeeffively fond of fcafting, in
which they were vary profufe ; as, like all other nor- Gankniti*
them nations, they were great lovtrs of good eating if
and drinking. Their chief liquors were beer and G:iunt °Pe‘
wine. Their tables were very low. They eat hut little,
bread, which was baked flat and hard, and eaiily bro¬
ken in pieces: but devoured a great deal of fldhy
boiled, roafted, or,broiled ; and this they did in a very
Ibvenly manner, holding the piece in their hands,
and tearing it with their teeth. What they could not
part by this way, they cut with a little knife which
hung at their girdle. When the company was nume¬
rous, the Coryphee, or chief of the fealt, who was
either one of the richeft, or nobleft, or braveft, fat in
the middle, with the mailer of thf houfe by his fide ;
the reft took their places next according to their rank,
having their fervants holding their Ihields behind them.
Thefe leal'ts feidom fended without bioodlhed ; but if
by chance the feaft proved a peaceable one, it was ge¬
nerally accompanied not only with mufic and fongs, but
likewife with dances, in which the dancers were armed
cap-a-pee, and beat time with their fwords upon their
lh:elds. On certain feftiyals they were wont to drefs
themfelves in the fkins of beafts, and in that attire ac¬
company the proc*flions in honour of their deities or
heroes. Others drefffed themfelves in maiquerade ha¬
bits, fome of them very indecent, and pi -yed feveral
antic and imirtodeft tricks. This laft cullom continued
long after their converfion to Chriftianity.
GAULANITIS,orGAULONiris,( Joi'ephus); (ance
geog.) according to the different manner of writing the;
capital, Golan or Gaulon; the extreme part of Ba-
(ban to the fouth, and bordering on the tribe of Gad.
It was divided into the Superior, which to the call ex¬
tended to Arabia ; and into the Inferior, which lay.on
the lake of Genefareth, (Jofephus).
GAULON, or Golan, the capital of the Gaulanitia
Superior; a Levitical city and place of refuge, (Mofes,
Jolhua).
GAULOS, (anc. geog.) a fmall ifland of Sicily,
in the African fea, adjoining to Melite or Malta ;
with commodious harbours; a colony of Phoenicians,
with a cognominal town. Gaulonitae, the people,
(Infcription). Now called Gwso,five, miles to the well
of Malta.
GAULTHERIA, in botany: A genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the decandria clafs o£
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
18th order, Bicoi~nes. The exterior calyx is diphyl-
lous, the interior qutnquefid ; the.corolla ovate; the
nedlariiun confifts of ten fubulated points. The cap-
fule is quinquelocular, covered with the-interior . calyx,
formed in the lhape of a berry.;
GAUNT-bellied, in the manege, is faid of a
horfe whofe belly Ihrinks up towards his flanks.
GAUNTLET. See Gantlet.
GAUNTLOPE, pronounced Gauntlet, a military
punilhroent for felony, or fame other heinous offence.
In wjfels of war, it is executed in the following-man¬
ner. The whole (hip’s crevy is djfpofed in two rows.
Handing face to face on both fides of the deck, fo as
to form a line whereby to go forward on one fide, and
return aft on the other; each perfon being furniflied
with a fmall twilled cord, called a knittle, having two
or three knots upon it. The delinquent is then dripped
naked above the wailt, and. ordered to pafs forward
between
G A TT [ 597 1 GAY
Gavi«s between the two rows of men, an l aft cn the other
^ ^ hde, a certain number of times, rarely exceeding three;
",au e~ , during which every perfon gives him a ftripe ashe runs
along. In his palfage through this painful ordeal, he
is fometimes tripped up, and very feverdy handled
while incapable of proceeding. This punilhment, which
is called running the. gauntlet, is fddom in Sifted, except
for fuch crimes as-will naturally excite a general antipa¬
thy among the fea-men ; as, on foine occafions, the cul¬
prit would pafs without receiving a Angle blow, parti¬
cularly in cafes of mutiny and fedition, to the punilh-
ment of which our failors feem to have a conftitutional
averfion.
In the Iflnd-fervice, when a foldier is fentenced to
run the gauntlope, the regiment is drawn out in two
ranks facing each other; each foldier, having afwitch
in his hand, ladies the criminal as he runs along naked
from the waift Upwards. While he runs, the drums
beat at each end of the ranks. Sometimes he runs
three, five, pr feven times, according to the nature of
the offence. The major is on horfeback, and takes
care that each foldier does his duty.
GAVIES, or Gaurs. See Gabres.
GAVOTTA, or Gavotte, is a kind of dance, the
air of which has two bride and lively drains iu common
time, each of which ftrains is twice played over. The
firff has ufually four or eight bars; and the fecond con¬
tains eight, twelve, or more. The firll begins with a
minim, or two crotchets, or notes of equal value, and
the hand riling ; and ends with the fall of the hand
upon the dominant or mediant of the mode, but never
upon the final, unlefs it be a rondeau; and the laff be¬
gins with the rife of the hand, and ends with the fall
upon the final of the mode.
Tempi di Gai'otta, is when only the time or move¬
ment of a gavotte is imitated, without any regard to
the meafure or number of bars or drains.—Little airs
are often found in fonatas, which have this phrafe to
regulate their motions.
GAURA, in botany : A genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the oftandria clafs of plants ; and.
in the natural method ranking under the 17th order,,
Calycantherme. The calyx is quadrifid and tubular;
the corolla pentapetalous, with the petals rifing up¬
wards. The nut is inferior, monofpermous, and qua-,
dningular.
GAUSE, or Gawse, in commerce, a very thin,
flight, tranfparent kind of duff, woven fometimes of
fdk, and fometimes only of thread.—To warp the
filk for making of gaufe, they ufe a peculiar kind of
mill, upon which the filk'is wound : this mill is a
wooden machine about fix, feet high, having, .an axis,
perpendicularly placed in the middle thereof, with fix
large wings, on which the filk is wound from off the.
bobbins by the ..axis turning, found. When- all the
filk is on the mill, they ufe another inftrument to wind
it off again on two beams : this done, the filk is pafs-
ed through as many little beads as there are threads of
filk; and thus rolled on another beam to fupply the
loom.
The gaufe-loom is much like that of the common
weavers, though it has feveral appendages peculiar
thereto. See Loom.
There are figured gaufes ; Jbme with flowers of gold
and filver, on a filk ground: thefe lad are chiefly
brought from China.
GAY (John), a celebrated Englifh poet, defeend-
ed from an ancient family in Devonfhire, was born at
Exeter, and received his education at the free fchool
bf Barndapl: in that county, under the care of Mr
William Rayner.—He was bred a meveer in the
Strand ; but having a fmall fortune, independent of
bufinefs, and confidering the attendance on a fhop as
a degradation of thofe talents which he found himfelf
poflefTed of, he quitted that occupation, and applied
himfelf to other views, and'to the indulgence of his
inclination for the mufes. In 1712 we find him fecre-
tary, or rather domeftic fteward, to the dur.hefs of
Mon-mouth, in which ftation he continued till the be¬
ginning of the year 17(4 ; at which time he accompa¬
nied the earl of Clarendon to Hanover, whither that
nobleman w'as difpatched by Queen Anne. In the lat¬
ter.end of the fame year, in confequence of the queen’s
death, he returned to England, where he lived in the
higheff eftimation and intimacy of friend-lhip with
many perfons of the firff diftinftion both in rank and
abilities.—He was even particularly taken notice ofby
Queen Caroline, then princefs of Wales, to whom he
had the honour of reading in manufeript his tragedy of
the Captivei ; and in 1726 dedicated his Fables, by
permiffion, to the duke of Cumberland.—From this
countenance fit own to him, and numberlefs promifes
made him of preferment, it was reafonable to fupp»fe,
that he would have been genteelly-provided for in fome
office fuitable to his inclination and abilities. Inftead
of which, in 1727; he was offered the place of gentle-
man-uffier to one of the youngeff princeffes ; an office
which, as he looked on it as rather an indignity to a
man whofe talents might have been fo much better em¬
ployed, he thought proper to refufe; and feme pretty
warm remonftrances were made on the occafion by his
. fincere friends and zealous patrons the duke and du-
chefs of Qijeenfberry, which* terminated in thofe two
noble perfonages withdrawing from court in difguft.
Mr Gay’s dependencies on the promifes of the great,
and the difappointments he met-with, he has figu¬
ratively deferibed in his fable of the/fare with many
friends. ' However, the very extraordinary fuccefs he
met with from public encouragement made an ample
amends, both with refpeft to fatisfaftion and emolu¬
ment, for thofe private difappointments.—For, in the
feafort of 1727--8, appeared his Beggar’s Opera; the
vaft fuccefs of which was not only .unprecedented, but
almoft incredible.— It had an uninterrupted run in
London of 63 nights in the firft feafon, and was re¬
newed in the enfuing one with equal approbation. It
fpread into all the great towns of England ; was play¬
ed in many places to the 30th and 40th time, and at
Bath and Briftol 50; made its progrefs into Wales,
Scotland, and Ireland,- in which lafl place it wasafted
for 24 fucceffive.nights ; and laft of all it was performed
at Minorca. Nor was the fame of it confined to the
reading and reprefentatioH alone, for the card-table
and drawing-room (hared with the theatre and clofet
in this refpeft; the ladies carried -about the favourite,
fongs of it engraven upon their fan-mounts, and fereens
and other pieces of furniture were decorated with the
fame. In fliort, the fatire of this piece was fo Itri-
kingj
GAY [ SOS ] G A Z
king, fo apparent, and foperfeftly adapted to the i aft;
of all degrees of people, that it overthrew the Italian
opera, that Dagon of the nobility and gentry, whifch
had fo long feduced them to idolatry, and which
Dennis, by the labours and outcries of a whole life,
and many other writers by the force of reafon and re-
fleftion, had in vain endeavoured to drive from the
throne of public tafte. The profits of this piece was
fo very great, both to the author and Mr Rich the
manager, that it gave rife to a quibble, which became
frequent in the mouths of many, viz. That it had made
Rich gay, and Gay rich ; and it has been afferted, that
the author’s own advantages from it were not lefs
than 2000 1. In confequence of this fuccefs, Mr
Gay was induced to write a fecond part to it, which he
intitled Polly. But the difgufl fubliding between him
and the court, together with the mifreprefentations
made of him as having been the author of fome dif-
ftffedted libels and feditious pamphlets, occafioned a
prohibition and fuppreflion of it to be fent from the
lord chamberlain, at the very time when every thing
■was in readinefs for the rehearfal of it. A very con-
fiderable fum, however, accrued to him from the pub¬
lication of it afterwards in quarto.—Mr Gay wrote
feveral other pieces in the dramatic way, and many
very valuable ones in verfe. Among the latter, his
Trivia, or the Art of walking the Jlreets of London, tho’
his firft poetical attempt, is far from being the leaf!
confiderable, and is what recommended him to the
efteem and friendfhip of Mr Pope: but as, among
his dramatic works, his Beggar's Opera did at firft, and
perhaps ever will, Hand as an unrivalled mafter-piece,
io, among his poetical works, his Fables hold the fame
rank of eftimation, the latter having been almoft as u-
riiverfally read as the former was reprefented, and both
equally admired. Mr Gay’s difpofition was fweet and
affable, his temper generous, and his converfation a-
greeable and entertaining. But he had one foible, too
frequently incident to men of great literary abilities,
and which fubjected him at times to inconveniences
which otherwife he needed not to have experienced,
viz. an excefs of indolence, without any knowledge of
economy. So that, though his emoluments were, at
fome periods of his life, very confiderable, he was at
others greatly ftraitened in his circumftances; nor
could he prevail on himfelf to follow the advice of his
friend Dean Swift, whom we find in many of his let¬
ters endeavouring to perfuade him to the purchafirig
of an annuity, as a referve for the exigencies that
might attend on old age.—Mr Gay chofe rather to
throw himfelf on patronage, than fecure to himfelf
an independent competency by the means pointed out
to him ; fo that, after having undergone many vi-
ciffitudes of fortune, and being for fome time chiefly
fupported by the liberality of the duke and duchefs
of Queenlberry, he died at their houfe in Burlington-
gardens, in December 1732. He was interred in
Weftminfter-abbey, and a monument erefted to bis
memory, at the expence of his aforementioned noble
benefaftors, with an infeription exprefilve.of their re¬
gards and his own deferts, and an epitaph in verfe by
Mr Pope.
GAZA (Theodore), a famous Greek in the 15th
century, was born in 1398. His ^country being in-
traded by the Turks, he retired into Italy; where he
at firft fuppOrted himfelf by tranferibing ancient au- Gaza
thors, an employment the learned had frequent re- il
courfe to before the invention of printing. His un-, Gazna-
common parts and learning foon recommended him to
public notice ; and particularly to cardinal Beflarion,
who procured him a benefice in Calabria. He was
one of thofe to whom the revival of polite literature
in Italy was principally owing. He tranflated from
the Greek into Latin, Ariftotle’s Hiftory of Animals,
Theophraftus on £lants> and Hippocrates’s Apho-
rifms ; and put into Greek, Scipio’s Dream, and Ci¬
cero’s Treatife on Old Age. He wrote feveral other
works in Greek and Latin j and died at Rome in
GAZA, (anc. geog.), a principal city and one of
the five fatrapies of the Philiftines. It was fituated a-
bout 100 ftadia from the Mediterranean, on an artifi¬
cial mount, and ftrongly walled round. It was de-
ftroyed by Alexander the Great, and afterwards by
Antiochus. In the time of the Maccabees it was a
ftrong and flourilhing city; but was deftroyed a third
time by Alexander Jannaeus. At prefent it has a mi-
ferabie appearance. 1. he buildings are mean, both as
to the form and matter. Some remains of its ancient
grandeur appear in the handfome pillars of Parian
marble which fupport fome of the roofs ; while others
are difpofed of here and there, in different parts of al¬
moft every beggarly cottage. On the top of the hill,
at the north eaft corner of the town, are the ruins of
large arches funk low into the earth, and other foun¬
dations of a {lately building, from whence fome of
the bafhaws have carried off marble pillars of an in¬
credible fize. The caftle is a contemptible ftruflure,
and the port is ruined. E. Long, 34. 55. N. Lat.
31. 28.
GAZE-hound, or Gaf-hound, one that makes more
ufe of his fight than of his nofe. Such dogs are much
ufed in the north of England : they are fitter in an
open champaign country than in bufhy and woody
places. If at any time a well-taught gaze-hound takes
a wrong way, he will return upon a fignal and begin
the chace afrefh. Pie is alfo excellent at fpying out the
fatteft of a herd ; and having feparated it from the
reft, will never give over the purfuit till he has worried
it to death.
GAZEL, in zoology, a fpecies of Capra.
GAZETTE, a newfpaper, or printed account of
the tranfaclions of ail the countries in the known world,
in a loofe fheet or half-ftieet. This name is with us
confined to that paper of news publifhed by authority.
The word is derived from ga%etta, a Venetian coin,
which was the ufual price of the firft nevvfpaper print¬
ed there, and which was afterwards given to the paper
itfelf.
The firft gazette in England was publifhed at Ox¬
ford, the court being there, in a folio half-fheet,
Nov. 7. 1665. On the removal of the court to Lon¬
don, the title was changed to the London Gazette. The
Oxford gazette was publifhed on Tuefdays, the Lon¬
don on Saturdays: and thefe have continued to be the
days of publication ever fince.
GAZNA, a city of Afia, once much celebrated,
and the capital of a very extenfive empire ; but which
is now either entirely ruined, or become of fo little
confideration, that it is not taken notice ef in our
3 books
G A Z [ 599 1 G A Z
Gazna. books of geography.—This city was anciently an em-
pory and forlrefs of Sableftan, not far from the con¬
fines of India. Daring the vaft and rapid conquefts
of the Arabs, all this country had been reduced under
their fubje&ion. On the decline of the power of the
khalifs, however, the vafl: empire eftablifhed by Ma¬
homet and his fucceffors was divided into a number of
independent principalities, mod of which were but of
fhort duration. In the year of the Hegira 381, an-
fwering to the 994th of the Ciiridian era, the city of
Gazna, with fome part of the adjacent country, was
governed by Mahmud Gazni ; who became a great
conqueror, and reduced under his fubjedlion a confi-
derable part of India, and molt of Perfia.
This empire continued in the family of Mahmud
Gazni for upwards of 200 years. None of his fuc-
ceffors, however, -were poifeffed of his abilities ; and
therefore the extent of the empire, inftead of increa-
fing, was very conliderably diminjfhed foon after Mah¬
mud’s death. The Seljuks made themfelves mailers of
Khorafan, and could not be driven out; the greateft
part of the Perfian dominions alfo fell off; and in the
547th year of the Hegira, the race of Gazni fultans
were entirely fet afide by one Gauri, who conquered
Khofru Shah the reigning prince, and beftowed his
dominions on his own nephew Gayathoddin Moham¬
med. Thefe new fultans proved greater conquerors
than the former, and extended theft dominions farther
than even Mahmud Gazni himfelf had done. They did
not, however, long enjoy the fovereignty of Gazna; for
in 1218, Jenghiz Khan having conquered the greatdt
part of China and almoft all Tartary, began to turn
his arms weftward; and fet out againil the fultan of
Gazna at the head of 709,000 men.
To oppofe this formidable army, Mohammed, the
reigning fultan, could mufter only 400,000 men; and,
in the firft battle, 160,000 of his troops are faid to have
perilhed. After this vidlory, Jenghiz Khan advanced ;
Mohammed not daring to rilk a fecond battle, the lofs
of which would have been attended with the entire
ruin of his kingdom. He therefore difMbuted his
army among the ftrongeft fortified towns he had in his
dominions ; all of which Jenghiz Khan took one after
another. The rapid progrefs of his conquefts, in¬
deed, almoft exceeds belief. In 1219 and 1220, he
had reduced Zarnuk, Nur, Bokhara, Otrar, Saga-
nak, Uzkant, Allhalh, Jund, Tonkat, Khojend, and
Samarcand. —Mohammed, in the mean time, fled firft
to Bokhara; but on the approach of Jenghiz Khan’s ar¬
my, quitted that place, and fled to Samarcand. When
this laft city was alfo in danger of being invefted, the
fultan did not think proper to truft himfelf in it more
than in the other, though it was garrifoned by 110,000
of his hraveft troops ; and therefore fled through by¬
ways into the province of Ghilan in Perfia, where he
took refuge in a ftrong fortrefs called EJlabad. But
being alfo fouq^out in this retreat, he fled to an ifland
in the Cafpian fea called Ab'ifkun ; where he ended his
days, leaving his empire, fuch as it was, to his fon Ja-
loloddin.
The new fultan was a man of great bravery and ex¬
perience in war ; but nothing was able to flop the pro¬
grefs of the Moguls. In 1220 and 1221, they made
themfelves matters of all the kingdoms of Karazim and
Khorafan, committing every where fuch m&ffacres as
were never heard of before nr fince that time. In the Gszaa-
mean time Jaloloddin affembled his forces with the v’""'1
utmoft diligence, and defeated two detachments of the
Mogul army. This happened while Jenghiz Khan
was befieging Bamiyan ; but anfwered little other pur-
pofe, than ferving to bring upon that city the terrible
deftru&ion, of which an account is given under the ar-r
tide Bamiyan. Immediately after the redu&ion of
that city, Jenghiz Khan marched towards Gazna 5
which was very ftrongly fortified, and where he expec¬
ted to have found Jaloloddin. But he had left the
place 15 days before; and, as Jenghiz Khan’s army
was much reduced, he might perhaps have flood his
ground, had it not been for an accident. He had
been lately joined by three Turkifli commanders, each
of whom had a body of 10,000 men under his com¬
mand. After his vidories over the Moguls, thefe
officers demanded the greateft fhare of the fpoils ;
which being refufed, they feparated themfelves from
the fultan. He ufed his utmoft endeavours to make
them hearken to reafon ; and fent feveral meflages
and letters to them, reprefenting the inevitable ruin
which muft attend their feparation, as Jenghiz Khan
was advancing againil them with his whole army. At
laft they were perfuaded to lay afide their animofi-
ties : but it was now too late ; for Jenghiz Khan, be¬
ing informed of what palled, detached 60,000 horfe
to prevent their joining the fultan’sarmy ; who, find¬
ing himfelf deprived of this powerful aid, retired to¬
wards the river Indus. When he was arrived there,
he flopped in a place where the ftreatn was moft rapid
and the place confined, with a view both to pre¬
vent his foldiers from placing any hopes of fafety in
flight, and to hinder the whole Mogul army from at¬
tacking him at once. Ever fince his departure from
Gazna he had been tormented with a colic : yet, at a>.
time when he fuffered moft, hearing that the enemy’s
vanguard was arrived at a place in the neighbourhood
called Herder, he quitted his litter, and, mounting a
horfe, marched with fome of his chofen foldiers in the
night; furprifed the Moguls in their camp; and ha¬
ving cut them almoft all in pieces, without the lofs of
a Angle man on his fide, returned with a confiderable
booty.
Jenghiz Khan, finding by this that he had a vigi¬
lant enemy to deal with, proceeded with great circum-
fpe&ion. When he came near the Indus, he drew out
his army in battalia : to Jagatay, one of his fons, he
gave the command of the .right wing ; to Oktay,
another fon, he gave the command of the left: and
put himfelf in the centre, with 6ooo of his guards.
On the other fide, Jaloloddin prepared for battle like
one who had no refource but in vi&ory. He firft fent
the boats on the Indus farther off; reierving only one
to carry over his mother, wife, and children: but un¬
luckily the boat fplit when they were going to embark*
f; that they were forced to remain in the camp. The
fultan took to himfelf the command of the main body
of the army. His left wing, drawn up under flicker
of a mountain which hindered the whole right wing
of the Moguls from engaging at once, was command¬
ed by his vizir ; and his right by a lord named Amin
Malek. This lord began the fight; and forced the
enemy’s left wing, notwithllanding the great difparity
of numbers, to give ground. The right wing of the
Me-
G A Z r 660 1 G E D
Moguls likewife wanting room to extend itfelf, the ful-
tan made ufe of his left as a body of referve, detaching
from thence fome' fquadrons to the affiftance of the
troops who Hood in need of them. He alfo took one
part of them with him when he went at the head of
his main body to charge that of Jenghiz Khan; which
he did with fa much refolution and vigour, that he not
only put it in diforder, but penetrated into the place
where Jenghiz Khan had originally taken his ftation :
but that prince, having had a horfe killed under him,
was retired from thence, to give orders for all the
troops to engage.
This difadvantage had like to have loft the Moguls
the battle $ for a report being immediately fpread that
the enemy had broken through the main body, the
troops were fo much difcouraged, that they would cer¬
tainly have fled, had not Jerighiz Khan encouraged
them by riding from place to place in order to fliow
himfelf. At laft, however, Jaloloddin’s men, who
were in all but 30,000, having fought a whole day
with ten times their number, were feized with,fear,
and fled. One part of them retired to the rocks which
were on the fliore of Indus, where the enemy’s horfe
. could not follow them ; others threw ^hemfelves into
the river, where many were drowned, though fome had
the good fortune to erofs over in fafety ; while the reft,
furrounding their prince, continued the fight through
defpair. The fultan, however, confidexing that he
had fcarce 7000 men left, began to think of providing
for his own fafety : therefore, having bidden a final
adieu to his mother, wife, and children, he mounted a
frefti horfe, and fpurred him into the river, which he
crofled in fafety, and even flopped in the middle of it
to infult Jenghiz Khan, who was now arrived at the
bank. His family fell into the hands of the Moguls ;
who killed all the males, and carried the women into
captivity.
Jaloloddin being now fecurely landed in India, got
up into a tree, in order to preferve himfelf from wild
beafts. Next day, as he walked melancholy among
the rocks, he perceived a troop of his foldiers, with
fome officers, three of whom proved to be his particu¬
lar friends. Thefe, at the beginning of the defeat,
had found a boat in which they had failed all night,
with much danger from the rocks, fhelves, and rapid
current of the river. Soon after, he faw 300 horfe
coming towards him ; who informed him of 4000 more
that had efcaped by fwimming over the river; and
thefe alfo foon after joined the reft. In the mean time
an officer of his houfehold, named Jamalarrazad,
knowing that his mafter and many of his people were
efcaped, ventured to load a very large boat with arms,
provifions, money, and fluff to clothe the foldiers.;
with which he crofted the river. For this important
fervice Jaloloddin made him fteward of his houfehold,
and furnamed him the Chofen, or the Glory of the faith.
For Tome time after, the fultan’s affairs feemed to go
on profperoufly : he gained fome battles in India; but
the princes of that country, envying his profperity,
confpired againft him, and obliged him to repafs the
Indus. Here he again attempted to make head againft
the Moguls; but was at laft defeated and killed by
■them, and a final end put to the once mighty empire
: <»f Gazna.
:N°I35.
The metropolis was reduced by Oktay; who no Gebres
fooner entered the country in which it was fituated,
than he committed the moft horrid craelties. The ^
city was well provided with all things neceffary for
fuftainiug a fiege ; had a flrong garrifon, and a brave
and refolute governor. The inhabitants, expedling
no mercy from Jenghiz Khan, who they knew had
fworn their ruin, were refolved to make a defperate
defence. They made frequentTallies on the befiegers,
feveral times overthrew their works, and broke above
100 of their battering rams. But one night, after an
•obflinate fight, part of the city-walls fell down; and
a great number of Moguls having filled up the ditch,
entered the city fword-in-hand. The governor per¬
ceiving all was loft, at the head of his braveft foldiers
rufhed into the thickeft of his enemies, where he and his
followers were all flain. However, Gazna wasnotentire-
ly deftroyed, nor were the people all killed ; for after
the maffacre had continued four or five hours, Oktay
ordered it to ceafe, and taxed thofe who were left alive
at a certain rate, in order to redeem themfelves and
the city. It does not, however, appear that after this
time the city of Gazna ever made any confiderable
figure.—It was taken by the Moguls in the year 1222.
GEBRES. See Gabres.
GECCO, in natural hiftory, a name given by the
Indians to their terrible poifon, which kills when mixed
with the blood in ever fuch a fmall quantity. They
fay that this gecco is a venomous froth or humour
vomited out of the mouths of their moft poifonous fer-
pents ; which they procure in this fatal ftrength, by
hanging up the creatures by .the tails, and whipping
them to enrage them : they colled! this in proper vef-
fels as it falls ; and when they would ufe it, they either
poifon a weapon with it, or wounding any part of
the fiefli introduce the fmalleft quantity imaginable
into it; and this is faid to be immediate death.
GECKO. See Lacerta.
GED (William), an ingenious though unfuccefsful
artift, who was a goldfmith in Edinburgh, deferves to
be recorded for his attempt to introduce an improve¬
ment in the art of printing. The invention, firft
praftifed by Ged in 1735, was fimply this. From any
types of Greek or Roman, or any other chara&er, he
formed a plate for every page, or ftieet, of a book,
from which he printed, inftead of ufing a type for e-
very letter, as is done in the common way. This was
firft pradlifed, but on blocks of wood, by the Chinefe
and Japanefe, and purfued in the firft effays of Cofter
the European inventor of the prefent art. “ This im¬
provement (fays James Ged the inventor’s Ton) is prin¬
cipally confiderabk in three moft important articles,
viz. expence, corredtnefs, beauty and uniformity.” But
thefe improvements are controverted.
In July 1729, William Ged entered into partner-
fhip with William Fenner, a London ftationer, who
was to have half the profits, in confideration of his
advancing all the money requifite. To fupply this,
Mr John James, then an architedl at Greenwich (who
built Sir Gregory Page’s houfe, Bloomfbury church,
&c.) was taken into the fcheme, and afterwards his
brother Mr Thomas James, a letter-founder, and James
Ged the inventor’s fon. In 1730, thefe partners ap¬
plied to the univetfity of Cambridge for printing biblet
.-a-nd.
GEL r <5oi 1 G F
GetWes and common-prayer books by blocks indead of fingle
jl . types; and, in confequence, a leafe was fealed to them
April 23d 1731. In their attempt they funk a large
« fum of money, and finifhed only two prayer-books; fo
that it was forced to be relinquifhed, and the leafe was
given up in 1738. Ged imputed his difappointment
to the villany of the prefsmen and the ill treatment of
his partners (which he fpecifies at large), particularly
Fenner, whom John James and he were advifed to profe-
•cute, but declined it. He returned to Scotland in 1733,
where he gave his friends a fpecimen of his perform¬
ance, by an edition of Sallult. But being ftill un-
fuccefsful, and having failed in obtaining redrefs from
Fenner, who died infolvent, he was preparing again to
fet out for London, in order to join with his fon James
as a printer there, when he died Oftober 19. 1749.
Thus ended his life and projeft; which, ingenious as it
feems, is not likely to be revived, if, as Mr Mores fug-
gefts, “ it muft, had it at firft fucceeded, have foon
funk under its own burden,” for reafons ncedlefs here
to recapitulate.
GEDDES (James), born of a refpe&able family
in Scotland in 1710, was educated for and prac-
tifed at the bar feveral years ; but died of a confump-
tion before he arrived at the age of 40. He publilhed
sin ejfay on the compojition and manner of 'writing of the
ancients ; and left behind him feveral other tracts.
GEHENNA, a fcripture term, which has given
fome pain to the critics. It occurs in St Matthew
v. 22. 29. 30. x. 28. xviii. 9. xxiii. 15. 33. Mark ix.
43. 45. 47. Luke xii. 5. James iii. 6.
The authors of the Louvain and Geneva verfions re¬
tain the word gehenna as it Hands in the Greek; the
like does M. Simon : the Englifh tranflators render
it by hell and hell-fre, and fo do the tranflators of Mons
and father Bohours.
The word is formed from the Ylebvzvrgehinnom, i. e.
“ valley of Hinnom.” In that valley, which was near
Jerufalem, there was a place named Tophet, where fome
Jews facrificed their children to Moloch, by making
them pafs through the fire. King Jofias, to render
this place for ever abominable, made a cloaca or com¬
mon fewer thereof, where all the filth and carcafes in
the city were call.
The Jews obferve farther, that there was a continual
jfire kept up there, to burn and confume thofe carcafes;
for which reafon, as they had no proper term in their
language to fignify hell, they made ufe of that of gehenna
or gehinnon, to denote a fire unextinguiflrable.
GEL A (anc. geog.), a city of great extent on the
fouth of Sicily, taking its name from the river Gelas,
which walhes it. It was built by colonifts from
Rhodes and Crete, 45 years after the building of Sy-
racufe, or in the third year of the 22d Olympiad, 690
before Chrift ; originally called Lindii, from the colo-
nitts of Lindus, a city of Rhodes, who fettled there
firft. Now Terranuova, and the river called Flume di
Terranuova. The people were called Geloi, Gelenfes,
1 and Gelani. The city Gela, after having ftood 408
years, was deftroyed by Phintias, tyrant of Agrigen-
tum ; and the inhabitants were removed to a new city,
.called Phintias after his name.
GELATINA, jelly. See Jelly.
GELATINOUS, among the phyficians, is applied
Vql.VII. Part II.
to any thing approaching to the glutinous confidence Gt-Iit
of a jelly. |j
GELD, in the Englifti old cuftoms, a Saxon word Gelu;ng‘
Signifying money, or tribute. It alfo denoted a com-
penfation for fome crime committed : Hence wergeld,
in their ancient laws, was ufed for the value of a man
flain ; and orfgeld, of a beaft.
GELDENHAUR (Gerard), in Latin GelcUnha-
rius, an hiftorian and Proteftant divine in the 16th
century. He was a native of Nimeguen, and ftudied
claflical learning at Deventer. He went through his
courfe of philofophy at Louvaine, where he contrac¬
ted a very ftrift friendfhip with feveral learned men,
and particularly with Erafmus. He became reader
and hiftorian to Charles of Auftria, and afterwards to
Maximilian of Burgundy. At length he embraced
the Proteftant religion ; taught hiftory at Marpurg ;
and afterwards divinity till his death, in 1542. He
wrote, 1. Hiftory of Holland. 2. Hiftory of the Low
Countries; 3. Hiftory of the bifliops of Utrecht:
and other works.
GELDERLAND. See Guelderland.
GELDERS. See Gueldres.
GELDING, the operation of caftrating any ani¬
mal, particularly horfes.
If the operation is to be performed on a colt, he
may be gelded at nine or fifteen days old, if the tefticle&
be come down ; in regard the fooner he is gelt the
better it will be for his growth, ftrape, and courage ;
though a horfe may be gelt at any age, if proper care
is taken in the cure.
The manner of gelding is as follows. The bead:
being caft down on fome foft place, the operator takes
the (tones between his foremoft and his great finger,
and flitting the cod prefles the (tones forth ; then ta¬
king a pair of nippers made very fmooth, either of (tee!,
box, or brafil-wood, he claps the firings of the (tones
between them, very near to where the (tones are fet
on, and prefles them fo hard that there may be no
flux of blood; then with a thin, drawing, cauterifing
iron, fears away the (lone. This done, he takes a
hard plafter made of rofin, wax, and waflred turpen¬
tine, well difiblved together, and melts it on the head
of the ftrings: he then fears them, and melts more
of the falve, till fuch time as he has laid a good thick-
nefs of it upon the ftrings.
When is this done to one (lone, the nippers 'are
loofened, and the like is done to the other ; and the
two flits of the cod are then filled with white fait,
and the outfide of the cod is anointed with hog’s
greafe : and thus tltey let him rife, and keep him in a
warm liable, without tying him up. If he fwells much
in his cods or (heath, they chafe him up and down,
and make him trot for an hour in a day, which foon
recovers him.
The manner of gelding a hog is as follows : The
operator, after having made two crofs flits or incifions
on the midft of the ftones, prefles them out, and
anoints the fore with tar. But another general me¬
thod, yet fomewhat more dangerous if not well done,
is, firft to cut the (lone on the top, and after having
drawn that one forth, the operator puts in his fingers
at the fame flit, and with a lancet cuts the (kin be¬
tween the two ftones, and by that flit preffes out the
4 G other
GEL r 602 1 GEM
Gs!e'e otlier ftone. Then having cleanfed out the blood, he
Gellibran: ano'nts t^le Part with frefh greafe : and thus there is
e i^ran incifion made in the cod. Boar-pigs ought
to be gelt about fix months old ; yet they are com¬
monly gelded about three weeks or a month old.
GELE E (Claude). See Claude.
GELENHAUSEN, a fmall imperial town of Wet-
teravia in'Germany, with a caftle built by the empe¬
ror Frederic I. E. Long. S. 13. N. Lat. 50. 20.
GELENIUS (Sigifmund), a learned and excellent
man, born of a good family at Prague, about the
year 1498. Erafmus conceiving an efteem for him
at Bafil, recommended him to John Frobenius as a
eorreftor for his printing-houfe ; which laborious
charge he accepted, and had a great number of He¬
brew, Greek, and Latin books to correft: he alfo
tranflated many works himfelf from the Greek into
Latin ; and publiftied a didfionary in four languages,
Greek, Latin, German, and Sclavonian. Profitable
and honourable employments were offered him in other
places, but nothing could tempt him to quit his peace¬
ful fituation 'at Bafil. He died in 1555. All his
tranflations are highly efteemed.
GELINOTTE, or Grus, in ornithology. See
Tetrao.
GELLERT (Chriftian), one of the fineft geniufes
Germany has produced, was born at Hasnichen, near
Freyburg in Saxony, in 1715, and ftudied at Leipfic
at which univerfity he was for many years profeffor
of philofophy and the belles lettres. He early di-
ftinguifhed himfelf by his talent for poetry ; and con-
trafted a drift friendlhip with the moft learned and
polite writers in Germany. All his works ate filled
with fentiment, and bear the impreffion of the fweet-
nefs of his difpofition. The mod confiderable of them
are his comedies, his fpiritual fongs, and moral poems;
&nd particularly his facred odes, his fables, and his
tales. He died in 1769, much lamented.
GELLI (John Baptid), an eminent Italian wri¬
ter, was born of mean parents at Florence, in the
■year 1498. He was bred a taylor: but had fuch an
extraordinary genius, that he acquired feveral langua¬
ges, and made an uncommon progrefs in the belles
lettres; and though he continued always to work at his
trade, became acquainted with all the wits and learned
men at Florence, and his merit was univerfally known.
He was chofen a member of the academy there, and
the city made him a burgefs. He acquired the highed
reputation by his works, which are, 1. /. Caprtcci del
Bottaio, quarto; which contains ten dialogues. 2.
La Circe, oftavo. This, which alfo contains ten dia¬
logues, and treats of human nature, has been tranf¬
lated into Latin, French, and Englifh. 3. Differ-
tations in Italian on the poems of Dante and Petrarch.
4. The comedies of La Sporta and La Errore; and
other works. He died in 1563.
GELLIBRAND, (Henry), a laborious adrono-
mer of the laft century, was born in 1597. Though
he was not without good views in the church, yet he
became fo enamoured with mathematical dudies, that
on the death of his father he became a dudent at Ox¬
ford, contented himfelf with his private patrimony,
and devoted himfelf folely to them. On the death of
Mr Gunter, he was recgrtimended by Mr Briggs to
the truftees of Grelham college, for the adronomical
profefforfliip there; to which he was elefted in 1627.
His friend Mr Briggs dying in 1630,- before he had Ge!!ma
finifhed his Trigonometric a Britannic a ^ it Was finifhed by- II
Gellibrand at his requed. He wrote feveral other Gern'
things, chiefly tending to the improvement of naviga-
tion ; and died hi 1636.
GELLIUS( Aulus), a celebrated grammarian, who
lived in the 2d century under Marcus Aurelius and
fome fucceeding emperors. He wrote a collection of
obfervations on authors, for the ufe of his children ;
and called it Noftes Attica, becaufe compofed in the
evenings of a winter he fpent at Athens. The chief
value of it, is for preferving many fafts and monuments
of antiquity not to be found elfewhere. Critics and
grammarians have bedowed mufch pains on this writer.
GELLY. See Jelly.
GELO, or Gelon, a fon of Dinomenes who
made himfelf abfolute at Syracufe 484 years be¬
fore the Chriftian era. He conquered the Carthagi¬
nians at Himera, and made his oppreffion popular by
his great equity and moderation. He reigned feveft
years, and his death was univerfally lamented at Syra¬
cufe. Hewas called the father of his people, and the
patron of liberty, and honoured as a demigod. His
brother Hiero fucceeded him. See Syracuse.
GELLY. See Jelly.
GEM, in natural hiftory, a common name for all
precious dories ; of which there are two claffes, the
pellucid and femipellUcid.
The bodies compofing the clafs of pellucid gems are
bright, elegant, and beautiful fulfils, naturally and
effentially compound, ever found in fmall detached
maffes, extremely hard, and of great luftre.
The bodies compofing the clafs of femipellucid gems;
are ftones naturally and eflentially compound, not in¬
flammable nor foluble in water, found in detached maf¬
fes, and compofed of cryflalline matter debafed by
earth : however, they are but flightly debafed, and are
of great beauty and brightnefs, of a moderate degree
of tranfparency, and are ufijally found in fmall mafles.
The knowledge of gems depends principally on ob-
ferving their hardnefs and colour. Their hardnefs is
commonly allowed to Hand in the following order :
The diamond the hardeft of all; then the ruby, fap-
phire, jacinth, emerald, amethyft, garnet, carneol,
chalcedony, bnyk, jafper, agate, porphyry, and marble.
This difference, however, is not regular and conftant,
but frequently Varies. Good cryftals may be allowed
to fucceed the onyx ; but the whole family of me¬
tallic glaffy fluors feem to be ftill fofter.—In point of
colour, the diamond is valued for its tranfpareucy, the
ruby for its purple, the fapphire for its blue, the eme¬
rald for its green, the jacinth for its orange, the
amethyft carneol for its carnation, the onyx for its
tawny, the jafper, agate, and porphyry, for their ver¬
milion, green, and variegated colours, and the garnet
for its tranfparent blood-red.
All thefe gems are fometimes found coloured and
fpotted, and fometimes quite limpid and colourlefs. In
this cafe the diamond-cutter or poliflier knows how to
diftinguifh their different fpecies by their different de¬
grees of hardnefs upon the mill. For the cutting or
polifhing of gems, the fine powder of the fragments
of thofe that are next in degree of hardnefs is always
required to grind away the fofter; but as none of
them are harder than the diamond, this can only be
, polifticd by its own powder.
Cran-
GEM [ 603 ] G E M
Cronftcdt obferves of gems in general, that the co¬
lour of the ruby and emerald are faid to remain in the
.fire, while that of the topaz flies off: lienee it is ufual
t6 burn the topaz, and thence fubftitute it for the dia¬
mond. “ Their colours (fays our author) are com¬
monly fuppofed to depend upon metallic vapours ; but
may they not more juftly be fuppofed to arife from a
phlogifton united with a metallic or fome other earth?
becaufe we find that metallic earths which are perfedtly
well calcined give no colour to any glafs; and that the
manganefe, on the other hand, gives more colour than
can be aferibed to the fmall quantity of metal which is
to be extra&ed from it.” M. Magellan is of opinion,
that their colour is owing chiefly to the mixture of
iron which enters their compofition 5 but approves the
fentiment of Cronftedt, that phlogifton has a fhare in
their produ&ion, it being well known that the calces
of iron when dephlogifticated produce the red and
yellow colours of marble, and when phlogi{Heated to
a certain degree produce the blue or green colours.
With regard to the texture of gems, M. Magellan
obferves, that all of them are foliated or laminated,
and of various degrees of hardnefs. Whenever the
edges of thefe laminae are fenfible to the eye, they have
a fibrous appearance, and refleft various (hades of co¬
lour, which change fucctffively according to their an¬
gular pofition to the eye. Thefe are called by the
French chatorantes; and what is a blemifti in their
tranfparency, often enhances their value on account of
their fcarcity. But when the fubftance of a gem is
compofed of a broken texture, confifting of various
fets of laminae differently inclined to each other, it
emits at the fame time various irradiations of different
colours, which fucceed one another according to their
angle of pofition. This kind of gems has obtained the
name of opals, and are valued in proportion to the
brilliancy, beauty, and variety of their colours. Their
cryftallization, no doubt, depends on the fame caufe
which produces that of falts,.earths, and metals, which
is treated of under the article Crystallization : but
as to the particular configuration of each fpecies df
gems, we can hardly depend upon any individual form
as a ciiterion to afcertain each kind; and when we
have attended with the utmoft care to all that has been
written on the fubjeff, we are at lail obliged to appeal
to chemical analyfis, becaufe it very often affumes va¬
rious forms. The following table fhows the compo¬
nent parts of gems according to the analyfis of Berg¬
man and M. Achard 5 the letter B prefixed to each
denoting -Bergman’s analyfis, and A that of Achard.
Argil. Silk. Caic. Iron.
Red oriental ruby, - B40 39 910
Ditto, - - A 37.5 4-2.5 9 11
Blue oriental fapphire, B 58 35 5 2
Ditto, - - A 58 33 6
Yellow topaz from Saxony, B 46 39 8
Green oriental emerald, B 60
Ditto, - - A 60
Yellow'-brownorient.hyacinth, B 40
Ditto,
Tourmalin from Ceylon,
Ditto from Brafil,
Ditto from Tyrol,
Garnet from Bohemia,
A 42
B 39
B 50
B 42
A 30
3
39 8 6
24 8 6
23 10 7
25 20 13
22 20 16
37 l5 9
34 11 5
40 12 6
48 II IQ
The chryfoprafe from Kofeinitz in Silefia was like-
wife analyfed by M. Achard ; who found that it con-'
tained 456 grains of filiceous earth, 13 of calcareous,
6 of magnefia, 3 of copper, and 2 of iron. “ This
(fays M. Magellan) feems to be the only gem tha,t
contains no argillaceous earth. ”
Imitation of Counterfeiting of Gems in Glafs. The
art of imitating gems in glafs is too confiderable to
be paffed without notice : fome of the leading compo-
fitions therein we fhall mention upon the authority of
Neri and others.
Thefe gems are made of paftes; and are noway in¬
ferior to the native ftones, when carefully made and
well polifhed, in brightnefs or tranfparence^ but want
their hardnefs.
The general rules to be obferved in making the pafte;s
are thefe s 1. That all the veflels in which they are
made be firmly luted, and the lute left to dry before
they are put into the fire. 2. That fuch veflels be
chofen for the work as will bear the fire well. 3. That
the powders be prepared on a porphyry ftone; not in
a metal mortar, which would communicate a tinge to
them. 4. That the juft proportion iii the quantity of
the feveral ingredients be nicely obferved. 5. That
the materials be all w'ell mixed ; and, if not fufficiently
baked the firft time, to be committed to the fire a-
gain, without breaking the pot: for if this be not
obferved, they will be full of blifters and air-blad¬
ders. 6. That a final! vacuity be always left at the top
of the pot, to give rooih to the fwelling of the ingre¬
dients.
To make pafte of extreme hardnefs, and capable of
all the colours of the gems, with great luftre and beau¬
ty.—Take of prepared cryftal, ten pounds; fait of
polverine, fix pounds ; .fulphur of lead, two pounds ;
mix all thefe well together into a fine powder; make
the whole with common water into a hard pafte ; and
make this pafte into fmall cakes of about three pundes
weight each, with a hole made in their middle ; dry
them in the fun, and afterwards calcine them in the
flraiteft part of a potter’s furnace. After this, pow¬
der them, and levigate them to a perfedl finenefs on a
porphyry-ftone, and fet this powder in pots in aglafs-
furnace to purify for three days : then caft the whole
into water, and afterwards return it into the furnace,
where let it ftand 15 days, in which time all foulnefs
and blifters will difappear, and the pafte will greatly
referable the natural jewels. To give this the colour
of the emerald, add to it brafs thrice calcined ; for a
fea-green, brafs Amply calcined to a rednefs ; for a
fapphire, add zaffer, with manganefe ; and for a to¬
paz, manganefe and tartar. All the gems are thus
imitated in this, by the fame way of working as the
making of coloured glaffes ; and this is fo hard, that
they very much approach the natural gems.
The colour of all the counterfeit gems made of the
feveral paftes, may be made deeper or lighter, accord¬
ing to the work for which the ftones are defigned; and
it is a neceflary general rule, that fmail ftones for rings,
&c. require a deeper colour, and large ones a paler.
Befides the colours made from manganefe, verdegris,
and zaffer, which are the ingredients commonly ufed,
there are other very fine ones which care and flcill
4 G 2 may
GEM [ 604 ] GEM
may prepare. Very fine red may be made from gold, pounds, and of calcined iron five drams ; and purine Gem.
" and one not much inferior to that from iron ; a very the fame procefs as with the reft. —y—.
fine green from brafs or copper; a fky-colour from’ Red Cornelian Take of the compofitions mention-
filver, and a much finer one from the granates of Bo- ed under Colouring of Glass two pounds; of glafs of
hernia. antimony one pound; of the calcined vitriol called
A very fingular and excellent way of making the fcarlet oker two ounces; and of manganefe one dram,
pafte to imitate the coloured gems is this : Take a Fufe the glafs of antimony and manganefe with the
compofition ; then powder them, and mix them with
the other, by grinding them together, and fufe them
with a gentle heat.
White Cornelian. Take of the compofition juft_re¬
ferred to two pounds; and of yellow okcr well walhed
two drams ; and of calcined bones one ounce. Mix
them, and fufe them with a gentle heat.
Diamond. Take of the white fand fix pounds; of
red-lead four pounds; of pearl allies purified three
pounds ; of nitre two pounds ; of arfenic five ounces;
quantity of faccharum faturni, or fugar of lead, made
with vinegar in the common way ; fet it in fand, in a
glafs body well luted from the neck downwards; leave
the mouth of the glafs open, and continue the fire 24
hours ; then take out the fait, and if it be not red but
yellowilh, powder it fine, and return it into the veffel,
and keep it in the fand-heat 24 hours more, till it be¬
comes as red as cinnabar. The fire muft not be made
fo ftrong as to melt it, for then all the procefs is fpoil-
ed. Pour diftilled vinegar on this calcined fait, and
feparate the folution from the dregs; let the decanted and of manganefe one fcruple. Powder and fufe them.
liquor ftand fix days in an earthen veffel, to give time
for the finer fediment to fubfide ; filter this liquor,
and evaporate it in a glafs body, and there will remain
a moft pure fait of lead; dry this well, then diffolve
• r •  ^  1.^ .. r... J  „
Eagle-marine. Take ten pounds of the compofition un-
derGuAss; three ounces of copper highly calcined with
fulphur ; and one fcruple of zaffer. Proceed as before.
Emerald. Take of the fame compofition with the
it in fair water ; let the folution ftand fix days in a laft nine pounds; three ounces of copper precipi-
glazed pan ; let it fubfide, then filtre the clear folu¬
tion, and evaporate it to a yet more pure white and
fweet fait; repeat this operation three times ; put the
now perfectly pure fait into a glafs veffel, fet it in a
fand-heat for feveral days, and it will be calcined to a
fine impalpable powder, of a lively red. This is called
the fulphur of lead.
Take all the ingredients as in the common compo^
tated from aquafortis ; and two drams of precipitated
iron. See Emerald.
Garnet. Take two pounds of the compofition under
Glass ; two pounds of the glafs of antimony, and two
drams of manganefe. For vinegar garnet, take of the
compofition for pafte, defcribed in this article, two
pounds; one pound of glafs of antimony, and half an
ounce of iron, highly calcined ; mix the iron with the
fition of the paftes of the feveral colours, only inftead uncoloured pafte, and fufe them ; then add the glafs
of red lead, ufe this powder; and the produce will well of antimony powdered, and continue them in the heat
reward the trouble of the operation, as experience has
ten proved.
A pafte proper for receiving colours may be readily
made by well-pounding and mixing fix pounds of white
fand cleanfed, three'pounds of red lead, two pounds of
purified pearl-afties, and one pound of nitre. A fofter
till the whole is incorporated.
Gold or full yellow. Take of the compofition for
pafte ten pounds, and one ounce and a half of iron
ftrongly calcined; proceeding as with the others.
Deep purple. Take of either of the compofitions for
pafte ten pounds; of manganefe one ounce ; and of
pafte may be made in the fame manner, of fix pounds zaffer half an ounce,
of white fand cleanfed ; red lead, and purified pearl- Ruly. Take one pound of either of the compofi-
alhes, of each three pounds; one pound of nitre, half tions for pafte, and two drams of calx Cajfi, or preci-
a pound of borax, and three ounces of arfenic. For
common ufe a pound of common fait may be fubfti-
tuted for the borax. This glafs will be very foft, and
will not bear much wear if employed for rings, buckles,
or fuch imitations of ftones as are expofed to much
pitation of gold by tin ; powder the pafte, and grind
the calx of gold with it in a glafs, flint, or agate mor¬
tar, and then fufe them together. A cheaper ruby
pafte may be made with half a pound of either of the
above compofitions, half a pound of glafs of antimony,
rubbing; but for ear'-rings, ornaments worn on the and o^ie dram and a half of the calx of gold; proceed-
breaft, and thofe little ufed, it may laft a confiderable ing as before,
In order to give pafte different colours, the procefs
is as follows. For
Amethyjl. Take ten pounds of either of the com-
Sapphire. Take of the compofition for pafte ten
pounds : of zaffer three drams and one fcruple ; and
of the calx Cajfii one dram. Powder and fufe them.
Or the fame may be done, by mixing with the pafte
pofitions defcribed under Colouring of Glass, one ounce one-eighth of its weight of fmalt. _
and a half of manganefe, and one dram of zaffer ;
powder and fufe them together.
Black. Take ten pounds of either of the compofi-
Topa%. Take of the compofitions under Glass
ten pounds, omitting the faltpetre; and an equal
quantity of the Gold-coloured hard Glass. Powder
tions juft referred to, one ounce of zaffer, fix drams of and fufe them. See Topaz.
manganefe, and five drams of iron, highly calcined; Turquoife. Take of the compofition for blue pafte
and proceed as before. already defcribed, ten pounds; of calcined bone, horn,
Blue. Take of the fame compofition ten pounds ; or ivory, half a pound. Powder and fufe them,
of zaffer fix drams; and of manganefe two drams; Opake white. Take of the compofition for pafte
and proceed as with the foregoing. ten pounds; and one pound of calcined horn, ivory, or
Chryfolite. Take of either of the compofitions for bone ; and proceed as before,
pafte above defcribed, prepared without faltpetre, ten Scmitranfparent white, like opal. See Opal. ^
GEM [ 605 ] G E M
To the above we fhall add the following receipts and
proceffes, contained in a Memoir by M. Fontanieu of
the Royal Academy of Sciences at Pans, and faid to
have met with much approbation.
I. Of the Bafes. Although the different calces of lead
are all adapted to produce the fame effe& in vitrifica¬
tion ; yet M. Fontanier prefers lead in fcales, and
next to that minium, as being the moft conftantly
pure. It is neceffary to lift through a filk fieve the
preparations of lead one wiflies to make ufe of in the
vitrification, in order to feparate the groffer parts,
as alfo the lead found in a metallic ftate when white
lead in fcales is employed.
The bafe of fadlitious gems is calx of lead and rock-
cryftal, or any other ftone vitrifiable by the calces al¬
ready mentioned. Pure fand, flint, and the tranfpa-
rent pebbles of rivers, are fubftances equally fit to
make glafs : but as it is firft neceflary to break the
mafles of cryftal, ftones, or pebbles, into fmaller parts;
fo by this operation particles of iron or copper are fre¬
quently introduced, and to thefe dull or greafy matters
are alfo apt to adhere. Our author therefore begins by
putting the pounded cryftal or pebbles into a crucible,
which he places in a degree of heat capable of making
the mafs red-hot; he then pours it into a wooden bowl
filled with very clear water; and fhaking the bowl
from time to time, the fmall portions of coals furniftied
by the extraneous bodies fwim on the furface of the
water, and the vitrifiable earth, with the iron, &c.
refts on the bottom. He then decants the water; and
having dried the mafs, he pounds it, fifts the powder
through the fineft filk fieve : he then digefts the powder
during four or five hours with marine acid, ftraking the
mixture every hour. After having decanted the ma¬
rine acid from the vitrifiable earth, he wafhes the lat¬
ter until the water no longer reddens the tindture of
tournfol. The faid earth being dried, is palled through
a filk fieve, and is then fit for ufe. Nitre, fait of tar¬
tar, and borax, are the three fpecies of falls that enter
with quartz and the feveral calces of lead into M. Fon-
tanieu’s vitrifications.
Much of the fuccefs in the art of making coloured
ftones depends on the accurate proportion of the fub¬
ftances made ufe of to form the cryftal which ferves as
a bafe to the fadlitious ftones. After having tried a
great variety of receipts, our author found they might
be reduced to the following.
1. Take two parts and a half of lead in fcales, one
part and a half of rock-cryftal or prepared flints, half a
part of nitre, as much borax, and a quarter part of
glafs of arfenic. Thefe being well pulverized and
mixed together, are to be put into a Heflian crucible,
and fubmitted to the fire. When the mixture is well
melted, pour it into cold water: then melt it again a
fecond and a third time ; taking care, after each melt¬
ing, to throw it into frefti cold water, and to feparate
from it the lead that may be revived. The fame cru¬
cible fnould not be ufed a fecond time, becaufe the
glafs of lead is apt to penetrate it in fuch a manner as
to run the rifle of lofing the contents. One muft alfo
be careful to cover the crucible well, to prevent any
coals getting into it, which would reduce the calx of
lead, and fpoil the compofition.
z. Take two parts and a half of white cerufs, one
part of prepared flints, half a part of fait of tartar,
and a quarter part of calcined borax: melt the mixture
in a Heflian crucible, and then pour it into cold water;
it is then to be melted again, and wafhed a fecond
and a third time, the fame precautions being obferved
as for the firft bafe.
3. Take two parts minium, one part lock-cryftal,
half a part of nitre, and as much fait of tartar: this
mixture being melted, muft be treated as the former.
4. Take three parts of calcined borax, one part of
prepared rock- cryftal, and one part of fait of tartar; thefe
being well mixed and melted together, muft be poured
into warm water: the water being decanted and the
mafs dried, an equal quantity of minium muft be added
to it; it is then to be melted and waffled feveral times
as direfted above.
5. That called by our author the Mayence bafe, and
w'hich he confiders as one of the fineft cryftalline com-
pofitions hitherto known, is thus compofed : Take
three parts of fixed alkali of tartar, one part of rock-
cryftal or flint pulverized : the mixture to be well
baked together, and then left to cool. It is afterwards
poured into a crucible of hot water to diflblve the
fritt; the folution of the fritt is then received into a
ftone-ware pan, and aquafortis added gradually to the
folution till it no longer effervefees : this water being
decanted, the fritt muft be waffled in warm water till it
has no longer any tafte : the fritt is then dried, and
mixed with one part and a half of fine cerufs or white
lead in fcales; and this mixture muft be well levigated
with a little diftilled water. To one part and a half
of this powder dried add an ounce of calcined borax :
let the whole be well mixed in a marble mortar, then
melted and poured into cold water as the other bafes al¬
ready deferibed. Thefe fufions and lotions having been
repeated, and the mixture dried and powdered, a
12th part of nitre muft be added to it, and then melt¬
ed for the laft time; when a very fine cryftal will be
found in the crucible.
6. As a compofition for furnifhing very fine white
ftones : Take eight ounces of cerufs, three ounces of
rock cryftal pulverized, two ounces of borax finely
powdered, and half a grain of manganefe; having
melted and waffled this mixture in the manner diredted
above, it will produce a very fine white cryftal.
II. Of the Colour*. The calces of metals, as already
obferved, are the fubftances employed to colour fadii-
tious gems; and on the preparation of thefe calces
depends the vividnefs of their colours.
- a. From Cold.'] To obtain the mineral purple
known by the name of precipitate of Cafms, M. Fonta¬
nieu employs the following different proceffes.
1. Diffolve fome pure gold in aqua regia, prepared
with three parts of precipitated nitrous acid and one
part of marine acid ; and to haften the diflblution, the
matrafs fhould be placed in a fand-bath. Into this
folution pour a folution of tin in aqua regia. The
mixture becomes turbid, and the gold is precipitated
with a portion of the tin, in the form of a reddifh pow¬
der ; which, after being wafhed and dried, is called
precipitate of Cafius.—The aqua regia employed to
diflblve the tin is compofed of five parts nitrous
acid and one part of marine acid : to eight oun¬
ces of this aqua regia are added fixteen ounces of
diftilled
G E M r 606 1 G E M
Gem. diftilled water. Some leaves of Malacca tin, about
  the fize and thicknefs of a fixpence, is then put into
this diluted aqua regia, till it will diffolve no more of
them : which operation, our author obferves, requires
commonly twelve or fourteen days; though it might
probably be haftened by beating the tin itill thinner,
and then rolling it into the form of a hollow cylinder,
or turning it round into fpiral convolutions, and thus
expofing a greater extent of furface to the adlion of the
menftrutim. In order to prepare more readily the preci¬
pitate of CalTius,M. Fontanieu puts into a large jug eight
ounces of folution of tin, to which he adds four pints
of diitilled water: he afterwards pours into this metallic
lye fome folution of gold, drop by drop, taking care
to llir the whole with a glafs tube : when the mixture
becomes of a deep purple colour* he ceafes dropping
the folution of gold; and in order to haften the precipi¬
tation of the mineral purple, pours into the mixture a
pint of frefh urine. Six or feven hours after, the precipi¬
tate is colle&ed at the bottom of the veffel: the fluid
is then decanted ; and the precipitate, waflred once.or
twice, is dried till it becomes a brown powder.
2. Pour into a veffel of fine tin with a thick bottom
four ounces of the folution of gold; three minutes
after add two pints of diflilled water. Let this mix¬
ture Hand in the tin veffel during feven hours, taking
care to flir it every hour with a glafs tube ; afterwards
pour it into a conical glafs jug, and add to it a pint of
new urine: the mineral purple is foon precipitated,
and then is to be wafhed and dried.
3. Diftil in a glafs cornute placed in a bath of
aihes, fome gold diffolved in aqua regia, made with
three parts nitrous and one part marine acid ; when
the acid is paffed over and the gold contained in the
cornute appears dry, leave the veffel to cool, then pour
into it fome new aqua regia, and -proceed to diftil as
before. Replace the aqua regia twice upon the gold
and diftil the fame. After thefe four operations, pour
by little and little into the cornute fome oil of tartar
per deliquium, which will occafion a brifle eflervefcence :
when this ceafcs, diftil the mixture till it becomes dry,
and then put fome warm water into the cornute.
Shake the whole, and pour it into a cucurbit, when a
precipitate is depofited the colour of which is fbme-
times brown and fometimes yellow; After having
wafhed this precipitate, dry it. Our author fays, this
mineral purple was much fuperior to the foregoing,
finee two grains of it only were fufficient to an ounce
of the bafe, whilft it required of the other two a 20th
part of the bafe. And he adds, that he found a means
of exalting the colour of the precipitate of Cafiius, by
putting to it a fixth part of its weight of glafs of an¬
timony finely powdered, and of nitre in the proportion
of a dram to eight ounces of. the bafe.
b, Frotn Silver.] The calx of 1 liver, being vitrified,
produces a yellovvifh grey colour. This calx enters
only into the compofition of the yellow artificial dia¬
mond and the opal. M. Fontanieu introduces it into
the bafe in the form of luna cornea.
In older to prepare it, he direfts to diffolve the fil¬
ler in precipitated nitrous acid,, and afterwards to
pour into it a folution of fea falt : a white precipitate
is obtained; which, being wafhed and dried, melts
very readily in the fire, and is fooa .volatilized if not
mixed with vitrifiable matters. To make the yellow G‘~,
diamond, 25 grains of this luna cornea are put to an
ounce of the fourth bafe : the dofe of filver may be di-
minifhed according to the flrade of yellow that one
wifhes to procure.
c, From Copper.'] The calx of copper imparts to
white glafs the fineft green colour; but if this metal
be not. exactly in a ftate of calx, it produces a brownifli
red colour. Mountain blue, verdigris, and the refidue oi
its diftiilation, are the different preparations of copper
which our author employs to make the artificial eme¬
ralds.
d. From Iron.'] Although it has been afferted,
that the calces of iron introduce a very fine tranfpa-
rent red colour into white glafs, M, Fontanieu could
only obtain from it a pale red a little opake. The
calx of .iron that he employed was in the proportion
of the 20th part of the bafe.
There are feveral ways of preparing the calx of
iron called crocus Martis, or -fajron of Mars. In ge¬
neral, it is neceffary that this metal be fo far deprived
of its phlogifton, that the magnet ceafes to attract it;
thus one may ufe the feales of iron found upon the
bars of the furnaces, which ferve to diftil aquafortis.
By digefting filings of fteel with diftilled vinegar, then
evaporating and replacing the vinegar 10 or 12 times
upon thefe filings and drying them alternately, a calx
of iron is obtained, which muft be frfted through a
filk fieve, and then.calcined. The calx of iron thus
obtained by the vinegar, our author fays, only in¬
troduced into his bates a green colour inclining to a
yellow.
By the following procefs a faffron of Mars of the
fineft red.colour is obtained : Let an ounce of iron file-
ings be diftblved in nitrous acid in a glafs cornute, and
diftilled over a fand-bath to drynefs. After having
replaced the acid or the dry calx, and re-diftilled it a
fecond and a third time, it is then edulcorated with
fpirits of wine, and afterwards waftted with diftilled
water.
e. From the Magnet.] It is neceffary to calcine the
magnet before it be introduced into the vitrifications s
Having therefore terrified the magnet during two
hours, it muft be waftiedand dried. It is only employ¬
ed in the compofition of the opal.
f, From Cobalt.] The calx of cobalt is only proper
to introduce a blue colour into glafs ; but this femime-
tal is rarely found free from iron and bifmuth, and there¬
fore it is fir ft neceffary to feparate them from it. This
is done by calcining the ore of cobalt in order to dii-
engage the arfenic ! afterwards the calx muft be di-
ililkd in a cornute with fal ammoniac, .and the iron
and the bifmuth are found fublimed with this fait.
The diftillation muft be repeated with the.fal ammo¬
niac till this fait is no longer coloured yellow. The
cobalt which remains in the cornute is then calcined
in a potftierd, and becomes a very pure calx; which
being introduced into the bafe, in the proportion of
a goodth part, gives' it a very fine blue colour, the in-
tenfity of which may be increafed at diferetion by tire
addition of calx of cobalt; In order to prepare black
enamel refembling that which is called black agate of Ice¬
land ; melt together a pound and a half of one of the
bafes, two ounces of the ealx of cobalt, two ounces of
crocus
G E M [ 607 ] GEM
incus Martis, prepared with vinegar, and two ounces
of manganefe.
o-, From T'/n.J The calx of tin is not vitrifiable a-
lone, and when deprived of phlogh'ton is of a white
colour; it renders opake the glafs with which it is
melted, and forms white enamel. For this purpofe,
calcine the putty of tin ; then wafli and dry it, and
fift it through a filk fieve. Take fix pounds of the fe-
cond bafe, the fame quantity of the calcined putty of
tin, and 48 grains of mahganefe.
h. From [Antimony '} Antimony is only fufceptible
of vitrification when its calx contains phlogitton, and
then it produces a reddiih or hyacinth coloured glafs ;
but if the antimony be in a Hate of abfolute calx,
fuch as the diaphoretic antimony, then it is no longer
vitrifiable, and may be fubftituted for calx of tin to
make white enamel. M. Fontanieu introduces the
glafs bf antimony in the compofition of artificial to¬
pazes. For the oriental topaz,, he takes 24 ounces of
the firft bales and five drachms of the glafs of anti-
iriony. To imitate the topaz of Saxony, he adds to
each ounce of the bafe five grains of the glafs of an¬
timony. For the topaz of Brazil, he takes 24 ounces
of the firft bafe, one ounce 24 grains of glafs of anti-
inony, and 8 grains of the precipitate of Caffius.
i, From Manganefe.} This mineral, employed in a
fmall quantity, renders the glafs whiter; a larger
quantity produces a very fine violet colour, and a
it ill larger dofe of it renders the glafs black and O-
pake.
There are two ways of preparing manganefe, 1. The
moft fimple confifts in expofing it to a red heat, and
then quenching it with diftilled vinegar ; it is after¬
wards dried and powdered, in order to pafs it through
a filk fieve. 2. Haudiquer de Blancour defcribes the
fecond manner of preparing the manganefe, proper to
furnifh a red colour, and names it ffthle manganefe.
-Take of manganefe of Piedmont one pound ; torrify
and pulverize it; then mix it with a pound of nitre,
and calcine the mixture during 24 hours ; afterwards
walh it repeatedly in warm water, till the water of the
lyes has no longer any tafte ; dry the manganefe, and
tnrx with it an equal weight of fal ammoniac ; levi¬
gate this mixture on a flab of porphyry with oil of vi¬
triol diluted with water to the ftreiigth of vinegar.
Dry the mixture, and introduce it into a cornute ; di-
ftil by a graduated fire ; and when the fal ammoniac is
fublimed, weigh it, and add to t,he mixture an equal
quantity. Then diftil and fublime as before, and re¬
peat the operation fix times, being careful at each
time to mix the fal ammoniac and the manganefe upon
the porphyry with diluted oil of vitriol.
At Tournhault in Bohemia, there is fold a fnfible
glafs of a yellow colour, very like that of the topaz
of Brazil, which, when expofed to a degree of fire in
a cupel fufficient to redden it, becomes of a very fine
ruby colour, more or lefs deep according to the degree
of fire to which it has been expofed. Our author af-
fayed this-glafs, and found it to contain a great deal of
lead, but was not able todifcover any gold in it.
III. Of the different degrees of Fire necejfaryfor FaBitious
Gems. Our author obferves, that there are three degrees
6f heat very different in their energy. The fire kept up
in the wind-furnaces in the laboratories of chsrtvifts, ft .
lefs aftive than that whofe effeft is accelerated by the
means of bellows; and a fire fupported by wood, and
kept up during 60 hours without interruption, pro¬
duces fingular effefts in vitrification, and renders the
glafs finer and lefs alterable.
When recourfe is had to the forge, in order to ope«
rate a vitrification, it is neceflary to turn about the
crucible from time to time, that the mafs may melt
equally. Some coal alfo fhould be replaced, in pro¬
portion as it confumes towards the nozel of the bel¬
lows ; for without this precaution, we fhould run the
rifle of cooling the crucible oppofite to the flame, and
probablypf cracking it, when all the melted mafs run¬
ning among the coals would be totally loft. Though
this is the readieft way of melting, it fhould not be em¬
ployed out of choice ; for the crucible often breaks, or
coals get into it, and reduce the calx of lead to a me¬
tallic ftate.
The wind-furnace is either fquare or round. A
fmall cake of baked clay or brick, of the thicknefs of
an inch, is placed upon the grate; and upon this cake
is placed the crucible, furrounded with coals. The
degree of heat produced by this furnace is much lefs
than that of the forge : but in order to fucceed in the
vitrification, M. Fontanieu recommends the ufe of a
furnace deferibed by Kunckel, which, with fome ne-
ceffary alterations, is reprefented on Plate CCXX. The
interior part is fo difpefed, that we may place crucibles
at three different heights; and the name of chambers
is given to thofe fteps upon which the crucibles are
placed. Fig. 4. is a plan of the kiln at the firft cham¬
ber, and fig. 5. a pian of the kiln where the fire is
placed. Fig. 6. exhibits the elevation ; A the afli-pit;.
B the door to put in the Wood ; G the door of the firft
chamber; D the door of the fectind chamber; E the
third chamber; F the flue or chimney; GG iron-hoops
which furround the kiln to flrengthen it. Fig. 7. is a
fe&ion of the'kiln: FI the afh-pit with its air-hole; I the
chamber for the fire with an air-hole; K the firft cham¬
ber for the crucibles ; L the fecond chamber 5 M the
dome ; N the chimney ; 00 air-holes.
It is obvious, that the degree of heat cannot be equal
in the faid three chambers. The chamber K is that
where the heat is greateft, afterwards in that of L, and
laftly, in that of M. We fhould begin-by placing the
crucibles according to their fize, in thefe different
chambers ; by which means the heft effeft in vitrifica¬
tion is produced.
In order to condhft the fire well, only three billets
of white wood fhould be put into the furnace at a
time for the firft 20 hours, four billets at a time for
the next 20 hours,. and fix billets for the laft 20 hours ;
in all 60 hours. The furnace is then left to cool, care
being taken to flop the air-holes with fome lute ; and,.
in about 48 hours after, when the kiln is quite cold*
the crucible is to be withdrawn.
IV. The Compactions. 1. For the white diamond: Take
the bafe of Mayence. This cryftal is very pure, and
has no colours.
2. For the yellow diamond : to an ounce of the
fourth bafe, add for colour 25 grains of luna cornea or
1 o grains of glafs of antimony,
3. For the emerald: 1. To 15 ounces of either of the
bafes, add for colour one dram cf mountain-blue and fix
4 * grains -
GEM [ 608 ] G E M
grains of glafsof antimony ; or, ?. To an ounce of the
fecond bafe, add for colour 20 grains of glafs of anti¬
mony and three grains of calx of cobalt.
4. For the fapphire: To 24 ounces of the Mayence
bafe, add for colour two drams 46 grains of the Calx
•of cobalt.
j. For the amethift : To 24 ounces of the Mayence
bafe, add for colour four drams of prepared naanga-
nefe and four grains of precipitate of Caflius.
6. For the beril: To 24 ounces of the third bafe,
add for colour 96 grains of glafs of antimony and four
grains of calx of cobalt.
7. For the black agate : To 24 ounces of either of
the bafes, add two ounces of the mixture dire&ed a-
bove in par./.
8. For the opal: To an ounce of the third bafe, add
for colour 10 grains of luna cornea, two grains ©f
magnet, and 26 grains of abforbent earth.
9. For the oriental topaz : To 24 ounces of the
firft or third bafe, add for colour five drams of glafs of
antimony.
xo. For the topaz of Saxony t To 24 of the fame
bafe, add for colour fix drams of the glafs of antimony.
11. For the topaz of Brafil: To 24 ounces of the
fecond or third bafe, add for colour one ounce 24
grains of the glafs of antimony and eight grains of pre¬
cipitate of Caflius.
12. For the hyacinth: To 24 ounces of the bafe
made with rock-cryftal, add for colour two drams 48
grains of glafs of antimony.
13. For the oriental ruby : 1. To 16 ounces of the
Mayence bafe, add for colour a mixture of two drams
48 grains of the precipitate of Cafiius, the fame quan¬
tity of crocus Martis prepared in aquafortis, the fame
of golden fulphur of antimony and of fufible manga-
•nefe, with the addition of two ounces of mineral cry-
Ibl; or, 2. To 20 ounces of the bafe made with flint,
add half an ounce of fufible manganefe and two ounces
of mineral crytlal.
14. For the balafs ruby t 1. To 16 ounces of the
Mayence bafe, add the above colouring powder, but di-
minifhed a fourth part; or, 2. To 20 ounces of the bafe
made with flints, add the fame colouring powder, but
with a fourth lefs of the manganefe.
The factitious gems are ealily diftinguifhed from the
natural, by their foftnefs and fufibility ; by their folu-
bility in acids; by their caufing only a Angle refrac¬
tion of the rays of light; and, in many cafes, by their
fpecifie gravity, which exceeds 2.76 in all precious
gems of the firft order, as the diamond, ruby, fap¬
phire, &&.
Imitation of Antique Gems. There has been at dif¬
ferent times a method praflifed by particular perfons
of taking the impreflions and figures of antique gems,
with their engravings, in glafs of the colour of the ori¬
ginal gem. This has always been efteemed a very va¬
luable method, and greatly preferable to the more or¬
dinary ones of doing it on fealing-wax or brimftone:
but, to the misfortune of the world, this art being a
fecret only in the hands of fome particular perfons
who got their bread by it, died with them, and every
new artift was obliged to re-invent the method; till
.at length Mr Homberg, having found it in great per-
fe&ion, gave the whole procefs to the world to be no
N°i36.
more forgotten or loft ; and fince that time it has bee*
very commonly pra&ifed in France, and fometimes in
other places.
Mr Homberg was favoured in his attempts with all
the engraved gems of the king’s cabinet; and took fuch
elegant impreflions, and made fuch exaft refemblance*
of the originals, and that in glafies fo artfully tinged
to the colour of the gems themfelves, that the niceft
judges were deceived in them, and often took them for
the true antique ftones. Thefe counterfeit gems alfo
ferve, as well as the original ones, to make more co¬
pies from afterwards; fo that there is no end of the
numbers that may be made from one ; and there is
this farther advantage, that the copy may be eafily
made perfeff, though the original Ihould not be fo,
but ftiould have fuftained fbme damage from a blow or
otherwife.
The great care in the operation is to take the im-
preflion of the gem in a very fine earth, and to pref*
down upon this a piece of proper glafs, foftened or
half melted at the fire, fo that the figures of the im-
preffion made in the earth may be nicely and perfedtly
exprefled upon the glafs. In general, the whole pro¬
cefs much refembles that of the common founders.
But when it is brought to the trial, there is found a
number of difficulties which were not to be forefeen,
and which would not at all affedf the common works of
the founder. For his purpofe, every earth will ferve that
is fine enough to receive the impreffions, and tough
enough not to crack in the drying : thefe all ferve for
their ufe, becaufe the metals which they caft are of a
nature incapable of mixing with earth, or receiving it
into them, even if both are melted together, fo that
the metal always eafily and perfedlly feparates itfelf
from the mould ; but it is very difficult in thefe cafts
of glafs. They are compofedof a matter which differs
in nothing from that of the mould, but that it has
been run into this form by the force of fire, and the
other has not yet been fo run, but is on any occafion
ready to be fo run, and will mix itfelf infeparably
with the glafs in a large fire : confequently, if there
be not great care ufed, as well in the choice of the
glafs as in the manner of ufing it, when the whole is
finiflied there will be found great difficulty in the fe-
parating the glafs from the mould, and often this can¬
not be done without wholly deftroying the impreffion.
All earths run more or lefs eafily in the fire as they
are more or lefs mixed with faline particles in their na¬
tural formation. As all falls make earths run into
glafs, and as it is neceffary to ufe an earth on this oc¬
cafion for the making a mould, it being alfo neceffary
to the perfection of the experiment that this earth
Ihould not melt or run, it is our bufinefs to fearch out
for this purpofe fome earth which naturally contains
very little fait. Of all the fpecies of earth which Mr
Homberg examined on this occafion, none proved fo
much diverted of falls, or fo fit for the purpofe, as the
common tripela, or Tripoli, ufed to polifli glafs and
ftones. Of this earth there are two common kinds;
the one reddifh, and compofed of feveral flakes or ftra-
ta; the other yellowifh, and of a Ample ftru&ure. Thefe
are both to be had in the fhops. The latter kind is
from the Levant; the former is found in England,
France, and many other places. This tripela muft be
chofen foft and fmooth to the touch, and not mixed
6 with
GEM [ 609 ] GEM
<Jem. with Tandy or other extraneous matter. The yellowifhnear the furnace b y degrees, and gradually heated till
   kind is the belt of the two, and is commonly called it cannot be touched without burning the fingers; then
Venetian tripoli. This receives the impreffions very it is to be placed in the furnace under a muffle, fur-
beautifully ; and never mixes with the glafs in the ope- rounded with charcoal. Several of thefe fmall cru-
ration, which the red kind fometimes does. Mr Horn- cibles may be placed under one muffle; and when they
berg ufually employed both kinds at once in the fol- are properly difpofed, the aperture of the muffle Ihoiild
lowing manner: firll, powder a quantity of the red have a large piece of burning charcoal put to it, and
tripela in an iron mortar, and fifting it through a fine then the operator is to watch the procefs, and fee when
fieve fet it by for ufe ; then fcrape with a knife a the glafs begins to look bright : this is the fignal of
quantity of the yellow tripela into a fort of powder, its being fit to receive the impreffion. The crucible
and afterwards rub it till very fine in a glafs mortar is then to be taken out of the fire ; and the hot glafs
with a glafs peftle. The finer this powder is, the finer mull be preffed down upon the mould with an iron in¬
will be the impreflion, and the more accurately perfedl ftrument, to make it receive the regular impreffion :
the call. The artificer might naturally fuppofe, that as foon as this is done, the crucible is to be fet at the
the beil method to obtain a perfect fine powder of this fide of the furnace out of the way of the wind, that
earth, would be by waffling it in water; but he mull it may cool gradually without breaking. When it is
be cautioned againft this. There is naturally in this cold, the glafs is to be taken out, and its edges fflould
yellowiffl tripoli a fort of undtuofity, which when it is be grated round with pincers, which will prevent its
formed into a mould keeps its granules together, and flying afterwards, which is an accident that fometimes.
gives the whole an uniform gloffy furface : now the happens when this caution has been omitted, efpecially
,waffling the powder takes away this undtuofity ; and when the glafs is naturally tender. The different colour-
though it renders it much finer, it makes it leave a gra- ed glaffes are of different degrees of hardnefs, according
inflated furface, not this fmooth one, in the mould; to their compofition; but the hardeft to melt are always
and this mull render the furface of the call lefs fmooth. the belt for this purpofe, and this is known by a few trials.
When the twm tripelas are thus feparately powder- If it be defired to copy a Hone in relief which is
ed, the red kind muil be mixed with fo much water naturally in creux, or to take one in creux which is
as will bring it to the confillence of pafte, fo that it naturally in relief; there needs no more than to take
may be moulded like a lump of dough between the an impreffion firft in w'ax or fulphur, and to mould
fingers : this patle mull be put into a fmall crucible that upon the palle of tripela inltead of the Hone itfelf:
of a flat fflape, and about half an inch or a little more then proceeding in the manner before dire&ed, the
in depth, and of fuch a breadth at the furface as is a procefs will have the defired fuccefs.
little more than that of the Hone whofe impreffion is A more fimple and eafy method than the above, is
to be taken. The crucible is to be nicely filled with by taking the calls in gypfum, or Plaller of Paris as
this palle lightly preffed down into it, and the fur- it is commonly called. For this purpofe, the gypfum
face of the palle mull be llrewed over with the fine mull be finely pulverifed, and then mixed with clear
powder of the yellow tripela not wetted. When this water to the confillence of thick cream. This is pour-
is done, the Hone, of which the impreffion is to be taken, ed upon the face of the gem or feal of which the im-
mull be laid upon the furface, and preffed evenly down preffion is wanted, and which mull be previoully moill-
into the palle with a finger and thumb, fo as to make ened with oil to facilitate the feparation of the call;
it give a ftrong and perfeA impreffion ; the tripela is and in order to confine the liquid plaller, it is only ne-
then to be preffed nicely even to its fides with the ceffaiy to pin a flip of oiled paper round the fides of
fingers, or with an ivory knife. The Hone mult be thus the feal by way of a cap or rim. When the plaller is
left a few moments, for the humidity of the palle to dry, it is to be taken off, and fet before the mouth of
moiften the dry powder of the yellow tripela which is the furnace, in order to free it entirely from moillure;
ftrewed over it : then the Hone is to be carefully raifed when it is fit to be ufed as a matrix in the fame way as
by the point of a needle fixed in a handle of wood ; and that formed with the tripoli earths. Only no crucible or
the crucible being then turned bottom upwards, it will other receptacle is at all neceffary ; the calls being form-
fall out, and the impreffion will remain very beautifully ed like fo many fmall cakes half an inch thick, and thus
on the tripela. put into the furnace with the bits of glafs upon them.
If the fides of the cavity have been injured in the The glafs, after coming to a proper heat, is preffed
falling out of the Hone, they may be repaired ; and the down upon the mould with an iron fpatula to receive
crucible mull then be fet, for the palle to dry, in a place the defired impreffion, the preffure requifite being
where it will not be incommoded by the dull. more or lefs according to the fize of the ftone. This
The red tripoli being the more common and the method has been long praclifed very fuccefsfully, and
cheaper kind, is here made to fill the crucible only to with no fmall emolument, by that ingenious feal-engra-
fave the other, which alone is the fubllance fit for ta- ver Mr Deuchar of Edinburgh. The only refpeil in
king the impreffion. When the Hone is taken out, which it is inferior to the other more operofe and ex¬
it mull be examined, ta fee whether any thing be lodged penfive methods, confills in the chance of air-bubbles
in any part of the engraving, becaufe if there be any arifing in pouring on the plaller; which chance, how-
of the tripela left there, there will certainly be fo much ever, is lefs in proportion to the finenefs of the gyp-
wanting in the impreffion. When the crucible and fum employed. When air-bubbles do occur, the calls
pafte are dry, a piece of glafs mull be chofen of a pro- may be laid afide, as it is fo eafy to replace them,
per. colour, and cut to a fize proper for the figure; The application of palles to multiply and preferve
this mull be laid over the mould, but in fuch a man- the impreffions of camaieux and intaglios, is an objeft
ner that it does not touch the figures, otherwife it very interelling to artifts and to antiquaries, as well as
would fpoil them. The crucible is then to be brought to men of learning and taile in the fine arts.
Vol. VII. Part. II. $ H
This
G E M
This art, though only lately rellored in any degree
of perfeftion, is of very confiderable antiquity. The
great prices which the ancients paid for the elegant
gems engraved by the celebrated Greek artifts, could
not but early lugged to them the idea of multiplying
their numbers, by taking off their impreffions in wax,
in fulphur, in piafter, or in clay; but more particularly
in coloured glais, or that vitrified fubftance commonly
called pqjle.
As the impreffions on pafte are durable, and imi¬
tate the colours and brilliancy of the original ftones,
they ferve the fame purpofes as the gems themfelves.
This art was therefore pradfifed not only by the
Greeks, but by all the nations who cultivated Grecian
tafte.
Many of the fined gems of antiquity are now lod,
and their impreffions are to be found only on ancient
pades. Great therefore is the value of thefe pades.
Numerous colledtions of them have been formed by
the curious. Indances of this are found in the Flo¬
rentine Mafaeum, in Stofch’s work on ancient gems with
inferiptions, in Winckelmann’s defeription of Stofch’s
cabinet, and in the noble colledtion of Mr Charles
Townley in London.
The art of taking impreffions of gems feems not to
have been altogether lod even in the Gothic ages ;
for Heraclius, who probably lived in the ninth century,
and wrote a book De coloribus et artibus Romanorum,
teaches in very plain though not elegaqt terms how to
make them. Indeed, fome of the few perfons who then
poflefled this art, taking advantage of the ignorance
of the times, fold pades for original gems. Thus the
famous emerald of the abbey of Reichnaw near Con-
dance, although a prefent made by Charlemain, is now
found to be a piece of glafs. And thus the cele¬
brated emerald vafe in the cathedral of Genoa is like-
wife found to be a pade (a). The Genoefe got this
vafe at the taking of Cefarea in the year I tot as an
equivalent for a large fum of money ; nor was any im-
pofition then fufpe&ed, for in the year 1319 they
pawned it for 12CO marcs of gold.
But this ingenious art, revived indeed in Italy in the
time of Laurence of Medici and Pope Leo X. was not
cultivated in an extenfive manner till the beginning of
the prefent century, when M. Homberg redored it, as
already mentioned. In this he is faid to have been
greatly affifted and encouraged by the then duke of
Orleans regent of France, who ufed to amufs himfelf
with that celebrated chemid in taking off impreffions in
pade from the king of France’s, from his own, and
other colle&ions of gems.
AccordingtotheFrenchEncyclopedids,M. Clachant
the elder, an engraver of fome note, who died at Paris
in 1781, learned this art from his royal highnefs, to
whofe hou fell old his father or he feems to have be¬
longed. Madamoifelle Feloix next cultivated this art,
and it is believed ftill carries it on. She had been
taught by her father, who in quality of gar5on de
chambre to the regent had often affided in the labo¬
ratory of his mafter, where he acquired this knowledge.
Her colle&ion confids of 1800 articles.
GEM
Baron Stofch, a Pruffian, who travelled over Europe
in queft of original engraved dones and impreffions of
ancient gems, for the elegant work which he publiffied
and Picart engraved (b), was well acquainted with this
art. Fie.had taught it to his fervant Chriftian Dehn,
who fettled at Rome, where he made and fold his well
known fulphur impreffions and pades. He had coj-
lefted 2500 articles. Dolce has arranged them in a
fcientific order, and given a deferiptive catalogue of
them.
It was chiefly from Dehn’s colledioh that the tade
for fulphurs and paftes has become fo univerfal. They
are great obje&s of dudy, and often require much
learning to explain them. They have unquedionably
ferved to extend and improve the art of engraving on
dones ; and have been of infinite ufe to painters, to
datuaries, and to other artids, as well as to men of
claffical learning and fine tade.
It is very difficult to take off impreffions, and per-
feftly to imitate various coloured cameos. It cannot
be properly done in wax, fulphur, plader, or glafs of
one colour only. The difficulties arifing from their fize
and form, and from the various nature of the different
forts of glafs, which do not well unite into different dra-
ta, are very numerous : nor could the completed fuccefa
in this chemical and mechanical branch of the art pro¬
duce a tolerable cameo. Irnpreffions or imitations, if
unaffided by the tool of the engraver, do not fucceed ;
becaufe the undercutting and deep work of mod of
the originals require to be filled up with clay or wax,
that the moulds may come off fafe without injuring
them. Hence the impreffions from thefe moulds come
off hard and deditute of delicacy, fharpnefs, and pre-
cifion of outline, till the underworking of the moulder
is cut away. But Mr Reiffendein at Rome, by his
genius, perfeverance, and the affidance of able artids,
has overcome thefe difficulties ; and has had the fatis-
failion of fucceeding, and producing variegated cameos
which can hardly be didinguifhed from the originals-
Mr Lippart of Drefden, an ingenious glazier, and
an enthufiad in the fine arts, pradfifed this branch not
unfuccefsfully; but not finding fufficient encourage¬
ment for his paftes of coloured glafs, or perhaps from
local difficulties in making them well and cheap, he
abandoned this art. He fubftituted in its place
impreffions of fine white alabafter or felenite pia¬
fter. Such impreffions, when carefully foaked in a
folution of white Caftilc foap, then dried, and rubbed
over with a foft brufh, take a very agreeable polifh.
They fhow the work perhaps to better advantage than
red or white fulphurs do; but they are not fo durable,
and are liable to be defaced by rubbing.
Of thefe impreffions Mr Lippart publifhed three
different colledtions, each of them containing 1000
articles; and to the merit of having increafed the num¬
ber of Madamoifelle Feloix and Chriftiano Dehn’s
colledtions, which are all inferted in his, he added
that of employing two learned Germans to arrange
and deferibe them. The firft thoufand were arran¬
ged and deferibed by the late profeffor Chrift at Leip-
fic, and the fecond and third thoufand by profefl’or
Heine
[ 6lO ]
(a) See M. de la Condamine’s Diff. in Memoir, de 1’Acad. Roy. de Paris, 1757.
(b) Gemmas antique coloraise, fculptorum nomiaibus infignitae, re incifae, per Bernardum Picart. Am-
ftelodam. 1724, folio.
GEM f 6n 1 G E M
Gem. Heins at Goettingen. Nor did Mr Lippart ftop
here: but to make the ftudy of antiquity more eafy
and acceptable to artifts, he fele&ed out of the whole
collection of 3000, a fmaller one of 2000 of the belt
and molt inftruCtive fubjeCts, of which he himfelf drew
tip and publifhcd a description in German.
But of all t he artilts and ingenious men who have
taken impreflions of engraved gems in fulphur and in
pafte, no one feems to have carried that art to fuch
perfection as Mr James Taffie, a native of Glafgow
but who has reiided in London fince the year 1766.
His knowledge in various branches of the fine arts,
particularly in that of drawing, naturally led him
to it. The elegant portraits which he models in
wax, and afterwards moulds and calls in pafte, which
entirely refemble cameos, are well known to the pub¬
lic.
Mr Tafiie, profiting of all the former publications of
this fort, and by expence, induftry, and accefs to many
cabinets in England and other kingdoms to which
former artifts had not obtained admilfion, has now in-
creaftd his collection of impreffions of ancient and mo¬
dern gems to the number of above 15,000 articles.
It is the g'reateft collection of this kind that ever ex-
ifted ; and ferves for all the purpofes of artifts, anti¬
quaries, fcholars, men of tafte, and even philofophers.
The great demand for his paftes was perhaps owing in
the beginning to the London jewellers, who introdu¬
ced them into faihion by fetting them in rings, feals,
bracelets, necklaces, and other trinkets.
The reputation of this collection having reached the
emprefs of Rufiia, Ihe was pleafed to order a complete
fet; which being accordingly executed in the bell and
moft durable manner, were arranged in elegant cabi-
Irets, and are now placed in the noble apartments of
her imperial majdty’s fuperb palace at Czarlk Zelo.
Mr Taflie, in executing this commiflion, availed him¬
felf of alt the advantages which the improved ftate of
chemidry, the various ornamental arts, and the know¬
ledge of the age, feemed to afford. The imprelfions
were taken in a beautiful white enamel compofition,
which is not fubjeCt to fhrink or form air-bladders;
which emits fire when ftruck with fteel, and takes a
fine polifh; and which Ihows every ftroke and touch of
the artift in higher perfection than any other fub-
ftance. When the colours, mixed colours, and nature
of the refpeCiive originals, could be afcertained, they
were imitated as completely as art can imitate them;
infomuch that many of the pafte intaglios and cameos
in this collection are fuch faithful imitations, that
artifts themfelves have owned they could hardly be
diflinguilhed from the originals. And when the co¬
lour and nature of the gems could not be authenticated,
the paftes were executed in agreeable, and chiefly tranf-
parent, colours ; conftant attention being bellowed to
preferve the outlines, extremities, attributes, and in-
fcriptions.
It was the learned Mr Rafpe (from whom this ac¬
count (c) is taken) who arranged this great collection,
and made out the defcriptive catalogue. His arrange¬
ment is nearly the fame with that of the late Abbe
Winkelmann, in his defciiption of the gems which be-
5
longed to Baron Stofch. But as modern works were
inferred in this collection, he found it neceffary to
make a few alterations, and added fome divifions to
thofe of M. Winkelmann, as will appear from the
following confpeCtus, with which we lhall conclude
this detail.
I. Ancient Art and Engravings.
Egyptian. Hieroglyphics, facred animals, divini¬
ties, priefts.
Bafilidian, Gnoftic, and other talifmans, &c.
Oriental and barbarous ancient and modern engra¬
vings.
Greek and Roman originals, copies, and imitations
(the Etrufcan are claffed with the Greek works.)
A, Mythology or fabulous age. Gods, inferior di¬
vinities, religious ceremonies.
B, Heroic age before the liege of Troy.
C, Siege of Troy.
D, Hiftotic age. Of Carthage, Greece, Rome, fub-
jeCts unknown.
E, Fabulous animals and chimeras.
E, Vafes and urns.
II. Modern Art and Engravings.
A, Religious fubjeCts.
B, Portraits of kings and fovereigns.
C, Portraits of illuftrious men in alphabetical order*
D, Portraits unknown.
E, Devices and emblems.
F, Cyphers, arms, fupporters, and medley of modem
hiftory.
GEMARA, or Ghesiara, the fecond part of the
Talmud.
The word rn»J, gemara, is commonly fuppofed to
denote a fupplement; but in ftriCtnefs it rather figni-
fies complement, perfection : being formed of the
Chaldee Toa, gemar or ghmar, “ to finifh, perfeCt, or
complete any thing.”
The rabbins call the Pentateuch Amply the lam:
the fir ft part of the Talmud, which is only an expli¬
cation of that law, or an application thereof to parti¬
cular cafes, with the decifions of the ancient rabbins
thereon, they call the Mifchna, i. e. “ fecond law:” and
the fecond part, which is a more extenfive and ample
explication of the fame law, and a collection of
decifions of the rabbins pofterior to the Mifchan,
they call Gemara, q. d. “ perfection, completion, finilh-
ing ;” becaufe they efteem it the finilhing of the law,
or an explication beyond which there is nothing farther
to be defired.
The Gemara is ufually called Amply Talmud, the
common name of the whole work. In this fenfe we
fay, there are two Gemaras or Talmuds ; that of Je-
rufalem and that of Babylon : though in ftriCtnefs the
Gemara is only an explication of the Mifchna, given
by the Jewilh doCtofs in their fchools; much as the
commentaries of our fchool-divines on St Thomas, or
the mafter of the fentenCes, are an explication of the
writings of thofe authors.
A commentary, Monf. Tillemont obferves, was wrote
on the Mifchna, by one Jochanan, whom the Jews
place about the end of the fecond century : but Fa.
4 H 2 Morin
(c) Account of the prefent ftate and arrangement of Mr James Taffie’s collection of paftes and impreffions
ffhm ancient and modern gems, by R. C. Rafpe, London, 1786, 8vo.
GEM [6:
Gemini, Morin proves, from the work itfelf, wherein mention
Gemimani js maje 0f Turks, that it was not wrote till the
v time of Heraclius, or about the* year 620 ; and this
is what is sailed the Gemarat or Talmud of Jerufalem,
which the Jews do not ufe or efteem much becaufe of
its obfcurity.
They fet a much greater value on the Gemara, or
Talmud of Babylon, begun by one Afa ; difcontinued
for 73 years, on occafion of the wars with the Sara¬
cens and Perfians ; and finifhed by one Jofa, about the
elofe of the feventh century. See Talmud.
Though the name Talmud, in its latitude, includes
both the Mifchna and the two Gemaras, yet it is pro¬
perly that of Afa and Jofa alone which is meant under
that name. This the Jews prize above all their other
writings, and even fet it on a level with fcripture it¬
felf : in effeft, they conceive it as the word of God,
derived by tradition from Mofes, and preferved with¬
out interruption to their time. R. Jehuda, and after¬
wards R. Johanan, R. Afa, and R. Jofa, fearing the
traditions fhould be loft in the difperfion of the Jews,
colle&ed them into the Mifchna and the Gemara. See
Caraites and Rabbinists.
GEMINI, in aftronomy, the twins ; a conftella-
tion or fign of the zodiac, the third in order, repre-
fenting Caftor and Pollux; and it is marked thus, XT.
The ftars in the fign Gemini, in Ptolemy’s catalogue,
are 25 ; in Tycho’s, 25 ; in Hevelius’s, 38 ; in the
Britannic Catalogue, 85.
GEMINIANI, a celebrated mufician and compo-
fer, was born at Lucca in the year 1680. He recei¬
ved his firft inftru&ions in mufic from Aleflandro Scar¬
latti ; and after that became a pupil of Carlo Ambro-
fio Lunati, furnamed II Gobbo, a molt celebrated per¬
former on the violin; after which he became a difciple
of Corelli, and under him finifhed his ftudies on that
inftrument. In the year 1714, he came to England ;
where in a ihort time he fo recommended himfelf by
his exquifite performance, that all who profelfed to
love and underftand mufic were captivated with hear¬
ing him. Many of the nobility laid claim to the ho¬
nour of being his patrons; but he feemed chiefly to at¬
tach himfelf to Baron Kilmanfegge, chamberlain to
king George I. as eleftor of Hanover, and a favourite
of that prince. In 1716, he publilhed and dedicated
to his patron J 2 fonatas a violino violone e cembalo: the
firft fix with fugues and double flops as they are vul¬
garly called ; the laft with airs of various meafures,
fiich as allemandes, courants, and jiggs. This pub¬
lication was fo well relifhed by the baron, that he
mentioned Geminiani to the king as an excellent per¬
former ; in confequence of which our mufician had
the honour to perform before his ipajefty* in concert
with the celebrated Handel, who played on the harp-
fichord. But though Geminiani was exceedingly ad¬
mired, yet he had not a talent at aflbciating mufic with
poetry, nor do we find that he ever became a public
performer : he was therefore obliged to depend for his
fubfiftence on the friendlhip of his patrons, and the pro¬
fits which accrued to him from teaching. He had alfo
the misfortune to be an enthufiaft in painting ; and the
verfatility of his temper was fuch, that, in order to
’gratify this paffion, he not only fufpended his ftudies,
and negle&ed to exercife his talents, but involved him¬
felf in debts. In 1727, he was offered the place of
t2 ] GEM
mafter and compofer of the ftate-mufic in Ireland; but Geminiarii.
this could not be conferred on a Catholic, and Gemi-v
niani refufed to change his religion : upon which it
was given to Matthew Dubourg, a young man who
had been one of his pupils, and was a celebrated per¬
former on the violin. Geminiani then fet himfelf to
compofe parts to the opera quinta of Corelli; or, in o-
ther words, to make concertos of the firft fix of his
folos. This work he completed, and, with the help
of a fubfcription, at the head of which were the names
of the royal family, publifhed in 1726. In 1732, he
publifhed his opera feconda, which contains a celebrated
minuet that goes by his name. He publifhed many
other pieces, the profits of which did not much mend
his circumftances ; but this perhaps was owing to his
rambling difpofition and enthufiaftic fondnefs of paint¬
ing. He was alfo an utter ftranger to the bufinefs of
an orcheftra, and had no idea of the labour and pains
neceffary in the inftruftion of fingers for the perform¬
ance of mufic to which they were ftrangers. The con¬
fequence of this was, that a concerto fpirituale, which
he had advertifed for his own benefit in 1748, failed in
the performance. The audience, howevei, compaflion-
ated his diftrefs, and fat very filent till the books were
changed; when the performance was continued with
compofitions of the author’s own, and which he execu¬
ted in fuch a manner as was never forgot. The pro¬
fits arifing from this performance enabled him to take
a journey to Paris; where he ftaid long enough to get
plates engraven for a fcore of folos, and the parts of’
two operas of concertos. About the year 1755 he
returned to England, and advertifed them for fale.
In 1761, Geminiani went over to Ireland; and was
kindly entertained there by Mr Matthew Dubourg,
who had been his pupil, and was then mafter of the
king’s band in Ireland. This perfon through the
courfe of his life had ever been difpofed to render him
friendly offices ; and it was but a ftrort time after Ge-
miniani’s arrival at Dublin that he was called upon to
do him the laft. It feems that Geminiani had fpent
many years in compiling an elaborate treatife on mufic,
which he intended for publication ; but foon after his
arrival at Dublin, by the treachery of a female fer-
vant, who, it was faid,, was recommended to him for
no other end than that (he might (teal it, it was con¬
veyed away, and could not be recovered. The great-
nefs of this lofs, and his inability to repair it, made a
deep impreffion on his mind ; and. as is conjectured,
haftened his end; at lead he furvived it but a (hort
time, ending his days on the 17th of September 1762.
The following lift comprifes the whole of his publica¬
tions, except two or three articles of fmall account.
Twelve folos for a violin, opera prima; fix concertos
in feven parts, opera feconda; fix concertos in feveti
parts, -opera terza; twelve folos for a violin, opera
quarta; fix folos for a violencello, opera quinta; the
fame made into folos for a violin ; fix concertos from
his opera quarta; fix concertos in eight parts, opera
fettima; rules for playing in tafte ; a treatife on good
tafte; the art of playing the violin; 12 fonatas from
his firft folos, opera undecima ; Ripieno parts to dittos
lefibns for the harpfichord ; Guida Armonica ; fupple-
ment to ditto; the art of accompaniment, two books;
his firft two operas of concertos in fcore ; and the en¬
chanted foreft.—Of his folos the opera prima is efteem-
GEM [ 613 1 GEM
Gemma ed the beft. Of his concertos fome are excellent, others moft fquare, lefs uniform, and lefs pointed ; being ge-
 V  of them fcarce pafs the bounds of mediocrity. The nerally terminated obtufely. It is called by Pliny oculus
fixth of the third opera not only furpaffes all the reft, gemma; and is employed in that fpecies of grafting
but, in the opinion of the beft judges of harmony, is called inoculation, or budding.
the fineft inftrumental compofition extant. The fecond fpecies of bud, viz. that containing the
GEMMA, or Bud, in botany ; a compendium or leaves, termed gemma folifera, and by the Yrench. bouton
epitome of a plant, feated upon the item and branches, a feuillts or a bsis, contains the rudiments of feveral
and covered with fcales, in order to defend the tender leaves, which are varioufly folded over each other, and
rudiments inclofed from cold and other external inju- outwardly furrounded by fcales, from which the fmall
ries, till, their parts being unfolded, they acquire ftipulae that are feated at the foot of the young branches
ftrength, and render any further proteftion unneceffary. are chiefly produced. Thefe buds are commonly more
Buds, together with bulbs, which are a fpecies ef pointed than the former fort. In the ha2;el-nut, how-
buds generally feated upon or near the root, conftitute ever, they are perfeftly round ; and in horfe-chefnut,
that part of the herb called by Linnaeus hybernacula; very thick.
that is, the winter-quarters of the future vegetable : a The third fort of bud is fmaller than either of the
very proper appellation, as it is during that fevere fea- preceding; and produces both flowers and leaves, tho*
fon that the tender rudiments are prote&ed in the not always in the fame manner. Sometimes the flowers
manner juft mentioned. and leaves are unfolded at the fame time. This mode
Plants, confidered in analogy to animals, may pro- of the flower and leaf bud is termed by Linnaeus
perly enough be reckoned both viviparous and ovipa- gemma folifera & Jlorifera. Sometimes the leaves pro-
rous. Seeds are the vegetable eggs ; buds, living fe- ceed or emerge out of this kind of bud upon' a fmall
tufes, or infant-plants, which renew the fpecies as cer- branch, which afterwards produces flowers. This
tainlv as the feed. mode of the flower and leaf bud is termed by Linnaeus
Buds are placed at the extremity of the young flioots, gettima folifera-jlorifera, and is the moft common bud of
and.along the branches, being fixed by a ftiort foot- any.
ftalk upon a kind of brackets, the remainder of the Such buds as produce branches adorned only with
leaves, in- the wings or angles of which the buds in leaves, are called barren; fuch as contain both leaves
queftion were formed the preceding year. They are and flowers, fertile. From the bulk of the bud wc
fometimes placed Angle ; fometimes two by two, and may often with eafe foretel whether it contains leaves
thofe either oppofite or alternate ; fometimes colledted only, or leaves and flowers together, as in cherry and
in greater numbers in whirls or rings. pear trees.
With refpeft to their conftrudtion, buds are compo- Neither the buds produced on or near the root, call-
fed of feveral parts artificially arranged. Externally, ed by fome authors turiones, nor thofe produced on
we find a number of fcales that are pretty hard, fre- the trunk, and from the angles or wings of the leaves,
quently armed with hairs, hollowed like a fpoon, and contain, in ftrict propriety, an entire delineation of the
placed over each other like tiles. Thefe fcales are plant; fince the roots are wanting; and in various
fixed into the inner plates of the bark, of which they buds, as we have feen, flioots are contained with
appear to be a prolongation. Their ufe is to defend leaves only, and not with flowers: but as a branch
the internal parts of the bud ; which, being unfolded, may be confidered as a part fimilar to the whole plant,
will produce, fome, flowers, leaves, and ftipulas; others, and, if planted, would in procefs of revegetation ex-
footftalks and fcales. All thefe parts, while they re- hibit or produce roots and flowers, we may in general
main in the bud, are tender, delicate, folded over each allow, that the bud contains the whole plant, or the
other, and covered with a thick clammy juice, which principles of the whole plant, which may be unfolded
is fometimes refinous and odoriferous, as in the taca- ad libitum; and thus refembles the feed in containing,
hamac-tree. This juice ferves not only to defend the a deliaeation of the future plant in embryo: for al-
more tender parts of the embryo-plant from cold, the though the bud wants a radicle, or plumula, of which
afiaults of infe&s, and other external injuries; but the feed is poffeffed, yet jt would undoubtedly form
likewife from exceffive perfpiration, which, in its one, if planted in the earth. But as the medullary
young and infant ftate, would be very deftru&ive. It part adhering to the bud is too tender, and by the
is confpicuous in the buds of horfe-chefnut, poplar, and abundance of juice flowing into it from the earth would
willow trees. be difpofed to putrefa&ion, the buds are not planted
In general, we may diftinguifh three kinds of buds; in the foil, but generally inferted within the bark of
that containing the flower, that containing the leaves, another tree ; yet placed fo that the production of the
and that containing both flower and leaves. marrow, or pith, adhering to them, may be inferted
The firft, termed gemma Jlorifera, and by the French into the pith of the branch in which the fiffure or cleft
bouton a Jleur or a fruit, contains the rudiments of one is made ; by which means there is a large communica-
or feveral flowers, folded over each other, and furround- tion of juice. This propagation by gems or buds,
ed with fcales. In feveral trees, this kind of bud called inoculation, is commonly pradtifed with the firft
is commonly found at the extremity of certain fmall fort of buds above defcribed.
branches, which are ftrorter, rougher, and lefs gar- From the obvious ufes of the buds, we may colledt
4 infhed with leaves, than the reft. The external fcales the reafon why the fupreme Author of nature has
of this fpecies of bud are harder than the internal; granted this fort of protection to moft of the trees that
both are furnilhed with hairs, and in general more are natives of cold climates: and, on the other hand,
fwelled than thofe of the fecond fort. The bud con- denied it to fuch as, enjoying a warm benign atmo-
tainiug the flower too is commonly thicker, Ihorter, al- fphere, have not the tender parts of their embryo-
1 fliootjt
GEM r 6]
Gemma, flioots expofed to injuries and depredations from the
Gt wma-m.fever;t|es 0f tlie weather. Of this latter kind are the
- ’v” ' plants of the following lift ; fome of them very large
trees; others fmaller woody vegetables, of the fhrub
and under-flirub kind: Citron, orange, lemon, calfava,
mock-orange, blad-apple, fhrubby fwallow-wort, alater-
nus, ftirubby geraniums, berry-bearing alder, Chrift’s-
thorn. Syrian mallow, baobab or Ethiopian four-
gourd, jufticia, mild fena, the acacias and fenfitive
plant, coral-tree, flunking bean-trefoil, medicago, o-
leander, viburnum, fumach, ivy, tamarilk, heath, Bar-
-badoes cherry, lavatera, rue, fhrubby nightfhades,
Guinea hen weed, cyprefs, lignum vitae, and favine a
ipecies of juniper.
On annual plants, whofe root as well as ftalk perifhes
after a year, true buds are never produced; in their
ftead, however, are protruded fmall branches, like a little
feather, from the wings of the leaves, which wither
without any farther expanfion if the plants climb and
have no lateral branches; but if, either by their own
nature or from abundance of fap, the plants become
branched, the ramuli juft mentioned obtain an increafe
flmilar to that of the whole plant.
The fame appearance obtains in the trees of warm
countries, fuch as thofe enumerated in the above lift, in
which a plumula, or fmall feather, fends forth branches
without a fcaly covering ; as, in fuch countries, this
tender part requires no defence or protection from
cold. A fcaly covering then is peculiar to buds, as
it protedts the tender embryo inclofed from all exter¬
nal injuries. When we therefore fpeak of trees having
buds that are naked or w ithout feales, our meaning is the
fame as if we had faid that they have no buds at all.
The buds that arc to be unfolded the following
year, break forth from the evolved buds of the prefent
year, in fuch a manner as to put on the appearance
of frmll eminences in the wings or angles of the leaves.
Thefe eminences or knots grow but little during the
fummer; as, in that feafon, the fap is expended on the
increafe of the parts of the plant: but in autumn,
when the leaves begin to wither and fall off, the buds,
placed on the wings, increafe; and the embryo-plant
contained in the bud is fo expanded, that the leaves
and flowers, the parts to be evolved the following
year, are diftinCtly vifible. Thus in horfe-chefnut the
leaves, and in cornel-tree the flowers, are each to be.
obferved in their refpeftive buds.
As each bud contains the rudiments of a plant, and
would, if feparated from its parent vegetable, become
every way fimilar to it; Linnaeus, to fhow the wonder¬
ful fertility of nature, has made a calculation, by which
it appears, that, in a trunk fcarce exceeding a fpan in
breadth, 10,000 buds (that is, herbs) may be produ-’
ced. What an infinite number, then, of plants might
be raifed from a very large tree !
GEMMATIO, from gemma, “ a bud a term
ufed by Linnaeus, expreflive of the form of the buds,
their origin, and their contents. It includes both
thofe properly called kids, and thofe which are feated
at the roots, ftyled hulls.
As to the origin of buds, they are formed either of
the footftalks of the leaves, of flipulae, or of feales of
the bark. Their contents have been already difeover-
ed, in the preceding article, to be either flowers, leaves,
or both.
4 1 GEN
GEMONJJE scAi.i, or Gradus Gkmok'h, among Gemoni*
the Romans, was much the fame as gallows or gibbet H
in England.—Some fay they were thus denominated Gender‘ ,
from the perfon who raifed them; others, from the V
firft criminals that fuffered on them; and others, from
the vtrb gemo, “ I figh or groan,”
The gradus gemonii, according to Publius Vidor or
Sextus Rufus, was a place raifed on feveral fteps, from
whence they precipitated their criminals; others re-
prefent it as a place whereon offenders were executed,
and afterwards expofld to public view. The gemonle
fcalz were in the tenth region of the city, near the
temple of Juno. Camillus flrft appropriated the place
to this ufe, in the year of Rome ajS-
GENDARMES, or Gen d’armes, in the French
armies, a denomination given to a fele<3: body of horfe,
on account of their fucceediiig the ancient gendarmes,
who were thus called from their being comple-rtly
clothed in armour; (fee Scots Gendarmes, infra.)
Thefe.troops were commanded by captain-lieutenants,
the king and the princes of the blood being their
captains: the king’s troop, beiides a capiain-lieute-
nant, has two fublieutenants, three enftgna, and three
guidons.
Grand Gendarmes, latterly were a troop competed
of 250 gentlemen ; the king himfelf was their captain,
and one of the lirit peers their captain-lieutenant, who
has under him two lieutenants, three enligns, three gui¬
dons, and other officers.
Small Gendarmes, were the Scots gendarmes, the
queen’s, the dauphin’s, the gendarmes of Anjou, Bur¬
gundy, the Engliflr and Flemifli gendarmes, having
each a captain-lieutenant, fub-lieutenant, enlign, gui¬
don, and quarter-mafter.
Scots Gendarmes, -were originally inftituted by
Charles VII. of France, about the middle of the 5th
century, and formed .a part of his guard ; in which
flatten alfo they aded under other princes. It was their \e
prerogative to take precedence of ail the companies of sl'otlaJ?
tiie gendarmerie of France; and, on particular occa-
fions, they even preceded the two companies of the
king’s moufquetaires. The tens of the Scottifh mo-
narchs were the ufual captains of this company ; and,
after Mary’s accefiion to the throne, its command
belonged to them as a right. It was thence that
James VI. made a claim of it for his ten prince Hen¬
ry. This honour, and its emoluments, were alfo en¬
joyed by Charles I. and the next in command to this
prince was Louis Stuart duke of Lennox. George
Gordon marquia of Huntly fucceeded the duke of
Lennox in the year 1624, and took the title of captain
or commander in chief when Charles f. mounted the
Englifh throne. It is not certain whether Charles II.
was ever captain of this company ; but it was confer¬
red on his brother the duke of Yoik, who was captain
of the Scots gendarmes till the year 1667, when he
refigned his commiffion into the hands of the French
king. Since that time no native of Gieat Britain has
enjoyed this command. See Scot's Guards.
All the different gendarmeries are now abolilhed, in
confequence of the reforming fyftems that have lately
taken place in France.
GENDER, among grammarians, a divifion of
nouns, or names, to diftinguiffi the two foxes.
This was the original intention of gender; but after¬
wards
GEN [6
Gendre wards other words, which had no proper relation either
H to the one fex or the other, had genders affigned them,
Gei>et3' rather out of caprice than reafon ; which is at length
eftablifhed by cuftom. Hence genders vary according
to the languages, or even according to the words in¬
troduced from one language into another. Thus, arlor
in Latin is feminine, but arbre in French is mafculine;
and dens in Latin is mafculine, but dent in French is
feminine.
The oriental languages frequently negledf the ufe of
genders, and the Perfian language has none at all.
The Latins, Greeks, &c. generally content them-
felves to exprefs the different genders by different ter¬
minations ; as bonus equus, “ a good horfebona equa,
“ a good mare,” &c. But in Engliih rve frequently
go further, and exprefs the difference of fex by differ¬
ent words : as boar, fow ; boy, gtrl; buck, doe ; bull,
cow; cock, hen; dog, bitch, &c.—We have only
about 24 feminines, dillinguilhed from the males, by
the variation of the termination of the male into efs ;
of which number are abbot, abbefs ; count, countefs ;
after, aftrefs; heir, heirefs; prince, princefs, &c.
which is all that our language knows of any thing like
genders.
The Greek and Latin, befides the mafculine and fe¬
minine, have the neuter, common, and the doubtful
gender; and likewife the epicene, or promifeuous,
which under one fingle gender and termination in¬
cludes both the kinds.
GENDRE (Louis le), an efteemed hiftorian, born
at Roan. He becarr»e canon of Notre Dame at Paris,
fubchanter of the fame church, and abbot of Notre
Dame at Claire Fontaine in the diocefe of Chartres.
Fie wrote a great number of works; the principal of
which are: 1. The Manners and Cuftoms of the French,
in the different times of that monarchy. 2. An Pli-
Hory of France, in three volumes folio, and in feven
volumes duodecimo. 3. The Life of Cardinal d’Am-
bdife. He died in 1733, aged 78.
Gendre (Gilbert Charles le), marquis of St Au-
bin, counfellor in the parliament of Paris, and after¬
wards mailer of requefts in the king’s houfehold. He
wrote feveral works; but is chiefly diftinguifhed by his
Traite del'opinion, 9 vols i2mo; a curious performance,
proving, by hiftoric examples, -the empire of opinion
over the works of art and fcience. Fie died at Paris
in .1746, aged 59.
GENEALOGY, an enumeration of a feries of an--
ceftors; err a fummaiy account of the relations and al¬
liances of a perfon or family, both-in the direft and col¬
lateral line.
The word is Greek, ; which is formed of
yev®-. “ race or lineage,” and “difeourfe.”
In divers chapters and military orders, it is required
that the candidates produce their genealogy, to fliow
that they are noble by fo many defeents.
GENEALOGICA arbor, otTrf.f. of Confanguinity,
frgnifies a genealogy or lineage drawn out under the
figure of a tree, with its root, flock, branches, &e. The
genealogical degrees are ufually reprefented in circles,
ranged over, under, and afide each other. This the
Greeks called jlemmata, a word frgnifying crown, gar¬
land, or the like. See the articles Cons anguinity and
Descent, and the plates there referred to.
GENEP, a llrohg town of Germany, -in the circle of
ij ] GEN
Weftphalia, fubjeft to the king of Pruflia. E. Long.
4. 29. N. Lat. 51. 42.
GENERAL, an appellation given to whatever be¬
longs to a whole genus.
General Jljfembly. See Assembly.
General Charge, in law. See Charge to enter Heir.
General Terms, among logicians, thofe which are
made the iigns of general ideas. See F.ogic and Me¬
taphysics.
General Warrant. See Warrant.
General of an Hrmy, in the art of War, he who
commands in chf f. See the article War, where his
office and duties art particularly explained.
General of the Artillery. See Ordnance.
General of Horfe, and General of Foot, are polls
next under the general of the army, and thefe have up¬
on all occafions an abfolute authority over all the horfe
and foot in the army.
Adjutant-General, one who attends the general,
affifts in council, and carries the general’s orders to
the army. He diftributes the daily orders to the ma¬
jors of brigade. He is likewife charged with the ge¬
neral detail of the duty of the army. The majors of
brigade fend every morning to the adjutant-general
an exaft return, by battalion and company, of the
men of his brigade. In a day of battle the adjutant-
general fees the infantry drawn up ; after which, he
places himfelf by the general, to receive any orders
which may regard the corps of which he has the de¬
tail. In a fiege, he orders the number of workmen
demanded, and figns the warrant for their payment.
He receives the guards of the trenches at their ren¬
dezvous, and examines their condition; he gives and
ligns all orders for parties. He has an orderly fer-
jeant from each brigade of infantry in the line, to
carry fuch orders as he may have occafion to fend from
the general.
Lieutenant-General, is the next in command after
the general; and provided he fliould die or be killed,
the order is, that the oldeft lieutenant-general fhall take
the command. This office is the firft military dignity
after that of a general. One part of their funftion is,
to affift the general with their counfel: they ought
therefore, if poffible, to poffefs the fame qualities with
the general himfelf; and the more, as they often com¬
mand armies in chief.
The number of liutenant-generals have been mul¬
tiplied of late in Europe, in proportion as the armies
have become numerous. They ferve either in the field,
or in fieges, according to the dates of their commif-
fions. In battle, the oldeft commands the right wing
of the army, the fecond the left wing, the third the
centre ; the fourth the right wing of the fecond line,
the fifth the left wing, the fixth the centre ; and fo on.
In fieges, the lieutenant-generals always command the
right of the principal attack, and order what they
judge proper for the advancement of the fiege during
the 24 hours they are in the trenches; except the at¬
tacks, which they are not to make without an order
from the general in chief.
Lieutenant-General of the Ordnance. See Ordnance.
Lieutenant- General of Artillery, is, or ought to
be, a very great mathematician, and an able engineer ;
to know all the powers of artillery ; to tthderftand the
attack and defence of fortified places, in all its differ-
rent
GEN [6
General rent branches; how to difpofe of the artillery in the
Generate ^att^e to the beft advantage ; to condudl its
, march and retreat; as alfo to be well acquairtted with
all the numerous apparatus belonging to the train, and
to the laboratory, &c.
Major-Gp.NERAL, the next officer to the lieutenant-
general. His chief bufinefs is to receive orders from
the general, or in his abfence from the lieutenant-ge¬
neral of the day; which he is to diftribute to the
brigade-majors, with whom he is to regulate the
guards, convoys, detachments, &c. On him the
whole fatigue and detail of duty of the army roll. It
is the major- general of the day who is charged with
the encampment of the army, who places himfelf at
the head of it when they march, who marks out the
ground of the camp to the quarter mailer-general, and
who places the new guards for the fafety of the camp.
The day the army is to march, he diftates to the
field-officers the order of the march, which he has re¬
ceived from the general, and on other days gives them
the parole.
In a fixed camp he is charged with the foraging,
with reconnoitring the ground for it, and polling the
efcorts, &c.
In fieges, if there are two feparate attacks, the fe-
cond belongs to him ; but if there is but one, he takes,
either from the right or left of the attack, that which
the lieutenant-general has not chofen.
When the army is under arms, he affills the lieute¬
nant-general, whole orders he executes.
If the army marches to an engagement, his poll is
at the head of the guards of the army, until they are
near enough to the enemy to rejoin their different
corps ; after which fie retires to his own proper poll:
for the major-generals are difpofed on the order of
battle as the lieutenant-generals are ; to whom, how¬
ever, they are fubordinate, for the command of their
divifions. The major-general has one aid-de-camp,
paid for executing his orders.
General is alfp ufed for a particular march, or
beat of drum ; being the firll which gives notice, com¬
monly in the morning early, for the infantry to be in
readinefs to march.
General is likewife an appellation by which officers
in law, in the revenues, &c. are diftinguilhed; as,
attorney-general, folicitor-general, 8cc. receiver-general,
comptroller-general, &c. See Attorney, &c.
General is alfo ufed for the chief of an order of
monks; or of all the houfes and congregations efla-
blilhed under the fame rule. Thus we fay, the gene¬
ral of the Francifcans, Cillertians, &c.
GENERALISSIMO, called alfo captain-general,
and limply general, is an officer who commands all the
military powers of a nation ; who gives orders to all the
other general officers; and receives no orders himfelf
but from the king.
Monf. Balzac obferves, that the cardinal de Richelieu
firft coined this word, of his own abfolute authority, up¬
on his going to command the French army in Italy.
GENERATE, in mufic, is ufed to fignify the
operation of that mechanical power in nature, which
every found has in producing one or more different
founds. Thus any given found, however fimple, pro¬
duces along with itfelf, its o&ave, and two other
founds extremely (harp, viz. its twelfth above, that is
Nc 136.
16 1 GEN
to fay, the o&ave of its fifth ; and the other the feven- Generated
teenth above, or, in other words, the double o£tave of
its third major.
Whether we fuppofe this procreation of founds to
refult from an aptitude in the texture and magnitude
of certain particles in the air, for conveying to our
ears vibrations that bear thofe proportions one to-ano¬
ther, as being determined at once by the partial and
total ofcillations of any mufical firing ; or from what¬
ever economy of nature we choofe to trace it; the
power of one found thus to produce another, when in
adlion, is faid to generate. The fame word is applied, by
Signior Tartini and his followers, to any two founds
which, fimultaneoufly heard, produce a third.
GENERATED, or Gen iTim, is ufed, by fome
mathematical writers, for whatever is produced, either
in arithmetic, by the multiplication, divilron, or ex¬
traction of roots; or in geometry, by the invention
of the contents, areas, and fides ; or of extreme and
mean proportionals, without arithmetical addition and
fubtraclion.
GENERATING line, or figure, in geomerty,
is that which, by its motion of revolution, produces
any other figure, plane or folid. See Genesis.
GENERATION, in phyfiology, the aCt of pro¬
creating and producing a being fimilar to the parent.
See Anatomy, n° 109, no.
Generation of Fifhes. See Comparative Anatomy,
n° 154. and Ichthyology.
Generation of Plants. See Botany, feCt.v.
Generation of Infects. See Comparative Anatomy,
p. 274. and Entomology, fe£t. ii.
Parts qf Generation. See Anatomy, n° 107, 108.
Generation, in mathematics, is ufed for formation
or production. Thus we meet with the generation of
equations, curves, folids, See.
Generation, in theology. The Father is faid by
fome divines to have produced his Word or Son from
all eternity, by way' of generation ; on which occafion
the vi ox & generation raifes a peculiar idea: that procef-
fion, which is really effeCled in the way of underftand-
ing, is called generation, becaufe in virtue thereof, the
Word becomes like to him from whom he takes this
original; or, as St Paul expreffes it, is the figure or
image of his fubftance, i. e. of his being and nature.
And hence it is, they fay, that the fecond Perfon in
the Trinity is called the Son.
Generation is alfo ufed, though fomewhat im¬
properly, for genealogy, or the feries of children iflued
from the fame ftock. Thus the gofpel of St Matthew
commences with the book of the generation of Jefus
Chrift, &c. The latter and more accurate tranflators,
inftead of generation ufe the word genealogy.
Generation is alfo ufed to fignify a people, race,
or nation, efpecially in the literal tranflations of the
feripture, where the word generally occurs where-
ever the Latin has generatio, and the Greek yevfo-jj.
Thus, “ A wicked and perverfe generation feeketh a
fign,” See. “ One generation pafles away, and an¬
other cometh,” &c.
Generation is alfo ufed in the fenfe of an age, or
the ordinary period of man’s life. Thus we fay, “ to
the third and fourth generation.” In this fenfe hifto-
rians ufually reckon a generation the fpace of 33 years
or thereabouts. See Ac e.
Herodotus'
GEN [ C
‘Generator Herodotus makes three generations !h an hundred
II years ; which computation appears from the later au-
. Genefia, thors of political arithmetic to be pretty juft.
■v—. GENERATOR, in mufic, fignifxes the principal
found or founds by which others are produced. Thus
the loweft C for the treble of the harpficord, befides
its oftave, will ftrike an attentive ear with its twelfth
above, or G in ait, and with its feventeenth above, or
E in alt. The C, therefore, is called their generator,
the G and E its products or harmonics. But in the
approximation of chords, for G, its o&ave below is
fubftituted, which conftitutes a fifth from the genera¬
tor, or loweft C ; and for E, islikewife fubftituted its
fifteenth below, which, with the above mentioned C,
forms a third major. To the loweft notes, therefore,
exchanged for thefe in alt by fubttitution, the denomi¬
nations of prodiifts or harmonics are likewife given,
whilft the C retains the name of generator. But
ftill according to the fyftem of Tartini, two notes in
concord, which when founded produce a third, may be
termed the concurring generators of that third. (See
Generation Harmonique, par M. Rameau ; fee alfo that
delineation of Tartini’s fyftem called The power and
principles of harmony.)
GENERICAL name, in natural hiftory, the word
ufed to fignify all the fpecies of natural bodies, which
agree in certain eflential and peculiar characters, and
therefore all of-the fame family or kind; fo that the
■word ufed as the generical name equally expreftes every
one of them, and fome other words exprefiive ©f the
peculiar qualities or figures of each are added, in order
to denote them fingly, and make up what is called
the fpecific name. See Botanv and Zoology.
GENESIS, the firft book of the Old Teftament,
containing the hiftory of the creation, and the lives of
the firft patriarchs.
The book of Genefis Hands at the head of the Pen¬
tateuch. Its author is held to be Mofes: it contains
the relation of 2369 years, viz. from the beginning of
the world to the death of Jofeph. The Jews are for¬
bidden to read the beginning of Genefis, and the begin¬
ning of Ezekiel, before 30 years of age.
The Hebrews called this book Berefchith, becaufe it
begins with that word, which in their language figni-
fies in principio, or “ in the beginning.” The Greeks
gave it the name Genefs, rsvso-u.y. d. production, gene¬
ration, becaufe it begins with the hiftory of the pro¬
duction or generation of all beings.
This book, befides the hiftory of the creation, con¬
tains an account of the original innocence and fall of
Tnan; the propagation of mankind; the rife of religion;
the general defection and corruption of the world; the
deluge ; the reftoration of the world ; the divifion
and peopling of the earth ; and the hiftory of the
'firft patriarchs to the death of Jofeph. It was eafy
for Mofes to be fatisfied of the truth of what he de¬
livers in this book, becaufe it came down to him thro’
a few hands: for from Adam to Noah there was one
man, viz. Methufelah, who lived fo long as to fee them
both : in like manner Shem converfed with Noah and
Abraham ; Ifaac with Abraham and Jofeph, from
whom the records of this book might eafily be con¬
veyed to Mofes by Amram, who was contemporary
with Jofeph.
Vol. VII. Part II.
17 ] GEN
Genesis, in geometry, denotes the formation of a Genefl*
line, plane, or folid, by the motion or flux of a point, II
line, or furface. See Fluxions. , Geneya»
The genefis or formation, e.gr. of a globe or fphere,
is conceived by fuppofing a femicircle to revolve upon
a right line, drawn from one extreme thereof to the
other, called its axis, or axis of circumvolution ; the
motion or revolution of that femicircle is the genefis of
the fphere, &c.
In the genefis of figures, &c. the line or furface that
moves is called the defcribent-, and the line round which,
or, according to which, the revolution or motion is
made, the dirigent.
GENET, Gennet, or Jennet, in the manege, de¬
notes a fmall-fized well-proportioned Spanifti horfe.
To ride a lagenette, is to ride after the Spanifti faftiion,
fo ftiort, that the fpurs bear upon the horfe’s flank.
GENETHLIA, in antiquity, a folemnity kept in
memory of fome perfon deceafed.
GENETHLIACI, in aftrology, perfons who ereCI
horofcopes or pretend to foretel what (hall befal a man
by means of the ftars which prefided at his nativity.
The word is formed of the Greek origin, genera*
tion, nativity.
The ancients called them Chaldsei, and by the gene¬
ral name mathematici: accordingly, the feveral civil and
canon laws, which vve find made againft the mathema¬
ticians, only refpedt the genethliaci or aftrologers.
They were expelled Rome by a formal decree of the
fenate ; and yet found fo much protedtion from the
credulity of the people, that they remained therein
unmolefted. Hence an ancient author fpeaks of them
as hominum genus, quod in civitate nqftra fcmper & vetahi-
tur, & retinebitur.
GENETTE, in zoology. See Viverra.
GENEVA, a city of Switzerland, on the confines
of France and Savoy, fituated in 6° E. Long, and
46° 1 z' 9" N. Lat. It Hands on the banks of the river
Rhone, juft at the place where the latter iffues from
the lake which takes its name from the city; and part
of it is built on an ifland in the river. It is handfome,
well fortified, and pretty large ; the ftreets in general
are clean and well paved, but the principal one is en¬
cumbered with a row of (hops on each fide between
the carriage and foot-paths. The latter is very wide,
and prote&ed from the weather by great wooden pent-
houfes projedring from the roofs ; which, though very
convenient, give the ftreet a dark and dull appear- ■
ance. The houfes are generally conftru&ed of free-
ftone, with bafements of limeftone; the gutters, fpouts,
ridges, and outward ornaments, being made of tinned
iron. Some of them have arched walks or piazzas in
front. The place called Treille is very agreeable, be¬
ing planted with linden trees, and commanding a fine
profpeft of the lake, with feveral ranges of rocks rifing
behind one another, fome covered with vineyards and
herbage, and others with fnow, having openings be¬
tween them. Immediately below Geneva the Rhone
is joined by the Arve, a cold and muddy ftream rifing
among the Alps, and deriving a confiderable part of its
waters from the Glaciers. The Rhone is quite clear
and tranfparent, fo that the muddy water of the Arve
is diftinguifliable from it even after they have flowed
for fcveral miles together. There are four bridges
4 I over
GEN l 618 1 GEN
Geireva. over the Rhone before it joins the Arve; and from it
— the city is fupplied with water by means of an hy¬
draulic machine, which raifes it too Paris feet above
its level. The principal buildings are, i. The Maifon
de Ville, or town-houfe, a plain ancient edifice, with
large rooms, in which the councils affemble, and pub¬
lic entertainments are held; and in one of them a week¬
ly concert is held by fubfcription during the winter.
The afcent to the upper ftory is not by fteps but a
paved acclivity ; which, however, is fo gentle, that
horfes and mules can go up to the top. 2. The
church .of St Peter’s, formerly the cathedral, is an an¬
cient Gothic building, with a modern portico of feven
large Corinthian columns of red and white marble from
Roche. The only thing,remarkable in the infide is
the tomb of Henry duke of Rohan. 3. The arfenal
is in good order, and fupplied with arms fufficient for
12,000 men. There are many ancient fuits of armour;
and the fcaling ladders, lanthorns, hatchets, &c. ufed by
the Savoyards in. their treacherous attempt on the city
in the year 1602, to be afterwards noticed, are here pre-
ferved. The magazines contain 1 locannons befides mor¬
tars. 4. The hofpital is a large handfome building, by
which and other charities near 4000 poor people are
maintained. 5. The fortifications bn the fide of Savoy are
of the modern bonftruftion, but arecommanded by fome
neighbouring grounds. On the fide of France they
are old falhioned, and at any rate are rather calculated
to prevent a furprife than to fuftairr a regular fiege.
There are three gates, towards France, Savoy,-and
Switzerland ; and the accefs to the lake is guarded by
a double jetty and chain.
The territory belonging to this city contains about
feven fquare leagues, and is divided into nine pa-
rilhes; the town is by far the moft populous in Swit¬
zerland, having about 30,000 inhabitants, of whortr,
however, 5000 are generally fuppofed to be abfent.
It has a fmall diftrift dependent upon it, but this
does not contain above 16,coo. The adjacent coun¬
try is extremely beautiful, and has many magnificent
views arifing from the different pofitions of the nume¬
rous hills and mountains with regard to the town and
lake. The inhabitants were formerly diftinguifhed in¬
to four claffes, viz. citizens, burgeffes, inhabitants, and
natives; and fince the revolution in 1782, a fifth clafs,
named doin': c ill us, have been added, who annually
i-eceive permiffion from the magiftrates to refide in the
• city'. The qitizens and burgeffes alone, however, are
admitted to a fhare in the government; thofe called
inhalitants are flrangers allowed to fettle in the town
with certain privileges; and the natives are the fans
of thofe inhabitants, who poffefs additional advantages.
The people are very-aftive and induftrious, carrying on
j an extenfive commerce.
State of This city is remarkable for the number of learned
Faming in men it has produced. The reformed doctrines of reli-
Geneva. gjon wcre VCry early received in it, being preached
there in 153 ? by William Fare! and Peter Viret of
Orbe, and afterwards finally eftablifhed by the celebra¬
ted John Calvin. Of this reformer Voltaire obferves,
that he gave his name to the religious doctrines firft.
broached by others, in the fame manner that Americus
Vefputius gave name to the continent of America
which had formerly been difcovered by Columbus. 11
was by the aukluity of this celebrated reformer, and
the influence that he acquired among the citizens, Geneva-
that a public academy was firfl eftablifhed in the city, —v—
where he, Theodore Beza, and fome of the more emi¬
nent firft reformers, read leftures with uncommon fuc-
cefs. The intolerant fpirit of Calvin is well known ;
but little of it now appears in the government of Ge¬
neva : on the contrary, it is the moft tolerating of all
the ftates in Switzerland, being the only one of them
which permits the publib exercife of the Lutheran re¬
ligion. The advantages of the academy at Geneva are
very confpicuous among the citizens at this day, even
the lower clafs of them being exceedingly well inform¬
ed; fo that, according to Mr Coxe, there is not a city
in Europe where learning is fo generally diffufed. “ I
received great fatisfadion (fays he) in converfing even
with feveral tradefmen upon topics both of literature
and politics ; and was aftonifhed to find in this clafs
of men fo uncommon a fhare of knowledge ; but the
wonder ceafes when we are told that all of them were
educated at the public academy.” In this feminary
the induftry and emulation of the ftudents are excited
by the annual diftribution of prizes to thofe who dif-
tinguifh themfelves in each clafs. The prizes con fill
of fmall medals, but are conferred with fuch folemnity
as cannot fail to produce a ftriking effebl on the minds
of youth. There is alfo a public library to which the
citizens have accefs, and which undoubtedly tend*
greatly to that univerfal diffufion of learning fo re¬
markable among the inhabitants. It was founded by
Bonnivard, remarkable for his fufferings in the caufe of
the liberties of his country. Having been a great an-
tagonift of the dukes of Savoy, againft whom he af-
ferted the independence of Geneva, he had the mis¬
fortune at laft to be taken prifoner, and was imprifon-
ed for fix years in a dungeon below the level of the
lake, in the caftle of Chillon, which Hands on a rock ia
the lake, and is conne&ed with the land by a draw¬
bridge. In 1536 this caftle was taken from Charles HI.
of Savoy by the canton of Berne, afiifted by the Gene
vans, who furnifhed a frigate (their whole naval force)
to befiege it by fea. Bonnivard was now taken from his
dungeon, where by conftant walking backward and
forward, his only amufement, he had worn a hollow
in the floor which confifted of folid rock. Bonnivard
confidered the hardlhips he had endured as ties which
endeared him to the city, and became a principal pro¬
moter of the reformation by the mild methods of per-
fuafion and inftruTion. He clofed his benefactions by
the gift of his books and manufcripts, and bequeathing
his fortune towards the eftablifhment and fnpport of
the feminar,y. His works, which chiefly relate to the
hiftory of Geneva, are ftill prefcrved with-great care
and reverence. The library contains 25,000 volumes,
with many curious manufcripts, of which an account
has been publifhed by the reverend M. Sennebier the
librarian, who has likewife dillinguifticd bimfelf by fe¬
veral literary works. Meffrs Bonnet, Sauffure, Mallet,
and de Luc, are the other moft diftinguifhed literary
geniufes of which Geneva can boaft. The laft is par¬
ticularly remarkable for the perfeftion to which he has
brought the barometer, and which is now fo great,
that very little feems poflible to be done by any body 2
elfe. His cabinet merits the attention of naturalifts, Acc< unt of
as containing many rare and curious fpecimens of fof- Luc’s
fils, which ferve to illuftrate the theory of the globe.ca- c'
It
GEN [ 619 ] GEN
Geneva. It may be divided into three parts : t. Such as enable
v“""v— the naturalift to compare the petrefa&ions of animals
and vegetables with the fame bodies which are Hill
known to exift iri our parts of the globe. 2. To com¬
pare thefe petrefa&ions of animals with the fame bo-
> dies which are known to exift in different countries.
3. To confiderthe petrefaftions of thofe bodies which
are no longer known to exift:. The fecond part com¬
prehends the ftones under three points of view: 1.
Thofe of the primitive mountains, which contain no
animal bodies ; 2. Thofe of the fecondary mountains,
■which contain only marine bodies; 3. Thofe which
contain terreftial bodies. The third part contains the
lavas and other volcanic produdlions; which are diftin-
guiihed into two claffes : 1. Thofe which come from
volcanoes now actually burning ; 2. Thofe from ex-
tinguilhed volcanoes.
Hiftory and In the time of Charles the Great, the city and ter-
govern- ritory of Geneva made part of his empire ; and, under
mentof fuc'ceffors, it became fubjedf to the German empe-
Heva‘ rors. By reafon of the imbecility of thefe princes,
however, the biftiops of Geneva acquired fuch autho¬
rity over the inhabitants, that the emperor had no o-
ther means of counterbalancing it than by augmenting
the privileges of the people. In thefe barbarous ages
alfo the bifhops and counts had conftant difputes, of
which the people took the advantage; and by tiding
.fometimes with one, and fometimes with the other.
they obtained an extenfion of their privileges from
both. The houfe of Savoy at length purchafed the
territory, and fucceeded the counts with additional
power : againft them therefore the biftiops and people
united in order to refill their encroachments ; and, du¬
ring this period, the government was ftrangely com¬
plicated by reafon of the various pretenfions of the
three parties. The counts of Savoy, however, had at
laft the addrefs to diffolve the union between the bi¬
fhops and citizens, by procuring the epifcopal fee for
their brothers, and even their illegitimate children; by
which means their power became gradually fo exten-
five, that towards the commencement of the 16th
century, Charles III. of Savoy (though the govern¬
ment was accounted entirely republican) obtained an
almoft abfolute authority over the people, and exer-
cifed it in a moft unjuft and arbitrary manner. Thus vio¬
lent commotions took place; and the citizens became
divided into two parties, one of which, viz. the pa¬
triots, were ftyled Eidgenojfen or confederates; the
partifans of Savoy being difgraced by the appellation
of Mammelucs or flaws. The true period of Gene¬
van liberty may therefore be confidered as commencing
with the treaty concluded with Berne and Friburg in
the year 1526 ; in confequence of which the duke
was in a fhort time deprived of his authority, the bi-
fhop driven from the city, and the reformed religion and
a republican form of government introduced. A long
war commenced with Savoy on this account; but the
Genevans proved an overmatch for their enemies by
their own bravery and the affiftance of the inhabitants
of Berne. In 1584, the republic concluded a treaty
with Zurich and Berne, by which it is allied to the Sw.ifs
cantons. The houfe of Savoy made their laft attempt
againft Geneva in 1602, when the city was treach-
eroufly attacked in the night-time during a profound
peace. Two. hundred foldiers had fcaled the walls,
and got into the town before any alarm was given ;
but they were repulfed by the defperate valour of a few Geneva.'
citizens, who perifhed in the encounter. A petard had
been faftened to one of the gates by the Savoyards;
.but the gunner was killed before it could be difchar-
ged. The war occafioned by this treachery was next
year concluded by a folemn treaty, which has ever
lince been obferved on both (Ides; though the inde¬
pendence of Geneva was not formally acknowledged by
the king of Sardinia till the year 1754.
The reftoration of tranquillity from without in
confequence of the above treaty, was however foon
followed by the flames of internal difcord, fo com¬
mon in popular governments; fo that during the
whole of the laft century the hiftory of Geneva af¬
fords little more than an account of the ftruggles be¬
twixt the ariftocratical and popular parties. About
the beginning of the prefent century the power of the
Grand Council was become almoft abfolute ; but in.
order to reftrain its authority, an edidl was procured
in 1707 by the popular party, ena&ing, that every
five years a general council of the citizens and bur¬
ghers fhould be furnmoned to deliberate upon the af¬
fairs of the republic. In confequence of this law a ge¬
neral affembly was convened in 1712; and the very
firft adl of that aflembly was to abolifh the edidft by
which they had been convened. A proceeding fo ex¬
traordinary can fcarcely be accounted for on the prin¬
ciples of popular ficklenefs and inconftancy. Rouf-
feau, in his Mifcellaneous Works, aferibes it to the
artifices of the magiftrates, and the equivocal terms
marked upon the billets then in ufe. For the queftion
being put, “ Whether the opinion of the councils for
abolilhing the periodical afiemblies fhould pafs into a
lawthe words approbation or rejection, put upon the
billets by which the votes were given, might be inter¬
preted either way. Thus, if the billet was chofen on
which the word approbation was written, the opinion
of the councils which rejedled the affemblies was ap¬
proved ; and by the word rejedion, the periodical af-
fembly was reje&ed of courfe. Hence fcveral of the
citizens complained that they had been deceived, and
that they never meant to #eje<£l the general affembly*
but only the opinion of the councils.
In confequence of the abolition of the general af¬
femblies the power of the ariftocratical party was
greatly augmented; till at length the inhabitants exert¬
ing themfelves with uncommon fpirit and perfeverance,
found means to limit the power of the magiftrates, and
enlarge their own rights. In 1776, as Mr Cox informs 4
us, the government might be confidered as a mean be- Sketch of
twixt that of the ariftocratical and popular cantons ofthe g°.ver**
Switzerland. The members of the fenate, or little jie“g m *
council of 25, enjoyed in their corporate capacity fe-
veral very confiderable prerogatives. By them half the
members of the great council were-named ; the princi¬
pal magiftrates were {applied from their own body;
they convoked the great and general councils, delibe¬
rating previoufly upon every queftion which was to be
brought before thefe councils. They were veiled alfo
with the chief executive power, the adminiftration of
finances, and had in a certain degree the jurifdiftioa
in civil and criminal caufes. Molt of the fnialler pofta
were likewife filled by them ; and they enjoyed the
foie privilege of conferring the burgherfhip. Thefe,
and other prerogatives, however, were balanced by
thofe of the great council and the privileges of the ge-
4 I 2 neral
GEN r 620 1 G E
Geneva, neral council. The former had a right to choofe the
members of the fenate from their own body ; receiving
appeals in all caufes above a certain value, pardoning
criminals, &c. befides which they had the important
privilege of approving or reje&ing whatever was propo-
fed by the fenate to be laid before the people.
The general council or afiembly of the people, is
compofed of the citizens and burghers of the town ;
their number in general amounting to 1500, though
ufually not more than 1200 wereprefent; the remain¬
der redding in foreign countries, or being otherwife
abfent. It meets twice a-year, choofes the principal
magiftrates, approves or reje&s the laws and regula¬
tions propofed by the other councils, impofes taxes,
contradts alliances, declares war or peace, and nomi¬
nates half the members of the great council, &c. But
the principal check to the power of the fenate arofe
from the right of re-eleBwn, or the power of annually
expelling four members from the fenat'e at- the nomi¬
nation of the fyndict or principal magiftrates, and from
the right of reprefentation. The fyndics are four in
number, chofen annually from the fenate by the gene¬
ral council; and three years elapfe before the fame
members can be again appointed. In choofing thefe
magiftrates, the fenate appointed from its own body
eight candidates, from whom the four fyndics were
to be chofen by the general council. The latter, howr
ever, had it in their power to rejedt not only the firft
eight candidates, but alfo the whole body of fenators
in fucceffion : in which cafe, four members of the fe¬
nate retired into the great council; and their places
were filled by an equal number from that council.
With regard to the power of reprefentation, every ci¬
tizen or burgher had the privilege of applying to the
fenate in order to procure a new regulation in this ae-
fpedf, or of remonftrating againft any adt of the ma-
giftracy. To thefe remonftrances the magiftrates were
obliged to give an explicit anfwer; for if a fatisfadtory
anfwer was not given to one, a fecond was immediate¬
ly prefented. The reprefentation was made by a
greater or fmaller number of citizens according to the
^ importance of the point in queftion.
Account of Since the 1776, however, feveral changes have taken
the revolu- place. This right of re-eleBion, which the ariftocratical
t,0R m party were obliged to yield to the people in 1768, foon
7 * proved very difagreeable, being confidered by the former
as a kind of oftracifm ; for which reafon they catched
at every opportunity of procuring its abolition. They
were now diftinguilhed by the title of negatives,
while the popular party had that of reprefcntants ; and
the point in difpute was the compilation of a new code
of laws. This meafure the negatives oppoftd, as
fuppofing that it would tend to reduce their preroga¬
tives ; while, on the other hand, the reprefentants ufed
their utmoft endeavours to promote it, in hopes of
having their privileges augmented by this means. At
kft, in the month of January 1777, the negatives were
obliged to comply with the demands of their antago-
nifts ; and a committee for forming a new code of laws
was appointed by the concurrence of the little, great,
and general councils. The committee was to laft for two
years, and the code to be laid before the three councils
for their joint approbation or reje&ion. A {ketch of
the firft part of the code was prefented to the little and
great councils on the firft of September 1779, that
they might profit by their obfervations before it was Geneva,
prefented to the general council. Great difputes a- ——
rofe ; and at length it was carried by the negatives that
the code ftiould be reje&ed and the committee diflbl-
ved. The oppofite party complained of this as un-
conftitutional, and violent difputes enfued ; the ifiue of
which was, that the great council offered to compile
the code, and fubmit it to the decilion of the public.
This did not give fatisfaftion to the popular party,
who confidered it as infidious: the contentions revived
with more fury than ever, until at length the negatives
fuppofing, or pretending to fuppofe, that their coun¬
try was in danger, applied to their guarantees, France,
Zurich, and Berne, intreating them to.prote& the
laws and conftitution. This was productive of no
good effect; fo that the negatives found no other me¬
thod of gaining their point than by Towing diflenfion
among the different claffes of inhabitants. The na¬
tives were difeontented and jealous on account of many
exclufive privileges enjoyed by that clafs named citi¬
zens : they were befides exafperated againft them for
having, in 1770, banifiled eight of the principal na¬
tives, who pretended that the right of burgherftiip be¬
longed to the natives as well as to the citizens, and
demanded that this right ought to be gratuitouffy
conferred inftead of being purchafed. The negatives,,
in hopes of making fuch a confidetable. addition to
their party, courted the natives by all the methods
they could think of, promifing by a public declaration
that they were ready to confer upon them thofe privi
leges of trade and commerce which had hitherto been
confined exclufively to the citizens. The defigns of the
negatives were likewife openly favoured by the court
of France, and difpatches were even written to the
French refident at Geneva to be communicated to the
principal natives who fided with the ariftocratic party.
The attorney-general, conceiving this mode of interfe¬
rence to be highly unconftitutional, prefented a fpirited
remonftrance; by which the French court werefo much
difpleafed, that they procured his depofition from his
office ; and thus their party was very confiderably in-
creafed among the natives. The reprefentants were
by no means negligent in their endeavours to conciliate
the favour of the fame party, and even promifed what
they had hitherto oppofed in the ftrongeft manner,
viz. to facilitate the acquifition of the burgherftiip,.
and to beftow it as the recompence of induftry and
good behaviour. Thus two parties were formed a-
mong the natives themfelves; and the diffenfions beco¬
ming every day worfe and worfe, a general infurrec-
tion took place on the 5th of February 1781. A difi-
pute, accompanied with violent reproaches, havings
commenced betwixt two neighbouring and oppofite.
parties of natives, a battle would have immediately ta¬
ken place, had it not been for the interpofition of the
fyndics on the one fide, and the chiefs of the reprefen¬
tants on the other. The tumult was beginning to fub-
fide, when a difeharge of mufquetry was heard from the-
arfenal. Some young men who fided with the nega¬
tives, having taken poffeffion of the arfenal, had fired
by miftake upon feveral natives of their own party, and
had killed one and wounded another. This was con¬
fidered by the reprefentants as the fignal for a general
infurredlion, on which they inftantly took up arms,
and marched in three columns to the arfenal; but
finding
GEN [ 621 ] GEN
finding there only a few young men who had rafhly ved by the pretences of the popular party, a&ed as if Geneva*
fired without orders, they permitted the reft to retire their power was already eftablifted and permanent. *■—
without moleftation. In the opinion of fome people, In confequence of this, they depofed feveral members
however, this affair was preconcerted, and the repre- of the great and little councils, appointing in their
fentants are faid to have been the firft aggreflbrs. room an equal number of perfons who were favourable
The reprefentants having thus taken up arms, were to the caufe of the reprefentants. The great council
in no hafte to lay them down. They took pofiefikm- thus new modelled, executed the edift for conferring
of all the avenues to the city ; and their Committee be- the burgherihip upon a number of the natives ; and
ing fummoned next morning by the natives to fulfil appointed a committee of fafety, compofed of eleven
their engagements with refpedl to the burgherfhip, members, with very confiderable authority. By this
they held feveral meetings with the principal negatives committee the public tranquillity was re-eftablifhed ;
on that fubjeft, but without any fuccefs : for though after which, the fortifications were ordered to be re¬
tire latter readily agreed to an augmentation of the paired 5 and the people were buoyed up by the molt
commercial privileges of the natives, they abfolutely dangerous notions of their own prowefs, and a confi-
refufed to facilitate the acquifition of the burgherfhip. dence that France either durft not attack them or did
The committee, however, embarraffed and alarmed at not incline to do fo. In confequence of this fatal er-
tbe number and threats of the natives, determined to ror, they refufed every offer of reconciliation which
abide by what they had promifed ; drew up an edift was made them from the other party ; until at laft
permitting the natives to cany on trade, and to holdthe troops were difpatched againft them by the king of
rank of officers in the military affociations; and con- Sardinia and the canton of Berne ; and their refpec-
ferred the burgherfhip on more than 100 perfons taken tive generals, Meffrs de la Marmora and Leirtulus,
from the natives and inhabitants, and even from the being ordered to a£t in concert with the French5
peafants of the territory. This was approved by the commander M. de Jaucourt, who had advanced to
three councils ; the negatives, dreading the power of the frontiers with a confiderable detachment. The
their adverfaries, who had made them (elves mafters of Genevans, however, vainly puffed up by a confi-
the city, not dating to make their appearance. dence in their own abilities, continued to repair their
Thus the popular party imagined that they had got fortifications with indefatigable labour; the peafanta
a complete vidtory ; but they foon found tnemfelves repaired from all quarters to the city, offering to mount
deceived. They were prevailed upon by the deputies guard and work at the fortifications withe at any pay;
from Zurich and Berne (who had been fient to conci- women of all ranks crowded to the walls as to a place
liate the differences) to lay down their arms ; and this of amufement, encouraging the men, and even affift--
was no fooner done, than thefe fame deputies declared ing them in their labour. The befiegers, however,
the edidl in favour of the natives to be null and illegal, advanced in fuch force, that every perfon of difeern-
The fenate declared themfelves of the fame opinion; ment forefaw that all refiftaoee would be vain. The
and maintained, that the affent of the councils had French general Jaucourt, on the 29th of June 1782,
been obtained only through fear of the reprefentants difpatched a meffage to the Syndics; in which he in-
who were under arms, and whom none at that time filled on the following humiliating conditions : i.That
durft oppofe. The reprefentants, exafperated by this no perfon fhould appear on the ftreets under pain of
proceeding,’ prefented another remonftrance on the military punifhment. 2. That a certain number of
18th of March 1782, fummoning the magiftrates once citizens, among whom were all the chiefs of the re-
more to confirm the edidl; but a month afterwards prefentants, fhould quit the place in 24,hours. 3. That
received the laconic anfwer, that “ government was all arms fhould be delivered to the three generals,
neither willing nor able to confirm it.” The natives, 4. That the depofed magiftrates fhould be inttantly
now finding themfelves difappointed in their favourite re-eftablifhed: And, laftly, That an anfwer fhould be
©bjedt at the very time they had fuch ftrong hopes of returned in two hours, By this meffage the people
obtaining it, behaved at firft like frantic people ; and were thrown into the utmoft defpair; and all without
thefe tranfports having fubfided, an univerfal tumult exception refolved to perifh rather than to accept of
took place. The moft moderate of the popular party terms fo very difgraceful. They inftantly hurried to
endeavoured in vain to allay their fury, by difperfing the ramparts with a view of putting their refolution
themfelves in different quarters of the city; and the in force 5 but in the mean time the Syndics found
citizens, finding themfelves at laft obliged either to means to obtain from the generals a delay of 24 hours,
abandon the party of the natives or to join them open- During this interval, not only men of all ages prepared
ly, hsftily adopted the latter meafure ; after which, as for the approaching danger, but even women and chil-
none could now oppofe them, the officers of the repre- dren tore the pavement from the ftreets, carrying the
ieflt&iits took pofiVfiion of the town, and quelled the ftones up to the tops of the houfes, with a view of
infuneftion. Various negociations were carried on rolling them down upon the enemy in cafe they fhould
with the negatives m order to prevail upon them to force their way into the town. About 80 women
ratify the edift, but without (ucceefs : on which a and girls, dreffed in uniforms, offered to form them-
few of the magiflrates were confined by the popu- felves into a company for the defence of their country,
lar party along w ith the principal negatives; and The committee of fafety accepted, their feryices, and
as they juftly expc&ed the interference of France on placed them in a barrack fecured from the cannon of
account of what they had done, they refolved to the befiegers. The negatives were greatlf alarmed at
prolong the confinement of the prifoners, that they this appearance of defperate refiftance; and fome of
might anfwer the purpofe of Hoflages for their own the moft moderate among them endeavoured, but with-
fofety. In the mean time the body of citizens, deed- out fuccefs, to effect a reconciliation. At the hour
ins
GEN [ 622 ] GEN
Geneva. ln which it was expefted that the attack would begin,
u—y—— the ramparts were filled with defenders; and though
the moft zealous of the popular party had calculated
only on 3000, upwards of 5000 appeared in the pub¬
lic caufe. The French general, however, jullly alarm¬
ed for the prifoners,” who were now in imminent dan¬
ger, again prolonged the period propofed for the ca¬
pitulation. By thefe repeated delays the ardour of the
defendants began to abate. The women firft began to
figure to themfelves the horrors of a town taken by
affault, and given up to an enraged and, licentious fol-
diery ; many timid perfons found means not only to
difguife their owft fears, but to infpire others with
them under the pretence of prudence and caution : at
laft the committee of fafety themfelves, who had fo
ftrenuoufly declared for hoftilities, entirely changed
their mind. Being well apprized, however, that it
would be dangerous for them to propofe furrendering
in the prefent temper of the people, they affembled the
citizens in theit refpedtive circles, reprefenting, that
if the city fhould be attacked in the night, it would
be no longer poffible to convene them : for which rea-
fon they recommended to them that each circle fhould
nominate feveral deputies with full authority to decide
in their Head ; adding, that they ought rather to ap¬
point thofe perfons who from their age and refpedtable
chara&er were capable of affifting their country by
their advice, while others were defending it by their
valour. Thus a new council, compofed of .about 100
citizens, was formed ; in which the chiefs, by various
manoeuvres, firft intimidating, and then endeavouring
to perfuade the members of the neceffity of furrender¬
ing, at laft found means to take the thoughts of the
people entirely off the defence of thfe city, and engage
them in a fcheme of general emigration. A declara¬
tion was drawn up to be delivered to the Syndics with
the keys of the city, the chiefs fummoned the princi¬
pal officers from their polls, ordered the cannon of
feveral batteries to be rendered unfit for fervice, and
at laft took care of themfelves by quitting the town.
The people were in the utmoft defpair; and left the
town in fuch multitudes, that when the Sardinians
entered it in the morning, they found it almoft de-
ferted. This was followed by the reftoration of the
former magiftrates, a complete fubjeition of the po¬
pular party, and the eftablilhment of a military go-
6 vernment.
New con- The changes which took place on this occafion were
ftitution e- as f0]l0W : j. An abolition of the right of re-ele6lion.
ftabldhed. ^ aij0i;t;0n 0f that right by which the general
council nominated half the vacancies in the great coun¬
cil. 3. The right of remonftrating was taken from
the citizens at large, and vefted in 36 adjundls, who
might be prefent in the great council the firft Monday
of every month. They enjoyed a right of reprefenta-
tion, and in confequence of that had a deliberative
voice; but on the whole were fo infignificant, that
they were nicknamed Les Images, or “ The Shadows.”
4. The introduftion of the grabeau, or annual confir¬
mation of the members of the fenate and of the great
council, vefted entirely in the latter. By this law
part of the authority both of the fenate and general
council was transferred to the great council; and by
fubje&ing the fenate to this annual revifion, its power
was greatly leffened, and it was made in fa£t depend¬
ent upon the general council. 5. The circles or clubs Geneva.
in which it was cuftomary to convene the citizens, and  v—
all public affemblies whatever, were prohibited; and
fo rigoroufly was this carried into execution, that the
fociety of arts was prohibited from meeting : 6.
The militia were aboliftred ; firing at marks, even
with bows and arrows, was prohibited ; and the town,
inftead of being guarded by the citizens, was now put
under the care of 1000 foreign foldiers, whofe colonel
and major were both to be foreigners. Thefe troops -
were to take an oath of fidelity to the republic, and of
obedience to the great council and the committee of war;
but were under the immediate command and infpe&ion
of the latter, and fubjebl to^he fuperior^ control of
the former. 7. No perfon was permitted to bear arms,
whether citizen, native, or inhabitant. 8. Several
taxes were impofed without the confent of the general
council; but in time, to come it was provided, that
every change or augmentation of the revenue ffiould
be fubmitted to that body. 9. Several privileges with
regard to trade and commerce, formerly poffeffed by
the citizens alone, were now granted both to citizens
and inhabitants.
It is not to be fuppofed that this revolution would
be agreeable to people who had fuch a ftrong fenfe of
liberty, and had been accuftomed to put fuch a value
upon it, as the Genevans. From what has been already
related, it might feem reafonable to conclude, that an
almoft univerfal emigration would have taken place:
but after their refentment had time to fublide, moft of
thofe who fled at firft, thought proper to return ; and,
in the opinion of Mr Coxe, not more than 600 finally
left their country on account of the revolution in
1782. The emigrants principally fettled at Bruffels
and Conftance, where they introduced the arts of
printing linens and watchmaking. Soon after the re¬
volution, indeed, a memorial, figned by above rooo
perfons of both fexes, all of them either poffeffed of
fome property or verfed in trade or manufaftures, was
prefented to the earl of Temple, then lord lieutenant 7
of Ireland, expreffing a defire to fettle in that kingdom. Scheme of
'i he propofal met with general approbation ; the Iriftr fettling a
parliament voted L. 50,000 towards defraying the ex- ";uniber of
pences of their journey, and affording them a proper ^frelanl
fettlement in the ifland. Lands were purchafed for
L. 8000 in a convenient fituation near Waterford; part
of New Geneva was actually completed at the expence
of L. 10,000 ; a charter was granted with very con-
fiderable privileges; the ftandard of gold was alter¬
ed for the accommodation of the watch manufa&urers;
and the foundation of an academy laid upon an ufeful
and liberal plan. Several Genevans landed in Ireland
in the month of July 1783 ; but when the nation had
expended near L. 30,000 on the fcheme, it was fud-
denly abandoned. This feems principally to have been
owing to the delays neceffarily occafioned in the exe¬
cution of fuch a complicated plan; and in fome degree
alfo by the high demands of the Genevan commiffion-
ers, who required many privileges inconfiltent with
the laws of Ireland. By thefe delays the Genevans,
whofe chara&er feems not to beperfeverance, were indu¬
ced to abandon the fcheme, and return to their former
place of refidence. Even the few who had alreadylanded,
though maintained at the public expence, were difcon-
tented at not finding the new town prepared for their
recep-
GEN [ 623 1 GEN
reception *, and as thefe among the propofed emigrants claimed an edidt for lowering the price of bread, grant-
New revo¬
lution in
1789.
who poflefled the greatdl fhare of property had already
withdrawn their names, the remainder did not ehoofe
to remain in a country where they had not capital fuf-
ficient to carry on any confiderable trade or manufac¬
ture. A petition was then prefented by the Genevan
commiffioners, requefting that L. 10,000 of the
L.. 50,000 voted might be appropriated to the form¬
ing a capital: but as this had been voted for other
purpofes, the petition was of courfe rejected ; in con-
fequence of which, the Genevans relinquifhed the fet-
tlement by an addrefs, and foon after quitted the
ifland.
The people of Old Geneva, though returned to their
ed a general amndly, and releafed all the infurgents
who had been taken into cuftody. Thus a momen¬
tary calm was produced; but the leaders of the infur- _
rediion, fenfible that the magitlrates were either unable '
or unwilling to employ a fufficient force again(1 them,
refolved to take advantage of the prefent opportunity
to procure a new change of government. A new in- *
furreftion, therefore, took place on the 29th of the
month, in which the foldiers were driven from their
ports, difarmed, and the gates feized by the people.
The magiftrates then, convinced that all oppofition
was fruitlefs, determined to comply with the demands
of their antagonills in their full extent ; and the ari-
former place of abode, were far from being inclined to ftocratical party fuddenly changing their fentiments,
fubmit to the yoke with patience. They were obliged renounced in a moment that fyftem to which they had
to pay heavy taxes for maintaining a military force ex- hitherto fo obrtinately adhered. On the application
prefsly calculated to keep themfelves in fubjeftion ; and of the folicitor general* therefore, for the recovery of the
fo intolerable did this appear, that in a few years every ancient liberties of the people, the permirtion of bear-
thing feemed ready for another revolution. The fuc-
cefs of this feemed more probable than that of the for¬
mer, as France was not now in a condition to inter¬
fere as formerly. The general ferment foon rofe to
fuch a height, that government was obliged to call in
the aid of the military to quell a tumult which hap¬
pened in the theatre. This produced only a tempo¬
rary tranquillity ; another tumult took place on the
26th of January 17895 on account of the publication
of an edidf railing the price of bread a farthing per
pound. On this the people itiftantly rofe ; plundered
ing arms, re-eftablilhment of the militia, and of their
circles or political clubs, the removal of the garrifon
from, the barracks, and the recall of the reprelentants
who were banilhed in 1782; thefe moderate demands
were received with complacency, and even fatisfatrtion.
The preliminaries were fettled without difficulty, and
a new edict of pacification was publilhed under the
title vi Modifications a VEdition Je 1782, and appro¬
ved by the fenate, great council, and general council.
So great was the unanimity on this occafion, that the
modifications were received by a majority of xyzi
the bakers (hops ; and next day a carriage loaded with againft 52. The pacification was inftantly followed by-
bread- and efcorted by foldiers w-as plundered in its marks of friendlhip betw-ixt the two parties which had
way to the diftribution office. The foldiers fired on never been experienced before; the ions of the prin-
the populace, by wdiich one man was killed and ano- cipal negatives frequented the circles, of the burghers j
ther wounded: but the tumult rtill increafing, the the magifirates obtained the confidence of the people
foldiers w-ere driven aw'ay ; and the body of the decea- and no monument of the military force fo odious to
fed was carried in a kind of proceffion before the town- the people will be allowed to remain. “ The barracks
houfe, as a monument of the violence and oppreflion of the town-houfe (fays Mr Coxe) are already evacua?-
of the ariftocratic party. The magirtrates in the mean ted, and will be converted into a public library ; the
time fpent their time in deliberation, inftead of taking
any effedtual method of quelling the infurreCh'on. The
people made the beft ufe of the time afforded them by
this delay of the magirtrates : they attacked and car¬
ried tw'o of the gates, dangeroufly wounding the com-
new7 barracks, built at an enormous expence, and more
calculated for the garrifon of a powerful and defpotic
kingdom than for a fmall and free commonwealth,
will be converted into a building for the univerfity.
The reformation of the ftudies, which have fcarc<
manding officer as he attempted to allay the fury of ly received any alteration fince the time of Calvin,,
both parties. At laft the magirtrates difpatched againft
them a confiderable body of troops, whom they thought
the infurgents would not have the courage to refill;
but in this they found themfelves deceived. The
people had formed a Wrong barricade, behind which
they played off two fire pumps filled with.boiling wa-
terjand foap lyes againlt the extremities of two bridges
which the military had to crofs before they could at-
is now in agitation. In a word, all things feem at
prefent to confpire for the general good ; and it is
to be hoped that both parties, ffiocked at the recol-
ledlion of part troubles, will continue on as friendly
terms as the jealous nature of a free conftitution will
admit.”
Geneva Lake. This lake is in the lhape of a.
crefcent; along the concave fide of which Mr Coxc
tack them. The commanding officer was killed and travelled 54 miles. Switzerland forms the hollow, and
feveral of his men wounded by the difcharge of fmall Savoy the convex part; the greateft breadth being
arms from windows; and the pavement was carried up to about 12 miles. The country on the fide of Savoy is
the tops of houfes in order to be thrown down upon full of high and craggy mountains; but from Geneva
the troops if they ftiould force the barricades and pe- to the environs of Laufanne it Hopes to the, margin of
netrate into the ftreets. The tumult in the mean time the lake, and is very rich and fertile. The banks rife
continued to increale, and was in danger of becoming confiderably in the neighbourhood of Laufanne, and
univerfal; when the magiftrates, finding it would beim- form a molt beautiful terrace, with a rapid defcent a,
poffible to quell the infurgents without a great effufion few miles beyond the town. A plain begins in the
of blood, were reduced to the neceffity of complying neighbourhood of Vevay, which continues for a great
with their demands. One of the principal magiftrates way beyond the end of the lake, but'contracting to-
repaired in perfon to the quarter of St Gervais, pro- wards the water by the approach of the mountains-
3, ’ The
GEN l 624
4Sfnfva, The lake itfelf appears at a dillance of a beautiful blue
Genia1, colour, and the water is very clear and tranfparent.
Near Geneva the coaft of the lake abounds with peb¬
bles ; between that city and Laufanne it is fandy;
from thence to Chillon it is bounded by hard calca¬
reous rocks; and the extremity of the fhore is a marlh
formed by mud collefted from the river Rhone. The
greatdl depth of this lake found by M. de Luc is 160
fathoms. Here the birds called tippet grebes make their
appearance in December, and retire in February to
other places where they breed. They make floating
nefts of reeds ; but as the lake of Geneva affords none
of thefe, they are obliged to migrate to other places
where they grow. Their ikins are much efteemed,
and fell for 12 or 14 s. each. The lake of Geneva,
like all others fituated between mountains, is fubjeft
to hidden florms.
Geneva, or Gin, among diftillers, an ordinary malt
fpirit, diftilled a fecondtime, with the addition offome
juniper-berries.
Originally, the berries were added to the malt in the
grinding; to that the fpirit thus obtained was flavour¬
ed with the berries from the firft, and exceeded all that
could be made by any other method. At prefent, they
leave out the berries entirely, and give their fpirits a
flavour by diflilling them with a proper quantity of oil
of turpentine ; which, though it nearly refembles the
flavour of juniper-berries, has none of their valuable
virtues.
GENEVIEVE, fathers or religious of; the name of
a congregation of regular canons of the order of St Au-
guftine, eftablifhed in France.
The congregation of St Genevieve is a reform of
the Auguftine canons. It was begun by St Charles
Faure, in the abbey of St Vincent de Senlis, of which
he was a member in the year 1618.
In the year 1634, the abbey was made ele&ive; and
a general chapter, compofed of the fuperiors of 15
houfes who had now received the reform, chofe F.
Faure coadjutor of the abbey of St Genevieve, and
general of the whole congregation. Such were its
beginnings.
It has fince increafed very much, and it now confifts
of above a hundred monafteries; in fome whereof the
religious are employed in the adminiftration of the
parifhes and hofpitals; and in others in the celebra¬
tion of divine fervice, and the inftruftion of eccleflaftics
in feminaries for the purpofe.
The congregation takes its name from the abbey of
St Genevieve, which is the chief of the order, and
whofe abbot is the general thereof. The abbey itfelf
took its name from St Genevieve, the patronefs of the
city of Paris, who died in the year 512. Five years
after her death, Clovis eredbed the church of St Ge¬
nevieve, under the name and invocation of St Peter,
where her relics are ftill, or were till lately, preferved,
her (brine vilited, and her image carried with great
proceffions and ceremonies upon extraordinary occa-
fions, as when fome great favour is to be intreated of
heaven.
GENGISKHAN, the renowned fovereign of the
Moguls, a barbarous and bloody conqueror. See
Jlnghiz Khan, and (Hijiory of the) Moguls.
GENIAL, an epithet given by the Pagans to cer-
N° 136*
] C E N
tain gods who were fuppofed to prefide over gene- Genii
ration. 1!
The genial gods, faysFeftus, were earth, air, fire, and ®enifta.
water. The twelve figna, together with the fun and ■”"
moon, were fometimes alfo ranked in the number.
GENII, a fort of intermediate beings, by the Ma¬
hometans believed to exift, between men and angels.
They are of a grolfer fabric than the latter, but much
more adtive and powerful than the former. Some of
them are good, others bad, and they are capable of
future falvation or damnation like men. The Orien¬
tals pretend that thefe genii inhabited the world many
thoufand years before the creation of Adam, under
the reigns of feveral princes, who all bore the com¬
mon name of Solomon : that falling at length into an
almoft general corruption, Eblis was fent to drive them
into a remote part of the earth, there to be confined:
and that fome of that generation ftill remaining were by
Tahmurath, one of the ancient kings of Perfia, forced
to retreat into the famous mountain of Kaf; of whofe
fucceffions and wars they have many fabulous and ro¬
mantic ftories. They alfo made feveral ranks and de¬
grees among this kind of beings (if they are not
rather different fpecies); fome being abfolutely called
>; fome Peri, or fairies; fome Div, or giants;
and other Tavwins, or fates.
GENIOGLOSSI, in anatomy. See Anatomy,
Table of the Mufcles.
GENIOHYOIDiEUS, in anatomy. Ibid.
GENIOSTOMA, in botany : A genus of the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants. The calyx is a turbinated quinquefid perian-
thium ; the corolla monopetalous and tubular; the
ftamina five ftiort filaments; the antherse oblong; the
feeds very numerous and fubangulated, placed on a
filiform receptacle.
GENIPPA, in botany: A genus of the monogy-
nia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 30th
order, Contorta. The corolla is wheel-ftiaped; the
ftigma club-fhaped; the berry bilocular; the feeds
nettling in a carnous heart-fliaped fubftance.
GENISTA, broom, or dyers-weed: A genus of
the decandria order, belonging to the diadelphia clafs
of plants; and in the natural method ranking under
the 32d order, Papilionacete. The calyx is bilabiate,
the upper lip bidented, the under one tridentate ; the
vexillum is oblong and teflexed, or turned back from
the piftil and ftamina. There are feveral fpecies ; of
which the moft remarkable are, the cytifo-genifta, or
common broom ; and the tindtoria, or dyers weed 
The firft is too well known to need deferiptiou. Its
young flowers are fometimes preferved as pickles; and
the plant, when burnt, affords a tolerably pure alkaline
fait. Dr Mead relates the cafe of a dropficai patient
that was cored by taking half a pint of a decodlioti
of green broom tops, with a fpoonful of whole white
muftard feed, every morning and evening. The pa¬
tient had been tapped three times, and tried the ufual
remedies before. An infufion of the feeds, drank
freely, has been known to produce fimilar happy ef-
fedts; but thefe are by no means to be expected in
every inftance. Cows, horfes, and (beep, refufe the
plant.—2. The tindtoria is alfo a native of Britain.
a „ It
GEN r
Genital It rifes with flirubby ftalks three feet high, garni filed
II. with fpear-fhaped leaves placed alternate, and termi-
Ge'iiu3‘ nated by feveral fpikes of yellow flowers, fucceeded
by pods. The branches of the plant are ufed by dy¬
ers for giving a yellow colour; from whence it is
called dyen-broom, green-wood, wood-waxen, or dyers-
weed. A dram and an half of the powdered feeds
operates as a mild purgative. A decoftion of the
plant is diuretic j and, like the former, has proved fer-
viceable in dropfical cafes. Horfes, cows, goats, and
flieep, eat it.
GENITAL, an appellation given to whatever be¬
longs to the parts of generation. See Anatomy,
n° 107, rofl.
GENITES, among the Hebrews, thofe defcend-
fd from Abraham, without any mixture of foreign
blood.
The Greeks diftinguifhed by the name of genites
fuch of the Jews as were ifiued from parents, who, du¬
ring the Babylonilh captivity, had not allied with any
gentile family.
GENITIVE, in grammar, the fecond cafe of the
declenfion of nouns. The relation of one thing confi-
dered as belonging in fome manner to another, has oc-
cafioned a peculiar termination of nouns called the^e-
nithie cafe; but in the vulgar tongues they make ufe
of a fign to exprefs the relation of this cafe. In Eng-
lifli they prefix the particle of, in French de or du, See.
Though in ftri&nefs there are no cafes in either of
thefe languages; inafmuch as they do not exprefs the
different relations of things by different terminations,
but by additional prepofitions, which is otherwife in
the Latin.
GENIUS, a good or evil fpirit or'daemon, whom
the ancients fuppofed fet over each perfon, to direct
hrs birth, accompany him in life, and to be his guard.
See Daemon.
Among the Romans, Feftus obferves, the name^e-
nius was given to the god who had the power of do¬
ing all things, deum qui •vbn obtineret rerum omnium
gerendarum ; which Voflius, de Idol, rather choofes to
read genendarum, who has the power of producing all
things ; by reafon Cenforinus frequently ufes gerere for
gignere.
Accordingly, St Auguftin de Clint at. Dei, relates,
from Varro, that the genius was a god who had the
power of generating all things; and prefided over them
when produced.
• Feflus adds, that Aufuftius fpake of the genius as
the Son of God, and the Father of men, who gave
them life ; others, however, reprefented the genius as
the peculiar or tutelary god of each place : and it is
certain, the laft is the moft ufuaf meaning of the word.
The ancients had their of nations, of cities, of
provinces, &c. Nothing is more" common than the
following infeription on medals, genius populi rom.
“ the genius of the Roman people;” or genio pop.
rom. “ to the genius of the Roman people.” In this
fenfe, genius and lar were the fame thing; as, in effedt,
Cenforinus and Apulius affirm they were. See Lares
and Penates.
The Platonifts, and other eaftern philofophers, fup¬
pofed the genii to inhabit the vaft region or extent of
air between earth and heaven. They were a fort of
intermediate powers, who did the office of mediators
Vge.VII. Part II.
625 ] GEN
between gods and men. They were the interpreters G
and agents of the gods; communicated the wills of'~’
the deities,to men ; and the prayers and vows of meh
to the gods. As it was unbecoming the majefty of the :
gods to enter into fuch trifling concerns ; this became
the lot of the genii, whofe nature was a mean between
the two ; who derived immortality from the one, and
paffions from the other ; and who had a body framed
of an aerial matter. Moft of the philofophers, how¬
ever, held, that the g;enii of particular men were born
with them, and died ; and Plutarch attributes the
ceafing of oracles partly to the death of the genii. Sec
Oracle.
The heathens, who confidered the genii as the guar¬
dians of particular perfons, believed that they rejoiced
and were affli&ed at all the good and ill fortune that
befel their wards. They never, or very rarely, ap¬
peared to them ; and then only in favour of fome per¬
fon of extraordinary virtue or dignity. They likewife
held a great difference between the genii of different
men ; and that fome were much more powerful than
others : on which principle it was, that a wizard in u4j>-
pian bids Anthony keep at a diftance from Octavius,
by reafon Anthony’s genius was inferior to and flood
in awe of that of Oftavius. There were alfo evil ge¬
nii, who took a pleafure in perfecuting men, and
bringing them evil tidings : fuch was that in Patercu¬
lus, &c. which appeared to Brutus the night before
the battle of Philippi. Thefe were alfo called larvce,
and lemures. See Larv;e and Lemures.
Genius, in matters of literature, &c. a natural ta¬
lent or difpofition to do one thing more than another;
or the aptitude a man has received from nature to per¬
form well and eafily that which others can do but in¬
differently and with a great deal of pains.
To know the bent of nature is the moft important
concern. Men come into the world with a genius de¬
termined not only to a certain art, but to certain parts
of that art, in which alone they are capable of fuccefs.
If they quit their fphere, they fall even below medio¬
crity in their profeffion. Art and induftry add much
to natural endowments, but cannot fupply them where
they are wanting. Every thing depends on genius.
A painter often pleafes without obferving rules ; wdiilft
another difpleafes though he obferves them, becaufe he
has not the happinefs of being born with a genius for
painting.
A man born with a genius for commanding an army,
and capable of becoming a great general by the help
of experience, is one whofe organical conformation is
fuch, that his valour is no obftruclion to his prefence
of mind, and his prefence of mind makes no abate¬
ment of his valour. Such a difpofition of mind cannot
be acquired by art: it can be poffeffed only by a per¬
fon who has brought it with him into the world. What
has been faid of thefe two arts may be equally applied
to all other profeffions. The adminiftration of great
concerns, the art of putting people to thofe employ¬
ments for which they are naturally formed, the ftudy of
phyfic, and even gaming itfelf, all require a genius.
Nature has thought fit to make a diftribution of her
talents among men, in order to render them neceffary
to one another ; the wants of. men being the very firft
link of fociety : flie has. therefore pitched upon parti¬
cular perfons, to give them aptitude to perform rightly
4 K fame
GEN r 628 ] GEN
Genius, fome things which (he has rendered impoffible to o-
Genoa. thers . and the latter have a greater facility granted
—^ them for other things, which facility has been refufed
to the former. Nature, indeed, has made an unequal
diilribution of her bleffuigs among her children ; yet fhe
has difinherited none ; and a man divefted of all kinds
of abilities, is as great a phenomenon as an univerfal
genius.'
From the diverfity of genius, the difference of in¬
clination arifes in men, whom nature has had the pre¬
caution of leading to the employments for which fhe
defigns them, with more or lefs impetuofity in pro¬
portion to the greater or leffer number of obftacles
they have to furmount in order to render themfelves
capable of anfwering this vocation. Thus the incli¬
nations of men are fo very different, becaufe they fol¬
low the fame mover, that is, the impulfe of their ge¬
nius. This, as with the painter, is what renders one
poet pleafing, even when he trefpaffes againil rules ;
while others are difagreeable, notwithftanding their
ftridt regularity.
The genius of thefe arts, according to the abbe du
Bos confifts in a happy arrangement of the organs of
the brain ; in a juft conformation of each of thefe or¬
gans ; as alfo in the quality of the blood, which dif-
ppfes it to ferment, during exercife, fo as to furnifh
plenty of fpirits to the fprings employed in the func¬
tions of the imagination. Here he fuppofes that the
compofer’s blopd is heated ; for that painters and
poets cannot invent in cool blood ; nay, that it is evi¬
dent they mult be wrapt into a kind of enthufiafm
when they produce their ideas. Ariftotle mentions a
poet who never wrote fo well as when his poetic fury
hurried him into a kind of frenzy. The admirable
pictures we have in Taffo of Armida and Clorinda,
were drawn at the expence of a difpofition he had to
real madnefs, into which he fell before he died. “ Do
you imagine (fays Cicero), that Pacuvius wrote in
cold blood ? No, it was impofiible. He muft have
been infpired with a kind of fury, to be able to vyrite
fuch admirable verfes.”
GENOA, a city of Italy, and capital of a republic
©f the fame name, fituated in E. Long. 9. 3c. N.
Lat. 44.. 30.—By the Latin authors it is very fre¬
quently, though corruptly, called Janua ; and its pre-
fent territories made part of the ancient Liguria. The
era of its foundation is not known. In the time of
the fecond Punic war it was a celebrated emporium ;
and having declared for the Romans, was plundered
and burnt by Mago the Carthaginian. It was after-
wards rebuilt by the Romans ; and with the reft of
Italy continued under their dominions till the decline
of the weftern empire in 476. Soon after, it fell un¬
der the power of Theodoric the Oftrogoth ; who ha¬
ving defeated the ufurper Odoacer, became king of
Italy. This happened in the year 498 ; and in a
fhort time, the Goths being almoft entirely fubdued
by Belifarius the emperor Juftinian’s general, Genoa
was reannexed to the Roman empire. In 1638, it
was plundered and burnt by the Lombards, whofe king
Protharis erected it into a provincial d' kedom.
The Lombards continued mafters of Genoa till the
year 774, when they were conquered by Charles the
Great, fon to Pepin king of France. He reduced
Liguria to the ancient hounds fettled by Auguftus,
4
and erected it into a marquifate ; appointing his re!a- Genoa,,
tion Audemarus the fir ft count or margrave. Genoa ~—
at this time being diftinguiihed for its wealth and po-
puloufnefs, began to give its name to the whole coaft;
and continued under the dominion of thefe counts for
about 100 years, till the race of the Pepins became en¬
tirely extinft in Italy, and the empire was transferred
to the German princes.—In the year 935 or 936,
while the Genoefe forces were abfent on fome expedi¬
tion, the Saracens furprifed the city, which they plun¬
dered and burnt, putting to death a great number of
the inhabitants, and carrying others into captivity.
Having embarked their captives, together with an im-
menfe booty, they fet fail for Africa : but the Ge¬
noefe immediately returning, purfued the invaders;
and having entirely defeated them, recovered all the
captives and booty, and took a great many of the ene¬
my’s (hips.
About the year 950, the Franks having loft all au¬
thority in Italy, the Genoefe began to form themfelves
into a republic, and to be governed by their own ma^
giftrates, who were freely eledted, and took the name
of Confuh. In order to fupport their independence,
they applied themfelves with great affiduity to com¬
merce and navigation ; and being apprehenfive that
fome of the German emperors, who frequently entered
Italy as invaders, might renew their pretenfions to their
ftate, they confented to acknowledge Berengarius III.
duke of Friuli, who had been elefted emperor by a
party of Italian nobles. Berengarius, who had much
ado to maintain himfelf in his new dignity, endeavour¬
ed by his conceflions to enlarge the number of his
friends and adherents ; and accordingly made no diffi¬
culty to confirm the new republic in all its rights and
privileges. After this the Genoefe began to extend
their commerce from Spain to Syria, and from Egypt
to Conftantinople ; their veffels, according to the cuf-
tom of thefe times, being fitted for fighting as well as
merchandife. Having thus acquired great reputation,
they were invited in 1017, by the Pifans, who had
likewife formed themfelves into a republic, to join with
them in an expedition again!! Sardinia, v/hich had been
conquered by the Moors. In this expedition they were
fuccefsful; the ifland was reduced ; but from this time
an enmity commenced between the two republics,
which did not end but with the ruin of the Pifans.
The firft war with Pifa commenced about 30 years
after the Sardinian expedition, and lafted 18 years;
when the two contending parties having concluded
a treaty of peace, jointly fent their forces again!! the
Moors in Africa, of whom they are faid to have killed
100,000. The Genoefe were very adtive in the time
of the crufades, and had a principal fhare in the ta¬
king of Jerufalem. They alfo waged confiderable war
with the Moors in Spain, of whom they generally got
the better. They alfo prevailed again!! the neighbour¬
ing ftates; and, in 1220, had enlarged th^ir territories
beyond the Ikirts of the Apennines, fo that the reft
of Italy looked upon them with a jealous eye : but in
1311 the fadtions which had for a long time reigned
in the city, notwithftanding all its wealth and power,
induced the inhabitants to fubmit themfelves for 20
years to the dominion of Henry VII. emperor of Ger¬
many. That emperor, however, died in Auguft 13x2;
and the vicar he had left, foon after went to Pifa, up¬
on
GEN [ 629 ] GEN
Genoa, on which the diffentions in Genoa revived with greater
“■“V” fury than ever. In 1317, a quarrel happened between
the families of Spinola and Doria; which came to
fuch an height, that both parties fought in the ftreels
for 24 days without intermiffion, railed battering en¬
gines againft each others houfes, and filled the city
with blood. At laft the Spinoke quitted the city, and
retired to their territories in the Apennine mountains.
The civil war continued till the year 1331 ; when; by
the mediation of the king of Naples, it was concluded,
that all. exiles Ihould return to the city ; that the re¬
public Ihould be governed by the king’s vicar ; and
all the offices of the ftate be equally divided between
the Guelfs and the Gibellines, the two contending
parties.
By this ruinous w’ar, the coaft of Genoa,- formerly
adorned with palaces and vineyards, was now reduced
to the appearance of a barren wafte. So great was
the general defolation, that, according to Petrarch,
the fpeftators who failed along were ftruck with afto-
niffiment and horror. ' Villani, a cotemporary author,
relates, that it was fuppofed by the learned, that
greater exploits had not been performed at the fiege of
Troy ; and that the Ioffes each party had fuftained
would have been fufficient to have purchafed a king¬
dom, the Genoefe republic being in his time the
richeft and moft powerful ftate in Chriftendom. The
annalift Stella informs us, that, before the war, the
moft extravagant profufion and luxury prevailed a-
mong the Genoefe : but that, towards the end, many
noble families were reduced to indigence and poverty ;
fo that, about ico years after, it became fafliionable
for the nobles to live in a plain manner, without any
ffiow or magnificence.
In 1336, both parties, fufpending their mutual ani-
mofities, fent two fleets of 20 galleys each into the
German ocean, to the affiftance of the king of France,
who was engaged in a war with Edward III. king of
England. This naval expedition proved the caufe of
a moil remarkable revolution in the Genoefe govern¬
ment. The failors of the fleet, thinking themfelves
injured by their officers, whom they accufed of de¬
frauding them of their pay, proceeded to an open mu¬
tiny ; and, having expelled the admiral, and other com¬
manders, feized the galleys. The king of France be¬
ing chofen arbitrator, decided in favour of the officers,
and imprifoned 16 of the chiefs of the mutineers. U-
pon this feveral of the failors left the fleet, and return¬
ed to Genoa; where they went round the coafts, re¬
peating their mutinous complaints, which were great¬
ly hearkened to, upon a falfe report that the mutineers
who had been imprifoned were broke upon the wheel.
The faftious fpirit increafed; and at laft the Genoefe
infifted in a tumultuous manner for having an abbot of
their own choofing, and 20 of the people with the con-
fent of the captains of the republic affembled for that
purpofe. While the mob were impatiently expecting
their decifion, a mechanic, generally accounted a foolj
mounted a wooden bench, and called out that one
Simon Bucanigree fhould be chofen abbot. This be¬
ing inftantly echoed by the populace, he Was firft de¬
clared aMo/, then lord, and at laft duke of Genoa.
This new expedient did not at all anfwer the pur¬
pofe. The diffentions continued as violent as ever,
notwithftanding the power of the new magiftrates 5
and by thele perpetual divifions the republic was at Geno*.
laft fo much weakened, that in 1390 the king of France ——v—-
was declared Lord of Genoa. Under the French go¬
vernment, however, they foon became exceedingly
impatient; and, in 1422, the duke of Milan obtained
the fovereignty. With this fituation they were equally
difpleafed, and therefore revolted in 1436. Twenty-
two years after, finding themfelves preffed by a power¬
ful fleet and army fent by Alphonfo king of Naples,
they again conferred the fovereignty of their ftate
upon the king of France. In 1460, they revolted
from the French ; and, four years after, put themfelves
again under the protection of the duke of Milan ; from
whom they revolted in 1478. He was again declared
fovereign of the republic in 1488 ; and, 11 years after,
the city and territories of Genoa were conquered bv
Louis XII. of France.
The almoft unparalleled ficklenefs of the Genoefe
difpofition was not to be corrected by this misfortune.
They revolted in 1506 5 but next year were again fub-
dued by Louis. Six years after, they again revolted;
and in 1516, the city was taken and plundered by the
Spaniards. In 1528, Andrew Doria, a Genoefe ad¬
miral in the fervice of the French, undertook to ref-
cue his country from the dominion of foreign princes,
and reftore it to its liberty. Knowing well the fickle
difpofition of his countrymen, he took all occafions of
exciting difcontents among them againft the govern¬
ment. Fie perfuaded them, that the French (who had
again obtained the fovereignty) had left them only a
Ihadow of liberty, while they pretended to proteft
them from their enemies. To the nobility he repqe-
fented the difgrace of fuffering the government to be
vefted in the hands of foreigners lefs worthy of autho¬
rity than themfelves. Thus he foon formed a ftrong
fadtion, and formed his plan ; for the execution of
which he took the moft proper time, namely, when
almoft three-fourths of the French garrifon had been
carried off by the plague. He advanced with 500
men ; and his friends having opened the gates of the
city to him, he feized the principal polls, and thus be¬
came mailer of it without drawing his fword. The
garrifon retired to the forts, where they foon after ca¬
pitulated, and being driven out of the city, Doria re-
eftablilhed the ancient form of government. See Do-
The republic hath fince continued to preferve her
liberty, though greatly fallen from her ancient fplen-
dor, and now become a very incqnfiderable ftate. In
1684, t^ie Genoefe had the misfortune to fall under
the refentment of Louis XIV. at which time the city
was almoft deftroyed by a formidable bombardment.
In the year 1688, it was bombarded by admiral Byng,
apd forced to capitulate ; but there were at that time
no views of making a permanent conqueft of the city.
In 1730, the illand of. Gorfica revolted from the Ge¬
noefe, and could never afterwards be reduced by them;
for which reafon it was fold to the French, who in the
year 1770 totally reduced it.
The Genoefe territories extend along that part of
the Mediterranean fea, commonly called the gulph of
Genoa, about 152 miles; but their breadth is very un¬
equal, being from eight to about 20 miles. Where
they are not bounded by the fea, the following ftate*
and countries, taking them from weft to call, are their
4 K 2 boun-
GEN [ 628 ] GEN
Genoa, boundaries, viz. Piedmont, Montferat, Milan, Placen-
’“"■'V—- tia, Parma, the dukedom of Tufcany, and the repub¬
lic of Lucca. This traft, though a great part of it
is mountainous, and fome of that barren enough, yet
produces plenty of excellent fruit, good pafture, wood,
garden-fluff, and mulberry-trees, with fome wine and
oil, but little corn. What thuy want of the laft, they
have either from Lombardy, Sicily, or Naples.
Genoa Hands on the coaft of the Mediterranean fea,
at the bottom of a little gulph, partly on the flat, and
partly on the declivity, of a pleafant hill; in confequence
of which, it appears to great advantage from the fea.
It is defended on the land-fide by a double wall, which
in circumference is about ten Italian miles. Two of
the ftreets confift entirely of a double ftraight row of
magnificent palaces. The others, though clean and
well paved, are crooked and narrow. The palaces of
the nobility are almoft all of marble, and many of them
are painted on the outfide. That there fhould be fuch
a profufion of marble here, is not to be wondered at,
as the neighbouring hills abound with it. The city
contains a vaft number of palaces, churches, and con¬
vents, and feveral hofpitals. The palace where the
doge refides, and, where the great and little council,
and the two colleges of the procuratori and governa-
tori aflemble, is a large flone building in the centre of
the city : but it contains fome fine paintings in frefco ;
two ftatues of Andrew and John Doria in white mar¬
ble ; and an arfenal, in which are faid to be arms for
thirty-four thoufand men, with a fliield, containing
one hundred and twenty piftol-barrels, and thirty-three
coats of mail, which, it is pretended, were worn by
as many Genoefe heroines in a croifade. Of the
churches, the fineft are thofe of the Annunciation, St
Mary Carignan, St Dominic, and St Martha. In the
cathedral is a difh made of a fingle emerald. All the
inhabitants here, except the principal ladies, who are
carried in chairs, walk on foot, on account of the nar-
rownefs or fteepnefs of the llreets. The fortifications
of the city, towards the fea, are remarkably ftrong.
There are two fine ilone-bridges over the rivers Bon-
zevera and Bifagno, the firft whereof walhes the weft,
and the other the eaft fide of the city, within which
there is alfo a furprifing ftone-bridge joining two hills.
The harbour, though large, is far from being fafe;
but no care or expence have been fpared to render it
as fafe and commodious as poffible. The wind to
which it is moft expofed, is that called Labeccio, or the
fou.th-weft. The place where the republic’s galleys
lie, is called the Darfena, where are a great number
of Turkifh flaves. On a rock, on the weft fide of the
harbour, is the fanal or light-houfe, a high tower, on
the top of which is a lanthorn, containing thirty-fix
lamps. The trade of Genoa is chiefly in velvets, da-
malks, pluih, and other filks, brocades, lace, gloves,
fweetmeats, fruits, oil, Parmefan cheefe, anchovies,
and medicinal drugs from the Levant; but the bad-
nefs of the harbour, and the high price of commodi¬
ties, greatly check its commerce. In 1751, Genoa
was declared a free port for ten years, under certain
reftribtions : in that called Porto Franco^ any merchant
may have a ware-houfe, and import or export goods
duty-free ; but fuch as are difpofed of in the city, or
on the continent, are taxed pretty high. The nobili¬
ty are allowed to trade in the wholefale way j to carry
on velvet, filk, and cloth manufaftures ; and to have Genfing,
fhares in merchant-fliips : and fome of them, as~the Gentiana.
Palavacini, are aftually the greateft merchants in Ge- v ,J.
noa. Another very profitable article of trade carried
on by them is banking, and dealing in bills of ex¬
change. A new academy of painting, fculpture, civil
and military archifedture, was inftituted here in 1751.
One may walk the ftreets of Genoa in the night with-
the greateft fafety, which is more than can be faid of
many cities in Italy. Exceffive fplendor and luxury
are, in feveral refpedls, reftrained by falutary laws.
No beggars are permitted to alk alms in Genoa, and
the inns are better than thofe at Turin. When a fin¬
gle perfon is buried, a kind of garland of all forts of
artificial flowers is placed on the coffin. The Ge¬
noefe in general are efteemed crafty, induftrious, and
inured to labour above the other Italians.
GENSING. See Panax.
GENTIANA, Gentian, in botany : A genus of
the digynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
20th order, Rotacea. The corolla is monopetalous ;
the capfule bivalved and unilocular; there are two lon¬
gitudinal receptacles. The moft remarkable fpecie*
are the following:
1. The lutea, or common gentian of the fhops. It
is a native of the mountainous parts of Germany; from
whence the roots, the only part ufed in medicine, are
brought to this country. Thefe have a yellowifh-
brown colour, and a very bitter tafte. The lower
leaves are of an oblong oval fhape, a little pointed at
the end, ftiff, of a yellowifh green, and have five large
veins on the back of each. The ftalk rifes four or five
feet high, garniihed with leaves growing by pairs at
each joint, almoft embracing the ftalk at their bafe.
They are of the fame form with the lower, but dimi-
nifti gradually in their fize to the top. The flowers
come out in whirls at the joints on the upper part of
the ftalks, Handing on ftiort foot-ftalks, whofe origin
is in the wings of the leaves. They are of a pale
yellow colour.—The roots of this plant are very fre¬
quently ufed in medicine as ftomachic bitters. In
tafte they are lefs exceptionable than moft of the fub-
ftances of this clafs. Infufions of gentian-root fla¬
voured with orange-peel, are fufficiently grateful.
Some years ago a poifonous root was difcovered
among the gentian brought to London ; the ufe of
which occafioned violent diforders, and in fome cafes
death. This root is eafily diftinguifhed from the gen¬
tian, by its being internally of a white colour, and void
of bitternefs.
2. The centaureum, or leffer centaury of the ffiops,
is a native of many parts of Britain. It grows on
dry paftures ; and its height is commonly proportioned
to the goodnefs of the foil, as in rich foils it will grow
to the height of a foot, but in poor ones not above
three or four inches. It is an annual plant, with up¬
right branching ftalks, garnifhed with fmall leaves,
placed by pairs. The flowers grow in form of an
umbel at the top of the ftalk, and are of a bright
purple colour. They come out in July, and the feed
ripens in autumn. The plant cannot be cultivated in
gardens. The tops are an ufeful aperient bitter, in
which view they are often ufed in the prefent pratlice
of medicine. / 1
6 GEN-
GEN [ 629 1 GEN
Gentile GENTILE, in matters of religion, a Pagan, or
II worlhipper of falfe gods.
£ritl IS' . The origin of this word is deduced from the Jews,
1 who called all thofe who were not of their name a'"0
gojim, i. e. gentes, which in the Greek tranflations of
the Old Teftament is rendered ™ f0'*; in which fenfe it
frequently occurs in the New Teftament; as in Matth.
vi. 32. “ All thefe things the nations or Gentiles
feek,” Whence the Latin church alfo ufeigenie? in the
fame fenfe as our Gentiles, efpecially in the New Te¬
ftament. But the word gentes foon got another fig-
nification, and no longer meant all fuch as were not
Jews; but thofe only who were neither Jews nor Chri-
ftians, but followed the fuperftitions of the Greeks and
Romans, &c. In this fenfe it continued among the
Chriftian writers, till their manner of fpeech, together
with their religion, was publicly and by authority re¬
ceived in the empire; when gentiles, from gentes, came
into ufe : and then both words had two fignifications,
viz. in treatifes or laws concerning religion, they fig-
nified Pagans, neither Jews nor Chriftians ; and in
civil affairs, they were ufed for all fuch as were not
Romans.
Gentile, in the Roman law and hiftory, a name
which fometimes expreffeswhat the Romans othervvife
called barbarians, whether they were allies of Rome
or not: but this word was- ufed in a more particular
fenfe for all ftrangers and foreigners not fubjedt to the
Roman empire.
GENT1LESCHI (Horatio), an Italian painter,
was born at Pifa in 1563. After having made him-
felf famous at Florence, Rome, Genoa, and other parts
of Italy, he removed to Savoy; from whence he went
to France, and at laft, upon the invitation of Charles I.
came over to England. He was well received by
that king, who appointed him lodgings in his court,
together with a confiderable falary ; and employed
him in his palace at Greenwich, and other public
places. The moft remarkable of his performances in
England, were the ceilings of Greenwich and York-
houfe. He did alfo a Madona, a Magdalen, and Lot
with his two daughters, for Icing Charles; all which
he performed admirably well. After the death of the
king, when his collection was expofed to fale, nine
pictures of Gentilefchi were fold for 600 1. and are
now faid to be the ornaments of the hall in Marlbo-
rough-houfer His moft efteemed piece abroad was
the portico of cardinal Bentivoglio’s palace at Rome.
He made feveral attempts in face-painting, but with
little fuccefs ; his talent lying altogether in hiftories,
with figures as big as the life. He was much in favour
with the duke of Buckingham, and many others of
the nobility. After j 2 years continuance in England,
he died here at 84 years of age, and was buried in the
queen’s chapel at Somerfet-houfe. His print is a-
mong the heads of Vandyke, he having been drawn by
that great mafter. He left behind him a daughter,
Artemijia Gentilefchi, who was but little inferior to
her father in hiftory-painting, and excelled him in
portraits.
GENTILIS (Albericus), profeffor of civil law at
Oxford; an Italian by birth. He had quitted Italy
with his father, on account of religion. He wrote
feveral works; three books, in particular, Z>e jure belli.
which have hot been unferviceable to Grotius. He died GentiHs,
at London in 1608. Gentlemen*
Gentilis (Scipio), brother to the former, and as ^ “J
celebrated a civilian as he, forfook his native country
that he might openly profefs the Proteftant religion.
He was counfellor of the city of Nuremberg, and pro¬
feffor of law with uncommon reputation. He was a
great humanift ; and in his le&ures, as well as books,
mixed the flowers of polite learning with the thorns of
the law. He died in 1616.
GENTLEMAN. Under this denomination are
comprehended all above the rank of yeomen*, where- * See
by noblemen are truly calledmonaty.
A gentleman is ufually defined to be one, who*
without any title, bears a coat of arms, or whofe an-
ceftors have been freemen : and by the coat that a
gentleman giyeth, he is known to be, or not to be, de-
fcended from thofe of his name that lived many hun¬
dred years fince.
The word is formed of the French gentilhomme ; or
rather of gentil, “ fine, fafhionable, or becoming ;” and
the Saxon man, q. d. honejlus, or honejlo loco natus.—■
The fame ffgnification has the Italian gentilhuomo, and
the Spanifh hidalgo, or hijo dalgo, that is, the fon of
fomebody, or of a perfon of note.—If we go farther
back, we fhall find gentleman originally derived from
the Latin gentilis homo; which was ufed among the
Romans for a race of noble perfons of the fame name,
born of. free or ingenuous parents, and whofe ance-
ftors had never been Haves or put to death by law.
Thus Cicero in his Topics, “ Gentiles funt, qui inter fe
eodem funt nomine, ab ingenuis oriundi, quorum majorum
nemo fermtutem fer-vivit, qui capite non funt diminuti, See.
— Some hold that it was formed from gentile, i. e. pa¬
gan ; and that the ancient Franks, who conquered
Gaul, which was then converted to Chriftianity, were
called gentiles by the natives, as being yet heathens.-—
Others relate, that towards the declenfion of the Ro¬
man empire, as recorded by Ammianus Marcellinus,
there were two companies of brave foldiers, the one
called geniilium, and the other feutariorum ; and that it
was hence vve derive the names gentleman and efquire.
See Esquire..—This fentiment is confirmed by PaL
quire, who fuppofes the appellation genti'es and ecuyers
to have been tranfmitted to us from the Roman foi-
diery ; it being to the gentiles and feutarii, who were
the braveft of the foldiery, that the principal benefices
and portions of lands were affigned. See Benefice.
—The Gauls obferving, that during the empire of the
Romans, the feutarii and gentiles had the 'belt tene¬
ments or appointments of all the foldiers on the fron¬
tiers of the provinces, became infenfibly aceuftomed to
apply the fame names, gentilhommes and ecuyers, to fuch
as they found their kings gave the beft provifions or
appointments to.
Gentleman UJher of the Black Rod. See Rod.
Gentlemen of the Chapel; officers whofe duty and
attendance is in the royal chapel, being in number 32.
Twelve of them aie priefts; the other 20, commonly
called clerks of the chapel, affift in the performance of
divine fervice. One of the firft 12 is chofen for con-
feffor of the houfehold ; whofe office is to read prayers
every morning to the houfehold fervants, to viiif the
fick, examine and prepare communicants, and admi-
nifter
“GEN [ 632 ] GEN
Genioos. 'tuller the facrament. One of 20 clerks, well verfed in a’ready pad ; and man’s life in this period is limited to
inufic, is chofen firlt organift, who is mafter of the 100 years. It is fuppofed by many authors, that mod '
children, to inftrutt them in mufic, and whatever elfe of the Gentoo JhaJlers, or feriptures, were compofed
is neceffary for the fervice of the chapela fecond is about the beginning of the Collee jogue: but an ob-
likewifc an organilt; a third a lutanilt ; and a fourth jedlion occurs againtl this fuppoiition, viz. that the
a violift. There are lik&wife three vergers, fo called lhafters take no notice of the deluge ; to which the
from the filver rods they carry in their hands; being bramins reply, that all their feriptures were written
a ferjeant, a yeoman, and groom of the veftry : the before the time of Noah, and the deluge never extend-
firft attends the dean and fub dean, and finds fur- ed to Hindoitan.' Neverthelefs, it appears from the'
plices and other neceffaries for the chapel; the fe- lhafters themfelves, that they claim a much higher an-
cond has the whole care of the chapel, keeps the tiquity than this; inftances of which are recited by
pews, and feats the nobility and gentry ; the groom Mr Halhed.
has his attendance within the chapel-door, and looks The dodtrine of tranfmigration is one of the diftin-
after it. guiihing tenets of the Gentoos. With regard to this
GENTOOS, in modern hiftory, according to the fubjedt, it is their opinion, according to Mr Holwell,
common acceptation of the term, denote the profeflbrs that thofe fouls which have attained to a certain de-
of the religion of the bramins or brachmans, who in- gree of purity, either by the innocence of their man-
habit the country called Hindojlan, in the Eaft Indies, ners or the feverity of their mortifications, are removed
from the wor d Jlan, a “ region,” and hind or hlndoo ; to regions flf happinefs proportioned to their refpec-
which Fefilhteh, as we learn from colonel Dow’s tranf- tive merits ; but that thofe who cannot fo far furmount
lation of his hiftory, fuppofes to have been a fon of the prevalence of bad example, and the powerful de-
Ham the fon of Noah. It isobferved, however, that generacy of the times, as to deferve fuch a promotion,
Hindoo is not the name by which the inhabitants ori- are condemned fo undergo continual puniihment in the
ginaliy ftyled themfelves 5 but according to the idiom animation of fucceffive animal forms, until, at the fta-
of the fchanfcrlt which they ufe, jumbo deep, from jum- ted period, another renovation of the four jogues (hall
boo, a “ jackall,” an animal common in their coun- commence,-upon the diifolution of the prefent. They
try; znA. deep, a large portion of land furrounded by imagine fix different fpheres above this earth; the
the fea; or bhertekhunt, from khutti, i. e. “ a conti- higheft of which, called ftittee,\s the refidence ofBhri-
nent,” and bherrhut, the name of one of the firft In- ma and his particular favourites. This fphere is alfo
dian rajahs. It is alfo to be obferved, that they have the habitation of thofe men who never uttered a falfe-
affumed the name at Hindoos only fince the era of the hood, and of thofe women who have voluntarily burn-
Tartar government, to diftinguifh themfelves from ed themfelves with their hufbands; the propriety of
their conquerors the Muffulmen. The term Gentoo or which pradtice isexprefsly enjoined in the code of the
Gen/, in the Schanferit dialed!, denotes in gene- Gentoo laws. This code, printed by the Eaft-India
ral, and in its more confined fenfe mankind, and is ne- Company in J 776, is a very curious colledtion of Hin-
ver appropriated particularly to fuch as follow the doc- doo jurifprudence, which was feledted by the moft ex-
trines of Brhima. Thefe are divided into four great perienced pundits or lawyers, from curious originals in
tribes, each of which has its own feparate appellation; the Schanfcrit language, who were employed for this
but they have no common or colledfive term that com- purpofe from May 1773 to February 1775 ; after-
prehends the whole nation under the idea affixed by wards translated into the Perfian idiom, and then into
the Europeans to the word Gentoo. Mr Halhed, in the Engliftx language by Mr Flalhed.
the preface to his tranllation of the Code of Gentoo The feveral inftitutes contained in this cofledlion
Laws, conjectures, that the Portuguefe, on their firft are interwoven with the religion of the Gentoos, and
arrival in India, hearing the word frequently in the revered as of the higheft authority. The curious read-
-mouthsof the natives, as applied to mankind in gene- er will difeover an aftohiihing fimilarity between the
ral, might adopt it for the domeftic appellation of the inftitutes of this code and many of the ordinances of
Indians themfelves, or perhaps their bigotry might the Jewiffi law; between the character of the bramins
force from the word Gentoo a fanciful allufion to Gen- or p, lefts, and the Levites ; and between the ceremo-
tile or Pagan. The Hindoos, or Gentoos, vie with ny of the fcape-goat under the Mofaic difpenfation,
the Chinefe as to the antiquity of their nation. They and a Gentoo ceremony called the a/hummed jug, in
reckon the duration of the world by four jogues, or di- which a horfe anfwers the purpofe of the goat. Many
llinCt ages: the firft is the Suttee jogue, or age of obfolete cuftoms and ufages alluded to in many parts
purity, which is faid to have lafted about 3,200,000 of the Old Tcftament, may alfo receive illuftrations
years; during which the life of man was too,000 from the inftitutes of this code. It appears from the
years, and his ftature 21 cubits : the fecond, the Tir- code, that the bramins, who are the priefts and legif-
tah jogue, or the age in which one-third of mankind lators of the country, have refigned all the fecular and
were reprobate ; which confifted of 2,400,000 years, executive power into the hands of another caft or tribe;
when men lived to the age of 10,000 years: the third, and no bramin has been properly capable of the magi-
the Dwapar-jogue, in which half of the human race ftracy fince the time of the futtoe jogue. The only
became depraved ; which endured to 600,000 years, privilege of Importance which they have appropriated
when mens lives were reduced to 1000 years: and to themfelves, is an exemption from all capital punifli-
fourthly, the Coilee jogue, in which all mankind were ment: they mSy be degraded, branded, imprifoned
•corrupted, or rather diminirtied, which the word ro/Zi?/? for life, or fent into perpetual exile ; but it is every
imports. This is the prefent era, which they fuppofe where exprefsly ordained, that a bramin (hall not be
will fubfift for 400,000 years, of which near 5000 are put to death on any account whatfoever.
Wc
GEN f 633 1 G E G
Gem. We have already obferved, that the Hindoos are di¬
flexion, vJded ;nto four great and original tribs-h, which, accord-
Geniis, tQ tjie Qent00 theology, proceeded from the four
different members of Brhima, the fuppofed immediate
agent of the creation under the fpirit of the Almighty.
Thefe tribes are the bramins, which proceeded from
his mouth, and whofe office is to pray, read, and in-
ftruct j the Chehteree, which proceed from his arms,
whofe office is to draw the bow, to fight, and to go¬
vern ; the Bice, proceeding from the belly or thighs,
who are to provide the neceffaries of life by agriculture
and traffic ; and the Sooder, from the feet, which are
ordained to labour, ferve, and travel.
Few Chriftians, fays the tranflator of the Gentoo
code, have expreffed themfelves with a more becoming
reverence of the grand and impartial defigns of Provi¬
dence in all its works, or with a more extenfive cha¬
rity towards all their fellow-creatures of every profef-
fion, than the Gentoos. It is indeed an article of
faith among the bramins, that God’s all-merciful power
would not have permitted fuch a number of different
religions, if he had not found a pleafure in beholding
their varieties.
GENUFLEXION, (of gem, “ knee,” and Jlefto
“ I bend,”) the a£t of bowing or bending the knee ; or
rather of kneeling down.
The Jefuit Rofweyd, in his Onomafticon, ffiows,
that genuflexion, or kneeling, has been a very ancient
cuftom in the church, atid even under the Old Tefta-
ment difpenfation ; and that this practice was obfer¬
ved throughout all the year, excepting On Sundays,
and during the time from Eafterto Whitfuntide, when
kneeling was forbid by the council of Nice.
Others have fhoWn, that the cuftom of not kneeling
on Sundays had obtained from the time of the apoftles,
as appears from St Irenaeus, and Tertullian ; and the
Ethiopic church, fcrupuloufly attached to the ancient
ceremonies, ftill retains that of not kneeling at divine
fervice. The Ruffians efteem it an indecent pofture to
worfhip God on the knees. Add, that the Je ws ufually
prayed Handing. Rofweyd gives the reafons of the
prohibition of genuflexion on Sundays, &c. from St
Bafil, Anaftafius, St Juftin, &c.
Baronius is of opinion, that genuflexion was not efta-
blifhed in the year of Chrift 58, from that paffage in
Adts xx. 36. where St Paul is exprefsly mentioned to
kneel down at prayer ; but Saurin {hows, that nothing
can be thence concluded. The fame author remarks,
alfo, that the primitive Chriftians carried the pradbice
of genuflexion fo far, that fome of them had worn ca¬
vities in the floor where they prayed: and St Jerome
relates of St James, that he had contradbed a hardnefs
on his knees equal to that of camels.
GENUS, among metaphyficians and logicians, de¬
notes a number of beings which agree in certain ge¬
neral properties common to them all: fo that a ge¬
nus is nothing elfe but an abftradb idea, expreffed by
fome general name or term. See Logic and Meta¬
physics.
Genus, is alfo ufed fora charadber or manner appli¬
cable to every thing of a certain nature or condition :
in which fenfe it ferves to make capital-divifions in di¬
vers- fciences, as medicine, natural hifbory, &c.'
Genus, in rhetoric. Authors diftinguifh the art
©f rhetoric, as alfo orations or difcourfes produced
thereby, info three genera or kinds, demonftrative, Genus-
deliberative, and judiciary. To the demonftrative Geojj-ra!a^
kind belong panegyrics, genethliacons, epithalami-
urns, funeral harangues, dec. To the deliberative
kind belong perfuafious, diffuafions, commendations,
&c. To the judiciary kind belong defences and ac-
cufations.
Genus, in medicine. See Medicine, under the
Nofology.
Genus, in natural hiftory, a fubdivifion of any
clafs or order of natural beings, whether of the ani¬
mal, vegetable, or mineral kingdoms, ^all agreeing in
certain common charadbers. See Botany and Zoo¬
logy.
Genus, in mufic, by the ancients called jT/n/x melo-
dia, is a certain manner of dividing and fubdividing
the principles of melody ; that is, the confonant and
diffonant intervals, into their concinnous parts.
The moderns confidering the odbave as the moft
perfedb of intervals, and that whereon all the concords
depend, in the prefent theory of mufic, the divifion of
that interval is confidered as containing the true divi¬
fion of the whole feale.
But the ancients went to work fomewhat different¬
ly : the diateffaron, or fourth, was the leaft interval
which they admitted as concord ; and therefore they
fought firft how that might be moft conveniently di¬
vided ; from whence they conflituted the diapente and
diapafon.
The diateffaron being thus, as it were, the root and
foundation of the fcale, what they called the genera,
or kinds, arofe from its various divifions ; and hence
they defined the genus modulandi to be the manner of
dividing the tetrachord and difpofingits four founds as
to fucceffion. ^
The genera of mufic were three, the enharmonic,
chromatic, and diatonic. The two firft were varioufly
fubdivided : ahd even the laft, tho’ that is commonly
reckoned to be without any fpecies, yet different au¬
thors have propofed different divifions under that name,^
without giving any particular names to the fpecies as
was done to the other two.
For the charadbers, &c. of thefe feveral genera, fee
Enharmonic, Chromatic, and Diatonic.
GEOCENTRIC, in aftronomy, is applied to a
planet, or its orbit, to denote it concentric with the
earth, or as having the earth for its centre, or the
fame centre with the earth.
GEOFFRiEA, in botany : A gequs of the decan-
dria order, belonging to the diadelphia clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 32d or¬
der, Papilionacea. The calyx is quinquefid, the fruit
an oval plum; the kernel compreffed. There is only
one fpecies, viz. the inermis, or cabbage-bark tree,,p;ate
which is a native of Brafil and Jamaica. The wood of CCXXIJ
this tree is ufed in building; but it is chiefly valued
for its bark, which is adminiftered as an anthelmintic
medicine. From this medical property it is alfo callcd-
the worm-lark tree. This bark is of a grey colour exter¬
nally, but black and furrowed on the infide. It has a
mucilaginous and fweetifh table, and a difagreeable
fmell. It is given in cafes of worms, in form of pow1-
der, decodbion, fyrup, and extr&db. The decodbion-
is preferred ; and is made by flowly boiling an ounce
of the frefh dried bark in a quart of water, till it af-
fume-
GEO [63
aP*,y>ffrcy. flime tlie colour of Madeira wine. This fweetened is
the fyrup ; evaporated, it forms an extradf. It com-
tnonlv produces fome ficknefs and purging; fome-
times violent effedfs, as vomiting, delirium, and fever.
Thefe lail are faid to be owing to an over-dofe, or to
drinking cold water; and are relieved by the ufe of
warm-water, caftoroil, or a vegetable acid. It fhould
always be begun in fmall dofes. But when properly
and cautioufly adminiftered, it is faid to operate as a
very powerful anthelmintic, particularly for the expul-
fion of the lumbrici, which are a very common caufe
of difeafe in the Weft-India iflands; ^and there it is
very frequently employed. But it has we believe been
but little ufed in Britain.
■GEOFFREY of Monmouth, bifhop of St A-
faph, called by our ancient biographers Gallofridus
Monumetenfu. Iceland conjeftures that he was educa¬
ted in a Benedidtine convent at Monmouth, where he
was born ; and that he became a monk of that order.
Bale, and after him Pits, call him archdeacon of Mon¬
mouth ; and it is generally afferted that he was made
biftiop of St Afaph in the year L151 or 1152, in the
reign of king Stephen. His hiftory was probably fi-
nifhed after the year 1138. It contains a fabulous ac¬
count of Britifh kings, from the Trojan Brutus to
the reign of Cadwallader in the year 690. But Geof-,
Frey, whatever cenfure he may deferve for his credu-
2 ] GEO
lity, was hot the inventor of the ftories he relates. It Geoffroy,
is a tranflation from a manufcript written in the Bri- Geogr^-
tifh language, and brought to England from Armo- , p ^ ' f
rica by his friend Gualter, archdeacon of Oxford.
But the atchievements of king Arthur, Merlin’s pro¬
phecies, many fpeeches and letters, were chiefly his
own addition, in excufc for this hiftorian, Mr Whar¬
ton judicioufly obferves, that fabulous hiftories were
then the faftuon, and papular traditions a recommen¬
dation to his book.
GEOFFROY (Stephen Francis), a celebrated
phyfician, botanift, and chemift, born at Paris iii
1672. After having finilhed his ftudies, he travelled
into England, Holland, and Italy. In 1704, he re¬
ceived the degree of doftor of phyfic at Paris; and
at length became profelfor of chemiftry, and phyfi¬
cian of the Royal College. He was a member of the
Royal Society of London, and of the Academy of
Sciences. He wrote, 1. Several very curious Thefes
in Latin, which were afterwards tranflated into French.
2. An excellent treatife, intitled TraSatus de Mate¬
ria Medica, Jive de Medicamentorum fimplicium h'Jloriat
virtute, deletlu, et ufu. He died at Paris, in 1731.
GEOGRAPHICAL mile, the fame with the
fea-mile; being one minute, or the 60th part of a de¬
gree of a great circle on the earth’s furface.
GEOGRAPHY.
/GEOGRAPHY (ysaypacH*, from terra, and
Vjy - Jcrilo) ; the doftrine or knowledge of the
earth, both as in itfelf, and as to its affe&ions ; or a
defcripfion of the terreftrial globe, and particularly of
the known and inhabitable parts thereof, with all its
different divifions. See Earth and Astronomy.
Sect. I. Hijlory of the Science.
At what time the fcience of geography began firft
to be ftudied among mankind is entirely uncertain. It
is generally agreed, that the knowledge of it was de¬
rived to the Greeks, who ftrft of the European nations
cultivated this fcience, from the Egyptians or Babylo¬
nians ; but it is impoffible to determine which of thefe
two nations had the honour of the invention. He¬
rodotus tells us, that the Greeks firft learned the pole,
the gnomon, and the J2 divifions of the day, from the
Babylonians. By Pliny, and Diogenes Laertius, how-
Seafwis of ever> we are t0^» ^at Thales of Miletus firft found
the year out paffage of the fun from tropic to tropic ; which
rfifcovered he could not have done without the affiftance of a
by Thales, gnomon. He is faid to have been the author of two
books, the one on the tropic, and the other on the e-
quinox ; both of which he probably determined by the
gnomon ; and by this he was led to the difcovery of
the four feafons of the year, which are determined by
the folftices and equinoxes.
Thales divided the year into 365 days ; which was
undoubtedly a method difeovered by the Egyptians,
and communicated by them to him. It is faid. to
have been invented by the fecond Mercury, furnamed
TrifiregiJlus, who, according to Eufebius, lived about
50 years after the Exodus. Pliny tells us exprefsly.
No 136.
that this difeovery was made by obferving when the
Jhadow returned to its marks ; a clear proof that it was
done by the gnomon. Thales alfo knew the method
of determining the height of bodies by the length of
their lhadows, as appears by his propofing this me¬
thod for meafuring the height of the Egyptian pyra- a
mids. Hence many learned men have been of opi- Conje&ure
nion, that as the ufe of the gnomon was known in concerning
Egypt long before the dawn of learning in Greece, the ufe of
the pyramids and obeli/ks, which to common travel-^yP"
lers appeared only to be buildings of magnificence, mids^and
were in reality as many fun-dials on a very large fcale, obelilks.
and built with a defign to afeertain the feafon of the
year, by the variation of the length of their fliadows :
and, in confirmation of this opinion, it was found by
M. Chazelles in 1694, that the two-fides, both of the
larger and fmaller pyramids, flood exadtly north and
fouth ; fo that, even at this day, they form true meri¬
dian lines.
From the days of Thales, who flouriftred ki the fixth
century before Chrift, very little feems to have been
done towards the eftablilhment of geography for 200 ‘
years. During this period, there is only one aftrono-
mical obfervation recorded; namely, that of Meton
and Eu&emon, who obferved the fummer folftice at
Athens, during the archonftiip of Apfeudes, on the
21ft of the Egyptian month Phamenoth, in the morn¬
ing, being the 27th of June 432 B. C. This obferva¬
tion was made by watching narrowly the ftradow of
the gnomon, and was1 done with a defign to fix the
beginning of their cycle of 19 years. 3
Timocharis and Arillillus, who began to obferve Longitudes]
about 295 B. C. feem to have been the firft who at-*"desa*j1’
tempted termined.
Sea. I, G E O G Pv
Hiftory. tempted to fix the longitudes and latitudes of the fixed
ftars, by confiSering their diftances from the equator.
One of their obfervations gave rife to the difcovery of
the preceffion of the equinoxes, which was firft obferved
by Hipparchus about 150 years after; and he made
ufe of Timocharis and Ariftillus’s method, in order
to delineate the parallels of latitude, and the meri¬
dians on the furface of the earth; thus laying the
foundation of the fcience of geography as we have it
at prefent.
But though the latitudes and longitudes were thus
introduced by Hipparchus, they were not attended to
by any of the intermediate aftronomers till the days of
Ptolemy. Strabo, Vitruvius, and Pliny, have ail of
them entered into a minute geographical defcription of
the fituation of places, according to the length of the
Ihadows of the gnomon, without taking the leaft no¬
tice of the degrees and minutes of longitude and la¬
titude.
The difcovery of the longitudes and latitudes imme¬
diately laid a foundation for making maps, or delinea¬
tions of the furface of the earth in piano, on a very
different plan from what had been attempted before.
Accounts Formerly the maps were little more than rude outlines
•of the anci- and topographical fketches of different countries. The
snt maps, earlieft were thofe of Sefoftris, mentioned by Eufta-
thius ; who fays, that “ this Egyptian king, having
traverfed great part of the earth, recorded his march
in maps, and gave copies of his maps not only to the
Egyptians, but to the Scythians, to their great afto-
nifhment.”—Some have imagined, that the Jews made
a map of the Holy Land, when they gave the different
portions to the nine tribes at Shiloh : for Jofhua tells
us, that they were fent to walk through the land, and
that they defcribed it in /even parts in a book ; and Jofe-
phus tells us, that when Jofhua fent out people from
the different tribes to meafure the land, he gave them,
as companions, perfons well fkilled in geometry, who
could not be miftaken in the truth.
The firft Grecian map on record is that of Anaxi¬
mander, mentioned by Strabo, lib. i. p. 7. It has
been conjectured by fome, that this was a general map
of the then known world, and is imagined to be the
one referred to by Hipparchus under the defignation
of the ancient map. Herodotus minutely defcribes a
map made by Ariftagoras tyrant of Miletus, which
will ferve to give us fome idea of the maps of thofe
ages. He tells, us, that Ariftagoras fhowed it to Cleo-
menes king of Sparta, with a view of inducing him to
attack the king of Perfia, even in his palace at Sufa,
in order to reftore the lonians to their ancient liberty.
It was traced upon brafs or copper, and contained the
intermediate couxitrfes which were to be traverfed in
that march. Herodotus tells us, that it contained
“ the whole circumference of the earth, the whole fea
or ocean, and all the rivers but thefe words muft not
be underftood literally. From the ftate of geography
at that time, it may be fairly concluded that by the
Jea was meant no more than the Mediterranean ; and
therefore, the earth or land fignified the coafts of that
fea, and more particularly the Leffer Afia, extending
towards the middle of Perfia. The rivers were the
Halys, the Euphrates, and Tigris, which Herodotus
mentions as neceffary to be croffed in that expedition.
It contained one ftraight line, called the Royal Higb-
Vox.. VII. Part II.
A P H Y. 633
way, which took in all the Rations or places of en- Hiftory.
campment from Sardis to Sufa. Of thefe there were J
111 in the whole journey, containing 13,500 ftadia, or
1687^ Roman miles of 5000 feet each.
Thefe itinerary maps of the places of encampment
were indifpenfably neceffary in all armies. Athenseus
quotes Baeton as author of a work intitled, 'The en¬
campments of Alexander's march ; and likewife Amyn-
tas to the fame purpofe. Pliny tells us, that Diog-
netus and Baston were the furveyors of Alexander’s
marches, and then quotes the exaft number of miles
according to their menfuration; which he afterwards
confirms by the letters of Alexander himfelf. It like¬
wife appears, that Alexander was very careful in exa¬
mining the meafures of his furveyors, and took care to
employ the moft fkilful in every country for this pur¬
pofe. The fame author alfo acquaints us, that a copy
of this great monarch’s furveys was given by Xenocles
his treafurer to Patrocles the geographer, who, as
Pliny informs us, was admiral of the fleets of Seleucus
and Antiochus. His book on geography is often
quoted both by Strabo and Pliny ; and it appears, that
this author furniftied Eratofthenes with the principal
materials for conftru&ing his map of the oriental part
of the world. $
Eratofthenes was the firft who attempted to reduce Parallel of
geography to a regular fyftem, and introduced a regu- Jiat^u'|e
lar parallel of-latitude. This was traced over certain
places where the longeft day was of the fame length.
He began it from the ftraits of Gibraltar; and it
thence paffed through the Sicilian fea, and near the
fouthern extremities of Peloponnefus. From thence it
was continued through the Ifland of Rhodes and the
Bay of Iffus; and there entering Cilicia, and crofting
the rivers Euphrates and Tigris, it was extended to
the mountains of India. By means of this line, he en¬
deavoured to re&ify the errors of the ancient map,
fuppofed to be that of Anaximander. In drawing this
parallel, he was regulated by obferving where the
longeft day was fourteen hours and an half, which
Hipparchus afterwards determined to be the latitude
of 36 degrees.
The firft parallel through Rhodes was ever after¬
wards confidered with a degree of preference, like the
foundation ftone of all ancient maps; and the longi¬
tude of the then known world was often attempted to
be meafured in ftadia and miles, according to the ex¬
tent of that line, by many fucceeding geographers.
Eratofthenes foon after attempted not only to draw
other parallels of latitude, but alfo to trace a meri¬
dian at right angles to thefe, palling through Rhode*
and Alexandria, down to Syene and Meroe ; and as
the progrefs he thus made tended naturally to enlarge
his ideas, he at laft undertook a ftill more arduous talk, 6
namely, to determine the circumference of the globe, Attempt#
by an a&ual meafurement of a fegment of one of its to deter-
great circles. To find the meafure of the earth is in- niine the
deed a problem which has probably engaged the at-
tention of aftronomers and geographers ever frnce the Circumfe.
globular figure of it was known. Anaximander is faid rente,
to have been the firft among the Greeks who wrote
upon this fubjeft. Archytas of Tarentum, a Pytha¬
gorean, famous for his Ikill in mathematics and me¬
chanics, is faid alfo to have made fome attemprs in
this way; and Dr Long conje&ures, that thefe are
4 L the
634
GEOGRAPHY.
Sea. I.
Hiftory. the authors of the moft ancient Opinion that the cir-
cumference of the earth is 40010^0 ftadia. Ariftar-
Moft^an- C^US ^amoS 18 thought to have conlidered the mag-
cicnt opi- nhude of the earth as well as of the fun and moon,
nions on Archimedes makes-mention of the ancients who held'
thisfubjedl. the circumference of the earth to be 30,000 ftadia ;
but it does not appear what methods were made ufe of
by thefe very ancient geographers to folve the pro¬
blem. Probably they attempted it by obfervations of
ftars in the zenith or in the horizon, and adlual men-
furation from fome part of the circumference of the
earth. A proof of this we have from what Ari'lotle
writes in his treatife Ds Gala ; that we have different
ftars pafs through our zenith, according as our fituation
is more or lefs northerly ; and that in the fouthern
parts of the earth we have ftars come above our hori¬
zon, which if we go northward will no longer be vi-
fible to us. Hence it appears, that there are two ways
of meafuring the circumference of the earth ; one by
obferving ftars which pafs through the zenith of one
place, and do not pafs through that of another ; the
other, by obferving fome ftars which come above the
8 horizon of one place, and are obferved at the fame time
Method to be in the horizon of another. Eratofthenes at Alex-
Eratofthe anc*”a 'n made u^e °f former method. He
ngj. ° c' knew that at the fummer folftice the fun was vertical
to the inhabitants of Syene, a town on the confines
of Ethiopia, under the tropic of Cancer, where they
had a well built for that purpofe, on the bottom of
which the rays of the fun fell perpendicularly the day of
the fummer folftice : he obferved by the fhadow of a
wire fet perpendicularly in an hemifpherical bafon, how
much the fun was on the fame day at noon diftant from
the zenith of Alexandria ; and found that diftance to
be one-50th part of a great circle in the heavens. Sup-
pofing then Syene and Alexandria to be under the
fame meridian, he concluded the diftance between them
to be the 50th part of a great circle upon the earth ;
and this diftance being by meafure 5000 ftadia, he
concluded the circumference of the earth to be 250,000
iladia; but as this number divided by 360 would give
6944 ftadia to a degree, either Eratofthenes himftlf or
fome of his followers affigned the round number 700
ftadia to a degree ; which multiplied by 360, makes
the circumference of the earth 252,000 ftadia; whence
both thefe meafures are given by different authors as
„ that of Eratofthenes.
By Pofido- In the time of Pompey the Great, Pofidonius made
wins. an attempt to meafure the circumference of the earth
by the method of horizontal obfervations. He knew
that the ftar called Canopus was but juft vifible in the
•horizon of Rhodes, and that at Alexandria its meri¬
dian height was the 48th part of a great circle in the
heavens, or 7! deg.; which (hows what part of a great
circle upon the earth the diftance between thofe places
amounts to. Suppofing them both to be under the
fame meridian, and the diftance between them to be
5000 ftadia, the circumference of the earth will be
240,000 ftadia; which is the firft meafure of Pofido¬
nius. According to Strabo, Pofidonius made the mea¬
fure of the earth to be 180,000 ftadia, at the rate of
500 ftadia to a degree. The reafon of this difference
is thought to be, that Eratofthenesmeafured the diftance
between Rhodes and Alexandria, and found it to be
but 3750 ftadia: taking this for a 48th part of the
earth’s circumference, which is the calculation of Po- Hiftory.
fidonius, the whole circumference will be 180,000 fta- ~—
dia. This meafure was received by Marinus of Tyre,
and is ufually aferibed to Ptolemy. Pofidonius’s me¬
thod, however, is found to be exceedingly erroneous, bn
account of the uncertainty of refra&ion in the ftars
which are near the horizon. Cafiini remarks, that
taking exa£lly the mean betwixt the laft dimenfions of
Eratofthenes and Pofidonius, a degree of a great circle
upon the earth will be 600 ftadia, and a minute of a
degree 10 ftadia, which is juft a mile and a quarter of ,
the ancient Roman meafure and a mile of the modem
meafure.
Several geographers after the time of Eratofthenes
and Poiidonius have made ufe of the different heights
of the pole in diftant places under the fame meridian
to find the dimenfions of the earth. About the year the
800, the khalif Almamun had the diftance meafuredlit'alma-
of two places two degrees afunder, and under the fame man.
meridian, in the plains of Sinjar near the Red Sea.
The refult of the matter was, that the mathematicians
employed found the degree at one time to coniift of
56 miles, at another of 564, or, as fome will have it,
56t m^es- . 1S
The next attempt to find the circumference of the gy irerBe.
earth was in 1525 by Fernelius, a learned French phy- Hus.
fician. To attain his purpofe, he took the height of
the pole at Paris, going from thence dire&ly north¬
wards, until he came to theplace where the height of the
pole was one degree more than at that city. The length
of the way was meafured by the number of revolutions
made, by one of the wheels of his carriage ; and after
proper allowances for the declivities and turnings of
the road, he concluded that 68 Italian miles were equal
to a degree on the earth.
Snellius, an eminent Dutch mathematician, fuc- „
ceeded Fernelius in his attempts to meafure the cir- |;USt
cumference of the earth. Having taken the heights
of the pole at Alcmaer and at Bergen-op-zoom, he
found the difference to be i° iT 30". He next mea¬
fured the diftance betwixt the parallels of thefe two
places, by taking feveral ftations and forming triangfes;
by means of which he found the degree to confift of
341,676 Leyden feet.. Having meafured the diftance
betwixt the parallels of Alcmaer and Leydenj which,
differ only half adegree in their latitude, the calculation
came out 342,120 Leyden feet to a degree. Hence
he affigned the round number 342,000 Leyden feet to
a degree': which, according to Picard, amounts to
55,02 1 French toifes.
In 1635, Mr Norwood, an Englifhman, took the Mr Nor-
elevations of the pole at London and at York ; and wood’s cat¬
having meafured the diftance betwixt the two parallels, cu^t‘on*
affigned 694 miles and two poles to a degree; each
pole being reckoned 16 j feet.
After the year 1654, Ricciolus made ufe of feveral cakuia-
methods to determine the circumference of the earth ; tions by
from all which he concluded, that one degree contain - R-icciolu*.
ed 64,363 Bologna paces, which are equivalent to
61,650 French toifes. The moft remarkable attempt, By ^
however, wak that of the French mathematicians, who French aca-
employed telefcopic fights for the purpofe, which had demiciaas,
never been done before. Thefe are much the beft; as
by them the view may be diredted to an objedf at a
greater diftance, and towards any point with more
. certainty;
Rea. I.
GEOGRAPHY.
('3S
;Hiftory. certainty 5 whence the tiiangles for raeafuring diftances
may be formed with greater accuracy than otherwife
can be done. In confequence of this improvement,
the fundamental bale of their operations was much
longer than that made ufe of by Snellius or Ricciolus.
The diftance meafured was between the parallels of
Sourdon and Malvoifine; between which the difference
of the polar altitude is fomewhat more than one de¬
gree ; and the refult of the whole was, that one de¬
gree contained 57,060 French toifes. As this pro¬
blem can be the more accurately determined in pro¬
portion to the length of the meridian line meafured,
the members of the Royal Academy prolonged theirs
quite acrofs the kingdom of France, meafuring it tri¬
gonometrically all the way. This work was begun in
the year 1683, but was not finifhed till 1718. They
made ufe of Picard’s fundamental bafe, as being mea¬
fured with fufficient accuracy ; and an account of the
whole was publifhed by Caffini in the year 1770. In
this work fome miftakes were detected in the calcula¬
tions of Snellius ; and it was likewife fhown, that
there are errors in thofe of Ricciolus, owing princi¬
pally to the latter having taken too fhort a fundamen¬
tal bafe, and not having paid fufficient attention to the
effects of refra&ion. Though Snellius, however, had
made fome miftakes in his calculations, there is no rea-
fon to doubt the accuracy of his obfervations. Hol¬
land, by reafon of its flatnefs, is the fjtteft country in
Europe for meafuring an arc of the meridian ; and
Snellius had an uncommon opportunity of obferving
the exa&nefs of his fundamental bafe, viz. the diftance
betwixt one tower at Leyden and another at Souter-
wode. A froft happened juft after the country round
Leyden had been overflowed; by which means he was
enabled to take two ftations Opon the ice, the diftance
between which he carefully meafured three times over;
and then from thefe ftations he obferved the angles
which the vifual rays pointing at thofe towers made
with the ftraight line upon the ice- From thefe con-
fiderations profefibr Mufchenbroek was induced to
make new calculations and form triangles upon the
fundamental bafe of Snellius, which he did in the year
1700; and from thefe he affigns 57,033 toifes to a
degree, which is only 27 lefs than had been done by
the academicians.
The inveftigation of this problem of the circum-
ference of the earth was effentially necefiary for dettr-
Inacciiracy mining the radical principles of all maps; that of Era-
ot the an- tofthenes, though the heft of which antiquity can boaft,
cientmaps. was neverthelefs exceedingly imperfedl and inaccurate.
It contained little more than the ftates of Greece, and
the dominions of the fucceflbrs of Alexander, digefted
according to the furveys above mentioned. He had
feen, indeed, and has quoted, the voyages of Pytheas
into the great Atlantic ocean, which gave him fome
faint idea of the weftern parts of Europe ; but fo im¬
perfect, that they could not be realifed into the out¬
lines of a chart. Strabo tells us, that he was extreme¬
ly ignorant of Gaul, Spain, Germany, and Britain.
He was equally ignorant of Italy, the coalts of the
Adriatic, Pontus, and all the countries towards the
north. We are alfo told by the fame author, that
Eratofthenes made the diftance between Epidamnus or
Hyrrhachium on the Adriatic, and the bay of Thermas
©n the -ZEgean ita, to be only 900 ftadia, .when in rea¬
lity it was above 2000; find in another inftance; he Hiftory.
had enlarged the diftance from Carthage to Alexan- 'T—^
dria to 15,000 ftadia, when in reality it was no more
than 9000.
Such was the ftate of geography and the nature of
the maps pndr to the time of Hipparchus; who made
a clofer connexion between geography and aftronomy,
by determining the longitudes and latitudes from ce-
leftial obfervations. It muft be owned, however, that
the previous fteps to this new projeftion of the fphere
had been in a great meafure made eafy by Archime¬
des, upwards of 50 years before the time of Hippar¬
chus, when he invented his noble theorems for meafur¬
ing the furface of a fphere and its different fegments.
It appears that war has been generally the occafion
of making the moft accurate maps of different coun¬
tries ; and therefore geography made great advances
from the progrefs of the Roman arms. In all the pro¬
vinces occupied by that people, we find that camps
were every where conftrufted at proper intervals, and
roads were railed with fubftantial materials, for making
an eafier communication between them ; and thus ci¬
vilization and furveying were carried on according to
fyftem throughout the extent of that large empire.
Every new war produced a. new furvey and itinerary
of the countries where the feenes of aiftion paffed; fo
that tha materials of geography were accumulated by
every additional conqueft. Polybius tells us, that at
the beginning of the fecond Punic war, when Hanni¬
bal was preparing his expedition againft Rome, the
countries through which he was to pafs were careful¬
ly meafured by the Romans. Julius Casfar caufed a
general furvey of the Roman empire to be made, by a
decree of the fenate. Three furveyors, Zenodoxus,
Theodotus, and Polyclitus, had this talk afligned
them, and are faid to have completed it in 25 years.
The Roman itineraries that are ftill extant, alfo fhow
what care and pains they had been at in making fur¬
veys in all the different provinces of their empire ; and
Pliny has filled the third, fourth, and fifth books of
his Natural Hiftory with the geographical diftances
that were thus meafured. We have likewife another
fet of maps ftill preferved to us, known by the name
of the Peutingerian Tables, publifhed by Welfer and
Berlins, which give a fufficient fpecimen of what Ve-
getlus calls the Itinera Pitta, for the clearer dire&ion
of their armies in their march.
The Roman empire had been enlarged to its great-
eft extent, and all its provinces well known and fur-
veyed, when Ptolemy, in the reign of Antoninus Pi¬
us, about 150 years after Chrift, compofed his fyftem
of geography. The principal materials he made ufe of
for compofing this work, were the proportions of the
gnomon to its Jhadow, taken by different aftronomers
at the times of the .equinoxes and folftices; calcula¬
tions founded upon the length of the longeft days ;
the meafures or computed diftances of the principal
roads contained in their furveys and itineraries; and
the various reports of travellers and navigators, who
often determined the diftances of places by hearfay
and conjedture. All thefe were compared together,
and digefted into one uniform body or fyftem; and af¬
terwards were tranliated by him into a new mathe¬
matical language, expreffing the different degrees of
longitude and latitude, according to the invention of
4 L 2 Hip-
636 G E O G R
t Hiftory. Hipparchus, but which Ptolemy had the merit of car-
V’ rying into full pra&ice and execution, after it had
been negle&ed for upwards of 250 years. With fuch
imperfedb anddnaccurate materials, it is no wonder to
find many errors in Ptolemy’s fyftem. Neither were
thefe errors fuch as had been introduced in the more
diftant extremities of his maps, but even in the very
centre of that part of the world which was the beit
known to the ancient Greeks and Romans, and where
all the famed ancient aftronomers had made their ob-
fervations.—Yet this fyftem, with all its imperfections,
continued in vogue till the beginning of the prefent
century. The improvements in geography which at
that time, and fince, have taken place, were owing to
the great progrefs made in aftronomy by feveral emi¬
nent men who lived during that period. More correCt
methods and inftruments for obferving the latitude
were found out ; and the difcovery of Jupiter’s fatel-
lites afforded a much eafier method of finding the lon¬
gitudes than was formerly known. The voyages made
by different nations alfo, which were now beeoipe much
more frequent than formerly, brought to the know¬
ledge of the Europeans a vaft number of countries ut¬
terly unknown to them before. The late voyages of
Captain Cooke, made by order of his Britannic Ma-
jefty, have contributed more to the improvement of
geography than any thing that hbs been done during
the prefent century ; fo that now the geography of
the utmoft extremities of the earth is in a fair way of
being much better known to the moderns than that of
the moft adjacent countries was to the ancients. This,
however, mull be underftood enly of the fea-coafts
of thefe countries ; for, as to their internal geography,
it is lefs known now than before, except in a very few
17 places.
Geography On the whole, it may be obferved, that geography
feiiim^er" *s a fcience even yet far from perfection. The maps
of America and the eaftern parts of Alia are, perhaps,
more unfinifhed than any of the reft. Even the maps
of Great Britain and Ireland are very imperfeCt and
unfatisfaClory; and the numbers we have of them, va¬
ried, and republifhed, without any real improvement,
juftly confirm an obfervation made by Lord Bacon,
namely, that an opinion of plenty is one of the caufes
of want. The late Dr Bradley was of opinion, that
there were but two places in England whofe longitude
might be depended upon as accurately taken; and that
thefe were the obfervatory at Greenwich, and Serburn-
caftle the feat of the earl of Macclesfield in Oxford-
Ihire ; and that their diftance was one degree in fpace,
or four minutes in time. Even this was found to be
inaccurate, the diftance in time being obferved by the
late tranfit of Venus to be only three minutes and 47
feconds. It were well, however, if there W'ere no
greater errors with vegerd to other places^; but if we
examine the longitude of the Lizard, we ftiall find
fcarce any two geographers that agree concerning it;
fome making it 4“ 40' from London ; others 50, and
50 14'; while fome enlarge it to 6°. Our belt maps
are therefore ftill to be considered as unfinilhed works,
where there will always be many things to be added
and corrected, as different people have an opportu-
A p h y. Sea. n.
Principles
Sect. II. Principles and Practice of Geography. pr^fice
The fundamental principles of geography are, the v
fpherical figure of the earth; its rotation on its axis ;
its revolution round the fun; and the pofition of the axis
or line round which it revolves, with regard to the ce- jg
leftial luminaries. That the earth and fea taken to- Proofs of
gether conftitute one vaft fphere, is demonftrable by round
the following arguments, x. To people at fea, the ("jf”garth,
land difappears, though near enough to be vifible were
it not for the intervening convexity of the water.
2. The higher the eye is placed, the more extenfive is
the profpeCt; whence it is common for failors, to climb
up to the tops of the mafts to tiifcover land or (hips at
a diftance. But this would give them no advantage
were it not for the convexity of the earth; for, upon
an infinitely extended plane obje&s would be vifible at
the fame diftance whether the eye were high or low ;
nor would any of them vanilh till the angle under which
they appeared became too fmall to be perceptible.
3. To people on fhore, the mail of a Ihip at fea appears
before the hull ; but were the earth an infinite plane,
not the higheft objefts, but the biggeft, would be
longeft vifible ; and the mail of a ftiip would difappear
by reafpn of the frnalnefs of its angle long before the
hull did fo. 4. The convexity of any piece of ftill.
water of a mile or two extent may be perceived by the
eye. A little boat, for inftance, may be perceived by
a man who is any height above the water ; but if he
ftoops down and lays his eye near the furface, he will
find that ’the fluid appears to rife and intercept the
view of the boat entirely. 5. The earth has been often
failed round; as by Magellan, Drake, Dampier, Anfon,.
Cook, and many other navigcitors; which demonftrates
that the furface of the ocean is fpherical; and that the
land is very little different, may eafily be proved from
the fmall elevation of any part of it above the furface
of the water. The mouths of rivers which run 1000
miles are not more than one mile below their fources;
and the higheft; mountains are not quite four miles of
perpendicular height: fo that, though fome parts of the
land are elevated into hills, and others depreffed into
valleys, the whole may ftill be accounted fpherical.
6. An undeniable and indeed ocular demonftration of
the fpherical figure of the earth is taken from the
round figure of its fhadow which falls upon the moon
in the time of eclipfes. As various fides of the earth
are turned towards the fun during the time of diffe¬
rent phenomena of this kind, and the flradow in all
cafes appears circular, it is impolfible to fuppofe the
figure of the earth to be any.other than fpherical.
The inequalities of its furface have no efkct upon the
earth’s Ihadow on the moon ; for as the diameter of
the terraqueous globe is very little lefs than 8000
miles, and the height of the higheft mountain on earth
not quite four, we cannot account the latter any more
than the 2000th part of the former; fo that the moun¬
tains bear no more proportion to the bulk of the
earth, than grains of dull bear to that of a common
in
A great many of the terreftrial phenomena depend phenome-
upon the globular figure of the earth, and the pofition na rcfulting
of its axis with regard to the fun; particularly thefi;°"\the
0 r J-r globular
figure of
the earth.
Sea. II. G E O G I
Princi; les rifing and fetting of the celeftial luminaries, the length
Pradhce an<^ n^S^ts» ^£C• ^ general explanation of
' thefe is given under the article Astronomy ; but ftill
it belongs to geography to take notice of the differ¬
ence betwixt the fame phenomena in different parts of
the earth. Thus, though the fun rifes and fets all over
the world, the circumftances of his doing fo are very
different in different countries. The moft remarkable
of thefe circumftances is the duration of the light not
only of the fun himfelf, but of the twilight before he
rifes and after he fets. In the equatorial regions, for
inftance, darknefs comes on very foon after funfet ; be-
caufe the convexity of the earth comes quickly in be¬
tween th* eye of the obferver and the luminary, the
motion of the earth being much more rapid there than
any where elfe. In our climate the twilight always
continues two hours or thereabouts, and during the
fummer-feafon it continues in a confiderable degree
during the whole night. In countries farther to the
northward or fouthward, the twilight becomes brighter
and brighter as we approach the poles, until at lad
the fun does not appear to touch the horizon, but
goes in a circle at fome diftance above it for many
days fucceffively. In like manner, during the winter,
the fame luminary finks lower and lower, until at laft
he does not appear at all; and there is only a dim
twinkling of twilight for an hour or two in the middle
of the day. By reafon of the refraction of the atmo-
fphere, however, the time of darknefs, even in the
moll inhofpitable climates, is always lefs than that of
light; and fo remarkable is the efleth of this property,
that in the year 1682, when fome Dutch navigators
wintered-in Nova Zembla, the fun was vifible to them
16 days befofe he could have been feen above the ho¬
rizon had there been no atmofphere, or had it not
been endowed with any fuch power-. The reafon of
all this is, that in the northern and fouthern regions
only a fmall part of the convexity of the globe is inter-
pofed betwixt us and the fun for many days, and in
the high latitudes none at all. In the warmer climates
the fun has often a beautiful appearance at rifing and
fetting, by reafon of the refradlion of his light through
the vapours which are copioufly raifed in thofe parts.
In the colder regions, halos, parhelia, aurora borealis,
and other meteors, are frequent ; the two former
owing to the great quantity of vapour continually fly¬
ing from the warm regions of the equator to the colder
ones of the" poles. The aurora borealis is owing to
the ele&rical matter imbibed by the earth from the
fun in the warm climates, and going off through the
upper regions of the atmofphere to the place from
whence it came. In the high northern latitudes,
thunder and lightning are unknown, or but fddom
heard of; but the more terrible phenomena of earth¬
quakes, volcanoes, &c. are by no means unfrequent.
Thefe, however, feem only t6 affedl iflands and the
maritime parts of the continent. bee the articles
* Earthquake and Volcano.
Notwithftanding the feeming inequality in the di-
ftribution of light and darknefs, however, it is certain,
that throughout the whole world there is nearly an
equal proportion of light diffufed on every part, ab-
11 racling from what is abforbed by clouds, vapours,
and the atmofphere itfelf. The equatorial regions
have indeed the moll intenfe light during the day,
t A P H Y. 637
but the nights are long and dark ; while, on the other Principles
hand, in the - northerly and foutherly parts, though
the fun ftiines lefs powerfully, yet the length of time , ra ice’.
that he appears above the horizon, with the greater
duration of the twilight, makes up for the feeming
deficiency.
Were the earth a perfect plane, the fun would appear
to be vertical in evety part of it : For in comparifon
with the immenfe magnitude of that luminary, the dia¬
meter of this globe itfelf is but very fmall: and as the
fun, were he near to us, would do much more than co¬
ver the whole earth ; fo, though he were removed to
any diftance, the whole diameter of the latter would
make no difference in the apparent angle of his alti¬
tude. By means of the globular figure of the earth
alfo, along with the great difparity between the dia¬
meters of the two bodies, fome advantage is given to
the day over the night: for thus the fun, being im-
menfely the larger of the .two, Ihines upon more than
one half of the earth ; whence the unenlightened part
has a (horter way to go before it again receives the
benefit of his rays. This difference is greater in the
inferior planets Venus and Mercury than the earth.
To the globular figure of the earth likewife is owing
the long moon-light which the inhabitants of the polar
regions enjoy, the general reafon of which is given
under the article Astronomy, n0 373. The fame
thing likewife oecafions the appearance and. difap-
pearance of certain liars at fome feafons of the year
in fome countries; for were the earth flat, they would
all be vifible in every part of the world at the fame
time. Hence moft probably has arifen the opinion of the
influence of certain ftars upon the weather and other
fublunary matters. In fliort, on the globular figure
of the earth depends the whole prefent appearance of
nature around us ; and were the fliape of the planet
we inhabit to be altered to any other, befides the real
differences which would of eonfequence take place,
the apparent ones would be fo great that we cannot
form any idea of the face which nature would then
prefent to ns.
In geography the circles which the fun apparently C;rc*° fup„;
defcribes in the heavens are fuppofed to be extended aspofed to be}
far as the earth, and marked on its furface; and indrawn on
like manner we may imagine as many circles as we|.lie^e^c!l s-
pleafe to be defcribed on the earth, and their planes U1 ac *
to be extended to the celeftial fphere, till they mark
concentric ones on the heaven. The moft remarkable
of thofe fuppofed by geographers to be defcribed in this
manner are the following.
1. The Horizon. This is properly a double circle, Horizon;
one of the horizons being called the fenjiblef and the
other the rational. The former compre hends only that
fpace which we can fee around us upon any part of
the earth ; and which is very different according to
the difference of our fituation. The other, called the
rational, is a circle parallel to the former, and palling
through the centre of the earth fuppofed to be con¬
tinued as far as the celeftial fphere itfelf. To the eyes
of fpedlators, there is always a vail difference between
the fenflble and rational horizons ; but by reafon of
the immenfe difparity betwixt the fize of the earth
and celeftial fphere, planes of both circles may beconfi-
dered as coincident. . Hence, in geography, when the
horizon, or plane of the horizon is fpoken of, the ra¬
tional
638 G E O G 1
Principles tional is always unckrftood, when nothing is faid to the
Practice contrary‘ -^7 reafon of the round figure of the earch,
■ every part has a different horizon. The poles of the
horizon, that is, the points dire&ly above the head,
and oppofite tO/the feet of the obferver, are called the
zenith and nadir.
Vertical 2. A great circle defcribed upon the fphere of
circles or the heaven, and pafling through the two vertical
azi ut s. p0jntSj js called a vertical circle, or an azimuth ; and
of thefe we may fuppofe as many as we ph'afe all
round the horizon. Sometimes they are alfo called
fecondariej of the horizon ; and in general any great
circle, drawn through the poles of another, is call¬
ed its [econdary. In geography every circle obtains
the epithet of great whole plane pafies through the
centre of the earth ; in other cafes they are called hjfer
circles. The altitudes of the heavenly bodies are mea-
fured by an arch of the azimuth or vertical circle in¬
tercepted between the horizon and the body itfelf.
*3 The method of taking them is explained under the
thmicrfob art‘c^e Astronomy, n0379 ; but a more accurate me-
fervin^ <hej t^oc^ with regard to the fun and moon, is for two perfons
altitudes of to make their obfervations at the fame time ; one of
the fun or them to obferve the altitude of the upper limb, the
moon. other of the lower limb of the luminary ; the mean be¬
twixt thefe two giving the true height of the centre.
The fame thing may alfo lie done accurately by one
obferver, having the apparent diameter of the'luminary
given. For, having found the height of the upper
edge of the limb by the quadrant, take from it half
his diameter, the remainder is the height of his centre;
or having found the altitude of his lower edge,, add to
it half the diameter, and the fum is the height of the
centre as before. When the obfervations are made
with a large inftrument, it will be convenient to ufe a
fextant, or fixth part of a circle, rather than a quadrant,
as being lefs unwieldy.
Almucan- 3. Almucantars are circles fuppo*ed to be drawn
tars. ( upon the fphere parallel to the horizon, and grow
lefs and lefs as they approach the vertical points, where
they entirely vanlfh. The apparent diftances betwixt
any two celeftial bodies are meafured by fuppofing
arches of great circles drawn through them, and then
finding how many degrees, minutes, &c. of thefe:
circles are intercepted between them. The apparent
diftancesof diameter of the fun’s dilk is found by a circle of dif-
ceiefHal bo- tance drawn through the centre of it; and the number
dies how of minutes continued between the two oppofite points
meafured. 0f that part of the circle which paffes through the
centre is the meafure of the apparent diameter. The
apparent diameter of the fun may be found by two ob-
fervers, one taking the altitude of the upper, and the
other of the lower edge of the limb ; the difference be¬
twixt the two being the diameter required; or,
^ Sometimes the viiible horizon is confidered only
horizon de- vv‘tl1 regard t0 the objects which are upon, the earth
fined. itfelf; in which cafe we may define it to be a Idler
circle on the furface of the earth, comprehending all
fuch obje&s as are at once vifible to us; and the high¬
er the eye, the more is the vifible horizon extended.
It is moll accurately obferved, however, on the fea,
on account of the abfence of thofe inequalities which
at land render the circle irregular; and for this reafon
it is called fometimes the horizon of the fea ; and may
be obferved by looking through the fights of a qua¬
drant at the moll diftant part of the fea then vifible.
* A P H Y. Sea. IT.
In making this obfervation, the vifual rays AD and Principles
AE, fig. 2. will, by reafon of the fpherical furface p a^.
of the fea, always point a little below the true fenfible Ja lce\
horizon SS; and confequently below*the rational ho- pjste
rizon which is.parallel to it, and fuppofed to be coin- CCXI.
cident with it. The quadrant Ihows the deprefiion of 27
the horizon of the fea below the true horizon ; and it o/the
is obvious from, the .figure, that the higher the eye is, rizorTof
the greater muff this depreffion be. The depreffion of the lea*
the horizon of the fea, however, is not always the
fame, even though there be no variation in the height
of the eye. The difference indeed is but fmall, a-
mounting only to a few’ feconds, and is owing to a
difference in the atmofphere, which fometimes re-
frafts more than at others. ^Without refraction, the
vifual ray would be AE, and in that cafe E is the
moff diftant point which could be feen ; but by re¬
fraction, the ray EG, corrvng from the point G, may ,
be feen at F, fo as to go on from thence in the line FA;
and then the view js extended as far as G, and the de-
preflion of the horizon of the fea is in the line AF,
which points higher than AE, but extends the view
farther. From an infpeCtion of the figure it is evident,
that if the refraCtion were greater, the view would be
extended Hill farther, as to M ; though the depreflion
of the horizon of the fea would then be lefs, as is
fhown by the line ALM: whence alfo it appears, that
by reafon of the difference of refraCtion in the air, our
horizon is fometimes more extenfive than at others. ag
5. The equator is a great circle upon the earth, e- Equator,
very part of which is equally diftant from the.poles
or extremities of the imaginary line on which the earth
revolves. In the fea-language it is ufually called the
line, and when people fail over it they are faid to crofs
the line. 2p
6. The meridian of anyplace is a great circle-on Meridians,
the earth drawn through that place and both poles of
the earth. It cuts the horizon at right angles, mark¬
ing upon it the true north and fouth points; dividing
alfo the globe into two hemifpheres called the eajtern
and wejiern from their relative fituation to that place
and to one another. The poles divide the meridians
into two femicircles; one of which is drawn through
the place to which the meridian belongs, the other
through that point of the earth which is oppofite to
the place. By the meridian of a place geographers
and aftronomers often mean that femieircle which paf¬
fes through the place; and which may therefore be
called the geographical meridian. All places lying un¬
der this femicircle are faid to have the fame meridian }
the femicircle oppofite to this is called the oppojite me¬
ridian. The meridians are, thus immoveably fixed to
the earth as much as the places themfelves on its fur¬
face ; and are carried along with it in its diurnal ro¬
tation. When the geographical meridian of any
place is, by the rotation of the earth, brought to point
at the fun, it is noon or mid-day at that place ; in
which cafe, were the plane of the circle extended, it
would pafs through the middle of the luminary’s difk.
Supppfing the plane of the meridians to be extended
to the fphere of the fixed liars, in that cafe, when by
the rotation of the earth the meridian comes to any
point in the heavens, then, from the apparent motion
of the heavens, that point is laid 10 come to the me¬
ridian. The rotation of the earth is from welt toeall;
whence the celdtial bedies appear to move the con-
5
traiy
Sea. ir. G E O G R
Principles trary way. Eaft and weft, however, are terms merely
and relative; fince a place may be weft from one part of
Pra ice tjie eartjlj an(j ea^ frorn anot;her; but the true eaft
and weft points from any place are thofe where its ho-
True eaft rizon cuts the equator.
and weft 7. All places lying under the fame meridian are faid
points. to have the fame longitude, and thofe which lie under
Lontntude different meridians to have different longitudes; the
and flrft difference of longitude being reckoned eaftward or
meridian, weftward on the equator. Thus if the meridian of
any place cuts the equator in a point \ 5 degrees dif-
tant from another,, we fay there is a difference of 150
longitude betwixt thefe two places. Geographers u-
fually pitch upon the meridian of fome remarkable
place for the firft meridian; and reckon the longitude
of all others by the diftance of their meridians from
that which they have pitched upon as the firft: ; mca-
furing fome'cimes eaftward on the equator all round the
gjobe, or fometimes only one half eaft and the other
weft ; according to which laft meafurement, no place
can have more than 180 ' longitude either eaft or weft.
By the ancient Greek geographers the firft meridian
was placed in Hera or Junonia, one of the Fortunate
Jflands as they were then called; which is fuppofed to
be the prefent ifland of Teneriffe, one of the Canaries.
Thefe iflands being the moft wefterly part of the earth
then known, were on that account made the feat of
the firft meridian, the longitude of all other places be¬
ing counted eaftward from them. The Arabians, am¬
bitious of having the firft meridian taken from them^
fixed it at the moft wefterly part of the continent of
Africa. Some later geographers placed the firft me¬
ridian in the illand of Corvo, one of the Azores (a);
becaufe at that time the magnetic needle on the ifland
juft mentioned pointed due north without any varia¬
tion ; and it was not then known that the needle
itfelf was fubjedt to variation, as has fince been difco-
vered. Bleau replaced the firft meridian in the iffc
of Teneriffe ; and to afcertain the place more exactly,
caufed it to pafs through the famous mountain of that
ifland, called thzpeak from el-pico, “ a bird’s beak.’’
Among modern geographers, however, it is now become
cuftomary for each to make the firft meridian pals
through the- capital of his own country ; a practice,
however, which is certainly improper, as it is thus im-
poffible for the geographers of one nation to under-
fiand the maps of another without a troublefome cal¬
culation, which anfwers no purpofe. By the Britiffi
geographers the royal obfervatory at Greenwich is ac-
counted the place of the firft meridian.
^our 8. If we fuppofe 12 great circles, one of which is
circles. the meridian to a given place, to interfedl each other
at the poles of the earth, and divide the equator into
24 equal parts, thefe are the hour-circles of that place.
Thefe are. by the poles divided into 24 femicircles,
correfponding to the 24 hours of the day and night.
The diftance betwixt each two of thefe femicircles is
150, being the 24th part of 360 ; and by the rotation
of the earth, each fucceeding femicircle points at the
fun one hour after the preceding; fo that in 24 hours
all the femicircles point fucceffively at the fun. Hence
A p H Y. 639
it appears that fuch as have their meridian 150 eaft. Principles
from any other, have likewife noon one hour fooner, a^ce
and the contrary ; and in like manner every other hour ra^ic
of the natural day is an hour fooner at the one place
than at the other. Hence, from any inftantaneous ap¬
pearance in the heavens obferved at two diftant places,
the difference of longitude may be found, if the hour
of the day be known at each place. Thus the begin¬
ning of an eclipfe of the moon, when the luminary
firft touches the (hadow of the earth, is an inftanta¬
neous appearance, as alfo the end of an eclipfe of this
kind when the moon leaves the flradow of the earth,
vifible to all the inhabitants on that fide of the globe.
If therefore we find, that at any place an eclipfe of
the moon begins an hour fooner than at another, we
conclude that there is a difference of 15° of longitude
between the two places. Hence alfo were a man to
travel or fail round the earth from weft to eaft, he
will reckon one day more to have paffed than they do
who ffay at the place from whence he fet out; fo that
their Monday will be his Tuefday, &c. On the other
hand, if he fails weftward, he will reckon a day lefs, or
be one day in the week later, than thofe he leaves be¬
hind.
9. The equator divides the earth into two hemi- '
fpheres called the northern and fout hern : all places ly¬
ing under the equator are faid to have no latitude ;
and all others to have north or fouth latitude according ^
to their fituation with refpect to the equator. The lati- Of the lai
tude itfelf is the diftance from the equator meafured t*tule.
upon the meridian, in degrees, minutes, and feconds.
The complement of latitude is the difference between
the latitude itfelf and 90°, or as much as the place
itlelf is diftant from the pole ; and this complement is
always equal to the elevation of the equator above the
horizon of the place. The elevation of the pole of
any place is equal to the latitude itfelf. 44
An inhabitant of the earth who lives at either of a paraV
the poles, has always one of the celeftial .poles- in his16* iP^erc*
zenith and the other in his nadir, the equator coin¬
ciding with the horizon : hence all the celeftial paral¬
lels are alfo parallel to the horizon ; whence the perfon
is faid to live in a parallel fphere, or to have a paraliel
horizon. ,5
Thofe who live under the equator have both poles Rijffu
in the horizon, all the celeftial parallels, cutting thefPJiere‘
horizon at right angles ; whence they are faid to live
in a right fphere, or to have a right horizon.
Laftly, thofe who live between either of the poles oblique
and the equator are faid to hve in an oblique fphere, fyheie.
or to have an oblique horizon; becaufe the celeftial
equator cuts his horizon obliquely, and all the paral¬
lels in the celeftial fphere have their planes oblique to
that of the horizon. In this fphere fome of the pa¬
rallels interfeft the horizon at oblique angles, fome are
entirely above it, and fome entirely below it; all of
them, however, fo fituated, that they would obliquely
interfeA the plane of the horizon extended.
The large ft parallel which appears entire above the Ar<ftic and
horizon of any place in north latitude is called by the antar&ic
ancient aftronomers the arB'ic circle of that place; circle.
within
_ (a) Thefe iftands bad their name from the number of goftiawks found there t the word asoor in Spanifh fig-
nifying a “ goftiawk.”
GEOGRAPHY. Sea.H.
Principles within this circle, i. e. between it and the ar&ic pole, fumnaer or winter come on,.as is fully explained under Principles
Practice are comPrtended all the ftars which never fet in that the article Astronomy. The feceffion of the fun p an4
^ v 1 place, but are carried perpetually round the horizon from the equator either northward or fouthward is r*cnce.
in circles parallel to the equator. The largeft parallel called his declination, and is either north or fouth a
which is hid entire below the horizon of any place
north latitude was called the antartlic circle of that
cording to the feafon of the year ; and when this de- Sun’s decli-
clination is at its greateft height, he is then faid to nation,
place by the ancients. This circle comprehends all be in the tropic, becaufe he begins to turn back (the
a- u:-1- —— ~r~ -1— L t ‘ J word tropic being derived from the Greek Tfvxo verto). 4<s
The fpace between the two tropics, called the torrid Of the tro-
zone, extends for no lefs than 47 degrees of latitude all Pic8» ^
round the globe ; and throughout the whole of that
tire ftars which never rife in that place, but are carried
perpetually round below the horizon in circles parallel
to the equator. In a parallel fphere, however, the
equator may be confidered as both arSic and antarctic
circle ; for being coincident with the horizon, all the fpace the fun is vertical to fome of the inhabitants
parallels on one fide are entirely above it, and thofe on
the other entirely below it. In an oblique fphere, the
nearer any place is to either of the poles, the larger
are the arftic and antar&ic circles, as being nearer to
the celeftial equator, which is a great circle. In a
right fphere, the ardlic and antarAic circles have no
twice a-year, but to thofe who live diredtly under the
tropics only once. Throughout the whole torrid zone
alfo there is little difference between the length of the
days and nights. The ancient geographers found them-
felves confiderably embarraffed in their attempts' to fix
the northern tropic; for though they took a very pro¬
place ; becaufe no parallel appears either entirely above per method, namely, to obferve the molt northerly
' ' T’ ^ CL‘ ’ - ‘ n ‘ ‘ 1 ’ place where objedts had no fhadow on a certain day,
yet they found that on the fame day no fhadow was
call; for a fpace of no lefs than joojftadia. The rea-
fon of this was, the apparent diameter of the fun;
which being about half a degree, feemed to extend
or below it. By the ardfic and antardfic circles, how¬
ever, modern geographers in general underftand two
fixed circles at the diftance of 23A degrees from the
pole. Thefe are fuppofed to be defcribed by the
poles of the ecliptic, and mark out the fpace all w
round the globe where the fun appears to touch the himfelf over as much of the furface of the earth, and
horizon at midnight in the fummer time, and to he to be vertical every where within that fpace.
entirely funk below it in the winter. Thefe are r-lfo When the fun is in or near the equator, he feems
called the polar circles. By the ancients the ardtic to change his place in the heavens moft rapidly ; fo
circle was called maximus femper apparentium, and cir- that about the equinoxes one may very eafily perceive
38
Appear¬
ances to
the difference in a day or two: but as he approaches
the tropics this apparent change becomes gradually
flower ; fo that for a number of days he fcarce feems
to move at all. The reafon of this may eafily be un-
derftood from any map on which the ecliptic is delinea¬
ted : for by drawing lines through every degree of it
•uhsperpetua dpparitionis ; the antardlic circle, on the
other hand, being namtd maximar femper occultorum, and
circulus perpetua occultationis.
According .to the different pofitions of the globe
with regard to the fun, the celeftial bodies will exhibit
the inhabi- different phenomena to the inhabitants. Thus,
ranefiright', parallel fphere, they will appear to move in circles parallel to the equator, we fhall perceive them gradu-
and oblique’ round the horizon ; in a right fphere, they would ap- ally approach nearer and nearer each other, until at
fphere. pear to rife and fet as at prefent, but always in circles laft, when we approach the point of contadl betwixt
cutting the horizon at right angles ; but in an oblique the ecliptic and tropic, they can for feveral degrees
fphere, the angle varies according to the degree of ob- fcarce be diftinguifhedat all. ^
liquity, and the pofition of the axis of the fphere with From an obfervation of the diverfity in the length Divifion of
regard to the fun. The phenomena thence arifing of the days and nights, the rifing and fetting of the the earth’s
will be fufficiently underftood from what is faid un- fun, with the other phenomena already mentioned, ^“r^-ce in"
der the article Astronomy, n° 345, &c. From thence
we will eafily perceive the reafon of the fun’s continual
change of place in the heavens : but though it is cer¬
tain that this change takes place every moment, the
the ancient geographers divided the furface of the^
earth into certain diltrifts, which they called climates;
and inftead of the method of deferibing the fituation
of places by their latitude aud longitude as we do now.
vaft diftance of the luminary renders it imperceptible they contented themfelves with mentioning the climate
for fome time, unlefs to very nice aftronomical obfer- in which they were fituated. When more accuracy
vers. Hence we may generally fuppofe the place of was required, they mentioned alfo the beginning,
the fun to be the fame for a day or two together, tho’ middle, and ending of the climates. This diftintftion,
in a confiderable number of days it becomes exceed- however, was certainly very vague and inaccurate:
ingly obvious to every body. When he appear's in for the only method they had of determining the dif-
the celeftial equator, his motion appears for fome time ference was by the length of the day; and a climate,
to be in the plane of that circle, though it is certain according to them, was fuch a fpace as had the day
that bis place there is only for a fingle moment; and in its moft northerly part half an hour longer than in
in like manner, when he comes to any other point of the moft foutherly. For the beginning of their firft
the Iitavens, his apparent diurnal motion is in a paral- climate they took that parallel under which the day is
lei drawn throughout. Twice a-year he is in the twelve hours and three quarters long, thofe parts of
equator, and then the days and nights are nearly equal the world which lie nearer the equator not being fup-
all over the earth. This happens in the months of pofed to be in any climate ; either becaufe in a loofe
March and September; after which the fun proceed- fenfe they may be confidered as in a right fphere, or
ing either northward or fouth, according to the fea¬
fon of the year and the pofition of the obferver, the
days become longer or Ihorter than the nights, aud
becaufe they were unknown, or thought to be t
habitable by reafon of the heat. The northern cli¬
mates were generally fuppofed to be feven; which muft
t have
Sea. II. G E O G R
Principles have an equal number of fouthern climates correfpond-
ing with them. The names of the northern climates,
. fa lce‘ according to the ancients, were as follow : I. Meroe.
2. Syene in Egypt. 3. Alexandria in Egypt.
4. Rhodes. 5. Rome; or, according to others, a
parallel drawn through the Hellefpont. 6. The pa¬
rallel palling through the mouth of the river Borif-
thenes. 7. The Riphean mountains.—Each of thefe
places was fuppofed to be in the middle of the climate;
and as the fouthern parts of the globe were then very
little known, the climates to the fouthward of the
equator were fuppofed to be as far diftant from that
circle as the northern ones ; in confequence of which
they took their names from the latter.
A parallel was faid to pafs through the middle
of a climate when the day under that parallel is
a quarter of an hour longer than that which paffes
through the molt foutherly part. Hence it does
not divide the fpace into two equal parts, but
that part next the equator will always be the larger
of the two ; becaufe the farther we recede from that
A P H Y.
'641
Thus, to thofe who live dire&ly under the equator, he Principles
is direftly vertical in March and September at the time an<?
of the equinox. If a place is in io° north latitude,the fun Praaicc' f
is vertical when he has to° north declination; and fo of
every other place. 3. All who live between the tropics
have the fun at noon fometimes north and fometimes
fouth of them. Thus, they who live an a place fitua-
ted in 2c0 north latitude, have the fun at noon to the
northward when he has more than 20 degrees north de¬
clination, • and to the fouthward when he .has lefs.
4. Such of the inhabitants of the earth as live without
the tropics, if in the northern hemifphere, have the
fun at noon to the fouthward of them, but to the
northward if in the fouthern hemifphere. 5. When
the fun is in the zenith of any place, the fhadow of a
man or any upright objeft falls diredly upon the place
where they hand, and confequently is invifible; whence
the inhabitants of fuch places were called Afcli, or
without lhadows: thofe w'ho live between the tro¬
pics, and have the fun fometimes to the north and
fometimes to the fouth of them, have of confequence
circle, the lefs increafe of latitude will be fufficient to their lhadows projecting north at fome feafons of the
lengthen the day a quarter of an hour. Thus,
every climate there are three parallels; one marking the
beginning, the fecond the middle, and the third the
ending of the climate ; the ending of one being al¬
ways the beginning of another. Some of the ancients
divided the earth by thefe parallels ; others by a pa¬
rallel did not mean a mere line, but a fpace of fome
breadth : and; hence the parallel may be underftood as
the fame w’ith half a climate.
This method of dividing the furface of the earth
into climates, though now very much' difufed, has
been adopted by feveral modern geographers. ' Some
year and fouth at others; whence they were called
Araphifcii, or having two kinds of lhadows. They
who live without the tropics have their noon ftiadows
always the fame way ; and are therefore called Heterofcii,
that is, having only one kind of fhadow. If they are
in nortlt latitude, the fhadows are always turned to¬
wards the north ; and if in the fouthern hemifphere,
towards the fouth. When a place is foi far diitant
from the equator that the days are 24 hours long or
longer, the inhabitants were called Perifcii, becaufe
their fhadows turn round them. 43
Names have likewife been impofed upon the inha-Names
of thefe begin their climates at the equator, reckoning bitants of different parts of the earth from the parallelsfrom t,ie
them by the increafe of half an hour in the length of of latitude under which they live, and their fituation
with regard to one anotber. Thus, when two places diftance
are fo near each other that the inhabitants have only of places,
one horizon, or at leaft that there is no perceptible
difference between them, the inhabitants w^ere called
Synaci, that is, near neighbours; the feafons, days,
nights, &c. in both places being perfeftly alike. Thofe
who lived at diftant places, but under the fame paral¬
lel, were called Periaei, that is, living in the fame
the day northward. Thus they go on till they come
to the polar circles, where the longeft day is 24 hours :
betwixt thefe and the poles they count the climates by
the increafe of a natural day in the length of time that
the fun continues above the horizon, until they come
to one where the longeft day is 15 of ours, or half a
month ; and from this to the pole they count by the
increafe of half months or whole months, the climates
ending at the poles where the days are fix months circle. Thofe who are on the fame fide of the equa-
long. The climates betwixt the equator and the polar tor have the feafons of the year at the fame time • but
circles are called hour-climates, and thofe between the if on different fides, the fummer feafon of the one is
polar circles and the poles are called month-climates.— the winter of the other, as is fully explained under the
In common language, howwer, we take the word article Astron6my. Some writers, however, by the
climate in a very different fenfe ; fo that, when two name of Periaci, diftinguifh thofe who live under op-
countries are faid to be. in different climates, wre under- pofite points of the fame parallel, where the noon of
ftand only that the temperature of the air, feafons, &c. one is the midnight of the other. When two places
are different. lie under parallels equally diftant from the equator.
From the difference in the length and pofitions of but in oppofite hemifpheres, the inhabitants were
the ftiadows of terreftrial fubftances, ancient geogra- called Anteeci. Thefe have a fimilar increafe of days
pie from phers have given different terms to the inhabitants of and nights, and fimilar feafons, but in oppofite months
the pofi- certain places of the earth; the reafon of which will -r   A J'—~ r  ■’ A
*j°r; °f be eafily underftood from the following confiderations.
dows 9 *' S*ncc the fun in his apparent annual revolution
never removes farther frofn the equator than 234- de¬
grees, it follows, that none of thofe who live without
that fpace, or beyond the tropics, can have the lu¬
minary vertical to them at any feafon of the year.
" All who live between the tropics have the fun ver-
Different
names gi-
of the year. According to fome, the Antasci were
fuch as lived under the fame geographical meridian,
and had day and night at the fame time. If two
places are in parallels equally diftant from the equator,
and in oppofite meridians, the inhabitants were called
Antichthones with refpeft to one another, that is, living
on oppofite fides of the earth ; or Antipodes, that is,
x _ having their feet oppofite to one another. When two
tical twice a-year, though not all at the fame time, perfons are Antipodes, the zenith of the one is the
Vol. VII. Part II.
4M
nadir
they have oppofite hours of the day and night, as
well as feafons of the year. Thus, when it is mid¬
day with us, it is midnight with our Antipodes; when
it is fummer with us, it is winter with them, &c.
642 GEOGRAPHY. Sea. II.
Principle* nadir of the other. They have a like elevation of the tude, which is inconvenient in an operation where we Principles
Prdftice kUt ^ ’S different poles : they have alfo days are to determine the vertical by the altitude. A clear p ai^
rJ 1C ' and nights alike, and fimilar feafons of the year; but day muft be chofen for the purpofe ; and the ground fac ice^
 1   j__ on which the fhadow falls ought to be white, that the
fhadow may be the better defined. The ftile ought
not to be too high, becaufe then the top of the fhadow
will be indiftinft; neither ought it to terminate in a
Pivifion of From the various appearances of the fun, and the point, for the fame reafon. Dr Long recommends the
tfie earth cffe£s 0f his light and heat upon different parts of the top of it to be about an eighth of an inch thick. Ha-
0 zones. earth} the divifion of it into zones has arifen. Thefe ving drawn a meridian line upon one plane, we mar
are five in number. 1. The torrid zone, lying between draw one upon another by the following methodV
the two tropics for a fpace of 470 of latitude. This Hang a thread with a plummet exactly over the fouth
is divided into two equal parts by the equator ; and end of the meridian line given, and another on the
the inhabitants have the fun vertical to them twice a- plane on which the meridian line is to be drawn. Let
year, excepting only thofe who dwell under the tro- one perfon obferve at noon the moment when the fha-
pics, to whom he is vertical only once, as has already dow of the firfl thread falls exaftly upon the meridian
been explained. 2. The two temperate zones lie be- given, and let another obferver at the fame time mark
tween the polar circles and the tropics, containing a two diftant points in the fhadow of the fecond thread:.
fpace of 430 of latitude. And, 3. The two frigid a line drawn through thefe points is the meridian line
zones lie between the polar circles and the poles. In required. Thus alfo a meridian line may be drawn
thefe laft the longed day is never below 24 hours, in upon a fouth wall by marking two points in the fha-
the temperate zones it is never quite fo much, and in dow of a thread hung at a little diftance from it. If
the torrid zone it has never above 14. The zones are the meridians are near, he that obferves the fhadow of
named from the degree of heat they were fuppofed to the firft thread may let the other know the moment
be fubjefted to. The torrid zone was fuppofed by the it falls upon the meridian line by faying, Now; if far
ancients to be uninhabitable by reafon of its heat; but diftant, it fhould be done by the motion of the hand,
this is now found to be a miftake, and many parts of becaufe found, takes up fame time in paffing from one
the temperate zones are more intolerable in this refpeft place to another. A quadrant or other aftronomical
than the torrid zone itfelf. Towards the polar circles, inftrument may now be fixed in the meridian line in
alfo, thefe zones are intolerably cold during the winter fuch a manner as to be capable of different elevations,
feafon. Only a fmall part of the northern frigid zone, in order to obferve the altitudes of the different celef-
and none of the fouthern, is inhabited. Some geo- tial bodies ; the plane of that fide of the iuftrument on
graphers reckoned fix zones, dividing the torrid zone which the degrees are marked being all the while kept
into two by the equator. in the meridian. The mural arc in the Royal Obfer-
Rlght^or When any parts of the heaven or earth are faid to vatory at Greenwich is a wall of black marble; one
left hand Be on the right or left, we are to underftand the fide of which, Handing exadlly in the plane of the me-
explained expreffion differently according to the profefiion of ridian, has a large and accurately divided brafs qua-
“ Se^a- the perfon who makes ufe of it ; becaufe according drant fixed to it, moveable round its centre, and with
' ^ ‘to that his face is fuppofed to be turned towards a telefcope fights. See Astronomy, n° 497. At fea,
certain quarter. A geographer is fuppofed to Hand where they cannot have a meridian line, the greateft
with his face to the north, becaufe the northern part height of a ftar or rhe fun is taken for the meridian
of the world is beft known. An aftronomer looks to- height,
wards the fouth, to obferve the celeftial bodies as they
Having got a meridian line by either of the me-Methc
come to the meridian. The ancient augurs, in ob- thods mentioned under the article Astronomy, it'dedh
ferving the flight of birds, looked towards the eaft; ' ' ' - - - - - .... a-,.,,,,,
while the poets look towards the Fortunate IJles. In
may be prolonged to what length we pleafe, and the di- the'merL
fiance of it meafured. The meridian of the royal ob- dian line
books of geography, therefore, by the right hand we fervatory at Paris being found, and an inftrument through
muft underftand the eaft; in thofe of aftronomy, the with telefcopic fights placed vertically therein, the France,
weft ; in fuch as relate to augury, the fouth ; and in north and fouth points of the vifible horizon were ob-
the writings of poets, the north. ferved through the fights, and a pillar eredled upon
Dire<5Hons Under the article Astronomy, n0376, etfeq. the the north point; then, by another inftrument placed
for draw- method of drawing a meridian line is fully explained ; horizontally, feveral diftant obje&s, as fteeples, &c.
»g a meri. tjje knowledge of which is abfolutely neceffary both were viewed, and the angles which the vifual lines
ran line. for geographers and aftronomers. To what is men- made with the meridian line were obferved. From
tioned there we fhall only add further, that the time the places of thefe new objefts, then, others were ob-
for drawing a line of this kind is when the fun is near- ferved ; and where natural objedls were deficient, they
ly at the fummer folftice; becaufe the difference of fet up large poles. Thus feveral triangles were form-,
declination is then fcarce perceptible for feveral days,, ed along the meridian: and in order to meafure thofe
and in the few hours requifite for the operation may triangles, a paved way from Villejume to Juvify was
be totally difregarded. The winter folftice would do made choice of for the fundamental bafe, as lying in a
equally well, were it not that the fun is then fo low ftraight line from north to fouth. For the aftual men-
in the heavens that a difference in the refradfion might furation of this way, two poles were made ufe of, each?
caufe a confiderable error in the refult. The motion of them four toifes in length, and made of two pike-
of the luminary above the horizon is likewife fo ob- ftaves joined together at the great ends by a fcrew. .
lique, that he changes his vertical fafter than his alti- One of the meafuring poles was firft laid upon the
Z ground j
Sea. II.
GEOGRAPHY.
643
Principles ground } the other was joined to it end to end along
and jjy a r0pC ftretehed from north to fouth : the lirit pole
^Practice. was ta^en Up an^ jgijj down at the end of the
^ ^ fecond, and fo on fucceffively ; and for the greater cafe
in keeping the account, the meafurer who laid down
the fecond pole had ten little ftakes given him, one of
which he ftuck into the ground at the end of his pole
every time he laid it down ; fo that every flake marked
tight toifes ; the whole, when ftuck into the ground,
marking 80 toifes. Thus the length of the road above
mentioned was twice meafured, and found to be 5663
toifes and 4 feet in going, and 5663 toifes and 1 foot
in returning; fo that as a greater exaftnefs could
not be hoped for, 5663 toifes were pitched upon as
-^CCXI t^ie trUe k"?1*1 t^'s fundamental bafe. This is re-
prefented fig. 5. by the line O P ; and the calcula¬
tions of the triangles upon it were made in the fol¬
lowing manner. The angle COP was obferved from
O, one end of the bafe; from the other end the angle
OPC ; and from the ftation C the angle OCP:
and thus all the angles of the triangle C P O, and the
length of one fide O P, being known, the lengths of
the remaining fides OC and PC were found by calcu¬
lation. The next ftep was to obferve all the angles
of the triangle OBC, and from thence, and the known
length of the fide OC, to calculate the other fide OB
and BC. Then all the angles being obferved, and
the fide BC being known of the triangle ABC, which
may be called the firft or principal triangle of the me¬
ridian of the obfervatory, the other fides AB and AC
were found. Then, from one of the fides now known,
and the angles obferved, all the fides of the next ad¬
joining triangle CBE were found. Thus they pro¬
ceeded from one triangle to another to the place where
the meridian ended in the fouth part of France; and
there the laft triangle was terminated by a bafe of the
length of 7246 toifes, which was actually meafured in
order to verify the preceding operations. The meri¬
dian line of Paris being prolonged in the manner juft
now deferibed, the fituation of feveral other places in
France was determined by trigonometry, and an ac¬
curate map of the country drawn, efpecially of thofe
parts which lie near the meridian of Paris.
To obferve Having found a meridian line, the tranfits or paf-
the tranfitf fages of the heavenly bodies acrofs it may be ob-
altitudes, ferved by hanging two threads with plummets exadtly
&c. of the over at a little diftance from one another,-which
bodies'1^ confequently will be diredlly in the plane of the meri¬
dian : if you place your eye clofe to one of the
threads in fuch a manner that you make it cover the
other, and both appear as one thread, when a ftar is
behind the threads, it is in the meridian. By the
fame method the fun may be viewed through a fmoked
glafs: when the threads pafs through his centre he is
in the meridian. But the belt way of obferving either
the fun, moon, liars, or planets, is through a telefcope
placed in the meridian, with two crofs hairs, one of
which is in a vertical, the other in an hoizontal pofi-
tion. The fun is in the meridian when the vertical
hair pafies through his centre.
To find the elevation of the pole in any place, take
the greateft and lead height of fome ftar which never
fets, the middle height between thefe extremes is the
elevation of the pole. Or the elevation of the pole
Hi ay be found by one obfervation of the height of a
liar in the meridian, if the declination of that ftar be Principle*
known ; for as the dillance from the pole is the com-
plement of its diftance from the equator, this being ra
fubtradted from the greateft height of the ftar, leaves
the elevation of the pole defired. The fame thing
may be done by obferving the leaft height of a ftar,
and adding to that the diftance from the ph!e : but
for obfervations of this kind we ought to choofe the
time when the liars are in the zenith, and not pitch
Upon any who happen to be near the horizon; be-
caufe the refraction occafions fuch errors as are too
confiderable not to affed the obfervations materially.
The height of the equator is found by taking the
height of the fun or a ftar when we know by an
almanack they have no declination; or it may be other-
wife known by taking the meridian height of the fun,
and adding or fubtra&ing the known declination.
Having found the height of the equator, we know the
elevation of the pole ; or, having found the elevation of
the pole, we know that of the equator, the one being
the complement of the other. ^
A method much ufed by the ancients was that of Method of
taking the altitudes of the celeftial bodies by means °f i
a gnomon, or upright pillar ere&ed for this purpofe. a gnQ_ ”
Thus the height of the pole and the feafons of the men.
year might be known by obferving the length of the
meridian lhadow, which would be greater or lefs ac¬
cording to the altitude of the fun at that time. The
moll ancient obfervations of this kind were thofe made
by Pytheas in the time of Alexander the Great, at
MarfeiUes in France, by which he found the meridian
length of the lhadow at the fummer folftice to be
to the height of the gnomon as 2134- to 600 ; the
fame which Gaffendus afterwards found it in the
year 1636.
The elevation of the pole may be found by means
of the gnomon, by finding the meridian height of the
fun ; for this being given, we have the elevation of the
equator, and confequently that of the pole. The
meridian height of the fun may be found in the fol¬
lowing manner. Let AC, fig. i. be the gnomon,Plate
AB the lhadow, and CB part of a ray drawn from the CCXl.
centre of the fun palling by the top of the gnomon
and terminating the lhadow at B. Thefe three lines
form a right-angled triangle BAC, whereof the two
legs AB and AC are given, the number of feet and
inches in them being found by aftual menfuration.
Hence the acute angles may be found in the follow¬
ing manner. Let one leg be radius, and the other
will be tangent of the oppofite angl#. Thus, if we
make AB radius, AC will be tangent of the oppofite
angle ABC. This tangent is found by the golden
rule, as the number of feet, inches, &c. in AB, is to
the number of feet, inches, &c. in AC j fo is the radius
to a fourth number, which is the tangent required.
This fourth number looked for in the table of tangents
gives the meafureof the angle ABC, which is the me¬
ridian height of the fun required. so
This method of obfervation, however, is by no tnaccurS-
means accurate ; and Ricciolus takes notice of thecies of
following deficiences in the ancient obfervations made
in this manner : 1. They did not take into account the
fun’s parallax, which makes his apparent altitude ten
feconds lefs than it would be if the gnomon were placed
at the centre of the earth. 2. They neglected refrac-
4 M 2 tioa.
644 G E O G R A P H Y. Sed. If.
Principles tion, by wlucb the apparent height of the fun is fome- laid ; there are alfo drawn upon it lines croffing the Principle*
Md vvhat increafed. •-(. They made their calculations as if meridians at right angles, to Ihow howr far the centre an^
. faaice- the fhadow were terminated by a ray coming from the of the fun’s image reaches at different times of the ra<' ice‘.
fun’s centre : whereas it is hounded bv one comincr from vear: when this at noon is fartheft from the centre of
fun’s centre ; whereas it is bounded by one coming from
the upper edge of his limb. In many cafes, however,
thefe errors are of no moment; but at any rate they
year:
the gnomon, the fun is then loweft, and it is the v
ter folftice : when the fame picture is neareft to the
may b; r irredted in the following manner; To the centre of the gnomon, the fun is higheit, and confe-
altitude of the fun fourld by the gnomon, add his pa¬
rallax of is", and take from the fum the femidiame-
ter of the fun at that time, which is about 16'; to¬
gether with the refraftion, which is different at differ-
quently he is then in his greateft north declination,
and it is then the fummer folflice. 53
The time of the folftice is obferved, by marking ex-To find the-
a&ly the diftance of the fun’s pifture from the centre
ent heights of the fun, and muft be had from a table of the gnomon' the day before and the day after thefl.jce>
©f refractions. Thus the altitude of the fun will be
had free of any errors, excepting thofe unavoidable
ones arifing from the difficulty in finding the true
length of the fhadow by reafon of the penumbra,
which always accompanies it.
Some gnomons fhow the altitude of the fun not by
folftitical day : if thefe diftances be exactly equal, the
meridian heights of the fun areyfor thefe two days ex¬
actly equal; and then the time of the fun’s being in
the folftitical point is exactly at noon : if the diftance
of the fun’s picture from the centre of the gnomon be
greater the day before the folftice than it is the day
not fliow* t^e ^lad°w> but by an hole in the top made in a plate after, it fhows that the time of the folftice is before
al°jude of metal inferted there, through which the rays fall noon ; and if lefs, that it is after noon. It is, however,
lay the flia- upon a level pavement. In gnomons of this kind the extremely difficult to determine the exadt moment of
¥uw. centre of the inftrilment is always exaftly under the the folftice by this method, or even to approach within.
hole in the metal-plate; and the method of finding the fome hours of it; for at thofe times the fun’s decli-
height of the fun is the fame as that already defcribed.
A gnomon of this kind was made in the year 15,76
nation, and confequently his. meridian height, alters
not above 15" in a natural day; and therefore an error
by Egnatio Dante in the church of St Petronia at of more than 15'' in the obfervation of the fun’s me-
Bologna. Near the top of the fouth wall of the ~j:—  r-  -r J— r-
church he placed a brafs plate about three-eighths of an
inch thick, in which was cut a circular hole almoft ex-
adfly an inch in diameter. The plate was fet in the wall
at an angle of about 454 deg. the height of the equa¬
tor in that place. The height of the hole in the plate
from the ground is near 66 feet, and the length of the
line drawn upon the pavement is 169 feet. This line,
however, is not exadlly in the meridian, but as near it
as the pillars of the church would admit; and on it
ridian height will occafion an error of a whole day in,
fixing the time of the folftice, an error of one half of
15" will occafion an error of half a day ; and fo in
proportion.
The time of the equinox is found by a gnomon in of the e-
the following manner: On the day of the equinox findquinox,
the meridian height of the fun and the height of the
equator. If thefe be equal, the equinox is exaftly at
noon ; if the height of the fun be different from that
of the equator, then as many minutes as the fun is
the rays of the fun, paffing through the hole, formed higher than the equator, fo many hours is the moment
an •dlipfis at different diftances from the wall, according
to the feafon of the year. Another gnomon of this
kind was made in the fame church by Dominico Caf-
fini in 1645. He placed the brafs-plate through
of the equinox before noon ; as many minutes as the
fun is lower than the equator, fo many hours is the
equinox after noon. The reafon of this computation is,
that at the equinox the declination of the fun alters at
which the rays of the fun were to pafs in the roof of the rate of 24 minutes in a natural day, which is at the
the church, and drew a meridian line 120 feet long rate of a minute in an hour; whence it appears that
€pnftruc-
upon the pavement; which performance was fo much
approved, that a medal was ftruck upon the occafion.
In like manner Bianchini and Moraldi drew a meri¬
dian line upon the pavement of the great hall of the
baths of Dioclefian, now the church of the CartHufians
at Rome.
To conftruft gnomons of this kind, place the brafs-
plate with the hole in it in the fouth end of the roof
thehTgno- of the building ; by a thread with a plummet at the
awns. end of it let down through the centre of the hole, find
the point in the pavement which is exaftly under it ;
this point is the centre of the gnomon : from this
centre draw feveralconcentric circles: an hour or two
before and after noon mark the points where the nor¬
thern as alfo where the fouthern edge of the fun’s
picture touches thefe circles, and there will be feveral
arches, through the middle of which a line drawn from
the centre of the gnomon is a meridian line, as will
be underftood from what has been already laid con-
the equinoxes are much more eafily obferved than the
folftiees. It is probable that many of the obelilks in
Egypt were ere&ed for the purpofe of obferving the
altitude of the fun by the length of the lhadow. It is
likewife worth obferving, that the Spaniards at the
conqueft of Peru found pillars of curious and coftly
workmanlhip, by the meridian lhadows of which their
Amautas or philofophers had by long experience and'
obfervation learned to determine the time of the equi¬
noxes : thefe feafons of the year were celebrated by
them with great feftivity and rejoicing in honour of
the fun, whom they imagined to fit at thofe times in
all his glory upon the throne they had ere&edfor him;
and therefore on thofe days they prefented him with
rich offerings of gold, filver, jewels, and other valuable
gifts ; adorning his throne, as they did alfo the pillars,
with fragrant herbs and flowers. 53.
The principal ufes which geographers have for ob- Geogra-
ferving the altitudes of the celeftial bodies with fuch^ical “***
cerning the method of drawing thefe lines. The me- accuracy, are to determine the length of the year, thefe
ridians juft mentioned are ufually marked upon long
plates of brjifs, with which the marble pavement is in-
feafons, but efpecially the diftance of places on the of the hea.
earth, their fituation with regard.to one another, and^enly bo-
thedies‘
Sea. II. G E O G
Principle* the dimenfions of the whole. An account of the moft
and remarkable attempts for difcovering the circumference
. ra :ce' of the globe has been given in the preceding fe&ion.
The foundation of the whole is to obtain an exadl
meafure of one degree of the meridian ; which being
once got, we have only to multiply the number of
miles, feet, or any other meafure employed, by 360,
the number of degrees in the circumference, and the
produft is that of the whole globe. This being ob¬
tained, we may eafily determine its fuperficial and fo-
lid contents by the geometrical methods employed in
other cafes. According to the beft calculations which
have yet appeared, the dimenfions of this globe are as
follow.
Englifh miles.
One minute of a degree contains 1/^
A degree - - 694-
The circumference - - 24,930
The diameter - - 7935f
The femidiameter - 39fi7x
The fuperficial meafure 200,000,000
The folid contents two hundred and fixty-fix thou-
fand millions of cubic miles.
A fecond of a degree is no more than lOi^-Eng-
lifii feet.
In making meafurements of this kind, the principal
difficulty arifes from the want of an abfolutely level
furface, the length of which may be determined by
adlual menfuration as the foundation of our calcula¬
tions. Snellius, as has already been mentioned, had a
Angular opportunity of this kind by means of a great
extent of ice ; and fimilar conveniences might be had
on the frozen lakes in the north of Europe, though,
difficulties would there arife from the great refraction
of the atmofphere. It mull likewife be confidered*
56 that there is always fome difference between the ap.
©ifference parent level and the true, which in great diftances is
thelippa- aPt to a^e<^ our ca^ulatIons materially. A truly,
rent and level furface is the fegment of any fpherical furface
true levels, concentric to the furface of the earth : thus the fur¬
face of the fea or any large piece of water when at reft
forms itfelf into a true level. A true line of level then
is an arc of a great circle, which we fuppofe to be de-
fcribed upon a truly level furface. The apparent le¬
vel is a ftraight line drawn tangent to the true level;
whence every point of the apparent level, excepting
only that of contaft, is fomewhat higher than the true
level. This difference is eafily known after the femi¬
diameter of the earth is known. Thus in fig. 6. let
the obferver Handing at A look through a tdefcope
placed horizontally at the objeft B; here BAG is a,
right-angled triangle, in which if AC be made radius,
AB will be tangent, and CB fecant of the angle ACB.
Now, to find this tangent, fay, as the number of feet
in AC is to the number of feet in AB, the diftance of
the objedt; fo is AC as radius to A B as tangent.
Then having found the tangent AB in the table, we
have the fecant CB*, from which if the radius CG be
taken, the remainder GB is the excefs of the fecant
above the radius, or the height of the apparent level
above the true. The following table was eonftrudted
by Q&ffini.
R A P H Y.
645
A Table flowing the Height of the Apparent Lewi above Pra'"£ple*
Plate
CCXI.
13
I +
16
17
Feet.
XOI
202
3°4
406
507
609
710
8l2
914
IOJJ
HI?
I2l8
132O
I42 I
'I'3
I625
1726
’a 28
| 19 O !929
; 20 ® 2031
I 2 r § 2132
j 22 § 2234
e -3 § ’336
! 24 -5 2437
. 25 S 2539
| 26 ^ 2640
27 - 2742
u ~ 28«
^ 29 3 2945
g 30 -g 3047
S 3i *o 3148
5 32 3 3250
1*33 3351
-o 34 “ 3453
^ 35 c 3554
^ 36 ^ 3656
g 3757
1 38?9
' 37
! 38 re _
39 g 3961
40 ^ 4062
41 .j 4164
- - 4265
4367
4468
4570
4672
4773
4875
4976
5078
5179
5281
5383
5484
5586
5687
5789
5890
5992
6094
•*3 40
: 42
* 43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
Inch.
6.8
1.6
8.4
3 2
10.0
4.8
11.6
6.4
1.2
8.0
2.8
9*6
4.4
11.2
6.0
0.8
7.6
2.4
9.-2
4.0 U
10,8 =3
5-6 -1
0.4 o
7.2 i
3*6 §
io-4
5.2 *£
0.0 C
. 1.6 £
8.4 S,
3.2 «
10.0
4.8 C
11.6
6.4
12
8-o t;
2.8 -s
9.6
44
11.2
6,0
0.8
7.6
2.4
9.2
4.0
10.8
5.6
0.4
7.2
2.0
8.8
36
10.4
5-2
0.0
0.074
0.296
2.670
bO
4-746
7.405
2fo*
10.68©
646
Principla*
and
Practice.
G E O
The Ccntmuation of the Foregoing Table.
*3
I4
*5
16
22
S
<5
JL
^ 23 *
$ 24 *
^ 25 S
y 26 u
*7 -
o 28 g
rS 29 g
a 30 ^
^ 31 .s
•<« 32 “
^ 33 §
o 34 w
'S 35 ^
^
u 37
s 33 a
39 ^
^ 4° j:
^ 41 -J
~ 42 S
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
.55
56
57
58
59
$Q
Feet.
6094
12188
18282
24376
30470
36564
42658
48752
54846
60940
67034
73i28
79222
85316
91410
97504
103598
109692
115786
121880
127974
134068
140162
146256
152350
158444
164538
170632
1 176726
182820
188914
195008
201102
1 207196
213290
219384
225478
23 *572
237666
243760
249854
255948
262042
268136
274230
280324
286418
292512
298606
304700
310794
316888
322982
329076
33517°
341264
347358
353452
359546
36,5640
3
7
H
22
3i
42
56
7i
88
107
l27
J49
l73
*99
226
255
286
3*9
£ 354
=3 390
5 428
^ 468
a 510
£ 555
£ 599
o 646
5 694
1 745
ii 797
a 85i
a 9°7
6 965
w 1024
^ 1085
r ie48
5 I2I3
■go 1277
I 1348
u 3437
5 1496
1569
1638
1716
3 794
1875
1958
2042
2128
2215
2305
2306
2489
2584
2681
3085
3193
Inch.
10.680
6.580
n.853
1.812
1.932
11.412
5-436
9-384
9.876
7.728
2.940
7.512
9.444
8.736
4.320
9.264
11.568
11.232
7.188
0.504
4.248
5-352
10.-224
6.084
11.232
3-776
1.680
10.944
5.568
8.484
9.828
8.532
3.528
7.884
9.600
8.676
5.112
10.908
2.064
1.764
11.388
10.452
9.084
0.108
11.424
7.032
0.000
2.328
2.016
6.792
5.472
9.240
10.368
8.856
4.704
9-912
0.480
0.408
8.628
3.208
G R A P H Y, Sea. IT.
The ufes of this table are, t. An arc of a great cir- Principle*
cle on the earth being given in feconda or minutes, to Pr*^jce<
find the length of it in miles or feet. Thus an arc of , . f
8 feconds is 812 feet fix inches and four-tenths of an
inch ; and thus again an arc of 30' is 121880 Englifh
feet. 2. An arc of a great circle upon the earth be¬
ing given in feconds or minutes, or in feet or inches,
to find the height of the apparent level above the
true. In very fmall arcs this is fo little, that it may
be difregarded, and is therefore marked only at 5",
and afterwards at every 10" in the table of feconds,
and at every Angle minute in the other. 3. The
diftance of any objeft which is viewed through fights
placed horizontally being given, the height of it may¬
be found ; or converfely, the height of any object be-
ing given, the diftance of it may be found. Thus, if
the diftance of an objett whofe top is in the horizon
be 15' or 91410 feet, the height of that objedt is 199
feet 4 inches ; and thus converfely, if the height of an
objedt whofe top is in the horizon be 199 feet 4
inches, the diftance will be 91,410 feet. 4. If the di¬
ftance of an objedt given be a number of feet which is
not in the table, take that which is next to it, and fay,
as the fquare of the number thus taken is to the fquare
of the number given; fo is the height of the apparent
level above the true, correfponding to the number ta¬
ken, to the height of the apparent level which corre-
fponds to the number given. Thus, if it be inquired
what is the height of the apparent level above the true
when the diftance of the objedl is 200,000 feet, the
neareft number to this in the table is 201,102, the
height of the level correfponding thereto is 965 feet ;
fay then, as the fquare of 201,102 is to the fquare of
200,000; fo is 965 to a fourth number by which the
apparent level exceeds the height of the true one, at
the diftance of 200,000 feet.
Hitherto we have fuppofed the line of level to be a
tangent to an arc of a great circle drawn upon the
furface of the earth ; whereas in levelling, the eye is
ufually at fame diftance above the furface, fuppofe
4 feet: but this makes no difference in levelling; for as
the height of the eye muff be added to the fecant CB,
fig. 6. becaufe ML. is fuppofed in levelling to be parallel
to HD, there is indeed a difference between the length
of AI and BL, but it is quite infenfible. Another
ufe of the table is for levelling, in order to convey
water from one place to another. See Levelling.
We Ihall now proceed to give a folution of fome
geographical problems relating to the horizon.
1. To find the extent of the vifible horizon, the fe- of finding
midiameter of the earth and height of the eye being the exteus
given. Let ADE, fig. 3. be anj arc of a great circle of the ho-
upon the earth, C the centre of the earth, B the eye 0fnzon*
the obferver, BD the height of the eye, BA and BE
lines drawn from the eye touching the furface of the
earth at A and E, and terminating the vifible horzion;
the length of BA is required. In order to find it,
add DB the height of the eye, which fuppofe to be
5 feet, to DC the femidiameter of the earth, which is
20,949,655 feet, and you have the length of CB
20,.949,660 leet; draw CA, and you have a triangle
B AC whofe angle at A is a right one ; make the hy-
pothenufe CB radius, and CA will be the hne ot the
oppofite angle ABC. Say then, as CB is to CA;
Lo is the whole fine or radius to the fine of the angle
ABC.
A F H Y. S4r
Here the calculated depreffion is greater than that Principle*
Se6l. II. G E O G R
Principles ABC. This angle being found, its complement ACB
a“d is known, and confet^uently alfo the arc AD, which by obfervation in all the cafes except the lalt, which
■ ra^ lce' may be found in feet or miles by the table : Thus, in is lefs by two feconds ; but the inftrument ufedby our Pfadtlce^
the foregoing example, as 20,949,660 is to 20,949,655; author would not difcover fuch a fmali difference. Re- v '
fo is the radius iooo. See. to a fourth number, viz. fra&ion by raifing the objeds of vifion makes the
9,999,993, which number is the fine of an angle of angle of depreffion lefs ; but refra&ion itfelf is variable,
89° 56' ; the angle ABC then is 89° 56'; and there- and of confequence the depreffion and extent of the
fore its complement ACD is 4', and the arc DA is horizon alfo. Caffini informs us, that, even in the
sg 4'; that is, by the table, 24376 feet. fineft weather, refra&ion was different at the fame
Depreffion 2. To find the depreffion of the vifible horizon of hours of different days, and at different hours of the
of the ho- the fea at a given height of the eye. In fig. 3. if fame day. The truth of this pofition is eafily feen by
nzonofthethe eye be at B, the fenfible horizon is FG, the de- fixing a telefcope with crofs hairs, fo that the weather-
preffion of the horizon of the fea is the angle FBA ; cock of a diftant fteeple may be viewed through it:
which, being the complement of ABC, is equal to for at different times of the day the weather-cock will
ACD, that is, 4'. fometimes appear in the centre of the objeA-glafs,
Extent of 3- To find the extent of the vifible horizon at any fometimes above and fometimes below it: the fame ex-
the hori- height of the eye by obfervation. The femidiameter periment may alfo be tried with plain fights. It has
zonat any Gf ^e horizon does not fenfibly differ from an arch of long been obferved, that the top of a diilant hill may
theeye° a Sreat circle upon the earth of the fame number of at fome times, when the refra&ion is greatell, be feen
minutes and feconds as the angle of depreffion is ob- from aftation from which at other times, when refrac-
ferved to be ; and the number of feet contained in that tion is Ids, it cannot be feen, even when the weather is
arc may be found in the table: Thus, if the depreffion Efficiently clear. 6o
of the horizon be 30', its femidiameter is alfo 30';. Hitherto we have fuppofed the circumference of the Earth net
that is, by the table 182,820 feet. Various accounts earth to be exaAly circular, or the globe itfelf to bean exa£t
of the extent of the vifible horizon are given by dif- a perfeA fphere ; but, from fome obfervations, this^ere‘
ferent authors: either becaufe they differ in their ac- appears not to be the cafe. Some time ago, the
counts of the earth’s femidiameter from whence that of French made an obfervation, fhowing that a pendulum
the horizon is computed, or in the meafures they make vibrates flower in proportion as it is brought nearer to
ufe of. the equator: that is, the gravity or celerity of de-
The following table, taken from Caffini, fliows the feent of the pendulum, and of all other bodies, is lefs
different depreffions of the horizon of the fea at dif- in countries approaching to the equator than in places
ferent heights of the eye, both by obfervation and cal- near either pole. This excited the curiofity of the
eulation ; with the difference betwixt the two occafion- celebrated philofophers Huygens and Newton, who
ed by refraction.
The height of the eye above The depreffion of the
horizon of the fea.
the furface of the fea.
Feet Inches
1157 6,9
Difference by refra&ion
thence conje&ured that the earth muff have fome other
figure than what was commonly fuppofed. Sir Ifaac
Newton afterwards demonftrated that this diminution
of weight naturally arifes from the earth’s rotation
round its axis ; which, according to the laws of circu-
775 2>3
Difference by refra&ion
C 27 o
? 29 36
2 36
by obfervation
by calculation
571- 11,0
Difference by refra&ion
387 3> 4
Difference by refra&ioir
2 88 4,3
Difference by refra&ion
r 32 30 by obfervation lar motion, repels, all heavy bodies from the axis of -
5 36 18 by calculation motion : fothat this motion, being fwifter at the equa¬
tor than in parts more remote, the weight of bodies
muff alfo be much lefs there than nearer the poles To
determine this matter, feveral mathematicians were by
the French king employed to meafure a degree on the
earth’s furface in different parts of the world ; and, ac¬
cording to their menfurations, the diameter of the earth *
_ from north to fouth is ffiorter than that from eaft to
24 o- by obfervation weft by 36 miles. .
25 25 by calculation With regard to the method of finding the longitudes Of finding '
1 25 and flatitudes of particular places, rules have been al-th, long:i'
19 45 by obfervation ^ ^dT ^ As1TRONOMY’ n° 4°8, and482,
r, u , ,• 483“" *he fame thing, .however, may be done by
 Y u a ion other methods. Thus the latitude may be found by
1 9 obferving exa&ly the meridian altitude of the fun, and
knowu'rg his declination for that day, the declination
5 o by obfervation fubtra&ed from the meridian altitude gives the com-
_7 * by calculation plement of the latitude, and this laft fubtra&ed from
2 1 90° leaves the latitude required.. As to the longi-
“ “ 77 T tude> Mr Harrifon, by his invention of time-pieces -
187 o, 95 5 !3 0 by obfervation whieh gQ much more exa&ly than either clocks or
Difference bv refra&ion ~ ^ by calculatl0n wa:ches-could be made to do formerly, hath in a great
  ^ 1 41   m afure facilitated that. For fuppofing.any perfon,
7 3 20 by obfervation Poffcffed °f °nef °f t^fe time-pieces, to fet out on a
9 7,3 1 3 18 by calculation J^rney, e. .g from London. If he adjufts h.s tune-
J piece properly before he goes away, he will know the
hour
€48 G E O G R A P H Y. Sea. H.
Principles Jiont* at London exaftly, let him go where he pleafes ; is as great number as the fize of the map will admit of Principles
, a:'4 and when he hath proceeded fo far either eaftward or without confufion. _
^Pradice. wefl.war(j} tpiat a difference is perceived betwixt the Thefe delineations upon a fpherical furface are very ra ^ lce‘.
- * ~ hours fhown by his time-piece, and thofe on the clocks eafy : and under the article Globe, full directions are
or watches at the place to which he goes, the diltance given for the conftruCtion of the fpherical fubftances
of that place from London in degrees and minutes of upon which maps of the earth and the heavens are
longitude will be known; and if the length of a degree ufually delineated ; and which, when furnifhed with
of longitude is knowm, the real diftance between the the reft of their apparatus, are called terrejlrial andce/?-
two places may alfo be eafily found. It is not to be Jltal globes. The method of drawing the maps for thefe
expected, however, that any inftrument, with what- globes is never followed in any other cafe; for which
ever care It may be conftruCted, can always be depend- reafon it is alfo referred to the article Globe. The or-
•ed upon as an exaCt meafurer of time ; and therefore dinary kinds of maps are conftruCted by delineating the
frequent corrections of longitudes taken in this manner circles of the fphere upon a plane furface, according
will be neceffary. The method of finding the longi- to the rules of perfpeCtive. This is properly the pro-
tude from the eclipfes of Jupiter’s fatellites appears to jeCtion of the fphere ; and is defigned to give a view of
be the belt of any. Eclipfes of the fun, and occulta- the terraqueous globe, as it would appear, at fome di-
tions of the ftars by the moon, are alfo very proper,
though they happen but feldom. Eclipfes of the moon
have alfo been made ufe of for this purpofe; but it
is found impofiible to obferve either the beginning or
end of a lunar eclipfe with the accuracy neceffary for
determining the longitude of any place.—All thefe
-different methods agree in this, that they determine
the longitude by the difference of time between the ob-
fervation of the phenomenon in tw’o different places ;
and of this time, four, minutes are to be allowed for
62 every degree of longitude either eaft or weft.
Of the dif- After the geographer is thus become acquainted the pole of that circle. Thecirclesonwhichthepro-
ferent kinds longitudes and latitudes of a great number of jeCtions are ufually made, are, the equator, fome of
ef maps. jj{ferent places, be may delineate them upon paper,.or the meridians, or the rational horizon-of fome particu-
make a map, either of the whole world, or of any
ftance, to an eye that could take in the whole extent
of it at once.
§ I. Of ProjeBions of tlte Spheres and Maps.
Of projeCUons there are two kinds, the orthographic
and fereograghlc\ both of which reprefent the futface
of the earth projefted upon the plane of one of its great
circles. 6^
I. The orthographic fuppofes the eye to be placed at Othogra
an infinite diftance in the axis of the circle of projec-Phic.liro'
hile the ft*ereographic fuppofes mto be only inje<“1
particular country with which he is beft acquainted.
General maps of the world, or of very large tra&s, an-
fwerthe purpofe of fhowing in what manner the diffe¬
rent countries of the world lie with refpedl to each o-
ther. They cannot be made of fuch a fize as to admit
the delineation of many particular towns or cities, nei¬
ther indeed is it at all required. Where the wdiole
world is delineated at once, the mind can hardly take
in more than the idea of the fituations of different
kingdoms from one another ; the fituations of the dif¬
ferent cities of each particular kingdom being almoft
wholly overlooked, and not attended to : and this hap¬
pens likewife where a very large portion of the globe,
as one of the four quarters, is reprefented on a fingle
lar place. For maps of the world a meridian is gene¬
rally chofen ; and moft commonly that one which paffes
through Ferro, one of the Canary iflands, becaufe thus
the continents of Europe, Alia, and Africa, are conve¬
niently delineated in one circle, and America in the
other. 64
T. To project the fphere orthographically on the0,1 tlle
plane of any meridian, we have only to confider, tliat
as the eye is fuppofed to be at an infinite diftance, all
the rays which come from the difk of the earth are pa¬
rallel ; and confequently all lines drawn from the eye
to the dilk muft be perpendicular to the latter. Let
therefore, A B C D, (fig. 1.) reprefent the plane of
one of the meridians. The equator, which cuts all theu
meridians in the middle, muft be reprefented by an in¬
map. Befides thefe, therefore, it is neceffary to have finite number of/points let fall upon the plane of pro¬
particular maps of all the different countries done upon
a larger fcale, that thns the mind may not be fatigued
by endeavouring to comprehend too much at once.
The qualifications which maps ought to have, : 
je&ion, and dividing it exadlly in the middle ; that is,
by the right line B D. The parallels of latitude, be¬
ing alfo perpendicular to the plane of the meridian,
will be marked out by an infinite number of right lines
der to render them complete, are, 1. That they re- let fall from their peripheries upon that plane, thus
prefent the countries exadtly of the fame ftiape, and in forming the right lines ab, c d, &c. The meridians will
the fame proportions to the eye, that they really have likewife be reprefented on the difk by an infinite number
on the earth itfelf. 2. That the divifions of one coun- of right lines let fall perpendicularly from their periphe-
try from another be diftin&ly marked, and readily ries upon the plane of projection, and thus will form
perceptible, without a difagreeable and tedious fearch. A a a,~ v  
3. That the longitudes and latitudes of different places
be found exadtly on the map, and with little or no
trouble.
The foundation of all maps is what is called the pro-
jeBion of the fphere, i. e. the delineation of thofe circles
apparently traced out by the fun in the heavens, upon
the elliptic curves A10C A20C, &c. From an in-
fpeftion of the figure, therefore, it appears^ that in
this p»-oje£tion both longitudes artd latitudes are mea-
fured by a line of fines, and both of them decreafe
prodigioufly as we approach the edges of the difk ; and
hence the countries which lie at a diftance from the
equator are exceedingly diftorted, and it is even impof-
fome fubftance, either plane or fpherical, defigned to fible to draw them with any degree of accuracy. The
reprefent the furface of the earth ; upon which alfo are orthographic projection on the plane of a meridian,
’ j  —,1-1- ~c -j- —j -l m:— therefore, is never ufed but for a map of the world.
3 2. On
delineated the parallels of latitude, and the meridians,
' N° 137.
Sea. II.
GEOGRAPHY.
649
Principles 2. On the plane of the equator, the orthographic
and proje&ion reprefents the meridians as ftraight lines di-
. Pfa<aice- verging from a centre, and the parallels of latitude
. as concentric circles. The latter, however, are by no
On the e- 8163113 to be placed at equal diftances from each other;
quator. for the meridians are to be divided by the line of fines,
fig- 2* as in the laft ; and thus the equatorial parts of the
globe are as much diftorted and confufed as the polar
ones were in the foregoing. This proje&ion, therefore,
is feldom ufed for a map of the whole world, though
it anfwers very well for a reprefentation of the polar
regions.
On any 3* On the horizon of any particular place, except ei-
particular ther of the poles, or any point lying direftly under the
horizon, equator, the orthographic projeftion reprefents both
fig- 3* parallels and meridians by fegments of ellipfes. The fi¬
gure (hows a map done on the horizon of Ur of the
Chaldees: it is obvious, however, that a eonfiderable
degree of diftortion takes place here alfo ; though lefs
than in the former cafes. Projections of this kind, there¬
fore, are ufed only for the conitruClion of folar eclipfes.
See Astronomy, fed. x.
Stereogra- II. The Jlereographk projection of the fphere fuppo-
phic pro- fes the eye to be in the pole of the circle of projection,
jv ion. The laws of this projection are,
1. A right circle is projected into a line of half tan-
gents.
2. The reprefentation of a right circle, perpendicu¬
larly oppofed to the eye, will be a circle in the plane of
the projection.
3. The reprefentation of a circle placed oblique to
the eye, will be a circle in the plane of the projec¬
tion.
4. If a great circle is to be projected upon the plane
of another great circle, its centre will lie in the line of
meafures, diilant from the centre of the primitive by
the tangent of its elevation above the plane of the pri¬
mitive.
5. If a lefier circle, whpfe poles lie in the plane of
the projection, were to be projected; the centre of its
reprefentation would be in - the line of meafures, di-
ftant from the centre of the primitive, by the fecant
of the lefier circles diftance from its pole, and its fe-
.midiameter or radius be equal to the tangent of that
■diftancei
6. If a lefier circle were to be projeCted, whofe poles
lie not in the plane of the projection, its diameter in
•the projection, if it falls on each fide of the pole of the
primitive, will be equal to the fum of the half tangents
of its greateft and neared didance from the pole of the
primitive, fet each way from the centre of the primitive
in the line of meafures.
7. If the lefler circle to be projected fall entirely on
one fide of the pole of the projeftion, and do not en-
compafs it: then will its diameter be equal to the dif¬
ference of the half tangents of its greated and neared
didance from the pole of the primitive* fet olF from the
centre of the primitive one ; and the fame way in the
line of meafures.
8. In the dereographic projection, the angles made
by the circles of the furface of the fphere, are equal to
the angles made by their reprefentatives in the plane of
their projection.
For a demonfiration of thefe laws, fee the articles
Perspective and Projection. The method of deli-
Vol.VII. Part II.
nesting general maps of the world will, however, be Principles
eafily underdood by the following directions. Pradtice
1. To delineate a map of the earth upon the plane
of a meridian. Draw a circle of any convenient mag- 6g
nitude, as ABCD, to reprefent one half of the earth’s On the
difc ; draw two diameters AB, CD, interfeCting each plane of a.
other at right angles ; AB will then reprefent the e- meridian,
quator, and CD that meridian which is direCtly per- 0'
pendicular to the plane of projection, C will be the
north pole, and D the fouth pole. Divide the circle
into 360 equal parts, reprefenting the degrees of lati¬
tude ; or into fmaller parts, if it can admit of fuch a
divifion, to reprefent minutes. Then, by means of a
feCtor, divide the equator AB into two lines of femi-
tangents EA and EB, which will reprefent the degrees
of longitude. Then with the'fecant of 8o°, as a ra¬
dius defcribe the arch of the circle CrD, which re¬
prefents a meridian cutting the plane of projection, at
an angle of 8o° ; with the fecant of 70°, defcribe the
arch C dT), which reprefents a meridian cutting the
plane of projection at 70° ; and thus proceed with the
reft of the meridians, which are ufually drawn at every
10 degrees longitude, as the parallels are at every 10
degrees latitude. Thefe laft are to be drawn with the
tangents for radii as the meridians are with the fecants;
G H reprefefiting the parallel of 1 o degrees, w-ith the
tangent of 8o°, that of 20 with the tangent of 70, &c.
The ecliptic AQB is drawn with the tangent of 66.31
for a radius, its greateft diftance from the equator be-
ing 23.29. This is the moft common projection for
maps of the world, arid is that on which the map
Plate CCXIY. is delineated. It hath this difadvan-
tage, however, that neither the degrees of longitude
nor latitude continue of the fame length, even under
the fame parallel; and confequently the (hape of the
countries is fomevvhat diftorted : it is alfo exceeding¬
ly difficult to find the precife degree of longitude or
latitude belonging to any place upon maps of this kind,
as muft be evident from an infpeClion of the figures. (,$
2. On the plane of the horizon. Suppofe, for in-Onaparti-
ftance, it is defired to have London the centre pf the c.u'ar
map : its latitude we will fuppofe to be 51 degrees 32 nzom
minutes. Take then the point E (fig. 5.) for Lon¬
don ; and from this, as a centre, defcribe the circle
A BCD to reprefent the horizon ; which you are then
to divide into four quadrants, and each of thefe into
90 degrees. Let the diameter BD be the meridian,
B the northern quarter, D the fouthern ; the line of
equinoctial eaft and weft (hows the firft vertical, A the
weft, C the eaft, or a place of 90 degrees from the ze¬
nith in the firft vertical. All the verticals are repre-
fented by right lines drawn from the centre E to the
feveral degrees of the horizon. Divide BD into 1 80
degrees, as in the former method; the point in EB
reprefenting 51 deg. 32 min. of the arch BC, will be
the projection of the north pole, which note with the
letter P. The point in ED reprefenting 51 deg. 32 min.
of the arch DC (reckoning from C towards D), will
be the projection of the intetfeClion of the equator
and meridian of Lohdon ; and from this, towards P,
write the numbers of the degrees, 1, 2, 3, &c. As
alfo towards D. and from B towards P, viz. 51,52, 53,
&c. Then .taking the correfponding points of equal de¬
grees, 88, 89, &c. about thofe, as diameters, defcribe
circles, which will reprefent parallels, or circles of la-
4 N titude*
650
Piindpfes titude, •with the equator, tropics, and polar circles.
p For the meridians, firlt defcribe a circle through the
i ra>-lce- t}iree points A, P, C. This will reprefent the meri-
- dian 90 degrees from London. Let its centre be M
in BD (continued to the point N, which reprefcnts
the fouth pole), PN being the diameter : through M
draw a parallel to A C, viz. FH, continued each way
to K and L. Divide the circle PH N F into 360 de¬
grees, and from the point P draw right lines to the
feveral degrees cutting K F H L : through the feveral
points of interfedlion, and the poles P, N, as through
three given points, defcribe circles reprefenting all the
meridians. The centres for defcribing the arches will
be in the fame K L, as being the fame that are found
by the former interfeftion ; but are to be taken with
this caution, that for the meridian next BDN to¬
wards A, the moft remote centre towards L be taken
for the firft, the fecond from this, See.—The circles
of longitude and latitude thus drawn, infert the places
from a table.
Maps of this kind may be ufeful for particular pur-
pofes: but the irregular length of the degrees, both
of longitude and latitude, render them very unfit for
reprefenting the countries in their proper fhape ; and
the difficulties in finding the particular degrees of lon¬
gitude and latitude are even greater in this than any
other projedb'on, as is evident from the infpeftion of
fig. 4.
III. Befides thefe, there may be a variety of other
proje&ions, though few of them are applicable to any
particular purpofe. The three following are thofe
moft generally ufeful, as having each fome peculiar
property which cannot “be found in any other but
themfelves.
Projection 1- If> inftead of its globular figure, we fuppofe the
in which earth to have a conical one, it is plain, that the meri-
the earth is dians would be reprefented by ftraight lines diverging
heTonica]0 ^rom t^ie aPex t^le cone> while the parallels are
flrown by concentric circles placed at equal diftance*.
This kind of piojeftion is fhown in Plate CCXIII.
fig. t, 2. It hath this great advantage, that the
longitudes and latitudes may be found with the
greateft eafe by means of a moveable index placed
on the centre. The whole earth may alfo be thus re¬
prefented on a Angle circle : but thus the countries to¬
wards the fouth pole are prodigioufly augmented in
breadth in proportion to their length ; for the degrees
of longitude conftantly increafe the farther we are re¬
moved from the pole, while thofe of latitude ftill re¬
main the fame. This apparent error, however, doth
not in the leaft affedt the real proportion of the map,
or render it more difficult to find the longitudes or la-
'titud’es upon it.
Sea. ir.
2. Mercator’s projection fuppofes the earth, inftead Principles
of a globular, to have a cylindrical figure ; in confe- pr^ce
quence of which, the degrees of longitude become of ^ice' f
an equal length throughout the whole furface, and are 7I
marked out on the map by parallel lines. The circles Mercator’s
of latitude alfo are reprefented by lines croffing the projection,
former at right angles, but at unequal diftances. The[upp^ST
farther we remove from the equator, the longer the ^1
degrees of latitude become in proportion to thofe of
longitude, and that in no lefs a degree than as the fe-
cant of an arch to the radius of the circle : that is, if
we make one degree of longitude at the equator the
radius of a circle ; at one degree diftant from the equa¬
tor, a degree of latitude will be expreffed by the fe-
cant of one degree ; at ten degrees diftance, by the fe-
cant of ten degrees; and fo on*. A map of the * ^ee
world, therefore, cannot be delineated upon this pro-
je&ion, without diftorting the fhape of the countries
in an extraordinary manner. The proje&ion itfelf is,
however, very ufeful in navigation, as it (hows the dif¬
ferent bearings with perfeft accuracy, which cannot be
done upon any other map. See CCXIII. fig .3. 7*
3. The globular projeftion is an invention of M. deG,<*^!ur
la Hire, and is more ufeful than any of the former for^roje l011'
exhibiting the true fhape of the countries. It may be
made in the following manner : Having drawn a circle
reprefenting one-half of the earth’s dife, draw two
diameters as before, which reprefent the equator and
vertical meridian. Divide each of thefe into 180 equal
parts for the meafures of the degrees of longitude and
latitude. Then through the two poles, and every
tenth divifion on the equator, draw arches of circles
for the meridians; and in like manner through every
tenth degree on each fcmicircle draw an arch, which
fhall likewife pafs through every tenth divifion on the
meridian for the parallels of latitude. 73
IV. The conftruftion of maps of particular parts of Conftruc-
the earth requires a different operation. Large portions ParJ
of its furface may indeed be drawn on the plane of the
meridian, as before dire&ed ; but when a frnall part,
as the ifland of Britain, for inftance, is to be repre¬
fented on a large fcale, it would be found difficult to
draw the arches of fuch large circles as are neceffary,
and therefore the following method may be adopted.
In this cafe, the degrees of longitude and latitude
may be both reprefented by ftraight lines. It is to be
remembered, however, that though the degrees of la¬
titude always continue of an equal length, it is not fo
with thofe of longitude. They muft neceffarily decreafe
as we approach the pole. The proportion in which
they decreafe may be found by the line of longitudes
on the plane fcale j or by the following
GEOGRAPHY.
TABLE,
Tlate CCJX .
Plate OCX.
s
’T
Sea. II
Principles
GEOGRAPHY.
651
TABLE, fliowing the Number of Miles contained
in a Degree of Longitude, in each Parallel of Latitude
from the Equator.
59
59
59
59
59
59
59
59
59
59
58
58
58
58
58
51
51
51
56
56
56
55
55
54
54
54
53
53
52 48
51 96.
44
51
5°
5°
49
49
48
47
47
46
46
45
44
43
43
42
41
4i
4°
39
38
37
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
, - 30
I 60 1 30
Suppofe, then, it is required to draw the meridians
and parallels for a map ©f Britain. This ifiand is
known to lie between 50 and 60 degrees of latitude,
and two and feven of longitude. Having therefore cho-
fen the length of your degrees ofi latitude, you muft
next proportion your degrees of longitude to it. By
the table you find, that in the latitude of 50° the
length of a degree of longitude is to one of latitude as
38,57 is to 60; that is, a degree of longitude in la¬
titude 50 is fomewhat more than half the length of a
degree of latitude. The exadl proportion may eafily
be taken by a diagonal fcale; after which, you are to
mark out feven or eight of thofe degrees upon a right
line for the length of your intended map. On the
extremities of this line raife two perpendiculars, upon
which mark out ten degrees of latitude for the height
©f it. Then, having completed the parallelogram,
confult the table for the length of a degree of longitude
in lat. 6o°, which is found to be very nearly one half
a degree of latitude. It will always be proper, however,
to draw a vertical meridian exadtly in the middle of the
parallelogram, to which the meridian on each fide may
converge; and from this you are to fet off the degrees
of longitude on each fide. Then, having divided the Principles-
lines bounding your map into as many parts as can con- pr^ice
veniently be done, to ferve for a fcale, you may by *■
their means fet off the longitudes and latitudes with
much lefs trouble than where curve lines are ufed. This
method may always be followed where a particular
kingdom is to be delineated, and will reprefent the
true figure and fituation of the places with tolerable
exaftnefs. The particular points of the compafs on
which the towns lie with refpeft to one another, or
their bearings, cannot be exa&ly known, except by a
globe or Mercator’s projeftion. Their diftances, how¬
ever, may by this means be accurately exprefled, and
this is the only kind of maps to which a fcale of miles
can be truly adapted.
§ 2. Defeription and Ufe of the Globes and Armillary
Sphere.
When we have thus difeovered, by means of maps,
or any other way, the true fituation of the different
places of the earth with regard to one another, we
may eafily know every other particular relative to
them; as, how far diffant they are from us, what hour
of the day it is, what feafon of the year, &c. at any
particular place. As each of thefe problems, how¬
ever, would require a particular and fometimes trouble-
fome calculation, machines have been invented, by
which all the calculations may be faved, and every pro¬
blem in geography may be folved mechanically, and in
the moft eafy and expeditious manner. Thefe machines
are the celeftial and terreftrial globes, and the arm illary
fphere ; of which, and the method of ufing them, we
proceed to give a defeription.
If a map of the world be accurately delineated on a The ter-
fphtrical ball, the furface thereof will reprefent thereftrial
furface of the earth: for the higheft hills are fo in-
confiderable with refpedt to the bulk of the earth, that
they take off no more from its roundnefs than grains of
fand do from the roundnefs of a common globe ; for
the diameter, of the earth is 8000 miles in round num¬
bers, and no known hill upon it is much above three
miles In perpendicular height.
With regard to what we call up and do<wn> fee the
article Gravity.
To an obferver placed any where in the indefinite
fpace, where there is nothing to limit his view, all re¬
mote objefts appear equally diftant from him ; and
feem to be placed in a vaft concave fphere, of which
his eye is the centre. The moon is much nearer to us
than the fun; fome of the planets are fometimes nearer
and fometimes farther from us than the fun ; others
of them never come fo near to us as the fun always is;
the remoteft planet in our fyftem is beyond compari-
fon nearer to us than any of the fixed ftars are; arid
yet all thefe celeftial objefts appear equally diftant from ^
us. Therefore, if we imagine a large hollow fphere he face of
of glafs to have as many bright ftuds fixed to its infide nc heavens
as there are ftars vifible in the heaven, and thefe ftudsand tlle
to be of different magnitudes, and placed at the fame ^edr‘
angular diftances from each other as the ftars are; the machine,
fphere will be a true reprefentation of the ftarry heaven,
to an eye fuppofed to be in its centre, and viewing it all
around. And if a fmall globe, with a map of the earth
upon it, be placed on an axis in the centre of this ftarry
fphere, and the fphere be made to turn round on this
4 N 2 axis,
^5 2
G E O G R
Principles axis, it will reprefent the apparent motion of the hea-
p vens round the earth.
. ra ^ Xc' If a great circle be fo drawn upon this fphere as to
divide it into two equal parts or hemifpheres, and the
plane of the circle be perpendicular to the axis of the
fphere, this circle will reprefent the e’quinoSiai, which
divides the heaven into two equal parts, called the
northern and the fouthern hemifpheres ; and every point
of that circle will be equally diftant from the poles, or
ends of the axis in the fphere. That pole which is in
the middle of the northern hemifphere, will be called
the north pole of the fphere; and that which is in the
middle of the fouthern hemifphere, t\\zfoiith pole.
If another grand circle be drawn upon the fphere in
fuch a manner as to cut the equinodtial at an angle of
2 3-I- degrees in two oppofite points, it will reprefent
the ecliptic, or circle of the fun’s apparent annual mo¬
tion ; one half of which is on the north fide of the e-
quinodtial, and the other half on the fouth.
If a large ftud be made to move eallward in this
ecliptic in fuch a manner as to go quite round it in the
time that the fphere is turned round weilward 3'56
times upon its axis, this ftud will reprefent the fun
changing his place every day a 365th part of the eclip¬
tic, and going round weftward the fame way as the
ftars do ; but with a motion fo much flower than the
motion of the ftars, that they will make 366 revolu¬
tions about the axis of the fphere in the time that the
fun makes only 365. During one half of thefe revo¬
lutions, the fun will be on the north fide of the equi-
noftial; during the other half, on the fouth ; and at
the end of each half, in the equinoctial.
If we fuppofe the terreftrial globe in this machine to
be about one inch in diameter, and the diameter of the
ftarry fphere to be about five or fix feet, a fmall infedl
on the globe would fee only a very little portion of its
furface ; but it would fee one half of the ftarry fphere,
the convexity of the globe hiding the other half from
its view, if the fphere be turned weftward round the
globe, and the infeCt could judge of the appearances
which arife from that motion, it would fee fome ftars
rifing to its view in the eaftern fide of the fphere, whilft
others were fetting on the weftern : but as all the ftars
are fixed to the fphere, the fame ftars would always
rife in the fame points of view on the eaft fide, and fet
in the fame points of view on the weft fide. With
the fun it would be otherwife ; becaufe the fun is not
fixed to any point of the fphere, but moves flowly
along an oblique circle in it. And if the infedt ftiould
look towards the fouth, and call that point of the
globe, where the equinodlial in the fphere feems to cut
it on the left fide, the eaft point; and where it cuts the
globe on the right fide, the weft point; the little ani¬
mal would fee the fun rife north of the eaft, and fet
north of the weft, for 1824 revolutions; after which,
for as many more, the fun would rife fouth of the eaft,
and fet fouth of the weft. And in the whole 365 re¬
volutions, the fun would rife only twice in the eaft point,
and fet twice in the';weft. All thefe appearances would
be the fame, if the ftarry fphere flood ftill (the fun on¬
ly moving in the ecliptic), and the earthly globe were
turned round the axis of the fphere eaft ward. For, as
the infeft would be carried round with the globe, he
would be quite infenfible of its motion, and the. fun and
liars would appear to move weftvvard.
A P H Y.
I. Defcription of the TerreHrial Globe.
Sea. iu
Principle*
and
Pra 6tice.
The equator, ecliptic, and tropics, polar circles,
and meridians, are laid down upon , the globe in the
manner already deferibed. The ecliptic is divided The terref-
into 12 figns, and each fign into ,30 degrees. Eachtrial gl°l>e
tropic is 234- degrees from the equator, and each po-
lar circle 234- degrees from its refpedtive pole. Circles
are drawn parallel to the equator, at every 10 degrees °
difiance from it on each fide to the poles: thefe circles
are called parallels of latitude. On large globes there
are circles drawn perpendicularly through every tenth
degree of the equator, interfering each other at the
poles : but on globes of or under a foot diameter,
they are only drawn through fcwtery fifteenth degree of
the equator ; thefe circles are generally called meridians,
fometimes circles of longitude, and at other times hour-circles.
The globe is hung in a brafs-ring (A), called the
hrafen meridian, and turns upon a wire in each pole
funk half its thicknefs into one fide of the meri¬
dian ring; by which means that fide of the ring
divides the globe into two equal parts, called the eajl-
ern and ivejlern hemifpheres ; as the equator divides it
into two equal parts, called the northern and fouthern
hemifpheres. The ring is divided into 360 equal parts
or degrees, on'the fide wherein the axis of the globe
turns. One half of thefe degrees are numbered, and
reckoned, from the equator to the poles, where they
end at 90 : their ufe is to (how the latitudes of places.
The degrees on the other half of the meridian are
numbered from the poles to the equator, where they
end at 90: their ufe is to fhow how to elevate either
the north or fouth pole above the horizon, according
to the latitude of any given place, as it is north or
fouth of the equator.
The brafen meridian is let into two notches
made in a broad flat ring called the wooden horizon,
B, C ; the upper furface of which divides the globe
into two equal parts, called the upper and lotoer
hemifpheres. One notch is in the north point of the
horizon, and the other in the fouth. On this hori¬
zon are feveral concentric circles, which contain the
months and days of the year, the figns and degrees
anfwering to the fun’s place for each month and day,
and the 32 points of the compafs and the circles of
amplitude and azimuth.—The graduated fide of the
brafs meridian lies towards the eaft fide of the horizon,
and ftiould be generally kept towards the perfon who
works problems by the globes.
There is a fmall horary circle D, fo fixed to the north
part of the brafen meridian, that the wire in the north
pole of the globe is in the centre of that circle; and
on the wire is an index, which goes over all the 24.
hours of the circle, as the globe is turned round its
axis. Sometimes there are two horary circles, one be¬
tween each pole of the globe and the brafen meridian.
There is a thin flip of brafs, called the quadrant of
altitude, which is divided into 90 equal parts or de¬
grees, anfwering exaftly to fo many degrees of the
equator. It is occafionally fixed to the uppermoft
point of the brafen meridian by a nut and ferew. The
divifions end at the nut E, and the quadrant is turned
round upon it.
There is alfo applied occafionally to the globe a
magnetic needle, freely moving over a circle divided
int®
Sea. II. G E O G
Principles into four times '99 degrees; reckoning from the north
and and fouth points towards the call and weft, and alfo
Practice. ^ ^ p0;nts Gf compafg. As this needle
r makes nearly a'- certain conftant angle with the meri¬
dian in every place. called the variation; therefore this
compafs being added to the frame, will reddify the po-
fition of the meridian of the globe when the varia¬
tion of the needle is known. Thus at London, the va¬
riation of the needle is at this time about-2 3 degrees
northward; therefore, by moving the frame of the
globe about till the needle fettles itfelf over the 23d
degree, reckoning weft ward from the north point or
Jleur de Its, we ihall have the brafs meridian coinciding
with the true meridian. The compafs is fometimes
fixed between the legs underneath the globe.
2. Defcription and Ufe of the Armiliary Sphere.
Arnullary The exterior parts of this machine are, a compages
fphcre de- of brafs rings, which reprefent the principal circles of
fcribed. heaven, viz. x. The equinoddial A A, which is di-
Place vided into 360 degrees (beginning at its interfeddion
CCXI. vvith the ecliptic in Aries), for (bowing the fun’s right
%• 4* afcenfion in degrees; and alfo into 24 hours, for (bow¬
ing his right afcenfion in time. 2. The ecliptic BB,
which is divided into 12 figns, and each lign into 30
degrees, and alfo into the months and days of the
year; in fuch a manner, that the degree or point of
the ecliptic in which the fun is, on any given day,
'{lands over that day in the circle of months. 3. The
tropic of Caficer CC, touching the ecliptic at the be¬
ginning of Cancer in e. and the tropic of Capricorn
DD, touching the ecliptic at the beginning of Ca¬
pricorn vnf; each 23^ degrees from the equinoddial
-circle. a.. The ardtic circle E, and the antarddic
circle F, each 23 I- degrees from its refpedtive pole at
N and S. 5. The equinoddial colure GG, paffing
through the north and fouth poles of the heaven at N
and S, and through the equinoddial points Aries and
Libra, in the ecliptic. 6. The foHditial colure HH,
-pafiing through the poles of the heaven, and through
the folftitial points Cancer and Capricorn in the ec¬
liptic. Each quarter of the former of thefe colures is
divided into 90 degrees, from th& equinoddial to the
poles of the world, for (bowing the declination of the
fun, moon, and (lars; and each quarter of the latter,
from the ecliptic at e and f, to its poles b and J, for
{bowing the latitude of the (dars.
In the north pole of the ecliptic is a nut b, to which
is fixed one end. of a quadrantal wire, and to the other
end a fmall fun Y, which is carried round the ecliptic
BB, by turning the nut: and in the fouth pole of the
eclipuc is a pin d, on which is another quadrantal
wire, with a fmall moon Z upon it, which may be
moved round by the hand : but there is a particular
contrivance for caufing the moon to move in an orbit
which erodes the ecliptic at an angle of 5^- degrees,
in two oppofite points called the moon’s nodes; and
alfo for fhifting thefe points backward in the ecliptic,
as the moon’s nodes (hift in the heaven.
Within thefe circular rings is a fmall terreftrial
globe I, fixed on an axis KK, which extends from the
■north and fouth poles of the.globe at n and r. to thofe
of the celeftial fphere at N and S. On this axis is
fixed the flat celeftial meridian LL, which may be- fet
dire£dly over the meridian of any place cn the globe,
4.
R A P H Y. 653
and then turned round with the globe, fo as to keep Principles
over thfi fame meridian upon it. This flat meridian p
is graduated the fame way as the brafs meridian of a ra ice* 1
common globe, and its ufe is much the fame. To this
globe is fitted the moveable horizon MM, fo as to
turn upon two ftrong wires proceeding from its eaft
and weft points to the globe, and entering the globe
at the oppofite points of its equator, which is a move-
able brafs ring let into the globe in a groove all a-
round its equator. The globe may be turned by hand
within this ring, fo as to place any given meridian
upon it, direclly under the celeftial meridian LL. The
horizon is divided into 360 degrees all around its outer-
moft edge, within which are the points of the com¬
pafs for (bowing the amplitude of the fun and moon
both in degrees and points. The celeftial meridian
LL, paffes thro’ two notches in the north and fouth
points of the horizon, as in a common globe : but
here, if the globe be turned round, the horizon and
meridian turn with it. At the fouth pole of the fphere
is a circle of 24 hours, fixed to the rings ; and on the
axis is an index which goes round that circle, if the
globe be turned round its axis.
The whole fabric is fupported on a pedeftal N, and
may be elevated or depreffed upon the joint O, to any
number of degrees from o to 90, by means of the arc
P, which is fixed in the ftrong brafs arm and
Aides in the upright piece R, in which is a ferew at
r, to fix it at any proper elevation.
In the box T are two wheels (as in Dr Long’s
fphere), and two pinions, whofe axes come out at V
and U ; either of which may be turned by the fmall
winch W. When the winch is put upon the axis V,
and turned backward, the terreftrial globe, with its ho¬
rizon and celeftial meridian, keep at reft ; and the
whole fphere of circles turns round from eaft, by fouth,
to weft, carrying the fun Y, and moon Z, round the
fame way, and caufing them to rife above and fet be¬
low the horizon. But when the winch is put upon
the axis U, and turned forward, the fphere with the
fun and moon keep at reft ; and the earth, vvith its
horizon and meridian, turn round from weft, by fouth,
to eaft; and bring the fame points of the horizon to
the fun and moon, to which thefe bodies came when
the earth kept at reft and they were carried round it;
{bowing that they rife and fet in the fame points of
the horizon, and at the fame times in the hour-circle,
whether the motion be in the earth or in the heaven.
If the earthly globe be turned, the hour-index goes
round its hour-circle ; but if the fphere be turned,
the hour-circle goes round below the index.
And fo, by this conftru&ion, the machine is equally
fitted to (how either the real motion of the earth or
the apparent motion of the heaven.
To redlify the fphere for life, firft flacken the ferew
r in the upright ftem R, and taking hold of the arm.
move it up or down until .the given degree of la¬
titude for any place be at the fide of the ftem R ; and
then the axis of the fphere will be properly elevated
fo as to (land parallel to the axis of the world, if the
machine be fet north and fouth by a fmall compafs:
this done, count the latitude from the north pole, up¬
on the celeftial meridian LL down towards the north
notch of the horizon, and fet the horizon to that la--
titude ; then turn, the nut b until the fun Y comes to >
654 GEOGRAPHY. Sca.IL
Principles the gn'ven day of the year in the ecliptic, and the fun
w'^ he at its proper place for that day : find the place
. a lce~ of the moon’s afcending node, and alfo the place of
the moon, by an ephemeris, and fet them right ac¬
cordingly : laftly, turn the winch W, until either the
fun comes to the meridian LL, or until the meridian
comes to the fun (according as you want the fphere or
earth to move), and fet the hour-index to the XII,
marked noon, and the whole machine will be reftified.
Then turn the winch, and obferve when the fun or
moon rife and fet in the horizon, and the hour-index
will Ihow the times thereof for the given day.
As thofe who underftand the ufe of the globes will
be at no lofs to work many other problems by this
fphere, it is needlefs to enlarge any farther upon it.
3. Dire8ions for ujing Globes.
In ufing globes, keep the eaft fide of the horizon
towards you (unlefs the problem requires the turning
of it), which fide you may know by the word Eaft
upon the horizon; for then you have the graduated
fide of the meridian towards you, the quadrant of al¬
titude before you, and the globe divided exadlly into
two equal parts, by the graduated fide of the meri-
g dian.
Direftions w°fking fome problems, it will be necefiary to
for ufing turn the whole globe and horizon about, that you may
the terrtf. l00k on the weft fide thereof; which turning will be
trial globe. apt t0 jDg tjje ^aJi f0> as t0 away that (Jegree Gf
the globe which was before fet to the horizon or me¬
ridian : to avoid which inconvenience, you may thruft
in the feather-end of a quill between the ball of the
globe and the brazen meridian ; which, without hurt¬
ing the ball, will keep it from turning in the meri¬
dian, whilft you turn the weft fide of the horizon to¬
wards you.
Prob. I. To find the latitude and longitude of any
given place upon the globe—Turn the globe on its axis,
until the given place comes exaftly under that gra¬
duated fide of the brafen meridian on which the de¬
grees are numbered from the equator; and obferve
what degree of the meridian the place then lies under;
which is its latitude, north or fouth, as the place is
north or fouth of the equator.
The globe remaining in this pofition, the degree of
the equator, which is under the brafen meridian, is
the longitude of the place, which is eaft or weft, as the
place lies on the eaft; or weft fide of the firft meridian
of the globe.—All the Atlantic ocean, and America,
is on the weft fide of the meridian of London ; and
the greateft part of Europe, and of Africa, together
with all Afia, is on the eaft fide of the meridian of
London, which is reckoned the firft meridian of the
globe by the Britilh geographers and aftronomers.
Prob. II. The longitude and latitude of a place being
given, to find that place on the globe.—Look for the gi¬
ven longitude in the equator (counting it eaftward or
weftward from the firft meridian, as it is mentioned to
be eaft or weft) ; and bringing the point of longitude
in the equator to the brafen meridian, on that fide
which is above the fouth point of the horizon : then
count from the equator, on the brafen meridian, to the
degree of the given latitude, towards the north or
fouth pole, according as the latitude is north or fouth;
and under that degree of latitude on the meridian you Principles
will have the place required. and
Prob. III. To find the difference of longitude, or dif- Pra&lCe-
ference of latitude, between any two given places.—Bring T -
each of thefe places to the brafen meridian, and fee
what its latitude is: the lefler latitude fubtrafted from
the greater, if both places are on the fame fide of the
equator, or both latitudes added together if they are
on different fides of it, is the difference of latitude re¬
quired. And the number of degrees contained be¬
tween thefe places, reckoned on the equator, when
they are brought feparately under the brafen meridian,
is their difference of longitude, if it be lefs than 180 ;
but if more, let it be fubtra&ed from 360, and the re¬
mainder is the difference of longitude required. Or,
Having brought one of the places to the brafea
meridian, and fet the hour-index to XII, turn the
globe until the other place comes to the brafen meri¬
dian ; and the number of hours and parts of an hour,
paffed over by the index, will give the longitude in time;
which may be eafily reduced to degrees, by allowing
15 degrees for every hour, and one degree for every
four minutes.
N. B. When we fpeak of bringing any place to the
brafen meridian, it is the graduated fide of the meri¬
dian that is meant.
Prob. IV. Any place being given, to find all thofe
places that have the fame longitude or latitude with it.
—Bring the given place to the brafen meridian ; then
all thofe places which lie under that fide of the meri¬
dian, from pole to pole, have the fame longitude with
the given place. Turn the globe round its axis ; and
all thofe places which pafs under the fame degree of
the meridian that the given place does, have the fame
latitude with that place.
Since all latitudes are reckoned from the equator,
and all longitudes are reckoned from the firft meridian,
it is evident, that the point of the equator which is
cut by the firft meridian, has neither latitude nor lon¬
gitude.—The greateft latitude is 90 degrees, becaufe
no place is more than 90 degrees from the equator:
And the greateft longitude is 180 degrees, becaufe
no place is more than 180 degrees from the firft me¬
ridian.
Prob. V. To find the antceci, perioeci, and anti¬
podes, of any given place.—Bring the given place to
the brafen meridian ; and having found its latitude,
keep the globe in that fituation, and count the fame
number of degrees of latitude from the equator to¬
wards the contrary pole; and where the reckoning
ends, you have the antceci-oi the given place upon the
globe. Thofe who live at the equator have no antceci.
The globe remaining in the fame pofition, fet the
hour-index to the upper XII on the horary circle, and
turn the globe until the index comes to the lower XII;
then the place which lies under the meridian, in the
fame latitude with the given place, is xXxtpericeci requi¬
red. Thofe who live at the poles have noperiteci.
As the globe now Hands (with the index at the low¬
er XII), the antipodes of the given place will be under
the fame point of the brafen meridian where its ant¬
ceci ftood before. Every place upon the globe has its
antipodes.
Prob. VI. T» find the.diflance between any two
places
Sea. II. G E O G
Principles places on the globe.—Lay the graduated edge of the
and quadrant of altitude over both the places, and count
^ Pradhce. ^ number 0f degrees intercepted between them on
'' the quadrant; then multiply thefe degrees by 60, and
the product will give the diltance in geographical
miles : but to find the diftance in miles, multiply the
degrees by 69-r> and the produft will be the number
of miles required. Or, take the diftance betwixt any
two places with a pair of compaifes, and apply that
extent to the equator; the number of degrees, inter¬
cepted between the points of the compafles, is the
diftance in degrees of a great circle ; which may be
reduced either to geographical miles, or to Englifh
miles, as above.
Prob. VII. place on the globe being given., and
its diflance from any other place; to find all the other
places upon the globe which are at the fame diflance
from the given place.—Bring the given place to the bra-
fen meridian, and fcrew the quadrant of altitude to
the meridian direftly over that place; then keeping
the globe in that pofition, turn the quadrant quite
round upon it, and the degree of the quadrant that
touches the fecond place will pafs over all the other
places which are equally diftant with it from the given
place.
This is the fame as if one foot of a pair of compaf-
fes was fet in the given place, and the other foot ex¬
tended to the fecond place, whofe diftance is known ;
for if the compafles be then turned round the firft
place as a centre, the moving foot will go over all
thofe places which are at the fame diftance with the
fecond from it.
Prob. VIII. The hour of the day at anyplace be-
mg given, to find all thofe places where it is noon at that
time. — Bring the given place to the brafen meridian, and
fet the index ta the given hour ; this done, turn the
globe until the index points to the upper XII, and then
all the places that lie under the brafen meridian have
noon at that time.
N. B. The upper XII always (lands for noon ; and
when the bringing of any place to the brafen meridian
is mentioned, the fide of that meridian on which the
degrees are reckoned from the equator is meant, un-
lefs the contrary fide be mentioned.
Prob. IX. The hour of the day at any place being
given, to find what o’clock it then is at any other place.
— Bring the given place to the brafen meridian, and fet
the index to the given hour ; then turn the globe, un¬
til the place where the hour is required comes to the
meridian, and the index will point out the hour at
that place.
Prob. X. To find the fun’s place in the ecliptic, and
his declination, for any given day of the year-—Look
on the horizon for the given day, and right againft it
you have the degree of the fign in which the fun is (or
his place) on that day at noon. Find the fame degree
of that fign in the ecliptic line upon the globe, and
having brought it to the brafen meridian, obferve what
degree of the meridian Hands over it; for that is the
fun’s declination, reckoned from the equator.
Prob. XI. The day of the month being given, to find
all thofe places of the earth over which the fun will pafs
vertically on that day.— Find the fun’s place in the e-
cliptic for the given day, and having brought it to
6
R A P H Y.
the brafen meridian, obferve what point of the meri¬
dian is over it; then, turning the globe round its axis,
all thofe places which pafs under that point of the me¬
ridian are the places required ; for as their latitude is
equal, in degrees and parts of a degree, to the fun’s
declination, the fun muft be dire&ly over-head to each
of them at its refpedlive noon.
Prob. XII. A place being given in the torrid %one,
to find thofe two days of the year on which the fun fihall
be vertical to that place. — Bring-the given place to the
brafen meridian, and mark the degree of latitude that
is exactly over it on the meridian; then turn the globe
round its axis, and obferve the two degrees of the e-
cliptic which pafs exa&ly under that degree of lati¬
tude : lallly, find on the wooden horizon the two days
of the year in which the fun is in thofe degrees of the
ecliptic, and they are the days required : for on them,
and none elfe, the fun’s declination is equal to the la¬
titude of the given place ; and, confequently, he will
then be vertical tout at noon.
Prob. XIII. To find all thofe places of the north fri¬
gid zone, where the fun begins to fhine confiantly with¬
out fetting, on any given day, from the 2 \Jl of March
to the 23^/ of September.—On thefe two days, the fun
is in the equinodlial, and enlightens the globe exa&ly
from pole to pole : therefore, as the earth turns round
its axis, which terminates in the poles, every place
upon it will go equally through the light and the dark,
and fo make the day and night equal to all places of the
earth. But as the fun declines from the equator, to¬
wards either pole, he will ftrine juft as many degrees
round that pole as are equal to his declination from
the equator: fo that no place within that diftance of
the pole will then go through any part of the dark,
and confequently the fun will not fet to it. Now, as
the fun’s declination is northward from the 21ft of
March to the 23d of September, he muft conftantly
(hine round the north pole all that time; and on the
day that he is in the northern tropic, he fhines upon
the whole north frigid zone ; fo that no place within
the north polar circle goes through any part of the
dark on that day. Therefore,
Having brought the fun’s place for the given day to
the brafen meridian, and found his declination (by
Prob. IX ) count as many degrees on the meridian,
from the north pole, as are equal to the fun’s declina¬
tion from the equator, and mark that degree from the
pole where the reckoning ends; then turning the globe
round its axis, obferve what places in the north frigid
zone pafs direftly under that mark ; for they are the
places required.
The like may be done for the fouth frigid zone,
from the 23d of September to the 21ft of March, du¬
ring which time the fun (hines conftantly on the fouth
pole.
Prob. XIV. To find the place over which the fun is
vertical at any hour of a given day..—Having found
the fun’s declination for the given day (by Prob. X.)
mark it with a chalk on the brafen meridian : then
bring the place where you are (fuppofe Edinburgh)
to the brafen meridian, and fet the index to the given
hour; which done, turn the globe on its axis, until
the index points to XII at noon; and the place on
the globe, which is then directly under the point of
the
.
Principles
Pradice.
656
Principles fhe fun’s declination marked upon the meridian, has
PradHce t^le ^Un t^lat moment *n t^ie zen^i1> or diredly over
■ 1“>- *. head.
Pros. XV. The day and hour of a lunar eclipfe be¬
ing given ; to find all thofe places of the earth to which it
will be viftble.—The moon is nev.er eclipfed but when
(he is full, and fo direftly oppofzte to the fun, that the
earth’s fhadow falls upon her. Therefore, whatever
place of the earth the fun is vertical to at that time,
the moon muft be vertical to the antipodes of that
place : fo that the fun will be then vifible to one half
of the earth, and the moon to the other.
Find the place to. which the fun is vertical at the
given hour (by Prob. XIV.) elevate the pole to the
latitude of that place, and bring the place to the upper
part of the brafen meridian, as in the former problem:
then, as the fun will be vifible to all thofe parts of the
globe which are above the horizon, the moon will be
vifible to all thofe parts which are below it, at the time
of her greateft obfcuration.
Prob. XVI. To reSfy the globe for the latitude,
the zenith, and the fun's place.—Yini. the latitude of
the place (by Prob. I. ) and if the place be in the
northern hemifphere, raife the north pole above the
north point of the horizon, as many degrees (counted
from the pole upon the brafen meridian) as are equal
to the latitude of the place. If the place be in the
fouthern hemifphere, raife the fouth pole above the
fouth point of the horizon as many degrees as are
equal to the latitude. Then, turn the globe till the
place comes under its latitude on the brafen meridian,
and fatten the quadrant of altitude fo, that the cham¬
fered edge of its nut (which is even with the gradu¬
ated edge) may be joined to the zenith, or point of
latitude. This done, bring the fun’s place in the eclip^
tic for the given day (found by Prob. X.) to the gra¬
duated fide of the brafen meridian, and let the hour-
index to XII at noon, which is the uppermoft XII on
the hour-circle ; and the globe will be redlified.
Prob. XVII. The latitude of any place, not exceed¬
ing 66-’- degrees, and the day of the month, being given ;
to find the time of the fun’s rifing and fetting, and confe-
quently the length of the day and night.—Having rectified
the globe for the latitude, and for the fun’s place on the
given day (as direfted in the preceding problem), bring
the fun’s place in the ecliptic to the eattern fide of the
horizon, and the hour-index will (how the tim^ of fun-
rifing ; then turn the globe on its axis, until the fun’s
place comes to the weftern fide of the horizon, and the
index will ihow the time of fun-fetting.
The hour of fun-fetting doubled, gives the length
of the day ; and the hour of fun-rifing doubled, gives
the length of the night.
Prob. XVIII. The latitude of any place, and the day
pf the month, being given ; to find when the morning twi-
ligk begins, and the evening twilight ends, at that place.—
This problem is often limited : for, when the fun
does not go t8 degrees below the horizon, the twi¬
light continues the whole night ; and for feveral nights
together in fummer, between 49 and 664- degrees of
latitude; and the nearer to 66^, the greater is the
number of thefe nights. But when it does begin and
end the following method will fhow the time for any
given day.
Rectify the globe, and bring the fun’s place in the
N 137.
GEOGRAPHY. Sea.IL
ecliptic to the eaftern fide of the horizon; then mark Principle*
with a chalk that point of the ecliptic which is in the
weftern fide of the horizon, it being the point oppo- ra lce' ^
fite to the fun’s place : this done, lay the quadrant of
altitude over the faid point, and turn the globe eaft-
ward, keeping the quadrant at the chalk mark, until
it is juft 18 degrees high on the quadrant; and the in¬
dex will point out the time when the morning twilight
begins: for the fun’s place will then be 18 degrees be¬
low the eaftern fide of the horizon. To find the time
when the evening twilight ends, bring the fun’s place
to the weftern fide of the horizon ; and the point op-
pofite to it, which was marked with the chalk, will
be rifing in the eaft: then, bring the quadrant over
that point, and keeping it thereon, turn the globe
weftward, until the faid point be 18 degrees above the
horizon on the quadrant, and the index will fliow the
time when the evening twilight ends; the fun’s place
being then 18 degrees below the weftern fide of the
horizon.
Prob. XIX. To find on what day of the year the
fun begins to fhine confiantly, without fetting, on any
given place in the north frigid scone; and how long he
continues to do fo.—Rectify the globe to the latitude
of the place, and turn it about until fome point of the
ecliptic, between Aries and Cancer, coincides with the
north point of the horizon where the brafen meridian
cuts it; then find, on the wooden horizon, what day of
the year the fun is in that point of the ecliptic; for that
is the day on which the fun begins to fiiine conftantly
on the given place without fetting. This done, turn
the globe, until fome point of the ecliptic, between
Cancer and Libra, coincides with the north point of the
horizon, where the brafen meridian cuts it; and findj
on the wooden horizon, on what day the fun is in that
point of the ecliptic; which is the day that the fun
leaves off conftantly ftiining- on the faid place, and
rifes and fets to it as to other places on the globe.
The number of natural days, or complete revolutions
of the fun about the earth, between the two days above
found, is the time that the fun keeps conftantly above
the horizon without fetting : for all that portion of
the ecliptic, which lies between the two points which
interfect the horizon in the very north, never fets be¬
low it; and there is juft as much of the oppofite part
of the ecliptic that never rifes : therefore, the fun will
keep as long conftantly below the horizon in winter as
above it in fummer.
Prob. XX. To find in what latitude the fun fhines
confiantly without fetting, for any length of time lefs
than 1824- of our days and nights.—Find a point in the
ecliptic half as many degrees from the beginning of
Cancer (either toward Aries or Libra) as there are na¬
tural days in the time given ; and bring that point to
•the north fide of the brazen meridian, and which the
degrees are numbered from the pole towards the equa¬
tor : then keep the globe from turning on its axis, and
Hide the meridian up or down until the forefaid point
of the ecliptic comes to the north point of the horizon,
and then the elevation of the pole will be equal to the
latitude required.
Prob. XXI. The latitude of a place, not exceeding
664- degrees, and the day of the month, being given; to
find the fun’s amplitude or point of the compafs on which
he rifes or fets.—Rectify the globe, and bring the fun’s
place
, r /./h’///A),. //„ A .
Sea. II. G E O G I
•Principles place to the eafcern fide of the horizon ; then obferve
PradHce w^at P°^nt t^ie comPa^s on horizon ftands right
^ againft the fun’s place, for that is his amplitude at ri-
fing. This done, turn the globe weftveard, until the
fun’s place comes to the weftern fide of the horizon,
and it will cut the point of his amplitude at fetting.
Or, you may count the rifing amplitude in degrees,
from the eaft point of the horizon, to that point 'where
the fun’s place cuts it; and the fetting . amplitude
from the weft point df the horizon, to the fun’s place
at fetting.
Pros. XXII. The latitude, the fun's place, and his
altitude, being given; to find the hour of the day, and
the fun’s azimuth, or number of degrees that he ■ is di-
Jlant from the meridian.— Reftify the globe, and bring
the fun’s place to the given height upon the quadrant
of altitude ; on the eaftern fide of the horizon, if the
time be in the forenoon ; or the weftern fide, if it be
in the afternoon : then the index will (how the hour;
and the number of degrees in the horizon, intercepted
between the quadrant df altitude and the fouth point,
will be the fun’s true azimuth at that time.
Pros. XXIII. The latitude, hour of the day, and
the fun’s place, being given ; to find the fun’s altitude and
azimuth.—.Rectify the globe, and turn it until the in¬
dex points to the given hour ; then lay the quadrant of
altitude over the furt’s place in the ecliptic, and the de¬
gree of the quadrant cut by the fun’s place is his alti¬
tude at that time above the horizon ; and the degree
of the horizon cut by the quadrant is the fun’s azimuth,
reckoned from the fouth.
• Prob. XXIV. The latitude, the fun’s altitude, and
his azimuth, being given ; to find his place in the ecliptic,
the day of 'the month, and hour of the day, though they
had all been lojl.—Rectify the globe for the latitude
and zenith, and fet the quadrant of altitude to the given
•azimuth in the horizon ; keeping it there, turn the
globe on its axis until'the ecliptic cuts the quadrant
in the given altitude : that point of the ecliptic which
cuts the quadrant there, will be the fun’s place ; and
the day of the month anfwering thereto, will be found
over the like place of the fun on the wooden horizon.
Keep the quadrant of altitude in that pbfition ; and,
having brought the fun’s place to the brafen meridian,
and the hour-index to XII, at noon, turn back the
globe, until the fun’s place cuts the quadrant of alti¬
tude again, and the index will (how the hour.
Any two points of the ecliptic, which are equi-
diftant from the beginning of Cancer or of Capri¬
corn, will have the farfte altitude and azimuth at the
fame hour, though i he months be different; and there¬
fore it requires fome Care in this problem, not to mif-
take both the month and the day of the month; to
avoid which, obferve, that from the 20th of March
to the 21 ft of June, that part of the ecliptic which is
between the beginning of Aries and beginning of
Cancer is to be ufed ; from the 21ft of June to the
23d of September, between the beginning of Cancer
and beginning of Libra ; from the 23d of September
to the r 1 ft of December, between the beginning of
Libra and the beginning of Capricorn ; and from the
2 rft of December to the 20th of March, between
the beginning of Capricorn and beginning of Aries.
And as .one can never be at a lofs to know in what
, quarter of the year he takes the fun’s altitude and
Vol.VII. Part II.
I A P H- Y. 657
azimuth, the above caution with regard to the quaf- Principles
ters of the ecliptic will keep him right as to the month „ anil,
and day thereof. ,
Prob. XXV. To find the length of the longejl day
at any given place.—If the place be on the north fide
of the equator, find its latitude (by Prob. I.) and ele¬
vate the north pole to that latitude ; then, bring the
beginning of Cancer to the brafen meridian, and fet
the hour-index to XII at noon. But if the given
place be on the fomh fide of the equator, elevate the
fouth pole to its latitude, and bring the beginning of
Capricorn to the brafs meridian, and the hour-index
to XII. This done, turn the globe weftward, until
the beginning of Cancer or Capricorn (as the latitude
is north or fduth) comes to the horizon ; and the in¬
dex will then point out the time of fun-fetting, for it
will have gone over all the afternoon hours, between mid¬
day and fun-fet; which length of time being doubled,
will give the whole length of the day from fun rifing
to fun-fetting. For, in all latitudes, the fun rifes as
long before mid-day, as he fets after it.
Prob. XXVI. To find in what latitude the longefi
day is, of any given length, lefs than 24 hours If
the latitude be north, bring the beginning of Cancer
to the brafen meridian, and elevate the north pole to
about 66J- degrees; but if the latitude be fouth,
bring the beginning of Capricorn to the meridian,
and elevate the fouth pole to about 66~ degrees ; be-
caufe the longeft day in north latitude is, when the
fun is in the firft point of Cancer; and in fouth latitude,
when he is in the firft point of Capricorn. Then fet the
hour-index to XII at noon, and turn the globe weft-
ward, until the index points at half the number of
hours given ; which done, keep the globe from turn¬
ing on its axis, and Aide the meridian down in the
notches, until the aforefaid point of the ecliptic (viz.
Cancer or Capricorn) comes to the horizon; then,
the elevation of the pole will be equal to the latitude
required.
Prob. XXVII. The latitude of any place, not ex¬
ceeding 66 J- degrees, being given ; to find in what cli¬
mate the place is.—Find the length of the longeft day
at the given place, by Prob. XXV. and whatever be
the number of hours whereby it exceedeth twelve,
double that number, and the fun will give the climate
in which the place is.
Prob. X$CVIII. The latitude, and the day of the
month, being given ; to find the hour of the day when
the fun Jhines.—Set the wooden horizon truly level,
and the brafen meridian due north and fouth by a ma¬
riner’s compafs; then, having rectified the globe,
ftick a fmall fewing-needle into the fun’s place in
the ecliptic, perpendicular to that part of the furfacc
of the globe ; this done, turn the globe on its axis,
until the needle comes to the brafen meridian, and fet '
the hour-index to XII at noon ; then, turn the globe
on its axis, until the needle points exadtly towards
the fun (which it will do when it cafts no ihadow on
the globe), and the index will (how the hour of the
day.
4. The Ufe of the Celefiial Globe '.
Having done for the prefent with the terreftrial ^
globe, we (hall proceed to the ufe of the celeftial; How to ufe
firft premiftng, that as the equatgr, ecliptic, tropics, 'he celeftial
4 O pola>be-
658 G E O G R
Principle* polar circles, horizon, and brafen meridian, are ex-
Praftke on g^0^e8> the former problems
r ra ice' concerning the fun are folved the fame way by both
globes. The method alfo of re&ifying the celeftial
globe is the fame as rectifying the terreftrial. N. B.
The fun’s place for any day of the year ftands direCtly
over that day on the horizon of the celcftial globe, as
it does on that day of the terreftrial.
. The latitude and longitude of the ftars, or of all other
amUongi- celeftial phenomena, are reckoned in a very different
tude of the manner from the latitude and longitude of places on
ftars. the earth : for all terreftrial latitudes are reckoned
from the equator ; and longitudes from the meridian
of fome remarkable place, as of London by the Bri-
tifh, and of Paris by the French. But the aftrono-
mers of all nations agree in reckoning the latitudes of
the moon, ftars, planets, and comets, from the eclip¬
tic ; and their longitudes from the equinodlial colure,
in that femicircle of it which cuts the ecliptic at the
beginning of Aries; and thence eaftward, quite round,
to the fame femicircle again. Confequently thofe
ftars which lie between the equino&ial and the north¬
ern half of the ecliptic, have north declination and
fouth latitude ; thofe which lie between the equinoc¬
tial and the fouthern half of the ecliptic, have fouth
declination and north latitude ; and all thofe which
lie between the tropics and poles, have their declina¬
tions and latitudes of the fame denomination.
There are fix great circles on the celeftial globe,
which cut the ecliptic perpendicularly, and meet in
two oppofite points in the polar circles ; which points
are each ninety degrees from the ecliptic, and are call¬
ed its poles. Thefe polar points divide thofe circles
into 12 femicircles ; which cut the ecliptic at the be¬
ginnings of the twelve figns. They refemble fo ma¬
ny meridians on the terreftrial globe: and as all places
which lie under any particular meridian-femicircle on
that globe have the fame longitude ; fo all thofe
points of the heaven, through which any of the above
femicircles are drawn, have the fame longitude.—And
as the greateft latitudes on the earth are at the north
and fouth poles of the earth, fo the greateft latitudes
in the heaven are at the north and fouth poles of the
ecliptic.
For the divifion of the ftars into conftellations, &c.
fee Astronomy, n° 403, 406.
Prob. I. To jind the right afcetifion and declination of
the fun, or any fxed flar— Bring the fun’s place in the
ecliptic to the brafen meridian: then that degree in
the equinoddial which is cut by the meridian, is the
fun’s right afcenfion; and that degree of the meridian
which is over the fun’s place, is his declination. Bring
any fixed ftar to the meridian, and its right afcenfion
will be cut by the meridian in the equinoftial; and the
degree of the meridian that ftands over it is its decli¬
nation.
So that right afcenfion and declination, on the ce¬
leftial globe, are found in the fame manner as longi¬
tude and latitude on the terreftrial.
Prob II. To fnd the latitude and longitude of any
far.— If the given ftar be on the north fide of the
ecliptic, place the 90th degree of the quadrant of al¬
titude on the north pole of the ecliptic, where the
x 2 femicircles meet, which divide the ecliptic into
the 12 figns; but if the ftar be on the fouth fide of
A P H Y. Sett. 11,
the ecliptic, place the 90th degree of the quadrant on Prineiple*
the fouth pole of the ecliptic : keeping the 90th de- an“
gree of the quadrant on the proper pole, turn the qua- Pra^‘ce'.
drant about, until its graduated edge cuts the ftar: ’
then the number of degrees in the quadrant, between
the ecliptic and the ftar, is its latitude ; and the de¬
gree of the ecliptic, cut by the quadrant, is the ftar’s
longitude, reckoned according to the fign in whick
the quadrant then is.
Prob. III. To reprefent the face of the Jlarry firma¬
ment, as feen from any given place of the earth, at any
hour of the night — Rectify the celeftial globe for the
given latitude, the zenith, and fun’s place in every
refpeA, as taught by the XVIth problem for the ter¬
reftrial ; and turn it about, until the index points to
the given hour: then the upper hemifphere of the
globe will reprefent the vifible half of the heaven for
that time ; all the ftars upon the globe being then in
fuch fituations, as exactly correfpond to thofe in the
heaven. And if the globe be placed duly north and
fouth, by means of a fmall fea-compafs, every ftar in
the globe will point toward the like ftar in the hea¬
ven : by which means, the conftellations and remark¬
able ftars may be eafily known. All thofe ftars
which are in the eaftern fide of the horizon, are then
rifing in the eaftern fide of the heaven ; all in the
weftern, are fetting in the weftern fide; and all thofe
under the upper part of the brafen meridian, between
the fouth point of the horizon and the north pole, are
at their greateft altitude, if the latitude of the place be
north ; but if the latitude be fouth, thofe ftars which
lie under the upper part of the meridian, between the
north point of the horizon and the fouth pole, are at
their greateft altitude.
Prob. IV. The latitude of the place, and day of
the month, being given ; to find the time when any known
far will rife, or be upon the meridian, or fet.—Having
redrified the globe, turn it about until the given ftar
comes to the eaftern fide of the horizon, and the in¬
dex will fhow the time of the ftar’s rifing ; then turn
the globe weftward, and when the ftar comes to the
brafen meridian, the index will fhow the time of the
ftar’s coming to the meridian of your place; laftly,
turn on, until the ftar comes to the weftern fide of
the horizon, and the index will fhow the time of the
ftar’s fetting. N. B. In northern latitudes,’ thofe
ftars which are lefs diftant from the north pole than
the quantity of its elevation above the north point of
the horizon, never fet; and thofe which are lefs di¬
ftant from the fouth pole than the number of degrees
by which it is deprefled btlow the horizon, never rife i
and vice vcrfa in fouthern latitudes.
Prob. V. To fnd at what time of the year a given far
will be upon the meridian, at a given hour of the night.—
Bring the given ftar to the upper femicircle of the
brafs meridian, and fet the index to the given hour
then turn the globe, until the index points to XII at
noon, and the upper fcmicircle of the meridian will
then cut the fun’s place, anfwering to the day of the
year fought ; which day may be eafily found againft
the like place of the fun among the figns on the
wooden horizon.
Prob. VI The latitude, day of the month, and azi¬
muth of any known far being given ; to fnd the hour of
the night.—Having re&ified the globe for the latitude,
zenith.
Sea.II. G E O G
Principles zenith, and fun’s place, lay the quadrant of altitude
an<? to the given degree of azimuth in the horizon: then
, pra<aice turn the globe on its axis, until the ftar comes to the
graduated edge of the quadrant; and when it does,
the index will point out the hour of the night.
Prob. VII. The latitude of the place, the day of the
month, and altitude of any kno<wn Jlar, being given ; to
find the hour of the night. — Rectify the globe as in the
former problem, guefs at the hour of the night, and
turn the globe until the index points at the fuppofed
hour: then lay the graduated edge of the quadrant of
altitude over the known ftar ; and if the degree of
the ftar’s height in the quadrant upon the globe an-
fwers exaftly to the degree of the ftar’s obferved alti¬
tude in the heaven, you have gueffed exadfly: but if
the ftar on the globe is higher or lower than it was
obferved to be in the heaven, turn the globe backwards
or forwards, keeping the edge of the quadrant upon
the ftar, until its centre comes to the obferved alti¬
tude in the quadrant; and then the index will (how
the true time of the night.
Prob. VIII. ^In eafy method for finding the hour of
the night by any two known fiars, without knowing either
their altitude or azimuth; and then of finding both their
altitude and azimuth, and thereby the true meridian.—
Tie one end of a thread to a common mulket bullet;
and having reftified the globe as above, hold the other
end of the thread in your hand, and carry it flowly
round betwixt your eye and the ftarry heaven, until
you find it cuts any two known ftars at once. Then
gueffing at the hour of the night, turn the globe until
the index points to that time in the hour circle ;
which done, lay the graduated edge of the quadrant
over any one of thefe two ftafs on the globe which
the thread cut in the heaven. If the faid edge of the
quadrant cuts the other ftar alfo, you have gueffed the
time exactly ; but if it does not, turn the globe flow¬
ly backwards or forwards, until the quadrant (kept up¬
on either ftar) cuts them both through their centres :
and then the index will point out the exa& time of
the night; the degree of the horizon, cut by the qua¬
drant, will be the true azimuth of both thefe ftars from
the fouth ; and the ftars themfelves will cut their true
altitudes in the quadrant. At which moment, if a
common azimuth-compafs be fo fet upon a floor or
level pavement, that thefe ftars in the heaven may have
the fame bearing upon it (allowing for the variation of
the needle) as the quadrant of altitude has in the
wooden horizon of the globe, a thread extended over
the north and fouth points of that compafs will be di-
re&ly in the plane of the meridian : and if a line be
drawn upon the floor or pavement, along the courfe of
the thread, and an upright wire be placed in the fouth-
moft end of the line, the lhadow of the wire will fall
upon that line, when the fun is on the meridian, and
fliines upon the pavement.
Prob. IX. To find the place of the moon, or of any
planet; and thereby to Jhow the time of its rifing, fouth-
ir.g, and fetting—See in Parker’s or Weaver’s ephe-
meris the geocentric place of the moon or planet in the
ecliptic, for the given day of the month; and accord¬
ing to its longitude a-nd latitude, as (hown by the ephe-
mtris, mark the fame with a chalk upon the globe.
Then, having rectified the globe, turn it round its
R A P H Y.
6; 9
axis weftward; and as the faid mark comes to the call- Principle*
ern fide of the horizon, to the brafen meridian, and pr^ce
to the weftern fide of the horizon, the index will <how *«
at what time the planet rifes, comes to the meridian, and
fets, in the fame manner as it would do for a fixed ftar.
For an explanation of the harveft-moons by a globe,
fee Astronomy, n 370.
For the equation of time, fee Astronomy, n° 383.
4. Defoription of the Modern Improvements applied to
Globes.
Globes mounted in the common manner, and with 8r
their hour circles fixed on the meridian, although in- Improve-
ftru&ive inftruments for explaining the firft pninciples n'e"ss on
of geography and the fpherical doctrine of aftronomy,g
yet contain feveral defedts ; as they prevent any eleva-
vation of the north and fouth poles near to their axes,
or the brafs meridian from being quite moveable round
in the horizon. They do not (how how all the phe¬
nomena illuftrated by them arife from the motion of
the earth; a matter of confequence to beginners : and
they are only adapted to the prefent age; confequently
do not ferve accurately the purpofes of chronology
and hiftory, which they might be made to do if the
poles whereon they turn were contrived to move in a
circle round thofe of the ecliptic, according to its pre¬
fent obliquity.
The late Mr John Senex F. R. S. invented a con- g4
trivance for remedying thefe defefts, by fixing the Mr Senes’*
poles of the diurnal motion to two Ihoulders or arms contri'
of brafs at the diftance of 23J- deg. from the poles 0fvance’
the ecliptic. Thefe ftioulders are ftrongly fattened at
the other end to an iron axis, which paffes through
the poles of the ecliptic, and is made to move round
with a very ftiff motion; fo that when it is adjufted
to any point of the ecliptic which the equator is made
to interfeft, the diurnal motion of the globe on its
axis will not difturb it. When it is to be adjufted for
any time, paft or future, one of the brafen fhoulders is
brought under the meridian, and held fall to it with
one hand, whilft the globe is turned about with the
other; fo that the point of the ecliptic which the
equator is to interfedl may pafs under the o degree of
the brazen meridian ; then holding a pencil to that
point, and turning the globe about, it will deferibe the
equator according to its pofition at the time required;
and transferring the pencil to 234. and 66-^ degrees on
the brafen meridian, the tropics and polar circles will
be fo deferibed for the fame time. By this contri¬
vance, the celeftial globe may be fo adjufted, as to ex¬
hibit not only the rifing and fetting of the ftars in all
ages and in all latitudes, but likewife the other phe¬
nomena that depend upon the motion of the diurnal
axis round the annual axis. Senex’s celeftial globes,
efpeciaily the two greateft, of 17 and 28 inches in
diameter, have been conftru&ed upon this principle t
fo that by means of a nut and ferew, the pole of the
equator is made to revolve about the pole cf the
ecliptic. Phil. Tranf. N° 447. p. 201, 203. or Mar-
tyn’a Abr. Vol. VIII. p. 217. and N° 493. art. 18. in
Phil. Tranf. Vol. XLVI. p. 290.
To reprefent the above phenomena in the moft na- <§.
tural and eafy manner, the late Mr B. Martin applied Mr Mar¬
ta Mr Senex’s contrivance a moveable, equinoftial,tlII S addi"
4O2 and
66o G E O. G P
Principle# and folditial colure; a moveable equino&ial circle,
a and a moveable ecliptic; all. fo conncfted together-
, ra as to reprefent tbofe imaginary circles in the heavens
for any age of the world.
84 Mr jofeph Harris, late effay-mafter of the mint,
Mr Harris’? contrived t o remedy the former of the defects above
ZPrTe' nrentioned, by placing two horary circles under the
meridian, one at each pole ; thefe circles are fixed
tight between two btafs rollets placed about the axis,
fo that when the globe is turned they are carried
round with it, the meridian ferving as an index to cut
the horary dhilions. The- glolyf in this date ferves
univerfally and readily for folving problems in north-
and fimth latitudes, and alfo in places near the equa¬
tor ; whereas in the common confirudlion, the axis
and horary circle prevent the brafs meridian from be¬
ing moveable quite round in the horizon. This globe
is alfo adapted for fliowing how the viciffitudes of day
and, night, and the alteration of their lengths, are real¬
ly occaiioned by the motion of the earth : for this
purpofe, he divided the brafs meridian atone of the
poles into mouths and day^s, according to the fun’s de¬
clination, reckoning from the pole. Therefore, by
bringing the day; of the month to the horizon, and
vedtifying the globe according to the time of the day,
the horizon will reprefent the circle feparating light
and darknefs; and the upper half of the globe, the
illuminated hemifphere, the fun being in the zenith.
- Phil. Tranf. N2 456. p. 321. or Martyn’s Abr.
Vol. VIII. p. 352.
8’5 i The late Mr George Adam, mathematical inftru*
^j.^llatn s ment maker, has made fome additional improvements
4 uitions .n the conltrudtion of the globes. His globes, like
riateCCX- others, are fufpended at their poles in a ftrong brafs
circle NZiES (fee fig. 2. repreienting the celeftial),
.and turn therein upon two iron pins, which form the
axis. They have each a thin brafs femicircle NHS
moveable about thefe poles, with a fmall, thin, Hiding,
circle H thereon; which femicircle is divided into two
quadrants of 90 degrees each, from the equator to
both the poles. On the terreilrial globe this femi¬
circle is a moveable meridian, and its finall Aiding cir¬
cle, which is divided into a few points of the compafs,
is the vilible horizon of any particular place to which
it is fet. On the celeltial globe this femicircle is a
moveable circle of declination, and its fmall annexed
circle an artificial fun or planet. Each globe has a
brafs wire “TWY placed at the limits of the crepufcu-
lum or twilight; which, together with the globe, is
mounted in a wooden frame, fupported by a neat pillar
and claw-feet, with a magnetic needle in a compafs-
box marked M in the figure. On the ftrong brafs
circle of- the terreilrial globe, and about 23-I- degrees
pn each fide of the north pole, the days of each month
are laid down according to the fun’s declination ; and
this brafs circle is fo contrived, that the globe may be
placed with the north and fouth poles in the plane of
the horizon, ahd with the fouth pole elevated above it.
The equator on the furface of either globe ferves the
purpofe of the horary circle, by means of a femicircu-
lar wire placed in the plane of the equator (YEF), car¬
rying two indices (F); one on the eaft, the other on
the weft fide of the ftrong brafs circle; one of which is
occafionally to be ufed to point out the time upon the
. A P H Y. Sea. IT.
equator. In thefe globes, therefore, the indices being Principles
fet to the particular time on the equator, the globes
are turned round, and the indices point out the time ra lce',
by remaining fixed; whereas in the globes as generally
mounted, the. indices move over the horary circles
while the globe is moving, and thus point out the
change of time. For farther particulars of thefe
globes, and the method of uiing them, Mr Adam’s
Treatife on their Con ft ruction and Ufe, &c. 1772,
may be confuked.
The additions and alterations above mentioned,
made by Mr Adam, may fave trouble to a pra&i-
tinner in the performance of a few complex problems,
and render the globes more elegiat-aruLcoilly ; but to
a young beginner, the more fimpte the conftrudtion of
the globes, the better will they be adapted to initiate
him into the-rationale and practice of the problems in
general; and as fuch, the globes, as improved by the
-late Mr B. Mat tin and Mr Wright, deferibed below,
appear to have confiderably the advantage in fimpli-
city, and to obviate feveral material defects that attend
the conftrudtion of the other globes. The chief of the
defedts in the old globes is, that the horary circle be¬
ing ferewed on the meridian at the north pole,, pre¬
vents the elevation of the fouth pole; which is ne-
ceflary for the performance of problems for all lath
tudes. In Mr1 Adam’s, the femicircular wireuEF pre¬
venting the equator being placed exadtly in the hori¬
zon, or the poles in the zenith, the gieat diftance of.
the ftrong brafs circle NZiES from the furface of the
globe, on account of the brafsTemicircles, tenders the
folutioH of problems, which require the ufe of the
ftrong circle, not very eafy. nor accurate.
An eafy and expeditious method of elevating the>Mr Mar.
fouth pole of the terreftrial globe, and by which tin’s im-
means the new difeoveries, tracks, &c. made of late provtment.
years by Captain Cook and other eminent navigators
in the louth feas, may be clearly feen and traced by
the eye over all the fouthern ocean, was made ufe of
by Mr B. Martin in the conftruction of the following
improvement.
There is a groove turned out on the back part
of the brafs meridian A (fig. 1.); and by unferewing
the nut of the hour circle 1) at the north pole, the
circle is made to Hide away to any @ther part of the
meridian, as at G. The meridian is fixed or moveable
at pleafure by a ferew palling into the groove, through
the piece or fide of the notch in which it moves, on
the bottom or nadir point: by properly loofening this
ferew, the meridian is free to move, and the globe
with it, into any required pofition ; but at the fame
time, it is confined within the notch of the brafs-
piece, and thereby the globe is prevented from falling
out of the frame in any pofition thereof whatfoever.
The hour-circle being removed, both the north and
fouth poles of the globe may be placed in the horizon,
and thereby form a right fphere, which the ufual
mounting of the globes does not admit of..
Alfo by this conftrudtion, the fouth pole may be
elevated for all latitudes: for this purpofe there is an
hour-circle about the fouth pole between the meridian
and the globe, which does not obftrudt the fight of
any land, none having been thereabouts difeovered.
Confequently the globe is thus equally ufeful for the
S
Sea. IT. G E O G R
Principles fouition of all common geographical problems in the
Pradtce ^out^e,n as *n t^ie nort^ern hemifphere, and more ex-
T ^ ce' tenfivdy fo than heretofore.
In this new method of mounting the globe, it may
readily be converted into a tellurian ; for as the globe
cannot fall out of the frame, the hoiizon of the globe
may be placed in a perpendicular portion: then the
fun’s place in the ecliptic being brought to the me¬
ridian, and its declination found, the pole of the globe
mult, be elevated to that declination ; which may be
done by means of the degrees cut on the- outer edge
of the meridian for that purpofe. If a lighted candle
be placed at a confiderable didance, exactly the height
of the centre of the globe, and in a line with the me¬
ridian, the. globe will exhibit all the phenomena of our
earth for that day ; for in' this cafe the horizon of the
globe becomes the folar horizon, and divides the whole
into the enlightened and dark hemifpheres : therefore
upon turning the globe about its axis from weft to
eaft, it will clearly appear that all places emerging out
of the dark hemifpherc into the luminous one, under
the weftern part of the horizon, will fee the fun then
as riling ; when they arrive at the meridian, it will be
their noon; and when they defeend into the dark he¬
mifphere at the eaftern part of the horizon, they
will fee the fun as fetting.
When any place is under the meridian, fet the hour-
index to XII, and revolve the globe; then you will
fee the natural motion and pofkion of that place at
hours of the day; at what time the fun nfes or lets
to it; the length of the diurnal and no&urnal arches,
or of day and night; at what places the fun does not
rife and fet at that time ; and from whence the vi-
Ciffitudes of the feafons throughout the year in all la¬
titudes, &c. &c.
To give this experiment the belt effect, the candle
Ihould be enclofed within a common dark lanthorn,
and its light iffue through a hole or lens made for
that purpofe.
' On the outer part of the Aiding hour-circle, at the
north pole, are ufually engraved the points of the
compafs ; fo that by bringing that circle centrally
over any place on the globe, it will appear by infpec-
tion only upon what point of the compafs any other
place bears from it, and that all over the globe.
This method of the Aiding hour-circle is equally
87 applicable to the celellial globe. Mr G. Wright of
MrWihlrsj^ondon has yet farther Amplified the conftru&ion of
Improve- 6 the hour-circles, and it is thereby rather left operofe
nunt. .than Mr Martin’s above mentioned. It confifts of the
fo’Lwing particulars: There are engraved on the
globes two hour-circles, one at each of the poles ; which
are divided into a double fet of 12 hours, as ufual in
the common brafs ones, except that the hours are
figured round both to the right and left (fee fig. 3.).
The hour-hand or index (A) is placed in fuch a
manner under the brafs meridian, as to be moveable at
pleafure to any required part of the hour-circle, and
yet remain there fixed during the revolution of the
globe on its axis and is entirely independent of the
pc L-s of the globe. In this manner the motion ot the
globe round its axis, carrying the hour-circlc, the
fixed index ferves to point out the time, the fame as in
the reverfe way by Mr Martin’s or other globes.
There is a fmall advantage by having the hour-circle
A P II Y. 6(51
figured both ways,* as one hour fsrves' as a comple- Principles
ment to XII for the other, and the time of. fun riling a
and fetting, and vice verfa, may be both feen at the ‘at( ^
feme time on the hour circle. In the problems, gene¬
rally to be performed, the inner circle is the circle of
reckoning, and the outer one only the complement.
Fig. 4. is a reprefentation of the globe, with Mr
Wright’s improved hour-circle at C.
Mr William Jones, mathematical inftrument ma¬
ker, Holborn, who mounts globes according to the
improvements above mentioned of Meffrs Martin
and Wright, applies a compafs of a portable fixe to
the-eaft part of the wooden, horizon circle of both
globes (fee F, fig. 1.), by a dove-tail Aider on the lid
of the compafs-box ; which method is found more
convenient and ready in the performance of problems,
than when fixed underneath the frame at their feet;
and as it occalionally Aides away from the globes, the
compafs becomes ufeful in other fituations.
In order to the performance of the problems which 88
relate to the altitudes and azimuths of celefttal objects, Mr Smea-
Mr Smeaton, F. R. S. has made fome improvements pr0ye'.
applicable to the celeftial globe; and to give fome idea meats,
of the conftru&ion, they may. be deferibed as follows :
Inftead of a thin flexible flip of braft, which gene-
raiiy accompanies the globes, called the quadrant of
altitude, Mr Smeaton fubltitutes an arch of a circle of
the famo radius, breadth, and fubftance, as the brafs
meridian, divided into degrees, &c. flmilar to the di-
vifibns of that circle, and which, on account of its
ftrength, is not liable to be bent out of the plane of
a vertical circle, as ufnal with the common quadrant
put to globes. That end of this circular arch at which
the divilions begin, refts on the horizon, being filed off
fquare to fit and reft lleadily on it throughout its whole
breadth; and the upper end of the arch is firmly at¬
tached, by means of an arm, to a vertical focket,- in;
fuch a manner that when the lower end of the arch
refts on the horizon, the lower errd of this focket lha!l
reft on the upper edge of the brafs meridian, directly
over the zenith of the globe. This focket is fitted to
and ground with a fteel-ipindle of the fame length, fo
that it will turn freely on it without fluking; and the
fteel-fpindle has an apparatps attached touts lower end,
by which it can be fallened in a vertical pofitioh to-
the brafs meridian, with its centre dire&ly over the
zenith point of the globe. The fpinrile being, fixed
firmly in this pofition, and the focket which is at¬
tached to the circular arch put on to it, and fo ad-
jufted that the lower! end of the arch juft refts on
and fits clofe to the horizon ; it is evident that the
altitude of any objeft above the horizon will be Ihown
by the degree which it interfefts on-this arch, «and its
azimuth by that end of the arch which refts on the ho¬
rizon-
Befides this improvement, Mr Smeaton directs to
place the index which is ufually fixed on one end of
the axis to point out the hour, in fuch a manner that
its upper furface may move in the plane of the hqur-
cirde rather than above it, as it uf.tally does. He
files off the end of this index to a circular arch,
of the fame radius with the inner edge of the hour-
circle, to which it is to fit very exadiy ; and a fine
line is drawn on its upper furface to determine the
time by, inftead of the tapering point which is gene-
662 GEOGRAPHY. Sea.II.
Principles rally ufed. By thefe means half minutes may be dif- the time when the twilight begins and ends, and what Principles i
p tinguiihed, if the hour circle be four inches in dia- point of the horizon the fun rifes and fets on, for the Li- and.
. 'Ke- meter. Mr Smeaton alfo defcribes a contrivance for zardpoint inEngland^Franckfortin Germany, or Abbe- Pradtlce-t
preventing the meridian from (hifting after baing rec- ville in France, on the 30th of April. The latitude T " ^
tified for the latitude of the place, and while the ope- of thefe places by the maps will be found nearly yo®
rator is engaged in adjufting other parts of the ap- north. Place the moveable index fo that its point may
paratus. But as the purpofe which this is intended touch 50° on the quadrant of north latitude in the fi-
to anfwer appears to be much better performed by gure ; then obferve where its edge cuts the parallel line
the turned groove on the meridian in Mr Martin’s on which April 30th is wrote. From this reckon the
contrivance defcribed above, we lhall omit the particu- hour lines towards the centre, and you will find that
lar deicription ; and for farther explanations and fi- the parallel-line is cut by the index nearly at the di-
gures of Mr Smeaton’s improvements, refer the reader fiance of one hour and 15 minutes. So the fun rifea *
to the Phil. Tranf. Vol. LXXIX, Part i. at one hour 15 minutes before fix, or 45 minutes af-
For another improvement made to the celeftial globe, ter four in the morning, and fets 15 minutes after
by Mr Fergufon, fee Astronomy, n°493, and fig 187 feven in the evening. The length of the day is 14
of plate LXXX1. hours 30 minutes. Obferve how far the interfe&ion
Molt of the above problems may alfo be performed of the edge of the index with the parallel of April 30th
by means of accurate maps ; but this requires a great is diftant from any of the concentric circles ; which
deal of calculation, which is often very troublefome. you will find to be a little beyond that marked two
The Analemma, or Orthographic Projeftion, delineated points of the compafs; and this fliows, that on the 30th
on Plate CCXII. will folve many of the moft curious; of April the fun rifes two points and fomewhat more
and with the affiftance of the maps will be almoft equi- from the eaft towards the north, or a little to the
valent to a terreftrial globe. The parallel lines drawn northward of E. N. E. and fets a little to the north-
on this figure reprefent the degrees of the fun’s decli- ward of W. N W. To find the beginning and end-
nation from the equator, whether north or fouth, a- ing of twilight, take from the graduated arch of the
mounting to 231 nearly. On thefe lines are marked circle 1 yj-degrees with a pair of compafles; move one
the months and days which correfpond to fuch and foot of the compaffes extended to this diftance along
fuch declinations. The fize of the figure does not ad- the parallel for the 30th of April, till the other juft
mit of having every day of the year inferted; but by touches the edge of the index, which muft ftill point
making allowance for the intermediate days, in pro- at 50. The place where the other foot refts on the
portion to the reft, the declination may be gueffed at parallel of April 30th, then denotes the number of
with tolerable exaftnefs. The elliptical lines are de- hours before fix at which the twilight begins. This is
figned to (how the hours of fun rifing or fun-fetting be- fomewhat more than three hours and an half; which
fore or after fix o’clock. As 60 minutes make an (hows, that the twilight then begins foon after two
hour of time, a fourth part of the fpace between each in the morning, and likewife that it begins to appear
of the hour-lines will reprefent 15 minutes ; which the near five points from the eaft towards the north. The
eye can readily guefs at, and which is as great exa&- ufes of this analemma may be varied in a great number
nefs as can beexpe&ed from any mechanical invention, of ways; but the example juft now given will be fuf-
or as is neceflary to anfwer any common purpofe. i he ficient for the ingenious reader. — The fmall circles on
circles drawn round the centre at the diftance of 11£ the fame plate, marked IJland, Promontory, &c. are add-
each, (how the point of the compafs on which the fun ed in order to render the maps more intelligible, by
rifes and fets, and on what point the twilight begins (bowing how the different fubjedts are commonly de-
and ends. lineated on them.
In order to make ufe of this analemma, it is only
neceffary to confider, that, when the latitude of the Having thus explained the ufe of the globes, and
place and the fun’s declination are both north or both general principles of geography, we muft refer to the
fouth, the fun rifes before fix o’clock, between the eaft Maps for the fituation of each particular country, with
and the elevated pole; that is, towards the north, if regard to longitude, latitude. &c. and to the names
the latitude and declination are north ; or towards the of the countries as they occur in the order of the al-
fouth, if the latitude and declination are fouth. Let us phabet, for the moft remakable particulars concerning
now fuppofe it is required to find the time of the fun’s them,
rifing and fetting, the length of the days and nights,
GEOMANCY, GeomAntia, a kind of divination,
performed by means of a number of little points, or
dots, made on paper at random: and confidering the
various lines and figures, which tbofe points prefent;
and thence forming a pretended judgment of futurity,
and deciding any queftion propofed.
The word is formed of the Greek'/», terra, “ earth;”
and «a»7n«, “ divination it being the ancient cuf-
tom to caft little pebbles on the ground, and thence
to form their conje&ures; inftead of the points after¬
wards made ufe of.
Polydore Virgil defines geomancy a kind of divina¬
tion performed by means of clefts or chinks made in
the ground ; and takes the Perfian Magi to have been
the inventors thereof.
GEOMETRY
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Map of the W o rl d ,
Plate CCXIV
rhToTtliToJ
Parti.
663
G E O M
Rig in ally fignified no more than the art of
meafuring the earth, or any diftances or dimen-
fions within it: but at prefent it denotes the fcience
of magnitude in general ; comprehending the doc¬
trine and relations of whatever is fuiceptibe of aug¬
mentation or diminution, confidered in that light.
Hence to geometry may be referred the confidera-
tion not only of lines, furfaces, and folids ; but alfo of
timfe, velocity, number, weight, &c.
This fcience had its rife among the Egyptians, who
were in a manner compelled to invent it, to remedy
confufion which generally happened in their lands,
from the inundations of the river Nile, which carried
away all boundaries, and effaced all the limits of their
pofftfiions. Thus this invention, which at firft con-
iified only in meafuring the lands, that every perfon
might have what belonged to him, was called geo¬
metry, or the art of meafuring land ; and it is pro¬
bable that the draughts and fchemes, which they were
annually compelled to make, helped them to difcover
many excellent properties of thefe figures; which fpe-
cnlatioiis continued to be gradually improved, and are
fo to this day.
E T R Y
From Egypt geometry paffed into Greece ; where
it continued to receive new improvements in the hands
of Thales, Pythagoras, Archimedes, Euclid, &c. The
Elements of Geometry, written by this lalt in 15
books, are a moft convincing proof to what perfec¬
tion this fcience was carried among the ancients.
However, it muff be acknowledged, that it fell fliort
of modern geometry; the bounds of which, what
by the invention of fluxions, and the difcovery of the
almoft infinite orders of curves, are greatly enlar¬
ged.
We may diftinguifh the progrefs of geometry into
three ages; the firft of which was in its meridian glory
at the time when Euclid’s Elements appeared; the fe*
cond, beginning with Archimedes, reaches to the time
of Des Cartes, who, by applying algebra to the ele¬
ments of geometry, gave a new turn to this fcience,
which has been carried to its utmoft perfection by Sir
Tfaac Newton and Mr Leibnitz.
In treating this ufeful fubjedt, we ftiall divide it into
two parts; the firft containing the general principles;
and the fecond, the application of thefe principles t©
the menfuration of furfaces, folids, &c.
PartI. GENERAL PRINCIPLES of GEOMETRY.
Art. 1. A Point is that which is not made up of
parts, or which is of itfelf indivifible.
2. A line is a length without breadth, as B 
3. The extremities of a line are points ; as the ex¬
tremities of the line AB, are the points A and B,
fig. 1.
4. If the line AB be the neareft diftance between
its extremes A and B, then it is called njlraight line, as
AB ; but if it be not the neareft diftance, then it is
called a curve Tine, as al, fig. 1.
5. A furface is that which is confidered as having
only length and breadth, but no thicknefs, as fig. z.
6. The terms or boundaries of a furface are lines.
7. A plain furface is that which lies equally between
its extremes.
8. The inclination between two lines meeting one
another (provided they do not make one continued
line), or the opening between them, is called an angle;
thus the inclination of the line AB to the line CB(fig.3.)
meeting one another at B, or the opening between the
two lines AB and CB, is called an angle.
9. When the lines forming the angle are right lines,
then it is called a right-lined angle, as fig. 4.; if one of
them be right and the other curved, it is called a WW
angle, as fig. 5 ; if both of them be curved, it is called
a curve-lined angle, as fig. 6.
10. If a right line AB fall upon another DC, (fig 7.)
fo as to incline neither to one fide nor to the other,
but make the angles ABD, ABC, on each fide equal
to one another; then the line AB is faid to be perpen¬
dicular to the line DC, and the two angles are called
right-angles.
11. An obtufe angle is that which is greater than a
right one, as fig. 8, ; and an acute angle, that which
is lefs than a right one, as fig. 9.
12. If a right line DC be faftened at one of its ends
C, and the other end D be carried quite round, then
the fpace comprehended is called a circle ; the curve¬
line defcribed by the point D, is called the periphery or
circumference of the circle ; the fixed point C is called
the centre of it; fig. 10.
13. The deferibing line CD is called the radius,
viz. any line drawn from the centre to the circumfe¬
rence ; whence all radii of the fame or equal circles
are equal.
14. Any line drawn through the centre, and termi¬
nated both ways by the circumference, is called a diame¬
ter, as BD is a diameter of the circle BADE. And
the diameter divides the circle and circumference into*
two equal parts, and is double the radius.
15. The circumference of every circle is fuppofedto
be divided into 360 equal parts, called degrees; and
each degree is divided into 60 equal parts, called mi¬
nutes ; and each minute into 60 equal parts, called fe-
conds ; and thefe into thirds, fourths, 8cc. thefe parts
being greater or lefs according as the radius is.
16. Any part of the circumference is called an
arch, or arc ; and is called an arc of as many de¬
grees as it contains parts of the 360, into which the
circumference was divided : thus if AD be the of
the circumference, then the arc AD is an aic of 45 de¬
grees.
17. A line drawn from one end of an arc to the
other, is called a chord, and is the meafure of the arc:
thus the right line AB is the chord of the arc ADB,
fig. 11.
18. Any
664 ' G E O M
General ig. Any part of a circle cut off by a circle, is called
Principles. a J(^,mcnt ■ thus the fpace comprehended between the
y chord AB and drcumference ADB (which is cut off
by the chord AB) is called a fegment. Whence it is
plain, ' - *
ijf, That all chords divide the circle into two feg-
ments. • \
2Jly, The lefs the chord is, the more uncqual are
the fegrnerits, and e contra.
•\cUy, When the chord is greateff, viz. when it is a
diameter, then the fegments are ecpial, viz. each a fe-
micircle.
19. Any part of a circle (lefs than a femioircle)
contained between two radii and an arc, is called a
fcflor; thus the fpace contained between the two ra¬
dii, AC, BC, and tire arc AB, is called the fedor,
fig. 12.
20. The right fine of any arc, is a line drawn per¬
pendicular from one end of the arc, to a diameter drawn
through the other end of the fame arc; thus (fig., 13.)
AD is the right fine erf the arc AB, it being a Ime
drawn from A, the one end of the arc AB, perpendi¬
cular to CB, a diameter palling through B, the other
end of tl •: arc AB.
Now the fines Handing on the fame diameter, llillin-
creafe till they come to the centre, and then becoming
the radius, it is plain that the radius EC is the greatest
poffible fine, and for that reafon it is called the whole
Since the whole fine EC mull be perpendicular to the
diameter FB (by def. 20.), therefore producing the
diameter EG, the two diameters FB, EG, mull crofs
one another at right angles, and fo the circumference
of the circle mutt be divided by them into four parts,
EB, BG, GF, and FE, and thefe four parts are equal
to one another (by def. 10 ) andfo EB a quadrant, or
fourth part of the circumference ; therefore the radius
EC is always the fin -, of the quadrant, or fourth part
of the circle EB.
Sines are faid to be of fo many degrees, as the arc
contains parts of the 360, into which the circumfe¬
rence is i'uppofed to be divided ; fo the radius being
the fine of a quadrant, or fourth part of the circum¬
ference, which contains 90 degrees (the fourth part of
360), therefore the radius mull be the fine of 90 de¬
grees.
2 1. The part of the radius comprehended between
the extremity of the right fine and the lower end of
the arc, viz. DB, is called the verfed fine of the arc
22. If to Cany point in the circumference, viz. B,
there be drawn a diameter FCB, and from the point
B, perpendicular to that diameter, there be drawn the
line BH; that line is called a tangent to the circle in
the point B ; which tangent can touch the circle only
in one point B, elfe if it touched it in more, it would
go within it, and fo not be a tangent but a chord, (by
art ly.)
23. The tangent of any arc AB, is a right line
drawm perpendicular to a diameter through the one
end of the arc B, and terminated by a line CAH,
drawn from the centre through the other end A; thus
BH. is the tangent of the arc AB. '
24. And the line which terminates the tangent, viz.
CH, is called the fecant of the arc AB.
N°i37-
E T It Y. Parti.
25. What an arc wants of a quadrant is called the General
complement of that arc; thus AE, being what the arc PriPc>P,tS*
AB w ants of the quadrant EB, is called the comple-
ment of the arc AB.
26. A nd what an arc wants of a femicircle is called
the fupplement of that arc; thus fince AF is what the
arc AB wants of the femicircle BAF, it is the fupple¬
ment of the arc AB.
27. The fine, tangent, See. of the complement of
any arc, is called the co-Jine, co-tangent, Sec. of that
arc ; thus the fine, tangent, Sec. of the arc AE, is
called the co-fine, co-tangent, Sec. of the arc AB.,
28. The fine of the fupplement oBan arc is the fame
with the fine of the afe itfelf; for drawing them ac¬
cording to the definitions, -“^ere refults the felf-fame
line.
29. A ri^ht lined angle is meafured by an arc of a
circle deferibed upon the angular point as a centre,
comprehended betwefen the two legs that form the
angle ; thus (fig. 14.) the angle ABD is meafjred by
the arc AD of the circle CADE that is delcribed up¬
on the point B as a centre ; and the angle is faid to be¬
ef as many degrees as the arc is ; fo if the arc AD be
45 degrees, then the angle ABD is faid to be an angle
of 45 degrees.
Hence the angles are greater or lefs, according as
the .arc deferibed about the angular point, and termi¬
nated by the two legs, contain a greater or a lefs num¬
ber of degrees.
30. V/hen one line falls perpendicularly on another,
as AB on CD, fig. 15. then the angles are right (by
the 10th def.) ; and deferibing a circle on the centre
B, fince the angles ABC ABD are equal, their mea-
fures muft. be fo too. i. e, the arcs AC A D mult be e-
qual; but the whole CAD is a femicircle, fince CD,
a line pafling through the centre B, is a diameter ;
therefore each of the parts AC AD is a quadrant, i.e.
90, degrees ; fo the meafure of a right angle is always
90 degrees.
31. if one line AB fall any way upon another, CD,
then the fum of the two angles ABC ABD is always
equal to the fum of two right angles ; fig. 16. For
on the point B, deferihing the circle CAD, it is plain,
that CAD is a femicircle (by the 14th) ; but CAD is
equal to CA and AD the meafure of the two angles ;
therefore the fum of the two angles is equal to a femi¬
circle, that is, to two .right angles, (by the lad).
Com. From whence-it is plain, that all the angles
which can be made from a point in any line, towards
one fide of the line, are equal to two rielit angles.
2. And that all the angles which can be made about
a point, are equal to four right ones.
32. If one line AC crofs another BD in the point
E, then the oppofite angles are equal, viz. BEA to
CED, and EEC equal to AED ; fig. 17. For upon
the point E', as a centre, deferibing the circle ABCD,
it is plain ABC is a femicircle, as alfo BCD (by thg
14th) ; therefore the arc ABC is equal to the arc
BCE ; and from both taking the common arc BC,
there will remain AB equal to CD, i. e. the angle
BEA equal to the angle CED (by art. 29.) After the
fame manner we may prove, that the angle BEC is e-
qual to the angle AED.
33. Lines which are equally diftant from one another,
are called parallel lines y as AB, CD, fig. 18.
34- If
Part L G E O ft!
General 3^.. If a line GH crofs two parallels AB, CD, (fig.
Principles, extemal oppofite angles are equal, viz.
*   GEB equal to CFH, and AEG equal to HFD. For
fince AB and CD are parallel to one another, they
may be conlidered as one broad line, and GH. crofs-
ing it ; then the vertical or oppofite angles GEB
CFH are equal (by art. 32.), as alfo AEG and HFD
by the fame.
35. If a line GH crofs two parallels AB, CD, then
the alternate angles, viz. AEF and EFD, or CFE
and FEB, are equal ; that is? the angle AEF is equal
to the angle EFD, and the angle CFE is equal to
the angle FEB, for GEB is equal to AEF (by art.
32.), and CFH is equal to EFD (by the fame) ; but
' " GEB is equal to CFH (by the laft) ; therefore AEF
is equal to EFD. The fame way we may prove FEB
equal to EEC.
36. If a line GH crofs two pnralleLlines A^B, CD,
then the external angle GEB is equal to the internal
oppofite one EFD, or GEA equal to CFE. For the
angle AEF is equal to the angle EFD (by the hill);
but AEF is equal to GEB (by art. 32.), therefore
GEB is equal to EFD. The fame way we may prove
AEG equal to CFE.
37. If a line GH crofs two parallel lines AB, CD,
then the fum of the two internal angles, viz. BEF and
DEE, or AEF and CFE, are equal to two right an¬
gles ; for fince the angle GEB is equal to the angle
EFD (by art, 36.), to both add the angle FEB, then
GEB and BEF are equal to BEF and DFE; but
GEB and BEF are equal to two right angles (by
art. 31.), therefore BEF and DFE are alfo equal to
two right angles. The fame way we may prove that
AEF and CFE are equal to two right angles.
38. A figure is any part of fpace bounded by lines
or a line. If the bounding lines be ftraight, it is called a
reailinealfigure, as fig. 20. if they be curved, it is call¬
ed a eurvUitualfigure, as fig. 21. and fig. 22. ; if they
be partly curve lines and partly ftraight, it is called a
mixtfigure, as fig. 23.
39. The moft Ample reftilinear figure is that which
is bounded by three right lines, and is called a triangle,
as fig. 24..
40. Triangles are divided into different kinds, both
with refpefl to their fides and angles : with refpedt
to their fides, they are commonly divided into three
kinds, viz.
41. A triangle having all its three fides equal to one
-another, is called an equilateral triangle, as fig. 25.
42. A triangle having two of its fides equal to one
•another, and the third fide not equal to either of them,
is called an Ifofceles triangle, as fig. 26.
43. A triangle having none of its fides equal to one
another, is called a fealene triangle, as fig. 27.
44. Triangles, with refpedf to their angles, are di¬
vided into three different kinds, viz.
45. A triangle having one of its angles right, is call¬
ed a right-angled triangle, as fig. 28.
46. A triangle having one of its angles obtufe, or
greater than a right angle, is called an obtufe-angled
triangle, as fig. 29.
47. Laftly, a triangle having all its angles acute, is
■called an acute angled-tr:angle, as fig. 30.
48. In all right-angled triangles, the fides compre-
VbL.VII. Part II.
E T R Y. 665
bending the right angle are called the legs, and the fide General
oppofite to the right angle is called the hypothenuje. P' inciples.
Thus in the right-angled triangle AfiC, fig. 31. (the
right angle being at B), the two fides AB and BC,
which comprehended the right angle ABC, are the
legs of the triangle ; and the fide AC, which is oppo¬
fite to the right angle ABC, is the hypothenufe of the
right-angled triangle ABC.
49. Both obtufe and acute angled triangles are in
general called oblique-angled triangles ; in all which any
fide is called the bafe, and the other two thefides.
50. The perpendicular height of any triangle is a
line drawn from the vertex to the bafe perpendicular¬
ly ; thus if the triangle ABC (fig. 32.) be propofed,
and BC be made its bafe, then A will be the vertex,
viz. the angle oppofite to the bafe; and if from A you
draw the line AD perpendicular to BC, then the line
AD is the height of the triangle ABC ftanding on
BC as its bafe.
Hence all triangles ftanding between the fame paral¬
lels have the fame height, fince all the perpendicular?
are equal by the nature of paralleh.
5 1. A figure bounded by four fides is called a qua¬
drilateral or quadrangular figure, as ABDC, fig. 33.
52. Quadrilateral figures, whofe oppofite fides are pa¬
rallel, are called parallelograms. Thus in the quadrila¬
teral figure ABDC, if the fide AC be parallel to the
fide BD which is oppofite to it, and AB be parallel
to CD, then the figure ABDC is called a parallelo¬
gram.
53. A parallelogram having all its fides equal and
angles right, is called a fquare, as fig. 34.
54. That which hath only the oppofite fides equal
and its angles right, is called a redangle, as fig. 35.
55. That which hath equal fides, but oblique angles,
is called a rhombus, as fig. 36. and is juft an inclined
fquare.
56. That which hath only the oppofite fides equal
and the angles oblique, is called a rhomboides, as fig. 37.
and may be conceived as an inclined rectangle.
57. When'none of the fides are parallel to another,
then the quadrilateral figure is called a trapezium.
58. Every other right-lined figure, that has more
fides than four, is in general called a polygon. And fi¬
gures are called by particular names according to the
number of their fides, viz. one of five fides is called a
pentagon, of fix a hexagon, of feven a heptagon, and fo
on. When the fides forming the polygon are equal to
one another, the figure is called a regular figure or
polygon.
59. In any triangle ABC (fig. 38.) one ofiits legs, as
BC, being produced towards D, the external angle ACD
is equal to both the internal oppojiie ones taken toge-
tlser, viz. to ABC and BAC. In order to prove this,
through C, draw CE parallel to AB ; then fince CE
is parallel to AB, and the lines AC and BD crofs
them, the angle ECD is equal to ABC (by-art. 36.)
and the angle ACE .equal to CAB (by art 35.); there¬
fore the angles ECD and EGA are equal to the angles
ABC and CAB ; but the angles ECD and ECA are
together equal to the angle ACD; therefore the angle
ACD is equal to both the angles ABC and CAB ta¬
ken together.
Cor. Hence it may be proved, that if two lines AB
4 P and
666 G E O M
General an^ (^J) (fig. gg ) CTO^fe(^ by a third line EF, and
. nq^‘P es, the alternate angles AEF and EFD be equal, the lines
AB and CD will be parallel; for if they are not pa¬
rallel, they muft meet one another on one fide of the
line EF (fuppofe at G), and fo form the triangle EFG,
one of whofe fides GE being produced at A, the ex¬
terior angle AEF muft (by this article) be equal to the
fum of the two angles EFG and EGF ; but, by fup-
pofition, it is equal \o the angles EFG alone; there¬
fore the angle AEF muft be equal to the fum of the
two angles EFG and EGF, and at the fame time e-
qual to the angle EFG alone, which is abfurd; fo the
lines AB and CD cannot meet, and therefore muft be
parallel.
60. In any triangle ABC, all the three angles taken
together are equal to two right angles. To prove this,
you muft produce BC, one of its legs, to any diftance,
fuppofe to D ; then by the laft propofition, the ex¬
ternal angle, ACD, is equal to the fum of the two in¬
ternal oppofite ones CAB and ABC ; to both add the
angle ACB, then the fum of the angles ACD and ACB
will be equal to the fum of the angles CAB and CBA
and ACB. But the fum of the angles ACD and
ACB is equal to two right 'ones (by art. 32.), there¬
fore the fum of the three angles CAB and CBA and
ACB, is equal to two right angles; that is, the fum
of the three angles of any triangle ACB is equal to
two right angles.
Cor. 1. Hence in any triangle given, if one of its
angles be known, the fum of the other two is alfo
known : for fince (by the laft) the fum of all the three
is equal to two right angles, or a femicircle, it is
plain, that taking any one of them from a femicircle or
i 80 degrees, the remainder will be the fum of the o-
ther two. Thus (in the former triangle ABC) if the
angle ABC be 40 degrees, by taking 40 from 180 we
have 140 degrees; which is the fum of the two angles
BAC, ACB : the converfe of this is alfo plain, v'rx..
the fum of any two angles of a triangle being given,
the other angle is alfo known by taking that fum from
180 degrees.
2. In any right-angled triangle, the two acute angles
muft juft make up a right one between them ; confe-
quently, any one of the oblique angles being given, we
may find the other by fubtrafting the given one from
90 degrees, which is the fum of both.
61. If in any two triangles, ABC (fig. 40.) DEF
(fig. 41.) two legs of the one, w%. AB and AC, be e-
qual to two legs of the other, wa. to DE and DF-,
each to each refpe&ively, i. e. AB to DE and AC to
DF; and if the angles included between the equal
legs be equal, viz. the angle BAC equal to the angle
EDF; then the remaining leg of the one fhall be
equal to the remaining leg of the other, viz. BC to
EF ; and the angles oppofite to equal legs ftiall be e-
qual, viz. ABC equal to DEF (being oppofite to the
equal legs AC and DF), alfo ACB equal to DFE
(which are oppofite to the equal legs AB and DE).
For if the triangle ABC be fuppofed to be lifted up
and put upon the triangle DEF, and the point A on
the point D; it is plain, fince BA and DE are of equal
length, the point E will fall upon the point B ; and
fince the angles BAC EDF are equal, the line AC will
fall Upon the line DF; and they being of equal length,
the point C will fall upon the point F; and fo the line
E T R Y. Part I-
BC will exa&ly agree with the line EF, and the tri- Genera
angle ABC will in all refpedts be exatily equal to the Principleaj-
triangle DEF; and the angle ABC will be equal to  
the angle DEF,,alfo the angle ACB will be equal to
the angle DFE..
Cor. 1. After the fame manner it-may be proved,
that if in any two triangles ABC, DEF (fee the pre¬
ceding figure), two angles ABC and ACB of the one,
be equal to two angles DEF and DFE of the other,
each to each refpedtively, viz. the angle ABC to the
angle DEF, and the angle ACB equal to the angle
DFE, and the fides included between thefe angles be
alfo equal, viz. BC equal to EF, then the remaining
angles, and the fides oppofite to the equal angles, will
alfo be equal each to each refpeclively ; w'js.cthe angle
BAC equal to the angle EDF, the fide AB equal to -
DE, and AC equal to DF: for if the triangle ABC be
fuppofed to be lifted up and laid upon the triangle
DEF, the point B being put upon the point E, and
the line BC upon the line EF, fince BC and EF are
of equal lengths, the point C will fall upon the point
F, and fince the angle ACB is equal to the angle DFE,
the line CA will fall upon the line FD, and by the
fame way of reafoning the line BA will fall upon the
line ED ; and therefore the point of interfedtion of
the two lines BA and CA, viz. A, will fall upon the
point of interfe&ion of the two lines ED and FD, viz.
D, and confequently BA wall be equal to ED, and AC
equal to DF, and the angle BAC equal to the angle
EDF.
Cor. 2. It follows likewife from this article, that if
any triangle ABC (fig. 42.) has two of its fides AB
and AC equal to one another, the angles oppofite to
thefe fides will alfo be equal, viz. the angles ABC
equal to the angle ACB. For fuppofe the line AD
bife&ing the angle BAC, or dividing it into two equal
angles BAD and CAD, and meeting BC in D, then the
line AD will divide the whole triangle BAC into two
triangles ABD and DAC; in which BA and AD two
fides of the one, are equal to CA and AD two fides of
the other, each to each refpe&ively, and the included
angles BAD and DAC are by fuppofition equal; there¬
fore (by this article) the angle ABC muft be equal to
the angle ACB.
62. Any angle, as BAD (fig. 43.) at the circumfei
rence of a circle BADE, is but half the angle BCD at
the centre Jlanding on the fame arch BED. To de*
monftrate this, draw through A and the centre C the
right line ACE, then the angle ECD is equal to both
the angles DAC and ADC (by art. 59.); but fince
AC and CD are equal (being two radii of.the fame
circle), the angles fubtended by them muft be equal
alfo {\>y art. 62. cor. 2.), i. e. the angle CAD equal to
the angle CDA ; therefore the fum of them is double
any one of them, i. e. DAC and ADC is double of
CAD, and therefore ECD is alfo double of DAC: the
fame way it may be proved, that ECB is double of
CAB ; and therefore the angle BCD is double of the
angle BAD, or BAD the half of BCD, which was to
be proved.
Cor. 1. Hence an angle at the circumference is mea-
fured by half the arc it fubtends; for the angle at the
centre (Handing on the fame arc) is meafured by th<?
whole arc (by art. 29.) ; but fince the angle at the
centre is double that at the circumference-, it is plain the
angle
Fart I. O E O M
General angle at the fci'rcdrnference'mtift be meafured by only
principles. [jaif the arc it ftands upon.
^ " v~*“ Cor. 2. Hence all angles, ACfe, ADB, AEB, &c.
(fig. 44.) at the circumference of a circle, Handing on
the fame chord AB, are equal to one another 5 for by
the laft corollary they are all meafured by the fame arc,
half the AB which each of them fubtends.
Cor. 3. Hence tin angle in a fegment greater than
a femicircle is lefs than a right angle : thus, if ADB
be a fegment greater than a femicircle (fee the laft
figure), then the arc AB, on which it ftands, muft be
lefs than a femicircle, and the half of it lefs than a
quadrant or aright angle; but the angle AD Bin the feg-
ment is meafured by the half of AB, therefore it is lefs
than a right angle.
Cor. 4. An angle in a femicircle is a right angle.
’For fince ABD (fig.-46.) is a femicircle, the arc AED
muft alfo be a femicircle: but the angle ABD is mea¬
fured by half the arc AED, that is, by half a femi¬
circle or quadrant; therefore the angle ABD is a right
one.
Cor. 5. Hence an angle in a fegment lefs than a
femicircle, as ABD (fig. 45.), is greater than a right
angle: for fince the arc ABD is lefs than a femicircle,
the arc AED muft be greater than a femicircle, andfo
it is half greater than a quadrant, i. e. than the mea-
fure of a right angle; therefore the angle ABD, which
is meafured by half the arc AED, is greater than a
right angle.
63. If from the centre C of the circle ABE (fig. 47.)
there be let fall the perpendicular CD on the chord AB,
then that perpendicular will bifeB the chord AB in the
point D. To demonftrate this, draw from the centre
to the extremities of the chord the two lines CA, CB;
then, fince the lines CA and CB are equal, the angles
CAB, CB A, which they fubtend, muft be equal alfo(by
art. 62. cor. 2.), but the perpendicular CD divides the
triangle ACB into two right-angled triangles ACD and
CDB, in which the fum of the angles ACD and CAD
in the one is equal to the fum of the angles DCB and
CDB in the other, each being equal to a right angle
(by cor. 2. of art. 61.) but CAD is equal to CBD,
therefore ACD is equal to BCD. So in the two tri¬
angles ACD and BCD, the two legs AC and CD in
the one, are equal to the two legs BC and CD in the
other, each to each refpeftively, and the included
angles ACD and BCD are equal; therefore the re¬
maining legs AD and BD are equal (by art. 61.), and
confequently AB bife&ed in D.
64. If from the centre C of a circle ABE, there be
drawn a perpendicular CD on the chord AB, and pro-
duced|till it meet the circle in F, then the line CF bi-
fefts the arch AB in the point F ; for (fee the fore¬
going figure) joining the points A and F, F and B by
the ftraight lines AF, FB, then in the triangles ADF,
BDF, AD is equal to DB (by art. 63.), and DF com¬
mon to both ; therefore AD and DF, two legs of the
triangle ADF, are equal to BD and DF, two legs of
the triangle BDF, and the included angles ADF BDF
are equal, being both right;, therefore (by art. 61.)
the remaining legs AF and FB are equal; but in
the fame circle equal lines are chords of equal arches,
therefore the arches AF and FB are equal. So the
whole arch AFB is bife&ed in the point F by the line
CF.
E T R Y. 667
Ccr. 1. From art. 63. it follow#, that any line bi- General
feding a chord at right angles is a diameter; for fince PritlciPlea;
(by art. 63*) a line drawn from the centre perpendi- v
cular to a chord, bifeds that chord at right angles;
therefore, converfely, a line bifeding a chord at right
angles, muft pafs through the centre, and confequently
be a diameter.
Cor. 2. From the two laft articles it follows, that
the fine of any arc is the half of the chord of twice
the arc; for (fee the foregoing fcheme) AD is the fine
of the arc AF, by the definition of a fine, and AF is
half the arc AFB, and AD half the chord AB (by
art. 63.) ; therefore the corollary is plain.
65. In any triangle, the half of each fide is the
fine of the oppofite angle ; for if a circle be fuppofed
to be drawn through the three angular points A, B,
and D of the triangle ABD, fig. 48. then the angle
DAB is meafured by half the arch BKD (by cor. 1. of
art. 62.), but the half of BD, vix. BE, is the fine of
half the arch BKD, vix. the fine of BK (by cor. 2. of
the laft), which is the meafure of the angle BAD;
therefore the half of BD is the fine of the angle BAD:
the fame way, it may be proved, that the half of AD
is the fine of the angle ABD, and the half of AB is
the fine of the angle ADB.
66. The fine, tangent, &c. of any arch is called al¬
fo the. fine, tangent, &c. of the angle whofe meafure
the arc is : thus, becaufe the arc GD (fig. 49.) is the
meafure of the angle GCD; and fince GH is the fine,
DE the tangent, HD the verfed fine, CE the fecant,
alfo GK the co-fine, BF the co-tangenc, and CF the
co-fecant, &c. of the arch GD; then GH is called the
fine, DE the tangent, &c. of the angle GCD, whofe
meafure is the arch GD.
67. If two equal and parallel lines, AB and CD
(fig. 50.) be joined by two others, AC and BD ; then
thefe Jhall alfo be equal and parallel. To demonftrate
this, join the two oppbfite angles A and D with the
line AD; then it is plain this line AD divides the qua¬
drilateral, ACDB,.into two triangles, vix. ABD, ACD,
in which AB a leg of the one, is equal to DC a leg of
the other, by fuppofition, and AD is'common to both
triangles ; and fince AB is parallel to CD, the angle
BAD will be equal to the angle ADC (by art. 36.)}
therefore in the two triangles BA and AD, and the
angle BAD, is equal to CD and DA, and the angle
ADC ; that is, two legs and the included angle in the
one is equal to two legs and the included angle in the
other ; therefore (by art. 61.) BD is equal to AC,
and fince the angle DAC is equal to the angle ADB,
therefore the lines BD AC are parallel (by cor.
art. 59.)
Cor. i. Hence it is plain, that the quadrilateral
ABDC is a parallelogram, fince the oppoiite fides are
parallel.
Cor. 2. In any parallelogram the line joining the
oppofite angles (called the diagonal) as AD, divides
the figure into two equal parts, fince it has been pro¬
ved that the triaugles ABD ACD are equal to one a-
nother.
Cor. 3. It follows alfo, that a triangle ACD on the
fame bafe CD, and between the fame parallels with
a parallelogram ABDC, is the half of that parallelo¬
gram.
Cor. 4. Hence it is plain, that the oppofite fides of a
4 P 2 paral-
663
G E O M
General
-Puneipk,.
paralielogram are equal; for it has been proved, that
' ABDC being a parallelogram, AB will be equal to CD,
and AC equal to BD.
68. All parallelograms on the fame or equal bafes,
and between the fame parallels, are equal to one ano¬
ther; that is, if BD and GH (fig. 51.) be equal, and
the lines BH and AF be parallel, then the parallelo¬
grams ABDC, BDFE, and EFHG, are equal to one
another. For AC is equal to EF, each being equal to
BD (by cor. 4. of 67.) To both add CE, then AE will
be equal to CF. So in the two triangles ABE CDF,
AB a leg of the one, is equal to CD a leg in the other;
and; AE is equal to CF, and the angle BAE is equal
to the angle DCF (by art. 36.) ; therefore the two
triangles ABE CDF are equal (by art. 61.) ; and
taking the triangle CKE from both, the figure ABKC
will be equal to the figure KDFE; to both which add
the little triangle KBD, then the parallelogram ABDC
will be equal to the parallelogram BDFE. The fame
way it may be proved, that the parallelogram EFHG
is equal to the parallelogram EFDB; fo the three pa¬
rallelograms ABDC, BDFE,and EFHG, will be equal
to one another.
Cor. Hence it is plain, that triangles on the fame
bafe, and between the fame parallels, are equal ;
fince they are the half of the parallelograms on the
fame bafe and between the fame parallels (by cor. 3.
of laft art.)
69:. In any right-angled triangle, ABC, (fig. 52.)
the fquare of the hypothenufe BC, wss. BCMH, is equal
to the fum of the fquares made on the two Jides AB and
AC, viz. to ABDE and ACGF. To demonftrate this,
through the point A draw AKL perpendicular to the
hypothenufe BC, join AH, AM, DC, and BG; then
it is plain that DB is equal to BA (by art. 53.)-, alfo
BH is equal to BC (by the fame) ; fo in the two
triangles DBC ABH, the two legs DB and BC in the
one are equal to the two legs AB and BH in the o-
ther; and the included angles DBC and ABH are al¬
fo equal; (for DBA is equal to CBH, being both
right; to each add ABC, then it is plain that DBC
is equal to ABH) therefore the triangles DBC ABH
are equal (by art. 61.), but the triangle DBC is half
of the fquare ADBE (by cor. 3. of 67.), and the tri¬
angle ABH is half the parallelogram BKLH (by the
fame), therefore half the fquare ABDE is equal to
half the parallelogram BKLH. Confequently thefquare
ABDE is equal to the parallelogram BKLH. The
fame way it may be proved, that the fquare ACGF is
equal to the parallelogram KCML. So the fum of the
fquares ABDE and ACGF is equal to the fum of the
parallelograms BKLH and KCML, but the fum of
thefe parallelograms is equal to the fquare BCMH;
therefore the fum of the fquares on AB and AC is e-
quai to the fquare on BC.
Cor. r. Hence in aright-angled triangle, the hypo¬
thenufe and one of the legs being given, we may ea-
fdy find the other, by taking the fquare of the given
leg from the fquare of the hypothenufe, and the fquare
root of the remainder will be the leg required.
Cor. 2. Hence the legs in a right-angled triangle
being given, we may find the hypothenufe, by taking
the fum of the fquares of the given legs, and extrac¬
ting the fquare root of that fum.
qc. If upon the line AB (%• 53•) there be drawn
E T R Y. Parti.
a femicircle ADB, whofe centre is C, and on the General
point C there be raifed a perpendicular to the line A&, Pri“ciples*«
W*. CD ; then it is plain the arc DB is a quadrant, or " v *
contains 90 degrees; fuppofe the arc DB to be divi¬
ded into 9 equal arcs, each of which will contain xo
degrees, then on the point B raifing BE perpendicu¬
lar to the line AB, it.will be a tangent to the circle in
quadrant, w’z. B 10, B 20, B 30, B 40, &-c. you draw
the fine, tangent, $5fr. (as in the fc.hcme) we {hall
have the fine, tangent, £3V. to every 10 degrees ia
the quadrant: and the fame way we may have the
fine, tangent, efr. to every fingle degree in the qua- -
drant, by dividing it into 90 equal parts beginning
from B, and drawing the fine, tangent, idc. to all the
arcs beginning at the fame point B. By this method
they draw the lines of lines, tangents, &c. of a certain
circle on the fcale ; for after drawing them on the
circle, they take the length of them, and fee them off
in the lines drawn for that purpofe. The fame way,
by fuppofing the radius of any number of equal parts,
(fuppofe 1000, or 10,000, £3V.) it is plain the line,
tangent, &c. of every arc mud conlid of fome num¬
ber of thefe equal parts, and by computing them in
parts of the radius, we have tables of fines, tangents,
&c. to every arc in the quadrant, called naturalfines,
tangents. See. and the logarithms of thefe give us tables
of logarithmic lines, tangents, £sV. See Logarithms.
71. In any triangle, ABC, (fig. 1.) if one of its Plate
fides, as AC, be bifedied in E (and confequently AC CCXVI,
double of AE), and through E be drawn ED, parallel
to BC, and meeting AB in D, then BC will be double
of ED, and AB double of AD. Through D draw DF,
parallel to AC, meeting BC in F: for lince, by con-
ftruftion, DF is parallel to AC, and DE parallel to
BC ; therefore (by art. 36.) the angle BFD will
be equal to the angle BCA,* and (by the fame ar¬
ticle) the angle BCA will be equal to the angle DEA,
confequently the angle BFD will be equal to the angle
DEA; alfo (by art. 36.) the angle BDF will be e-
qual to the angle DAE : and fince DF is parallel to
EC, and DE parallel to FC, the quadrilateral DFCE
will be a parallelogram ; and therefore (by art. 59.
cor. 4.) DF will be equal to EC, which, by condruc-
tion, is equal to AE ; fo in the two triangles BDF
DAE, the two angles BFD and BDF in the one, are
equal to the two angles DEA and DAE in the other,
each to each refpe&ively ; and the included fide DF
is equal to the included fide AE; therefore (by art. 6u
cor. 1.) AD will be equal to DB, and confequently A B
double of AD ; alfo (by the fame) DE will be equal
to BF ; but DE is alfo (by art. 67. cor. 4.) equal to
FC ; therefore BF and ED together, or BC, will be
double of DE.
After the fame manner it may be proved, that if ia
the triangle AKG, (fig. 2.) AE be taken equal to a
third part of AK, and through E be drawn ED, pa¬
rallel to KG, and meeting AG in D; then ED will
be equal to a third part of GK, and AD equal to a
third part of AG.
Likewifeif in any triangle ABC, (fig. 3.) upon the
fide AB, be taken AE, equal to one fourth, one-fifth,
one-fixth, &c. of AB, and through E be drawn ED
parallel to BC and meeting AC in Dj then D will be
one-fourth* one-fifth, one-fixth, Zsfc. of BC, and AD
the like part of AC ; and, in general, if in any tri-
fart I. G E O M
Genera] angle ABC, there be afTumcd a point E on one of its
Principles. flde3 AB, and through that point be drawn aline ED,
'""~v parallel to one of its fides BC, and meeting the other
fide AC in D ; then whatever part AE is of ABj.-the
fame part will ED be of BC, and AD of AC.
Cor. Elence it follows, that if in any triangle ABC,
there be drawn ED, parallel to one of its fides BC, and
meeting the other two in the points E and D, then
AE : AB :: ED : BC :: AD : AC; that is, AE is to
AB, as ED is to BC, and that as AD to AC.
72. If any two triangles ABC, fig. 4. a b c, fig y.
are fimilar, or have all the angles of the one equal to
al!*the angles of the other, each to each refpeftively ;
that is, the angle CAB equal to the angle cab, and the
angle ABC equal to the angle a b c, and the angle ACB
equal to the angle a c b; then the legs oppofite to the
equal angles dre proportioned, viz. AB : a b :: AC :
a c :: and AB : ab:: BC; be;: and AC :ac :: BC :
b c. On AB of the largell triangle fet off AE equal to
a b, and through E draw ED parallel to BC, meeting
, AC in D; then fince DE and BC are parallel, and AB
croffing them, the angle AED will (by art. 36.) be
equal to the angle ABC, which (by fuppofition) is e-
qual to the angle a b c, alfo the angle DAE is (by fup¬
pofition) equal to the angle cab; fo in the two tri¬
angles AED, a b e, the two angles DAE AED of the
one, are equal to two angles cab a b c of the other,
each to each refpe&ivtly, and the included fide AE
is (by conftrudlion) equal to the included lideab;
therefore, (by art. 61. cor. 1.) AD is equal to a c, and
DE equal to cb; but fince, in the triangle ABC, there
is drawn DE parallel to BC one of its fides, and meet¬
ing the two other Jides in the points D and E, there¬
fore (by cor. art. 71.) AB: AE :: AC : AD, and AB :
AE :: BC : DE, and AC : AD :: BC : DE ; and in
the three laft proportions, inftead of the lines AE, DE,
and AD, putting in their equals a b, b c, and a c, we
lhall have AB : a b :: AC : a c, and AB : ab :: BC :
b c, and laftly, AC : a c :: BC : b c.
73. The chord, fine, tangent, CSV. of any arc in one
circle, is to the chord, fine, tangent, £sV. of th^ fame
arc in another, as the radius of the one is to the ra¬
dius of the other, fig. 6. 6. Let ABD ab d be two
circles, BD bd two arcs of thefe circles, equal to one
another, or confiding of the fame number of degrees ;
FD f d the tangents, BD b d the chords, BE b e the
fines, £sV. of thefe two arcs BD b d, and CD c d the
radii of the circles ; then fay, CD : c d :: FD : f d,
and CD : c d :: BD : b d, and CD : c d :: BE : b e,
fsV. For fince the arcs BD b d are equal, the angles
BCD bed will he equal; and FD f d, being tangents
to the points D and d, the angles CDF c d f will be
equal, being each a right angle (art. 22.) fo in the
two triangles CDF c d f, the two angles FCD CDF of
the one, being equal to the two angles fed cd f of
the other, each to each, the remaining angle CFD
will be equal to the remaining angle c f d (by art. 60.);
therefore the triangles CFD c f d are fimilar, and con-
fequently (by art. 73.) CD : cd :: FD : f d. In the
fame manner it may be demonftrated, that CD : c d
BD : b d, and CD : c d :: BE b e, £*.
74. Let ABD (fig. 7.) be a quadrant of a circle de-
feribed by the raduis CD ; BD any arc of it, and BA
its complement; BG or CF the fine, CG or BF the co-
E T R Y. <5%
fine ; DE the tangent, and CE the fecant of that arc General
BD. Then fince the triangles CDE CBG are fimilar t‘n:ic^lei;-,
or equiangular* it will be (by art. 72.) DE : EC :: v •
GB : BC, i. e. the tangent of any arc, is to the fecant
of the fame, as the fine of it is to the radius. Alfo
fince DE : EC :: GB : BC ; therefore, by inverting
that proportion, we have EC : DE BC : GB, i. e.
the fecant is to the tangent, as the radius is to the
fine of any arc.
Again, fince the triangles CDE CGB are fimilar,
therefore (by art. 72.) ic will be CD : CE :: CG :
CB, i. e. as the radius is to the fecant of any arc, fo
is the co-fine of that arc to the radius. And by in¬
verting the proportion we have this, viz. as the fecant
of any arc is to the radius, fo is the radius to the co¬
fine of that arc.
75. In all circles the chord of 60 is always equal in
length to the radius. Thus in the circle AEBD,
(fig. 8.) if the arc AEB be an arc of 60 degrees, then
drawing the chord AB, I fay AB lhall be equal to the
radius CB or AC ; for in the triangle ACB, the angle
ACB is 60 degrees, being meafured by the arc AEB;
therefore the fum of the other two angles is 1 20 de¬
grees, (by cor. 1. of 60.) ; but fince AC and CB are
equal, the two angles CAB, CBA will alfo be equal;
confequently each of them half theii fum 120, viz. 60
degrees ; therefore, all the three angles are equal to
one another, confequently all the legs, therefore AB
is equal to CB.
Cor. Hence the radius from which the lines on any
fcale are formed, is the chord of. 60 on the line o£
chords.
Geometrical Prollems.
Pros. x. From a point C (fig. 9.) in a given line
AB to raife a perpendicular to that line.
Rule. From the point C take the equal diftances CB,
C A on each fide of it. Then ttretch the compaffes to
any greater diftance than CB or CA, and with one
foot of them in B, fwe^p the arc EF with the other;
again, with the fame opening, and one foot in A,
fweep the arc GH with the other, and thefe two arcs
will interfedt one another in the point D; then join
the given points C and D with the line CD, and that
{hall be the perpendicular required.
2. To divide a given right line AB (fig. xo.) into
two equal parts; that is, to bifc& them.
Rule. Take any difiance with your compaffes that
you are fure is greater than half the given line; then,
fetting one foot of them in B, with the other fweep
the arc DFG; and with the fame diftance, artd one
foot in A, with the other fweep the arc CED ; thefe
two arcs will interfeA one another in the points CD,
which joined by the right line CD will bifedl AB in G.
3. From a given point D, (fig. 11.) to let fall a
perpendicular on a given line AB.
Rule. Set one foot of the compaffes in the point D,
and extend the other fo any greater diftance than the
leaft diftaxice between the given point and the line,
and with that extent fweep the arc AEB, cutting the
line in the two points A and B, then (by the laft
prob.) bifeft the line AB in the point C ; laftly, join C
and Dj and that line CD is the perpendicular
quired.
3-
G E O M
General 4, (Fig. 12.) Up<5n the end B of a given right line
l i incip «f. to ra-j-e a perpen(Jiculari
*■ Rule. Take any extent in your compaffes, and with
one foot in B fix the other in any point C without the
given line ; then with one point of the cotnpalTes in C,
deferibe with the other the circle EBD, and through !L
and C draw the diameter ECD meeting the circle in D;
join D and B, and the right line DB is that required ;
for EBD is a right angle (by cor. 4. of 63.)
5. (Fig. 13.) To draw one line parallel to another
given line AB, that lhall be diftant from one another
by any given diftance D.
Rule. Extend your compafles to the given diftance
D ; then fetting one foot of them in any point of the
given line (fuppofe A,) with the other fweep the arc
FCG ; again, at the fame extent, and one foot in any
other point of the given line B, fweep the arc HDK,
and draw the line CD touching them, and that will
be parallel to the given line AB, and diftant from it
by the line D as was required.
6. (Fig. 14.) To divide a given line AB into any
number of equal parts, fuppofe 7.
Rule. From the point A draw any line AD, making
an angle with the line AB, then through the point B,
draw a line BC parallel to AD ; and from A, with
any fmall opening of the compafles, fet off a number
of equal parts (on the line AD) lets by one than the
propofed number (here 6.); then from B fet off the
fame number of the fame parts (on the line BC); laft-
-ly, join 1 and 6, 2 and 5, 3 and 4, 4 and 3, 5 and 2,
•<5 and 1, and thefe lines will cut the given line as re¬
quired.
7. (Fig. 15.) To quarter a given circle, or to di¬
vide it into four equal parts.
Rule. Through the centre C of the given circle,
draw a diameter AB, then upon the point C raife a
perpendicular DCE to the line AB ; and thefe two
diameters AB and DE ftiall quarter the circle.
8. (Fig. 16.) Through three given points A, B, and
D, to draw a circle.. Note, The three points molt not
fie in the fame ftraight line.
Rule. Join A and B, aifo B and D, with the ftraight
lines AB BD ; then (by prob. 2.) bifedt AB with the
line EC, alfo BD with the line FC, which two lines
■will cut one another in fome point C ; that is the
centre of the circle required: then fixing one point
of our compaffes in D, and ftretching the other to A,
deferibe the circle ABDG, which will pafs through
the three points given. The reafon of this is plain
from cor. 1. of art. 64.
9. (Fig. 17.) From the point A of the given line
AB, to draw another line (fuppofe AC) that lhall make
with AB an angle of any number of degrees, fup¬
pofe 45.
Rule. Let the given line AB be produced, then take
off your fcale the length of the chord of 60 degrees,
which is equal to the radius of the circle the fcale was
made for (by art. 75.); and fetting the foot in A,
with the other fweep off the arc BC ; then with your
compafles take from your fcale the chord of 45 degrees,
and fet off that diftance from B to C. Laftly,join A
and C, and the line AC is that required. For the
.angle CAB, which is meafured by the arc BC, is an
>jngle of 45 degrees, as was required.
E T R Y. Part.n.
10. An angle BAC (fig. iD.) being given, to find Genera
how many degrees it contains. Principles.
Rule. With your compafles take the length of your *
chord of 6.0 from your fcale. Then, fecting one foot
of them in A, with the other fweep the arc BC, which
is the arc comprehended between the two legs AB,
AC produced if needful. Lalily, take with your com¬
pafles the diftance BC, and applying it to your line of
chords on the fcale, you will find how many degrees
the arc BC contains, and confequently the degrees of
the angle BAC which was required.
11. Three lines x, y, and * being given, (fig. 19.
19.) to form a triangle of them ; but any two of theie
lines taken together muft always be greater than the
third.
Rule. Make any one of them, as x, the bafe ; then
with your compaffes take another of them, as z, and
fetting o*ie foot in one end of the line x, as B, with
the other fweep the arc DE ; and taking with your
compafles the length of the other y, fet one foot of
them in A, the other end of the line x, and with the
other fweep the arc FG, which will cut the other in
-C ; laftly, join CA and CB, and the triangle CAB is
that required.
12. To make a triangle, having one of its legs of
any number of equal parts (fuppofe 160,) and one of
the angles at that leg 50 degrees, and the other 44
degrees.
Rule. Draw an indefinite line ED, (fig. 20.) then
take off the line of equal parts with your compaffes, 160
of them, and fet them on the indefinite line, as BC ;
then (by prob. 9.) draw BA, making the angle ABC
of 50 degrees, and (by the fame) draw from C the
line AC, making the angle ABC of 44 degrees; which
two lines will meet one another in A, and the triangle
ABC is that required. See Trigonometry.
13. Upon a given line AB (fig. 21.) to make a
fquare.
Rule. Upon the extremity A of the given line AB,
raife a perpendicular AC (by prob. 4.); then take AC
equal to AB, and with that extent, letting one foot
of the compafles in C, fweep with the other foot the
arc GH ; then with the fame extent, and one foot in
B, with the other fweep the arc EF, which will meet
the former in fome point D ; laftly, join C and D, D
and B, and the figure ABDC will be the fquare re¬
quired.
14. On a given line AB (fig. 22.) to draw a rhomb
that Ihall have one of its angles equal to any number
of degrees, fuppofe 60 degrees.
Rule. From the point A of the given line AB,
draw the line AC, making the angle CAB of 60 de¬
grees, (by prob. 9.) then take AC equal to AB, and
with that extent, fixing one foot of the compaffes in
B, with the other deferibe the arc GH ; and at the
fame extent, fixing one foot of the compaffes in C,
with the other deferibe the arc EF cutting the former
in D; laftly, join CD and DB, and the figure ACDB
is that required.
16. Given two lines x and z, of thefe two to make
a re&angle.
Rule. Draw aline, as AB, (fig. 23. 23.) equal in
length to one of the given lines x ; and on the extre¬
mity A of that line raife a perpendicular AC, on
.2 >which
Part. If. GEO M
Lines and which take AC equal to the other line a ; then take
Angles. wjt}j yOU!. conipaffes the length of the line AB, and
U"^v at that extent, fixing one foot of them in C, with the
other fweep the arc EF; and alfo taking with your
compaffes the extent of the line AC, fix one foot of
them in B, and with the other fvveep the arc GH,
which will meet the former in D ; laftly, join CD and
BD, and the figure ABDC will be that required.
16. Two lines k and 2; being given, of thefe to
form a rhomboides that /hall have one of its angles
any number of degrees* fuppofe 50.
E T R Y.
67-T
Rule. Draw a line AB (fig. 24. 24.) equal in length Lines and
to one of the lines, as x; then draw the line AC, Angles~ .
making with the former the angle BAG equal to the
propofed, fuppofe 50 degrees, and on that line take
AC equal to the given line ss ; then with your com-
palfes take the length of AB, and fixing one foot in
C, fweep the arc EF; alfo taking the length of
AC, and fetting one foot in B, with the other fweep
the arc GH, which will cut the former in D; then
join CD and DB, fo the figure ACDB will be that re=
quired.
Part. II.
The APPLICATION of the FOREGOING PPvINCIPLES to the
MENSURATION of SURFACES, SOLIDS, &c.
Chap. I. Of the Menfuration of Lines and Angles.
A Line or length to be meafured, whether it be
diilance, height, or depth, is meafured by a line
lefs than it. With us the lead meafure of length is an
inch : not that we meafure no line lefs than it, but
fcecaufe we do not ufe the name of any meafure be¬
low that of an inch; expreffing leffer meafures by the
fra&ions of an inch: and in this treatife we ufe deci¬
mal fradfions as the eafieft. Twelve inches make a
foot 5 three feet and an- inch make the-Scots ell; fix
ells make a fall; .forty falls make a furlong; eight fur¬
longs make a mile : fo that the Scots mile is 1184
paces, accounting every pace to be five feet. Thefe
things are according.to the ftatutes of Scotland ; not-
withftanding which, the glaziers ufe a foot of only
eight inches; and other art ills for the moll part ufe
an Englilh foot, on account of the feveral fcales marked
on the Englilh foot-meafure for their ufe. But the
Englilh foot is feme what lefs than the Soots ; fo that
185 of thefe make 186 of thofe.
Lines, to the extremities and any intermediate
point of which you have eafy accefs, are meafured by
applying to them the common meafure a number of
times. But lines, to which you cannot have fuch ac¬
cefs, are meafured by methods taken from geometry.;
the chief whereof we fhall here endeavour to explain. .
The firft is by the help of the geometrical fquare.
As for the Englilh, meafures, the yard is 3 feet,
or 36 inches. A: pole is fixteen feet and a half, or
five yards and a half. The chain, commonly called
Gunter’s chain, is four poles, or 22 yards, that is, 66
feet. An Englilh ftatute-mile is fourfeore chains, or
1760 yards, that is, 5280 feet.
“ The chain (which is now much in ufe, becaufe it
is-, very convenient for furveying) is divided into too.
links, each of which is 7/0V °f an inch : whence it is
eafy to . reduce any number of thofe links to feet, or
any number of feet to links.
“A chain that may have the fame advantages in
furveying Scotland, as Gunter’s chain has in England,
ought to be in length 74 feet, or 24 Scots ells, if no
regard is had to the difference of the Scots and Englilh
foot above mentioned. But if regard is had to that
difference, the Scots chain ought to coniift of 74!.
Englilh feet, or 74 feet 4 inches and jths.of an inch.
This chain being divided into 100 links, each of thofe
links is 8 inches and of an inch. In the follow¬
ing table, the moll noted meafures are exprelfcd in
Englilh inches and decimals of an inch,”.
EngUJh Inch. Dec.
The Englifn foot, is - - 12 000
The Paris foot, - - 12 788
The Rhindland foot meafured by Mr Picart, 12 362
The Scots foot, - - - 12 065
The Amllerdam foot, by Snellius and Picart, 11 172
The Dantzick foot, by Heyelius, - n 297
The Danilh foot, by Mr Picart, - 12 465
The Swedilh foot, by the fame, - n 692
The Bruffels foot, by the fame, ■ 10 828
The Lyons foot, by Mr Auzout, - 13' 478
The Bononian foot, by Mr Cafiini, - 14 938
The Milan foot, by Mr Auzout, - 15 631
The Roman palm ufed by merchants, accord¬
ing to the fame, - - 9 79*
The Roman palm ufed by architedls, 8 779,:
The palm of Naples, according to Mr Auzout, 10 314.
The Englilh yard, - - 36 000
The Englilh ell, - - 45 000
The Scots ell, - - " 37 200
The Paris nune ufed by mercers, according to
Mr Picart, - - 46 786
The Paris aune ufed by drapers, according to
the-fame, - - - 46 680 •
The Lyons aune, by Mr Auzout, - 46 570
The Geneva aune, - - 44 760
The Amllerdam ell, - - 26 800
The Danilh ell, by Mr Picart, . - 24 930
The Swedilh ell, - - 23 380
The Norway ell, > - - 24510-
The Brabant or Antwerp ell, - 27 170
The Brairds ell, - - 27 260
The Bruges ell, - - 27 J5°
The brace of Bononia, according to Auzout, 25 zco
The brace ufed by architedls in Rome, 30 730
The bract ufed in Rome - by merchants, 34 270
The Florence brace ufed by merchants, ac¬
cording to Picart, - - 22-910
The Florence geographical brace, - - 2 j 570
The vara of Seville, - 33 127
The vara of Madrid, : - 39 j^6
The vara of Portugal, - - 44 03.1
The cavedo of Portugal, - 27 354
The ancient Roman foot, - 11 632 .
The Perfian arilh, according to Mr Graves, 38 364
The lliorter pike of Conllantinople, accord¬
ing-to the fame, - - 25 576
Another pike of Conllantinople, according to
Mclha Mallet and De la Porte, - 27 92P
PR(.L
t
672 GEO M
.Lines and PROPOSITION!.
, Angles. Pros. 'To deferile the Jlrudure of the geometrical
fquare.—The geometrical fquare is made of any folid
matter, as brafs or wood, or of any four plain rulers
CCXVIf. joined together at right angles (as in fig. 1.), where
A is the centre, from which hangs a thread with a
fmall weight at the end, fo as to be dire&ed always
to the centre. Each of the fides BE and DE is divi¬
ded into an hundred equal parts, or (if the fides be
long enough to admit of it) into a thoufand parts ; C
and F at two fights, fixed on the fide AD. There is
moreover an index GH, which, when there is occafion,
is joined to the centre A, in fuch manner as that it
can move round, and remain in any given fituation.
On this index are two .fights perpendicular to the
right line going from the centre of the inttrument :
thefe are K and L. The fide DE of the inilrument
is called the upright fide-; E the reclining fide.
PROPOSITION II.
Fig. 2. To meafure an accejfible height A B ly the
help of a geometrical fquare, its dlftance being known.—
Let BR be an horizontal plane, on which there Hands
perpendicularly any line AB : let BD, the given di-
itance of the obfervator from the height, be 96 feet:
let the height of the obferva tor’s eye be fuppofed 6
feet; and let the inftrument, held by a fteady hand,
or rather leaning on a fupport, be dire&ed towards
the fummit A, fo that one eye (the other being fhut)
may fee it clearly through the fights ; the perpendi¬
cular or plumb-line meanwhile hanging free, and touch¬
ing the furface of the inftrument ; let now the per¬
pendicular be fuppofed to cut off on the right fide
KN 80 equal parts. It is clear that LKN, ACK, are
fimilar triangles; for the angles LKN, ACK are right
angles, and therefore equal; moreover, LN and AC
are parallel, as being* both perpendicular to the hori¬
zon ; confequently (by art. 60. cor. \. Part I), the
angles KLN, KAC, are equal; wherefore (by art.
60. cor. 2. of Part I), the angles LNK and CAK are
likewife equal: fo that in the triangles NKL, KAC,
(by art. 72. of Parti.) as NK : KL :: KC (i. e. BD)
: CA ; that is, as 80 to 100, fo is 96 feet to CA.
Theiefore, by the rule of three, CA will be found to
be 120 feet; and CB, which is 6 feet, being added,
the whole height is 126 feet.
But if the diftance of the obfervator from the height,
as BE, be fuch, that when the inftrument is direded
as formerly toward the fummit A, the perpendicular
falls on the angle P, oppofite to H, the centre of the
inftrument, and BE or CG be given of 120 feet ; CA
will alfo be 120 feet. For in the triangles HGP, ACG,
equiangular, as in the preceding cafe, as DG : GH ::
GC : CA. But PG is equal to GH; therefore GC
is likewife equal to CA: that is, CA will be 120 feet,
and the whole height 126 feet as before.
Let the diftance BF be 300 feet, and the perpendi*
cular or plumb-line cut off 40 equal parts from the re¬
clining fide: Now, in this cafe, the angles QAC, QZl,
are equal, and the angles QZI, ZIS, are equal: there¬
fore the angle ZIS is equal to the angle QAC. But
the angles ZSI, QCA are equal, being right angles ;
therefore, in the equiangular triangles ACQ, SZI, it
will be, as ZS : SI : : CQj CA; that is, as 100 to
40, fois 300 to CA. Wherefore, by the rule of three,
CA will be found to be of 102 feet. And, by adding
N°i37-
E T R Y. Part II.
the height of the obfervator, the whole BA will be Lines and
126 feet. Note, that the height is greater than the Angles,
diftance, when the perpendicular cuts the right fide, *
and lefs if it cut the reclined fide; and that the height
and diftance are equal, if the perpendicular fall on the
bppofite angle.
SCHOLIUM.
If the height of a tower to be meafured as 'above,
etfd in a point (as in fig. 3.), the diftance of the ob¬
fervator oppofite to it, is not CD, but is to be ac¬
counted from the perpendicular to the point A; that
is, to CD muft be added the half of the thicknefs
of the tower, viz. BD : which muft likewife be un-
derftood in the follt'wing prqpofitions, when the cafe
is fimilar.
PROPOSITION III.
Fig. 4. From the height of a tower AB given, to find
a diftance on the horizontal plane BC, by the geometrical
fquare.—Let the inftrument be fo placed, as that the
mark C in the oppofite plane may be feen through the
fights ; and let it be obferved how many parts are cut
off by the perpendicular. Now, by what hath been
already demonftrated, the triangles AEF, ABC, are
fimilar; therefore, it will be as EF to AE, fo AB
(compofed of the height of the tower BG, and of the
height of the centre of the inftrument A, above the
tower BG) to the diftance BC. Wherefore, if, by
the rule of three, you fay, as EF to AE, fo is AB to
BC, it will be the diftance fought.
PROPOSITION IV.
Fig. 5. To meafure any diftance at land or fea, by
the geometrical fquare.—In this operation, the index is
to be applied to the inftrument, as was Ihown in the
defeription ; and, by the help of a fupport, the inftru¬
ment is to be placed horizontally at the point A ; then
let it be turned till the remote point F, whofe diftanca
is to be meafured, be feen through the fixed fights;
and bringing the index to be parallel with the other
fide of the inftrument, obferve by the fights upon it
any accefiible mark B, at a fenfible diftance: thei\
carrying the inftrument to the point B, let the im¬
moveable fights be diredttd to the firft ftation A, and
the fights of the index to the point F. If the index
cut the right fide of the fquare, as in K, in the two
triangles BRK, and BAF, which are equiangular, it
will be as BR to RK, fo BA (the diftance of the fta-
tions to be meafured with a chain) to AF; and the
diftance AF fought will be found by the rule of three.
But if the index cut the reclined fide of the fquare
in any point L, where the diftance of a more re¬
mote point is fought : in the triangles BLS, BAG,
the fide LS {hall be to SB, as BA to AG, the di¬
ftance fought; which accordingly will be found by the
rule of three.
PROPOSITION V.
Fig. 6. To meafure an acceffible height by means cf
a plain mirror.—Let AB be the height to be mea¬
fured ; let the miiror be placed at C, in the horizon¬
tal plane BD, at a known diftance BC 5 let the obfer-
ver go back to D, till he fee the image of the fummit
in the mirror, at a certain point of it, which he muft
diligently mark ; and let DE be the height of the ob-
fervator’s eye. The tiiangles ABC and EDC arc
equiangular ; for the angles at D and B are right
angles; and ACB, ECD, are equal, being the angles
Part II. G E O M
Lines and of incidence and reflexion of the ray AC, as is demon-
angles. fl.rate<i in optics; wherefore the remaining angles at
A and E are alfo equal; therefore it will be as CD
to DE, fo CB to BA; that is, as the diftance of the
obfervator from the point of the mirror in the right
line betwixt the obfervator and the height, is to the
height of the obfervator’s eye, fo is the diftance of
the tower from that point of the mirror to the height
of the tower fought; which therefore will be found
by the rule of three.
Note i. The obfervation will be more exa£f, if, at
the point D, a ftaff be placed, in the ground perpen¬
dicularly, over the top of which the obfervator may
fee a point of the glafs eXaftly in a line betwixt him
and the tower.
Note 2. In place of a mirror may be ufed the fur-
face of water contained in a veffel, which naturally
becomes parallel to the horizon.
PROPOSITION vr.
Fig. 7. T0 meafure an accejfille height AB means
cf tivojiajfs.’—Let there be placed perpendicularly in
the ground a longer ftaff DE, likevvife a (hotter one
FG, fo as the obfervator may fee A, the top of the
height to be meafured, over the ends DF of the two
ftaffs; let FH and DC, parallel to the horizon, meet
DE and AB in H and C ; then the triangles FHD,
DC A, (hall be equiangular ; for the angles at C and
H are right ones; likewife the angle A is equal to the
angle FDH; vherefore the remaining angles DFH,
and ADC, are alfo equal: wherefore, as FH, the di¬
ftance of the ftaffs, to HD, the excefs of the longer
ftaff above the ihorter; fo is DC, the diftance of the
longer ftaff from the tower, to CA, the excefs of the
height of the tower above the longer ftaff. And thence
CA will be found by the rule of three.
To which if the length DE be added, you wiH have
the whole height of the tower BA.
SCHOLIUM.
Fig. 8. Many other methods may be occafionally
contrived for meafuring an accefiible height. For ex¬
ample, from the given length of the ftiadow BD, to
find out the height AB, thus: Let there be eredfed a
ftaff CE perpendicularly, producing the -ftiadow EF :
The triangles ABD, CEF, are equiangular; for the
angles at B and E are right; and the angles ADB and
CFE are equal, each being equal to the angle of the
fun’s elevation above the horizon : Therefore, as EF,
the fhadow of the ftaff, to EC, the ftaff ilfelf; fo BD,
the ftiadovv of the tower, to BA, the height of the
tower. Though the plane on which the fhadow of
the tower falls be not parallel to the horizon, if the
ftaff be eredted in the fame plane, the rule wall be the
fame.
PROPOSITION VII.
To meafure an ir.acceffihle height by means of twojlaji.
 Hitherto we have fuppofed the height to be accef-
fible, or that we can come at the lower end of it;
now if, becaufe of fome impediment, we cannot get to
a, tower, or if the point whofe height is to be found
out be the fummit of a hill, fo that the perpendicular
be hid within the hill; if, for want of better inftru-
ments, fuck an inaccefiible height is to be meafured by
means of two ftaffs, let the firft obfervation be made
with the ftaffs DE and FG, (as in prop. 6.); then the
oblervator is to go off in a diredt line from the height
Vox. VII. Part II,
E T R T, 673-
and firft ftation, till he come to the fecond ftation; Lines and
where (fig. it.) he is to place the longer ftaff perpen- Angle8* .
dicularly at RN, and the fhorter ftaff at KO, fo that
the fummit A may be feen along their tops; that is,
fo that the points KN A may be in the fame right line.
Through the point N, let there be drawn the right line
NP parallel to FA : Wherefore in the triangles KNP,
KAF, the angles KNP, KAF are equal, alfo the angle
AKF is common to both; confequently the remaining
angle KPN is equal to the remaining angle KFA. And
therefore, PN : FA : : KP : KF. But the triangles
PNL, FAS are fimilar; therefore, PN : FA : r NL :
SA. Therefore (by the 11. 5. Eucl.) KP : KF::
NL : SA. Thence, alternately, it will be, as KP (the
excefs of the greater diftance of the fhort ftaff from
the long one above its leffer diftance from it) to NL,
the excefs of the longer ftaff above the fhorter ; fo
KF, the diftance of the two ftations of the fhorter ftaff
to SA, the excefs of the height fought above the height
of the fhorter ftaff. Wherefore SA will be found by
the rule of three. To which let the height of the
fhorter ftaff be added, and the fum will give the whole
inacceflible height BA.
Note 1. In the fame manner may an inacceffible
height be found by a geometrical fquare, or by a plain
fpeculum. But we fhall leave the rules to be found
out by the ftudent, for his own exercife.
Note 2. That by the height of the ftaff we under-
fland its height above the ground in which it is fixed.
Note 3. Hence depends the method of ufing other
inftruments invented by geometricians; for example,
of the geometrical crofs : and if all things be juftly
weighed, a like .rule will ferve for it as here. But we
incline to touch only upon what is moft material.
PROPOSITION VIII.
Fig. 9. To meafure the diftance AB, to one of ovhofe
extremities we have accefs, by the help of four JiaJfts.—Let
there be a ftaff fixed at the point A ; then going back
at fome fenfible diftance in the fame right line, let
another be fixed in C, fo as that both the points A and
B be covered and hid by the ftaff C ; likewife going
off in a perpendicular from the right line CB, at the
point A (the method of doing which fhall be fhovvn
in the following fcholium), let there be placed another
ftaff at H ; and in the right line CKG (perpendicular
to the fame CB, at the point B), and at the point of
it K, fuch that the points K, H, and B may be in the
fame right line, let there be fixed a fourth ftaff. Let
there be drawn, or let there be fuppofed to be drawn,
a right line GH parallel to CA. The triangles KGH,
HAB, will be equiangular; for the angles HAB, KGH
are right angles. Alfo the angles ABH, KHG are
equal; wherefore, as KG (the excefs of CK above
AH) to GH, or to CA, the diftance betwixt the firft
and fecond ftaff; fo is AH, the diftance betwixt the
firft and third ftaff, to AB the diftance fought.
SCHOLIUM.
Fig. 10. To draw bn a plane a right line AE per¬
pendicular to CH, from a given point A ; take the
light lines AB, AD, on each fide equal; and in the
points B and D, let there be fixed flakes, to which let
there be tied two equal ropes BE, DE, or one having
a mark in the middle, and holding in your hand their
extremities joined (or the mark in the middle, if it be
but one.), draw out the ropes on the .ground ; and
4 then
674 GEO M
Lines anti then where the two ropes meet, or at the mark,
Angles. when by it the rope is fully ftretched, let there be
'    placed a third ilake at E ; the right line AE will be
perpendicular to CH in the point A (prob. i. of
Part I.). In a manner not unlike to this, may any
problems, that are refolved by the fquare and com-
paffes, be done by ropes and a cord turned round as
a radius.
PROPOSITION IX.
Fig. 12. To mtafure the diftance AB, one of •whofe
extremities is accejible.—From the point A, let the right
line AC of a known length be made perpendicular to
AB (by the preceding fcholium) : likewife draw the
right line CD perpendicular to CB, meeting the right
line AB in D : then as DA : AC : : AC : AB.
Wherefore, when DA and AC are given, AB will be
found by the rule of three.
SCHOLIUM.
All the preceding operations depend on the equality
of fome angles of triangles, and on the fimilarity of
the triangles arifing from that equality. And on the
fame principles depend innumerable other operations
which a geometrician will find out of himfelf, as is
very obvious. However, fome of thefe operations
require fuch exaftnefs in the work, and without it are
fo liable to errors, that, ceteris paribus, the following
operations, which are performed by a trigonometrical
calculation, are to be preferred; yet could we not o-
mit thofe above, being moil eafy in praftice, and moll
clear and evident to thofe who have only the firll e-
lements of geometry. But if you are provided with
inftruments, the following operations are more to be
relied upon. We do not infift on the eafieft cafes to
.thofe who are (killed in plain trigonometry, which is
indeed neceffary to any one who would apply himfelf
to pra&ice. See Trigonometry.
PROPOSITION X.
Fig. 13. To deferibe the conflrudion and ufe of the geo¬
metrical quadrant.—The geometrical quadrant is the
fourth part of a circle divided into 90 degrees, to
which two fights are adapted, with a perpendicular or
plumb-line hanging from the centre. The general ufe
of it is for inveftigating angles in a vertical plane, com¬
prehended under right lines going from the centre of
the indrument, one of which is horizontal, and the
Other is dire&ed to fome vifible point. This inftru-
ment is made of any folid matter, as wood, copper, &c.
PROPOSITION XL
Fig. 14. To deferibe and make ufe of the graphometer.
—The graphometer is a femicircle made of any hard
matter, of wood, for example, or brafs, divided into
180 degrees j fo fixed on a fulcrum, by means of a
brafs ball and focket, that it eafily turns about, and
retains any fituation ; two fights are fixed on its dia¬
meter. At the centre there is commonly a magneti-
cal needle in a box. There is likewife a moveable
ruler, which turns round the centre, and retains any
fituation given it. The ufe of it is to obferve any
, angle, whofe vertex is at the centre of the inftrument
' in any plane (though it is motl commonly horizontal,
or nearly fo), and to find how many degrees it con-
PR ©POSITION XII.
Fig. 15. and i 6. To deferibe the manner in which
ingles are meafured by a quadrant or graphometer.—Let
E T R Y. Part If.
there be an angle in a vertical plane, comprehended Lines <m&
between a line parallel to the horizon HK, and the Angles.
right line RA, coming from any remarkable point of * '*
a tower or hill, or from the fun, moon, or a flar.
Suppofe that this angle RAH is to be meafured
by the quadrant: let the inftrument be placed in the
vertical plane, fo as that the centre A may be in the
angular point; and let the fights be direfted towards
the objedt at R (by the help of the ray coming from
it, if it be the fun or moon, or by the help of the vi-
fual ray, if it is any thing elfe), the degrees and mi¬
nutes in the arc BC, cut off by the perpendicular, will
meafure the angle RAH required. For, from the
make of the quadrant, BAD is a right- angle ; there¬
fore BAR is likewife right, bging equal to it. But,
becaufe HK is horizontal, and AG perpendicular,
HAC will be a right angle ; and therefore equal alfo
to BAR. From thofe angles fubtraft the part HAB
that is common to both ; and there will remain the
angle BAG equal to the angle RAH. But the arc
BC is the meafure of the angle BAG ; confequently,
it is likewife the meafure of the angle RAH.
Note, That the remaining arc on the quadrant DC
is the meafure of the angle RAZ, comprehended be¬
tween the forefaid right line RA and AZ which points
to the zenith.
Let it now be required to meafure the angle ACB
(fig. 16.) in any plane, comprehended between the
right lines AC and BC, drawn from two points A and
B, to the place of ftation C. Let the graphometer
be placed at C, fupported by its fulcrum (as was fhown
above) ; and let the immoveable fights on the fide of
the inftrument DE be diredled towards the point A;
and likewife (while the inftrument remains immove¬
able) let the fights of the ruler FG (which is move-
able about the centre C) be diredled to the point B.
It is evident that the moveable ruler cuts off an arc
DH, which is the meafure of the angle ACB fought.
Moreover, by the fame method, the inclination of CE,
or of FG, may be obferved with the meridian line,
which is pointed out by the magnetic needle inclofed
in the box, and is moveable about the centre of the
inftrument, and the meafure of this inclination or angle
found in degrees.
PROPOSITION XIII.
Fig. 17. To meafure an accejfible height by the geome¬
trical quadrant.—By the J2th prop, of this Part, let
the angle C be found by means of the quadrant. Then
in the triangle ABC, right-angled at B (BC being
fuppofed the horizontal diftance of the obfervator
from'the tower), having the angle at C, and the fide
BC, the required height BA will be found by the 3d
cafe of plane trigonometry. See Trigonometry.
PROPOSITION XIV.
Fig. 18. To meafure an inaccejfible height by the geo¬
metrical quadrant. —Let the angle ACB be obferved
with the quadrant (by the 12th prop, of this Part) 5
then let the obferver go from C to the fecond ftation
D, in the right line BCD (provided BCD be a hori¬
zontal plane) ; and after meafuring this diftance CD,
take the angle ADC likewife with the quadrant.
Then, in the triangle ACD, there is given the angle
ADC, with the angle ACD ; becaufe ACB was given
before; therefore (by art. 59. of Part I.) the remain¬
ing angle CAD is given likewife. But the fide CD is
likewife
Part II. G E O M
Lines and likewife given, being the dlftance of the ftation C and
^ Angles- D ; therefore (by the firft cafe of oblique-angled tri-
W--.,—... angjes ;n trigonometry) the fide AC will be found.
Wherefore, in the right-angled triangle ABC, all the
angles and the hypothenufe AC are given ; confe-
quently, by the fourth cafe of trigonometry, the height
fought AB will be found; as alfo (if you pleafe) the
diltance of the ftation C, from AB the perpendicular
within the hill or inacceifible height.
PROPOSITION XV.
Fig. i 9. From the top of a given height, to meafure the
di/lance BC.—Let the angle BAC be obferved by the
12th prop, of.this; wherefore in the triangle ABC,
right-angled at B, there is given by obfervation tire
angle at A ; whence (by the 59th art. of Part. I.) there
will alfo be given the angle BCA : moreover the fide
AB (being the height of the tower) is fiippofed to be
given. Wherefore, by the 3d cafe of trigonometry,
BC, the diftance fought, will be found.
PROPOSITION XVI.
Fig. 20. To meafure the dijlance of two places A and
B, of which one is acceffible, ly the graphomder.— Let
there be erefted at two points A and C, fufficiently
diftant, two vifible figns.; then (by the 12th prop, of
this Part) let the two angles BAC, BCA, be taken by
the graphometer. Let the diftance of the ftations A
and C be meafured with a chain. Then the third angle
B being known, and the fide AC being likewife
known ; therefore, by the firft cafe of trigonometry,
the diftance required, AB, will be found.
PROPOSITION XVII.
Fig. 2 1. To meafure hy the graphomder the dijlance
«f two places, neither of which is accefftble.— Let two
ftations C and D be chofen, from each of which the
places may be feen whofe diftance is fought; let the
angles ACD, ACB, BCD, and likewife the angles
BDC, BDA, CD A, be meafured by the graphometer;
let the diftance of the ftations C and D be meafured
by a chain, or (if it be neceffary) by the preceding
practice. Now, in the triangle ACD, there are given
two angles ACD and ADC; therefore, the third CAD
is likewufe given ; moreover, the fide CD is given ;
therefore, by the firft cafe of trigonometry, the fide
A will be found. After the fame manner, in the tri¬
angle BCD, from all the angles and one fide CD given,
the fide BD is found. Wherefore, in the triangle
ADB, from the given fides D A and DB, and the angle
ADB contained by them, the fide AB (the dillance
fought) is found by the 4th cafe of trigonometry of
oblique-angled triangles.
PROPOSITION XVIII.
Fig. 22. It is required by the graphomder and qua¬
drant lo meafure an accejfible height AB, placed fo on
a feep, that one can neither go near it in an horizontal
plane, nor recede from it, as we fuppofed in the folution of
the icphprop.—Let there be chofen any fituation, as
C, and another D ; where let fame mark be erefted :
let the angles ACD and ADC be found by the grapho¬
meter ; then the third angle DAC will be known.
Let the fide CD, the diftance of the ftations, be mea¬
fured with a chain, and thence (by trigon.) the fide
AC will be found. Again, in the triangle ACB, right-
angled at B,, having found, by the quadrant the angle
ACB, the other angle CAB is known likewife: but
the fide AC in the triangle ADC is already known ;
E t a Y . 6; :*
therefore the height required AB will be found by the Lines-and
4th cafe of right-angled triangles. If the height of AnS es f
the tower is wanted, the angle BCF will be found by
the quadrant: which being taken from the angle ACB
already known, the angle ACF will remain : but the
angle FAC wTas known before ; therefore the remain¬
ing angle AFC will be known. But the fide AC was
alfo known before ; therefore, in the triangle AFC,
all the angles and one of the fides AC being known*
A F, the height of the tower above the hill, will be
found by trigonometry.
SCHOLIUM.
It were eafy to add many other methods of meafu-
ring heights and diftances ; but if what is above be
underftood, it will be eafy (efpecially for one that is
verfed in the elements) to contrive methods for this
purpofe, according to the occafion : fo that there is
no need of adding any more of this fort. We ftiall
fubjoin here a method by which the diameter of the
earth may be found out.
PROPOSITION XIX.
Fig. 1. To find the diameter of the earth from one ol-
fervation.—Let there be chofen a high hill AB, near ^
the fea-lhore, and let the obfervator on the top of it,
with an exaft quadrant divided into minutes and fe-
conds by tranfverfe divifions, and fitted with a tele-
fcope in place of the common fights, meafure the angle
ABE contained under the right line AB, which goes to
the centre, and the right line BE drawm to the fea, a '
tangent to the globe at E ; let there be drawn from
A perpendicular to BD, the line AF meeting BE in F.
Now in the right-angled triangle BAF all the angles
are given, alfo the fide AB, the height of the hill;
which is to be found by fome of the foregoing me¬
thods as exaftly as pofiible ; and (by trigonometry)
the fides BF and AP are found. But by cor. 36th
3. Eucl. AF is equal to FE ; therefore BE will be
known. Moreover, by 36th 3. Eucl. the re£fangle
under BA and BD is equal to the fquare of BE. And
thence by 17th 6. Eucl. as AB : BE : : BE : BD.
Therefore, fince AB and BE are already given, BD
w’ill be found by 1 ith 6. Eucl. or by the rule of three;
and fubtra&ing BA, there will remain AD the diame¬
ter of the earth fought.
SCHOLIUM.
Many other methods might be propofed for mea-
furing the diameter of the earth. The moft exaft is
that propofed by Mr Picart of the academy of fciences -
at Paris.
“ According to Mr Picart, a degree of the meridian
at the latitude of 490 21' was 57,060 French toifes,
each of which contains fix feet of the fame meafure :
from which it follows, that if the earth be an exaft
fphere, the circumference of a great circle of it will be
123,249,600 Paris feet, and the femidiameter of the
earth i9,6i5,8oofeet: but the French mathematicians,
who of late have examined Mr Picart’s operations, af-
fure us, that the degree in that latitude is 57,183
toifes. They meafured a degree in Lapland, in the
latitude of 66° 20', and found it of 57,438 toifes. By
comparing thefe degrees, as well as by the obfervations
on pendulums, and the theory of gravity, it appears
that the earth is an oblate fpheroid;. and (fuppofing
thofe degrees to be accurately meafured) the axis or
diameter that pafies through the poles will be to the
4 Q^_2 diameter
676 G E O M
lanes and ciametel-of the equator as 177 to 178, or the earth
. Ang]es« w;il be 22 miles higher at the equator than at the poles.
' A degree has likewife been meafured at the equator,
and found to be confiderably lefs than at the latitude of
Paris; which confirms the oblate figure of the earth.
But an account of this laft menfuration has not been
publiihed as yet. If the earth was of an uniform den-
fity from the furface to the centre, then, according to
the theory of gravity, the meridian would be an exa<9t
ellipfis, and the axis would be to the diameter of the
equator as 230 to 231 ; and the difference of the femi-
diameter of the equator and femiaxis about 17 miles.”
In what follows, a figure is often to be laid down on
paper, like to another figure given j and becaufe this
likenefs confifts in the equality of their angles, and in
the fides having the fame proportion to each other (by
the definitions of the 6th of Eud.) we are now to {how
what methods practical geometricians ufe for making
on paper an angle equal to a given angle, and how
they conftitute the fides in the fame proportion. For
this purpofe they make ufe of a protra&or (or, when
it is wanting, a line of chords), and of a line of equal
parts.
PROPOSITION XX.
Fig. 2. 3. 4. 5. and 6. To defcribe the conJlruBion
and ufe of the protraBor, of the line of chords, and of the
line of equal parts. The pro traitor is a fmall femi-
circle of brafs, or fuch folid matter. The femicir-
eumference is divided into 180 degrees. The ufe of
it is, to draw angles on any plane, as on paper, or to
examine the extent of angles already laid down. For
this laft purpofe, let the fmall point in the centre of the
protraitor be placed above the angular point, and let
the fide AB coindde with one of the fides that contain
the angle propofed ; the number of degrees cut off by
the other fide, computing on the protrailor from B,
will (how the quantity of the angle that is to be mea¬
fured.
But if an angle is to be made of a given quantity on
a given line, and at a given point of that line, let AB
coincide with the given line, and let the centre A of
the inftrument be applied to that point. Then let
there be a mark made at the given number of degrees;
and a right line drawn from that mark to the given
point, will conftitute an angle with the given right line
of the quantity required; as is maniftft.
This is the moft natural and eafy method, either for
examining the extent of an angle on paper, or for de-
fcribing on paper an angle of a given quantity.
But when there is fcarcity of inftruments, or becaufe
a line of chords is more eafily carried about (being
defcribed pn a ruler on which there are many other
lines befides), practical geometricians frequently make
ufe of it. It is made thus: let the quadrant of a circle
be divided into 90 degrees (as in fig. 4.) The line
AB is the chord of 90 degrees; the chord of every
arc of the quadrant is transferred to this line AB, which
i^ always marked with the number of degrees in the
eorrefponding arc.
Note, That the chord of 60 degrees is equal to the
yadius, by corol. 15. 4th Eucl. If now a given angle
EDF is to be meafured by the line of chords from the
centre D, with the diftance BG (the chord of 60 de¬
grees), defcribe the arc GF; and let the points G
and F be marked where this arc ioterfedts the fides
E T R Y, Part II.
of the angle. Then if the diftance GF, applied on the Lines and
line of chords from A to B, gives (for example) 25 de- Ang^s- t
grees, this fhall be the meafure of the angle propofed. ’,_r, uJ
When an obtuft angle is to be meafured with this
line, let its complement to a femicircle be meafured,
and thence it will be known. It were eafy to transfer
to the diameter of a circle the chords of all arches to
the extent of a femicircle; but fuch are rarely found
marked upon rules.
But now, if an angle of a given quantity, fuppofe of
59 degrees, is to be made at a given point M of the
right hne KL (fig. 6.) From the centre M, and the
diftance MN, equal to the chord of 60 degrees, defcribe
the arc QN. Take off an arc NR, whole chord isp-
qual to that of 50 degrees on the line of chords ; join
the points M and R; and it is plain that MR fhall
contain an angle of 50 degrees with the line KL pro¬
pofed.
But fometimes we cannot produce the fides till they
be of the length of a chord of 60 degrees on our fcale;
in which cafe it is fit to work by a circle of propor¬
tions (that is a feftor), by which an arc may be made
of a given number of degrees to any radius.
The quantities of angles are likewife determined by
other lines ufually marked upon rules, as the lines of
fines, tangents, and fecants ; but as thefe methods are
not fo eafy or fo proper in this place, we omit them.
To delineate figures fimilar or like to others given,
befides the equality of the angles, the fame proportion
is to be preferved among the fides of the figure that is
to be delineated, as is among the fides of the figures
given. For which purpofe, on the rules ufed by arcifts,
there is a line divided into equal parts, more or lefs in
number, and greater or lefs in quantity according to
the pleafure of the maker.
A foot is divided into inches; and an inch, by means
of tranfverfe lines, into 100 equal parts; fo that with
this fcale, any number of inches below 1 2, with any
part of an inch, can be taken by the compafl'es, pro¬
viding fuch part be greater than the 100th part of an
inch. And this exaclnefs is very neceffary in delinea¬
ting the plans of houfts, and in other cafes.
PROPOSITION XXI.
Fig. 7. To lap down on paper, bp the prdraft or or
line of chords, and line of equal parts, a right-lined figure
Me to one given, providing the angles and fides of the
fgure given be known bp obfervation or menfuration. For
example, fuppofe that it is known that in a quadran¬
gular figure, one fide is of 235 feet, that the angle
contained by it and the fecond fide is of 84°, ,the fe-
cond fide of 288 feet, the angle contained by it and the
third fide of 720, and that the third fide is 294 feet.
Thefe things being given, a figure is to be dra”rn on
paper like to this quadrangular figure. On your paper
at a proper point A, let a right line be drawn, upon
which take 235 equal parts, as AB. The part repre-
fenting a foot is taken greater or lefs, according as
you would have your figure greater or lefs. In the
adjoining figure, the 100th part of an inch is taken for
a foot. And accordingly an inch divided into too
parts, and annexed to the figure, is called a fcale of
too feet. Let there be made at the point B (by the
preceding propofition) an angle ABC of 85°, and let
BC be taken of 288 parts like to the former. Then
let the angle BCD be made of 72°, and the fide CD
. T lace CCXYm.
GtFj ome t uf N.‘ iv
Sca/e o/" /a/f trrtJnc'//.e/r.tJ-t(/f</ i/tte /00/taiz£>
Part II. G E O M
Lines and of 294 equal farts. Then let the fide AD be drawn.;
t Angles. an£j jj- wjj} complete the figure like to the given. The
^ r' meafiires of the angle A and D can be known by the
protractor or line of chords, and the fide AD by the
line of equal parts; which will exafily anfwer to the
correfponding angles and to the fide of the primary
figure.
After the very fame manner, from the fides and an¬
gles given which bound any right-lined figure, a figure
like to it may he drawn, and the reft of its fides and
angles be known.
COROLLARY.
Hence any trigonometrical problem in right-lined
triangles may be refolved by delineating the triangle
-from what is given concerning it, as in this propoti-
tion. The unknown fides are examined by a line of
equal parts, and the angles by a protraftor or line of
chords.
PROPOSITION XXII.
The diameter of a circle leing given, to find its cir-
eumfei-ence nearly.—The periphery of any polygon in-
feribed in the circle is lefs than the circumference, and
the periphery of any polygon deferibed about a circle
is greater than the circumference. Whence Archi¬
medes firft difeovered that the diameter was in propor¬
tion to the circumference, as 7 to 22 nearly; which
ferves for common ufe. But the moderns have com¬
puted the proportion of the diameter to the circum¬
ference to greater exa&nefs. Suppofing the diameter
too, the periphery will be more, than 314, but
lefs than 315. The diameter is more nearly to
the circumference, as 113 to 355. But Ludolphus
van Cuelen exceeded the labours of all; for by im-
menfe ftudy he found, that fuppofing the diameter
ioo,ooo,ooo,coo,ooo,ooo,ooc,ooo,ooo,ooo,ooo,
the periphery will be lefs than
314,159,265,358,979,323,846,264,338,327,951,
but greater than
314,159,265,358,979,323,846,264,338,327,950;
whence it will be eafy, any part of the circumference
being given in degrees and minutes, to afiign it in
parts of the diameter.
Chap. II. Of Surveying and Meafuring of Land.
Hitherto we have treated of the meafuring of
. angles and fides, whence it is abundantly eafy to lay
down a field, a plane, or an entire country ; for to
this nothing is requifite but the protra&ion of triangles,
and of other plain figures, after having meafured their
fides and angles. But as this is efteemed an important
part of pra&ical geometry, we lhall fubjoin here an
account of it with all poffible brevity; fuggefting with¬
al, that a furveyor will improve himfelf more by one
day’s pradlice than by a great deal of reading,
PROPOSITION XXIII.
To explain what furveying is, and what injlruments
Surveyors ufe.—Firft, it is neceffary that the furveyor
view the field that is to be meafured, and inveftigate
its fides and angles, by means of an iron chain (having
a particular mark at each foot of length, or at any
number of feet, as may be moft convenient for redu¬
cing lines or. furfaces to the received meafures), and
the graphometerdeferibed above. Secondly, It is ne-
cefiary to delineate the field in piano, or to form a
map ©f it; that is, to lay down on paper a figure fi-
E T R Y. 677
milar to the field; which is done by the protractor (or Surveying
line of chords )^and the line of equal parts. Thirdly, of Land.
It is neceffary to find out the area of the field fo fur-  v—^
veyed and reprefented by a map. Of this laft we are
to treat below.
The fides and angles of fmall fields are furveyed by
the help of a plain-table : which is generally of an ob¬
long redangular figure, and fnpported by z fulcrum, fo
as to turn every way by means of a ball and focket.
It has a moveable frame, which furrounds the board,
and ferves to keep a clean paper put on the board
clofe and right to it. The fidcs of the frame facing
the paper are divided into equal parts every way.
The board hath befides a box with a magnetic needle,
and moreover a huge index with two fights. On the
edge of the frame of the board are marked degrees
and minutes, fo as to fupply the room of a grapho¬
meter.
PROPOSITION XXIV.
Fig. 8. To delineate a feld by the help of a plain-,
table, from one Jlation whence all its angles may be feen
and their diflances meafured by a chain.— Let the field
that is to be laid down be ABODE. At any conve¬
nient place F, let the plain-table be ere&ed ; cover it
with clean paper, in which let fome point near themidde
reprefent the ftation. Then applying at this place the
index with the fights, direft it fo as that through the
fights fome mark may be feen at one of the angles,
fuppofe A; and from the point F, reprefenting the
ftation, draw a faint right line along the fide of the
index : then, by the help of the chain, let FA the dif-
tance of the ftation from the forefaid angle be mea¬
fured. Then taking what part you think convenient
for a foot or pace from the line of equal parts, fet off
on the faint line the parts correfponding to the line
FA that rvas meafured; and let there be a mark
made reprefenting the angle of the field A. Keep¬
ing the table immoveable, the fame is to be done with
the reft of the angles ; then right lines joining thofe
marks (hall include a figure like to the field, as is evi¬
dent from 5, 6. Eucl.
COROLLARY.
The fame thing is done in like manner by the gra¬
phometer : for .having obferved in each of the' tri¬
angles, AFB, BFC, CFD, &c. the angle at the ftation
F, and having meafured the lines from the ftation to
the angles of the field, let fimilar triangles be pro-
tradled on paper (by the 21. prop, of this), having their
common vertex in the point of ftation. All the lines,
excepting thofe which reprefent the fides of the field,,
are to be drawn faint or obfeure.
Note 1. When a furveyor wants to lay down a-
field, let him place diftin&ly in a regifter all the ob-
fei vations of the angles, and the meafures of the fides,
until, at time and place convenient, he draw out the
figure on paper.
Note 2. The obfervations made by the help of the.
graphometer are to be examined : for all the angles
about the point F ought to be equal to four right ones.
(by cor. 2. art. 30. of Part I.)
PROPOSITION XXV.
Fig. 9. To lay down a feid by means of two fic¬
tions, from each of which all the angles can be feen, by-
meafuring only the dijlancc of the Jlaiions.—Let the in-
ftrument be placed at the ftation F : and having chofen
4 a
678 G E O M
purveying a point reprefenting it upon the paper which is laid
^of Land. Upon pja;n let the index be applied at this
, ' L~ point, fo as to be moveable about it. Then let it be
directed fuccefiively to the feveral angles of the field :
and when any angle is feen through the fights, draw
an ob feu re line along the fide of the index. Let the
index, with the fights, be dire<!ted after the fame
manner to the ftation G : on the obfeure line drawn
along its fide, pointing to A, fet off from the feale of
equal parts a line correfponding to the meafured di-
flanceof the ftations, and this will determine the point
G. Then remove the inftrument to the ftation G,
and applying the index to the line reprefenting the
diftance of the ftations, place the inftrument fo that
the firft ftation may be feen through the fights. Then
the inftrument remaining immoveable, let the index
be applied to the point reprefenting the fecond ftation
G, and be fucceflively direfted by means of its fights
to all the angles of the field, drawing (as before) ob-
fctire lines: and the interfe&ion of the two obfeure
lines that were drawn to the fame angle from the two
ftations will always reprefent that angle on the plan.
Care muft be taken that thofe lines be not miftaken
for one another. Lines joining thofe interfe&ions will
form a figure on the paper like to the field.
SCHOLIUM.
It will not be difficult to do the fame by the gra-
phometer, if you keep a diftinft account of your ob-
fervations of the angles made by the line joining the
ftations, and the lines drawn from the ftations to the
refpeftive angles of the field. And this is the moft
common manner of laying down whole countries. The
tops of two mountains are taken for two ftations, and
their diftance is either meafured by fome of the me¬
thods mentioned above, or is taken according to com¬
mon repute. The fights are fucceffively direfted to¬
wards cities, churches, villages, forts, lakes, turnings
of rivers, woods, SCc.
Note, The diftance of the ftations ought to be great
enough, with refpecl to the field that is to be mea¬
fured ; fuch ought to be chofen as are not in a line with
any angle of the field. And care ought to be taken
likewife that the angles, for example, FAG, FDG, &c.
be neither very acute, nor very obtufe- Such angles
are to be avoided as much as poffible; and this admo¬
nition is found very ufeful in praftice.
PROPOSITION XXVI.
Fig. io. To lay down any field, however irregular
its figure may be, by the help of the graphometer.—Let
ABCEDHG be fuch a field. Let its angles (in going
round it) be obferved with a graphometer (by the 12.
of this) and noted down ; let its fides be meafured with
a charn ; and (by what was faid on the 2 1. of this) let
a.figure like to the given field be protra&ed on paper.
If any mountain is in the circumference, the horizontal
line hid under it is to be taken for a fide, which may be
found by two or three obfervations according to fome
of the methods deferibed above ; and its place on the
map is to be diftinguiffied by a (hade, that it may be
known a mountain is there.
If not only the circumference of the field is to be
laid down on the plan, but alfoits contents, as villages,
gardens, churches, public roads, we muft proceed in
this manner.
Let there be (for example) a church F, to be laid
E R T Y. Partll.
down in the plan. Let the angles ABF BAF be ob- Surveying
ferved and protrafted on paper in their proper places, °f Land. ^
the interfeftion of the two fides BF and AF will give "'v"
the place of the church on the paper : or, move exact¬
ly, the lines BF AF being meafured, let circles be de¬
feribed from the centres B and A, with parts from the
fcale correfponding to the diftances BF and AF, and
the place of the church will be at their interfe&ion.
Note 1. While the angles obferved by the grapho¬
meter are taken down, you muft be careful to diftin-
guiih the external angles, as E and G, that they may
be rightly protracted afterwards on paper.
Note 2. Our obfervations of the angles may be exa¬
mined by computing if all the internal angles make
twice as many right angles, fourexcepted, as there are -
fides of the figure ; (for this is demonftrated by 32, 1.
Eucl. ) But in place of any external angle DEC, its
complement to a. circle is to be taken.
PROPOSITION XXVII.
Fig. 11. To lay down a plain field Without injlru-
ments.—If a fmall field is to be meafured, and a map
of it to be made, and you are not provided with in-
ftruments ; let it be fuppofed to be divided into tri¬
angles, by right-lines, as in the figure ; and after mea-
furing the three fides of any of the triangles, for ex¬
ample of ABC, let its fides be laid down from a con¬
venient fcale on paper, (by the 22. of this.) Again,
let the other two fides BD CD of the triangle CBD
be meafured and protra&ed on the paper by the fame
fcale as before. In the fame manner proceed with
the reft of the triangles of which the field is compofed,
and the map of the field will be perfe&ed; for the
three fides of a triangle determine the triangle;
whence each triangle on the paper is fimilar to its
correfpondent triangle in the field, and is fimilarly
fituated ; confequently the whole figure is like to the
whole field.
SCHOLIUM.
If the field be fmall, and all its angles may be feen
from one ftation, it may be very well laid down by the
plain-table, (by the 24. of this.) If the field be lar¬
ger, and have the requifite conditions, and great ex-
aClnefs is not expe&ed, it likewife may be plotted by
means of the plain-table, or by the graphometer (ac¬
cording to the 25. of this); but in fields that are irre¬
gular and mountainous, when an exaft map is required,
we are to make ufe of the graphometer (as in the 26.
of this), but r&ely of the plain-table.
Having protra&ed the bounding lines, the particu¬
lar parts contained within them may be laid down by
the proper operations for this purpofe (delivered in
the 36th propofition ; and the method delcribed in the
27th propofition may be fometimes of fervice) ; for
we may truft more to the meafuring of fides than to
the obferving of angles. We are not to compute
four-fided and many-fided figures till they are refolved
into triangles : for the fides do not determine thofe fi¬
gures.
In the laying down of cities, or the like, we may
make ufe of any of the methods delcribed above that
may be moft convenient.
The map being finiffied, it is transferred on clean
paper, by putting the firft fketch above it, and mark¬
ing the angles by the point of a fmall needle. Thefe
points being joined by right lines, and the whole illu-
$ minated
Part II. G E a M
Surveying m!nated by colours proper to each part, and the figure
t ef .Lund. 0£ ^ mariner>s qompafs being added to diftinguifh the
• / north and fouth, with a fcale on the margin, the map
or plan will he finifhed and neat.
We have thus briefly and plainly treated of furvey-
ing, and ftiown by what initruments it is performed ;
having avoided thofe methods which depend on the
magnetic needle, not only becaufe its diredlion may
vary in different places of a field (the contrary of this
at leall doth not appear,) but becaufe the quantity of
an angle obferved by it cannot be exa&ly known ; for
an error of two or three degrees can fcarcely be avoid¬
ed in taking angles by it.
As for the remaining part of furveying, whereby
the area of a field already laid down on paper is found
in acres, roodsi or any other fuperficial meafures ; this
we leave to the following fedfion, which treats of the
menfuration of furfaces.
“ Befidcs the inftruments defcribed above, a fur-
veyor ought to be provided with an off-fet ftaff equal
in length to 10 links of the chain, and divided into 10
equal parts. He ought like wife to have 10 arrows or
fmall ftraight flicks near two feet long, fhod with iron
ferrils. When the chain is firft opened, it ought to
be examined by the off-fet ftaff. In meafuring any
line, the leader of the chain is to have the i o arrows
at firft fetting out. When the chain is ftretched in
the line, and the near end touches the place from,
which you meafure, the leader flicks ‘one of the ro
arrows in the ground, at the far end of the chain.
Then the leader leaving the arrow, proceeds with the
chain another length ; and the chain being ftretched
in the line, fo that the near end touches the firft arrow,
the leader flicks down another arrow at his end of the
chain. The line is preferved ftraight, if the arrows be
always fet fo as to be in a right line with the place
you meafure from, and that to which you are going.
In this manner they proceed till the leader have no
more arrows. At the eleventh chain, the arrows are
to be carried to him again, and he is to flick one of
them into the ground, at the end of the chain. And
the fame is to be done at the 21. 31. 41. &c. chains,
if there are fo many in a right line to be meafured.
In this manner you can hardly commit an error in
numbering the chains, unlefs of 1 o chains at once.
The off-fet ftaff ferves for meafuring readily the
diftances of any things proper to be reprefented in
your plan, from the ftation-line, while you go along.
Thefe diftances ought to be entered into your field-
book, with the correfponding diftances from the laft
ftation, and proper remarks, that you may be ena¬
bled to plot them juftly, and be in no danger of
miftaking one for another when you extend your
plan. The field-book may be conveniently divided
into five columns. In the middle column the angles
at the feveral ftations taken by the theodolite are to
be entered, with the diftances from the ftations. The
diftances taken by the off-fet ftaff, on either fide of
the ftation-line, are to be entered into columns on
either fide of the middle column, according to their
pofition with refpeft to that line. The names and
chara&ers of the objefts, with proper remarks, may
be entered in columns on either fide of thefe laft.
“ Becaufe, in the place of the graphometer defcri¬
bed by Jour author, furveyors now make ufe of the
E T R Y. 679
theodolite, we Ihall fubjoin a defcription of Mr Sif- Surveying
foil’s lateft improved theodolite from Mr Gardner’s of Latl(1-
pra&ical furveying improved. See a figure of it in “ _v J-
Plate CCXVI1I.
“ In this inftrument, the three ftaffs, by brafs fer¬
rils at top fcrew into bell-metal joints, that are
moveable between brafs pillars, fixed in a ftrong
brafs plate ; in which, round the centre, is fixed a
focket with a ball moveable in it, and upon which
the four fcrewS prefs, that fet the limb horizontal:
Next above is another fuch plate, through which the
faid fcrews pafs, and on which, round the centre, is
fixed a fruftrum of a cone cf bell-metal, whofe axis
(being connefted with the centre of the bell) is al¬
ways perpendicular to the limb, by means of a coni¬
cal brafs ferril fitted to it, wjiereon is fixed the com-
pafs-box ; and on it the limb, which is a Hrpng, bell-
metal ring, whereon are moveable three brafs indexes,
in whofe plate are fixed four brafs pillars, that, joining
at top, hold the centre pin of the bell-metal double
fextant, whofe double index is fixed on the centre of
the fame plate : Within the double fextant is fixed
the fpirit level, and over it the telefcope.
“ The compafs-box is graved with two diamonds
for north and- fouth, and with 20 degrees on both
fides of each, that the needle may be fet to the varia¬
tion, and its error alfo known.
“ The limb has two Jleurs cle luce againft the dia¬
monds in the box, inftead of 180 each, and is cu-
rioufly divided into whole degrees, and numbered to
the left hand at every 10 to twice 180, having
three indexes diftant 120. (with Nonius’s divifions on
each for the decimals of a degree), that are moved by
a pinion fixed below one of them, without moving the
limb ; and in another is a fcrew and fpring under, to
fix it to any part of the limb. It has alfo divifions
numbered, for taking the quarter girt in inches of
round timber at the middle height, when Handing 10
feet horizontally diftant from its centre ; which at 20
muft be doubled, and at 30 tripled; to which a ftiort-
er index is ufed, having Nonius’s divifions for the de¬
cimals of an inch ; but an abatement muft be made for
the bark, if not taken off.
“ The double fextant is divided on one fide from
under its centre (when the fpirit-tube and' telefcope
are level) to above 60 degrees each way, and num¬
bered at 10, 20, &c. and the double index (through
which it is moveable) (hows on the fame fide the de¬
gree and decimal of any altitude or depreflion to that
extent by Nonius’s divifions: On the other fide are
' divifions numbered, for taking the upright height
of timber, &c. in feet, when diftant 10 feet; which
at 20 muft be doubled, and at 30 tripled ; and alfo
the quantities for reducing hypothenufal lines to ho¬
rizontal. It is moveable by a pinion fixed in the
double index.
“ The telefcope is a little fhorter than the diameter
of the limb, that a fall may not hurt it; yet it will
magnify as much, and Ihow a diftant objetl as per-
feift as moft of triple its length. In its focufe are very
fine crofs wires, whofe interfedtion is in the plane of
the double fextant; and this was a whole circle, and
turned in a lathe to a true plane, and is fixed at right
angles to the limb ; fo that, whenever the limb is fet
horizontal (which is readily done by making the.fpi-
$8o
GEOMETRY.
Part IT.
Surveying rit-tiibc level over two fcrews, and the like over the
of Land. other two), the double fextant and telefcope are
^ moveable in a vertical plane; and then every angle taken
on the limb (though the telefcope be never fo much
elevated ordepreffed) will be an angle in the plane of
the horizon. And this is abfolutely neceffary in plot¬
ting a horizontal plane.
“ If the lands to be plotted are hilly, and not in
any one plane, the lines meafured cannot be truly
laid down on paper, without being reduced to one
plane, which mult be the horizontal, becaufe angles
are taken in that plane.—
“ In viewing your objefts, if they have much alti¬
tude or depreffion, either write down the degree and
decimal Ihown on the double fextant, or the links Ihown
on the back.fide; which lalt fubtraCted from every
chain in the ftation-line, leaves the length in the hori¬
zontal plane. But if the degree is taken, the follow¬
ing table will Ihow the quantity.
A Table of ihe links to be fubtrad.ed cat of every chain in
hypothenufal lines offeveraldegrees altitude^ or depreffon,
for reducing them to horizontal.
“ Let the firft ftationline really meafure 1107 links,
and the angle of altitude or depreflion be 190, 95 ;
looking in the table you will find againll 19^, 95, is 6
links. Now 6 times 1 i is 66, which fubtradkd from
I toy, leaves 1G41, the true length to be laid down in
the plan.
It is ufeful in furveying, to take the angles, which
the bounding lines form, with the magnetic needle,
in order to check the angles of the figure, and to plot
them conveniently afterwards.”
Chap. III. Of the Surfaces of Bodies.
The fmalleft fuperficial meafure with us is a fquare
inch; 144 of which make a fquare foot. Wrights
make ufe of thefe in the meafuring of deals and planks;
but the fquare foot which the glaziers ufe in meafuring
of nlafs, confifts only of 64 fquare inches. The other
ir fures are, firft, the ell fquare; fecondly, the fall,
containing 36 fquare ells; thirdly, the rood, contain¬
ing 40 falls; fourthly, the acre, containing 4 roods.
Slaters, mafons, and pavers, ufe the ell fquare and the
fall; furveyors of land ufe the fquare ell, the fall, the
rood, and the acre.
The fuperficial meafufes of the Efiglifh are, firft, the
fquare foot; fecondly, the fquare yard, containing 9
fquare feet, for their yard contains only 3 feet; thirdly,
the pole, containing 30^ fquare yards; fourthly, the
rood, containing 40 poles; fifthly, the acre, contain¬
ing 4 roods. And hence it is eafy to reduce our fuper¬
ficial meafures to the Englilh, or theirs to ours.
“ In order to find the content of a field, it is moft
convenient to meafure the lines by the chains defcribed
febove, p. 671. that of 22 yards for computing the
Englifh acres, and that of 24 Scots ells for the acres of
Scotland. The chain i» divided into leo links, and
137.
the fquare of the chain is 10,OOO fquare links; loSurfaefs
fquares of the chain, or 100,000 fquare links, give an bodies. ^
acre. Therefore, if the area be cxpreiTed by fquare v
links, divide by 100,000, or cut off five decimal places,
and the quotient (hall give the area in acres and deci¬
mals of an acre. Write the entire acres apart; but
multiply the decimals of an acre by 4, and the pro-
dutl (hall give the remainder of the area in roods and
decimals of a rood. Let the entire roods be noted a-
part after the acres; then multiply the decimals of a
rood by 40, and the produdt Ihall give the remainder
of the area in falls or poles. Let the entire falls or
poles be then writ after the roods, and multiply the de¬
cimals of a fall by 36, if the area is required in the
meafures of Scotland ; but multiply the decimals of a
pole by 30J, if the area is required in the naeafures of
England, and the produft Ihall give the remainder of
the area in fquare ells in the former cafe, but in fquare
yards in the latter. If, in the former cafe, you would
reduce the decimals of the fquare ell to fquare feet,
multiply them by 9.50694; but, in the latter cafe, the
decimals of the Englilh fquare yard are reduced to
fquare feet, by multiplying them by 9.
“ Suppofe, for example, that the area appears to
contain 12.65842 fquare links of the chain of 24 ells;
and that this area is to be expreffed in acres, roods,
falls, &c. of the meafures of Scotland. Divide the
fquare links by 100,000, and the quotient 12.65842
ftiows the area to contain 12 acres -/oVoVo of an acre.
Multiply the decimal part by 4, and the product
2.63368 gives the remainder in roods and decimals of
a rood. Thofe decimals of the rood being multiplied
by 40, the produft gives 25.3472 falls. Multiply the
decimals of the fall by 36, and the product gives
12.4992 fquare ells. The decimals of the fquare ell
multiplied by 9.50994 give 4.7458 fquare feet.
Therefore the area propofed amounts to 12 acres,
2 roods, 25 falls, 12 fquare ells, and 4 fquare
feet.
“ But if the area contains the fame number of
fquare links of Gunter’s chain, and is to be expreffed
by Englilh meafures, the acres and roods are computed
in the fame manner as in the former cafe. The poles
are computed as the falls. But the decimals of the pole,
wa. i'wj .•> are to be multiplied by 30^ (or 30.25),
and the product gives 10.5028 fquare yards. The
decimals of the fquare yard, multiplied by 9, give 4.5252
fquare feet; therefore, in this cafe, the area is in Eng¬
lilh meafure 12 acres, 2 roods, 25 poles, 10 fq.uare yards,
and 4rVc/o1o fquare feet.
“ The Scots acre is to the Engliih acre, by ftatute,
as 100,000 to 78,694, if we have regard to the dif¬
ference betwixt the Scots and Englifh foot above men¬
tioned. But it is cuftomary in fame parts of England to
have 18.21, &c. feet to a pole, and 160 fuch poles to
an acre ; whereas, by the ftatute, 161- feet make a pole.
In fuch cafes the acre is greater in the duplicate ratio
of the number of feet to a pole.
“ They who meafure land in Scotland by an ell of
37 Englilh inches, make the acre lefs than the true
Scots acre by 593 fquare Englilh feet, or by about
fT of the acre.
“ An hufband land contains 6 acres of fock and
fcythe-land, that is, of land that may be tilled with a
plough, and mown with a fcythe; 13 acres -of arablte
land
Parc IT. G E O M
Surfaces of land make an oxgang or oxengate; four oxengate make
Bodies. a p0Und land of old extent (by a decree of the Exche-
quer, March 11. 1585)* and is called librata terra. A
forty-fhilling land of old extent contains 8 oxgang, or
j 04 acres.
“ The arpent, about Paris, contains 32,490 fquare
Paris feet, and is equal to z\ Scots roods, or 3 Eng-
lilh roods.
“ The aSus quadratus, according to Varro, Collu-
mella, &c. was a fquare of 120 Roman feet. The^?/-
gerum was the double of this. It is to the Scots acre
as ro,oo© Ito 20,456, and to the Engliih acre as
10,000 to 16,097. was divided (like the as) into
12 uncia, and the uncia into 24 fcrupula."—This, with
the three preceding paragraphs, are taken from an in¬
genious manufcript, written by Sir Robert Stewart pro-
feflbr of natural philofophy. The great eft part of the
table in p. 671. was taken from it likewife.
PROPOSITION XXVIII.
Fig. 12. To Jind out the area of a redangular paral¬
lelogram A BCD.—Let the fide AB, for example, be
5 feet long, and BC (which conftitutes with BA a
right angle at B) be 17 feet. Let 17 be multiplied by
5, and the produft 85 will be the number of fquare
feet in the area of the figure A BCD. But if the pa¬
rallelogram propofed is not rectangular as BEFC, its
bafe BC multiplied into its perpendicular height AB
(not into its fide BE) will give its area. This is evi¬
dent from art. 68. of Part I.
PROPOSITION XXIX.
Fig. 13. To find the area of a given triangle.—Let
the triangle BAG be given, whofe bafe BC is fuppo-
fed 9 feet long : let the perpendicular AD be drawn
from the angle A oppofite to the bafe, and let us fup-
pofe AD to be 4 feet. Let the half of the perpen¬
dicular be multiplied into the bafe, or the half of the
bafe into the perpendicular, or take the half of the
produA of the whole bafe into the perpendicular, the
produCt gives 18 fquare feet for the area of the given
triangle.
But if only the fides are given, the perpendicular is
found either by protraCting the triangle, or by 12 th
and 13th 2.. Eucl. or by trigonometry. But how the
area of a triangle may be found from the given fides
only, lhall be ftiown in the 31ft propofition.
PROPOSITION XXX.
Fig. 14. To fnd the area of any reBilineal figure.—
If the figure be irregular, let it be refolved into tri¬
angles ; and drawing perpendiculars to the bafes in each
of them, let the area of each triangle be found by the
preceding propofition, and the fum of thefe areas will
give the area of the figure.
SCHOLIUM 1.
In meafuring boards, planks, and glafs, their fides
are to be meafured by a foot-rule divided into 100 equal
parts ; and after multiplying the fides, the decimal frac¬
tions are eafily reduced to Idler denominations. The
menfuration of thefe is eafy, when they are rectangu¬
lar parallelograms.
SCHOLIUM 2.
If a field is to be meafured, let it firit be plotted on
paper, by feme of the methods above de&ribed, and
let the figure fo laid down be divided into triangles, as
was Ihown in the preceding propofition.
The bafe of any triangle, or the perpendicular upon
VtJx.VII. Part. II.
E T R Y.
681
the bafe, or the diftance of any two points of the Surfaces of
field, is meafured by applying it to the fcale according Bodie8‘
to which the map is drawn. w—y—
SCHOLIUM 3.
But if the field given be not in an horizontal plane,
but uneven and mountainous, the fcale gives the hori¬
zontal line between any two points, but not their di¬
ftance meafured on the uneven furface of the field. And
indeed it would appear, that the horizontal plane is to
be accounted the area of an uneven and hilly country.
For if fuch ground is laid out for building on, or for
planting with trees, or bearing corn, fince thefe ftand
perpendicular to the horizon, it is plain, that a moun¬
tainous country cannot be confidered as of greater ex¬
tent for thofe ufes than the horizontal plane ; nay, per¬
haps, for nourilhing of plants, the horizontal plane
may be preferable.
If, however, the area of a figure, as it lies regu¬
larly on the furface of the earth, is to be meafured,
this may be eafily done by refolving it into triangles
as it lies. The fum of their areas will be the area
fought; which exceeds the area of the horizontal fi¬
gure more or lefs, according as the field is more or lefs
uneven.
PROPOSITION XXXI.
Fig. 13. The fides of a triangle being given, to find
the area, without finding the perpendicular.—Let all the
fides of the triangle be collected into one fum ; from
the half of which let the fides be feparately fubtraCfed,
that three differences may be found betwixt the fore-
faid half fum and each fide ; then let thefe three diffe¬
rences and the half fum be multiplied into one another,
and the fquare root of the produCt will give the area of
the triangle. For example, let the fides be 10, 17, 21;
the half of their fum is 24; the three differences be¬
twixt this half fum and the three fides, are 14, 7, and
3. The firft being multiplied by the fecond, and their
produCt by the third, we have 294 for the produCt of
the differences; which multiplied by the forefaid half
fum 24, gives 7056; the fquare root of which 84 is
the area of the triangle. The demonftration of this,
for the fake of brevity, we omit. It is to be found in
feveral treatifes, particularly in Clavius’s PraCtical Geo¬
metry.
PROPOSITION XXXII.
Fig. 15. The area of the ordinate figure ABEFGH
is equal to the product of the half circumference of the po¬
lygon, multiplied into the perpendicular drawn from m J
centre of the circumfcribed circle to the fide of the polygon.—.
For the ordinate figure can be refolved into as many
equal triangles as there are fides of the figure; and
fince each triangle is equal to the produCt of half the
bafe into the perpendicular, it is evident that the fura
of all the triangles together, that is the polygon, is
equal to the produCt of half the fum of the bafes (that
is the half of the circumference of the polygon) in¬
to the common perpendicular height of the triangles
drawn from the centre C to one of the fides; for ex¬
ample, to AB.
PROPOSITION XXXIII.
Fig. 16. The area of a circle is found by multiplying
the half of the periphery into the radius, or the half of the
radius into the periphery. —For a circle is not different
from an ordinate or regular polygon of an infinite num¬
ber of fides, and the common height of the triangles in-
4 R t*
682 GEO M
Smfaces of to which the polygon or circle may be fuppofed to be
Bodies, divided is the radius of the circle.
•*““ v~~~r Were it worth while, it wereeafyto demonilrate ac-
euratelv this propotition, by means of the infcribed and
circumferibed figures, as is done in the 5th prop, of
the treatife of Archimedes concerning fthe dimailions
of the circle.
COROLLARY.
Hence alfo it appears, that the area of the fe&or
ABCD is produced, by multiplying the half of the
arc into the radius, and likewife that the area of the
fegment of the circle ADC is found by fubtratfting
from the area of the fe&or the area of the triangle
ABC.
PROPOSITION XXXIV.
Fig. 17. The circle is to tlx fquare of the diameter as
\lto linearly.—For if the diameter AB be fuppofed to
be 7, the circumference AHBK will be almoit 22 (by
the 22d prop, of this Part), and the area ofthef'quare
DC will be 49; and, by the preceding prop, the area
of the circle will he 284-: therefore the fquare DC will
be to the infcribed circle as 49 to 38I, or as 98 to 77,
that is, as 14 to M. E. D.
If greater exadtnefs is required, you may proceed to
any degree of accuracy : for1 the fquaire DC is to the
infcribed circle, as 1 to I—-f+f—^Hhy*~*V"KV» &V*
in infinitum.
“ This fcries will be of no fervice forcomputing the
area of the circle accurately, without fome further arti¬
fice, becaufe it converges at too flow a rate. The area
of the circle will be found exactly enough for moil
purpofes, by multiplying the fquare of the diameter by
7854, and dividing by 10,000, or cutting off four de¬
cimal places frdtn the produil ; for the area of the
circle is to the circumferibed fquare nearly as 7854 to
10,000.”
PROPOSITION XXXV.
Fig. 18. To find the area of a given ellipfe:—Let
ABCD he an ellipfe, whole greater diameter is BD,
and the leffer AC, bifcifting the greater perpendicular¬
ly in E. Let a mean proportional HF be found (by
1 pth 6. Fuel.) between AC and BD, and (by the33d
of tfiis) find the area of the circle deferibed on the dia¬
meter HF. This area is equal to the area of the el¬
lipfe ABCD. .For becaufe, as BD to AC, fo the
fquarC of BD to the fquare of HF, (by 2. cor. 20th
6. Eucl.): but (by the 2d 12. Eucl.) as the fquare of
BD to the fquare-of HF, fo is the circle of the diame¬
ter BD to the circle of the diameter HF: therefore as
BD to AC, fo is the circle of the diameter BD to the
circle of the diameter HF. And (by the 5th prop, of
Archimedes of fpheroids) as the greater diameter BD
to the leffer AC, fo is the circle of the diameter BD
to the ellipfe ABCD. Confequently (by the nth 5.
Eucl.) the circle of the diameter BD will have the fame
proportion to the circle of the diameter HF, and to the
ellipfe ABCD. Therefore (by 9th 5. Eucl.) the area
of the circle of the diameter rIF will be equal to the
area of the ellipfe ABCD. iX E. D.
SCHOLIUM.
From this and the two preceding propofitions, a me¬
thod is derived of finding the area of an ellipfe. There
are two ways: ift, Say, as one is to the leffer diame¬
ter, fo is the greater diameter to a fourth number,
(which is found by the rule of three). Then again fay,
5
E T R W Part IF.
as 14 to 11, fo is the fourth number found to the area Surfaces of
fought. But the fecond way is fhorter. Multiply the Bot^cs*
leffer diameter into the greater, and the product by 11;
then divide the whole product by 14, and the quo¬
tient-will be the area fought of the eilipfe. . For ex¬
ample, Let the greater diameter be, 10, and the lef-
fer 7 ; by multiplying 10 by 7, the pradutl is 70; and
multiplying that by 11, it is 770; and dividing 770
by 14, the quotient will be 55, Which is the area-of
the ellipfe fought*
“ The area of the ellipfe will be found more accu¬
rately, by multiplying the produ£I of the two diameters
by 7854.”
We (hall add no more about other plain furfaces,
whether rectilinear or curvilinear, which feldom occur
in practice ; btit lhall fubjoin fome propofitions about
meafuring the furface of folids.
PROPOSITION XXXVI.
' To meafure the furface of any prifm.—By the 14th
.definition of the 1 ith Eucl. a prifm is contained by
planes, of which two oppofite fides (commonly called
the bafes) are plain reCtilineal figures; which are either
regular and ordinate, and meafured by prop. 32. of
this; or however irregular, and.then they are meafu¬
red by the 28th prop. The other fides are parallelo¬
grams, which are roeafured by prop. 28th; and the
whole fuperficies of the prifin confifts of the fum of
thofe taken-altogether.
PROPOSITION XXXVII.
To meafure the fuperficies of any pyramid. — Since its
bafis is a reCtilineal figure, and the reft of the planes
terminating in the top of the pyramid are triangles;
thefe meafured feparately, and added together, give
the furface of the pyramid required.
PROPOSITION XXXVIII.
To meafure the fuperficies of any regular body.—Thefe
bodies are called regular, which are bounded by equi¬
lateral and equiangular figures. The fuperficies of the
tetraedon coniifts of four equal and equiangular tri¬
angles ; the fuperficies of the hexaedron or cube, of
fix equal fquares ; an oCtedron, of eight equal equila¬
teral triangles ; a dodecaedron, of twelve equal and
ordinate pentagons; and the fuperficies of an icofie-
drOn, of twenty equal and equilateral triangles. There¬
fore it will be eafy to meafure thefe furfaces from what
has been already Ihown.
In the fame manner we may meafure the fuperfieies
of a folid contained by any planes.
PROPOSITION XXXIX.
Fig. 19. To meafure the fuperficies of a cylinder.—
Becaufe a cylinder differs very little from a prifm,.
whofe oppofite planes or bafes are ordinate figures
of an infinite number of fides, it appears that the fu-
perficics of a cylinder, without the bafis, is equal to
an .infinite number of parallelograms; the common al¬
titude of all which is the fame with the height of the
cylinder, and the bafes of them all differ very little
from the periphery of the circle which is the bafe of
the cylinder. Therefore this periphery multiplied in¬
to the common height, gives the luperficies of the cy¬
linder, excluding the bafes ; which are to be meafured
feparately brf the 33d piopofition.
This propofition concerning the meafure of the fur¬
face of the cylinder (excluding its bafis) is evident
from this, that, when it is conceived to be fpread out,
it
Part IT. O E O M
Surface's of it becomes a parallelograrn, whofe bafe is the peri-
Bodies. phery of the circle of the bafe of the cylinder ftretch-
ed into a right line, and whofe height is the fame with
the height of the cylinder.
PROPOSITION XL.
Fig. 20. To tneafure the furface of a right cone.—
The furface of a right cone is very little different from
t^ie lurface of a right pyramid, having an ordinate po¬
lygon for its bafe of an infinite number of fides ; the
furface of which (excluding the bafe) is equal to the
fum of the triangles. The fum of the bafes of thefe
triangles is equal to the periphery of the circle of the
bafe, and the common height of the triangles is the
fide of the cone AB; wherefore the fum of thefe tri¬
angles is equal to the produft of the fum of the bafes
(i. e. the periphery of the bafe of the cone) multiplied
into the half of the common height, or it is equal to
the produdl of the periphery of the bafe.
If the area of the bafe is likewife wanted, it is to
be found feparately by the 33d prop. If the furface
•of a cone is fuppofed to be fpread out on a plane, it
will become a fe&or of a circle, whofe radius is the
fide of the cone ; and the arc terminating the feftor
is made from the periphery of the bafe. Whence,
by coroi. 33d prop, of this, its dimenlion may be
found.
C 0 R 0 L L A R r.
Hence it will be eafy to meafure the furface of a
frujlum of a cone cut by a plane parallel to the bafe.
PROPOSITION XLI.
Fig. 21. To meafure the furface of a given fphere.—
Let there be a fphere, whofe centre is A, and let the
area of its convex furface be required. Archimedes
demonftrates (37th prop. 1. book of the fphere and
cylinder) that its furface is equal to the area of four
great circles of the fphere ; that fs, let the area of the
great circle be multiplied by 4, and the produft will
give the area of the fphere; or (by the 20th 6. and
2d 12. of Fuel.) the area of the fphere given is equal
to the area of a circle whofe radius is the right line
BG, the diameter of the fphere. Therefore having
meafured (by 33d prop.) the circle deferibed with the
radius BC, this will give the furface of the fphere.
PROPOSITION XLII.
Ftg. 22. To meafure the furface of a fegment of a
fphere.—Let there be a fegment cut off by the plane
ED. Archimedes demonllrates (49. and 50. 1. De
fphtera) that the furface of this fegmenf, excluding the
circular bafe, is equal to the area of a circle whofe ra¬
dius is the right line BE drawn from the vertex B of
the fegment to the periphery of the circle DE. There¬
fore (by the 33d prop.) it is ealily meafured.
COROLLARY 1.
Hence that part of the furface of a fphere that lieth
between two parallel planes is eafily meafured, by fub-
traCling the furface of the leffer fegment from the fur-
face of the greater fegment.
C 0 R 0 L L A R T 2.
Lienee likewife it follows, that the furface of a cy¬
linder, deferibed about a fphere (excluding the balls) is
equal to the furface of the fphere, and the parts of the
one to the parts of the other, intercepted between
planes parallel to the balls of the cylinder.
E T R Y. 683
Chap. IT. Of/olid Figures and their-Metfuratwn,
comprehending like'wrfe the Principles of Gauging Fejfels
of all Figures.
As in the former pan of this treatife we tobk an
inch for the fmallelL.nveafure in length, and an inch
fquare for the fmallell fuperficinl meafure; fo now,
in treating of the menfuration of folids, we take a cu¬
bical inch for the fmalleft folid meafure. Of thefe,
109 make a Scots pint; other liquid meafures depend
on this, as is generally^known.
In dry meafures, the firlot, by ftatute, contains 19^.
pints ; and on this depend the other dry mealures j
therefore, if the content of any folid be given in cu¬
bical inches, it will be eafy to reduce the fame to the
common liquid or dry meafures, and converfely to re¬
duce thefe to folid inches. The liquid and dry mea¬
fures, in ufe among other nations, are known from
their writers.
“ As to the Englilh liquid meafures, by a& of par¬
liament 1706, any round vcffel commonly called a cy¬
linder, having an even bottom, being feven inches in
diameter throughout, and fix inches deep from the
top of the infide to the bottom (which veffel will be
found by computation to contain 230T9^3-V cubical
inches), or any veffel containing 231 cubical inches,
and no more, is deemed to be a lawful wine-gallon.
An Englilh pint therefore contains 28 J cubical inches;
2 pints make a quart; 4 quarts a gallon ; 18 gallons
a rcundlet; 3 roundlets and an half, or 63 gallons,
make a hoglhead ; the half of a hoglhead is a barrel:
1 hoglhead and a third, or 84 gallons, make a pun¬
cheon ; 1 puncheon and a half, or 2 hoglheads, or 126
gallons, make a pipe or butt; the third part of a pipe,
or 42 gallons, make a tierce; 2 pipes, or 3 puncheons,
or 4 hoglheads, make a ton . of wine. Though the
Englilh wine gallon is now fixed^at 231 cubical inches,
the itandard kept in Guildhall being meafured, before
many perfons of diftin&ion, May 23. 1688, it was
found to contain only 224 fuch inches.
“ la the Englifh beer-meafure, a gallon contains
282 cubical inches ; confequently 35^ cubical inches
make a pint, 2 pints make a quart, 4 quarts make a
gallon, 9 gallons a firkin, 4 firkins a barrel. In ale,
8 gallons make a firkin, and 32 gallons make a barrel.
By an ac^of the fir ft of William and Mary, 34 gallons
is the barrel, both for beer and ale, in all places, ex¬
cept within the weekly bill of mortality.
“ In Scotland it is known that 4 gills make a mutch-
kin, 2 mutchkins make a chopin; a pint is two cho-
pins; a quart is two pints; and a gallon is four quarts,
or eight pints. The accounts of the cubical inches
contained in the Scots pint vary confiderably from
eacn other. {According to our author, it contains
109 cubical inches. But the ftandard jugs kept'iby
the dean of guild of Edinburgh (one of, which has the
year 1555, with the arms of Scotland, and the town
of Edinburgh, marked upon it) having been carefully
meafured feveral times, and by different perfons, the
Scots pint, according to thofe ftandards, was found to
contain about 103x0 cubic inches. The pewurers
jugs (by which the veffels in common ufe are made)
are laid to contain fometimes betwixt 105 and 106
cubic inches. A calk that was meafured by the
brewers of Edinburgh, before the commillioners of ex-
4 R 2 ciie
684
Gauging.
G E O M
cife in 1707, was found to contain 46^ Scots pints;
the fame veflel contained 18^- Englifli ale-gallons.
Suppoling this menfuration to be juft, the Scots pint
•will be to the Englifh ale-gallon as 289 to 750; and if
the Englifti ale-gallons be fuppofed to contain 282
cubical inches, the Scots pint will contain 108.664
cubical inches. But it is fufpefted, on feveral ground s,
that the experiment was not made with fufficient care
and exa&nefs.
“ The commiffioners appointed by authority of par¬
liament to fettle the meafures and weights, in their
aft of Feb. 19. 1618, relate, That having caufed fill
the Linlithgow firlot with water, they found that it
contained 21^ pints of the juft Stirling jug and mea-
fure. They likewife ordain that this fhall be the
juft and only firlot; and add, That the nvidenefs and
broadnefs of the which frlot, under and above even over
within the buirds, fhall contain nineteen inches and the
fixth part of an inch, and the deepnefs feven inches and a
third part of an inch. According to this aft (fuppo-
fing their experiment and computation to have been
accurate) the pint contained only 99-56 cubical
inches; for the content of fuch a veflel as is defcri-
bed in the aft, is 2115,85, and this divided by 215-
gives 99.56. But by the weight of water faid to fill
this firlot in the. fame aft, the meafure of the pint
agrees nearly with the Edinburgh ftandard above men¬
tioned.
“ As for the Englifli meafures of corn, the Win-
chefter gallon contains 2725 cubical inches; 2 gallons
make a peck; 4 pecks, or 8 gallons (that is, 2178
cubical inches), make a bufliel; and a quarter is 8
bulhels.
“ Our author fays, that 195 Scots pints make a fir¬
lot. But this does not appear to be agreeable to the
ftatute above mentioned, nor to the ftandard-jugs. It
may be conjeftured, that the proportion afiigned by
him has been deduced from fome experiment of how
many pints, according to common ufe, were con¬
tained in the firlot. For if we fuppofe thofe pints to
have been each of 108.664 cubical inches, according
to the experiment made in the 1707 before the com-
miflioners of excife, defcribed above; then 19^ fuch
pints will amount to 2118.94, cubical inches; which
agrees nearly with 2115.85, the meafure of the firlot
by ftatute above mentioned. But it is probable, that
in this he followed the aft 1587, where it is ordained.
That the wheat-firlot fhall contain 19 pints and two
joucattes. A wheat-firlot marked with the Linlith¬
gow ftamps being meafured, was found to contain
about 2211 cubical inches. By the ftatute of 1618,
the barley-firlot was to contain 31 pints of the-juft
Stirling-jug.
“ A Paris pint is 48 cubical Paris inches, and is
nearly equal to an Englifli wine-quart. The Boijfean
contains 664.68099 Paris cubical inches, or 780.36
Englifti cubical inches.
“ The Roman amphora was a cubical Roman foot,
the congius was the eighth part of the amphora, the
fexlarius was one-fixth of the congius. They divided
the fextarius like the as or libra. Of dry meafures, the
medimnus was equal to two amphoras, that is, about
i4-f Englifli legal buftiels; and the. modius was the
third part of the amphora,”
E T K Y. PartH. !
PROPOSITION XLIII. Gauging,
To fnd the folid content of a given prifm.—By the v—"'
29th prop, let the area of the bafe of the prifm be
meafured, and be multiplied by the height of the
prifm, the produft will give the folid content of the
prifm.
PROPOSITION XLIV.
To fnd the folid content of a given pyramid.—The
area of the bafe being found (by the 30th prop.),
let it be multiplied by the third part of the height
of the pyramid, or the third part of the bafe by the
height, the produft will give the folid content, by
17th 12. Eucl.
COROLLARY.
If the folid content of a frufum of a pyramid is re¬
quired, firft let the folid content of the entire pyramid
be found ; from which fubtraft the folid content of the
part that is wanting, and the folid content of the bro¬
ken pyramid will remain.
PROPOSITION XLV.
To fnd the content of a given cylinder.—The area
of the hafe being found by prop. 33. if it be a circle,
and by prop. 35. if it be an ellipfe (for in both
cafes it is a cylinder), multiply it by the height of the
cylinder, and the folid contents of the cylinder will
be produced.
COROLLARY.
Fig. 23. And in this manner may be meafured the
folid content of veflels and calks not much different
from a cylinder, as ABCD. If towards the middle
EF it be fomewhat groffer, the area of the circle of
the bafe being found (by 33d prop.) and added to the
area of the middle circle EF, and the half of their fum
(that is, an arithmetical mean between the area of the
bafe and the area of the middle circle) taken for the
bafe of the veffel, and multiplied into its height, the
folid content of the given veffel will be produced.
Note, That the length of the veffel, as well as the
diameters of the bafe, and of the circle EF, ought to
be taken within the ftaves; for it is the folid content
within the ftaves that is fought.
PROPOSITION XLVI.
To fnd the folid content of a given cone.—Let the
area of the bafe (found by prop 33.) be multiplied
into -5- of ttye height, the produft will give the folid
content of the cone ; for by the 10th 1 2. Eucl. a cone
is the third part of a cylinder that has the fame bafe
and height.
PROPOSITION XLVII.
Fig. 24. 25. To fnd the folid content of a fruftum
of a cone cut by a plane parallel to the plane of the
bafe.—Firft., let the height of the entire cone be found,
and thence (by the preceding prop.) its folid content;
from which fubtraft the folid content of the cone cut
off at the top, there will remain the folid content of the
fruf um of the cone.
How the content of the entire cone may be found,
appears thus ; Let ABCD be the frufum of the cone
(either right or fcalenous, as in the figures 2. and 3.)
let the cone ECD be fuppofed to be completed; let
AG be drawn parallel to DE, and let AH and EF be
perpendicular on CD; it will be (by 2d 6. Enel.)
as CG : CA : : CD : CE ; but (by art 72.0! Part I.)
asCA tAH ;; CL: EF; confequently(by 2285. Eucl.)
as
Part II. G E O M
Gauging, as CG : AH :: CD : EF ; that is, as the excefe of the
» diameter of the lefler bafe is to the height of the
frujlum, fo is the diameter of the greater bafe to the
height of the entire : ne.
COROLLARY.
Fig. 26. Some cafks whofe ftaves are remarkably
bended about the middle, and llrait towards the ends,
may be taken for two portions of cones, without any
confiderable error. Thus ABEF is a frujlum of a right
cone, to whofe bafe EF, on the other fide, there is
another fimilar frujlum of a cone joined, EDCF. The
vertices of thefe cones, if they be fuppofed to be com¬
pleted, will be found at'G and H. Whence (by the
preceding propofition) the folid content of fuch veffels
may be found.
PROPOSITION XLVIII.
Fig. 27. A cylinder circumfcribed about a fphere,
that is, having its bafe equal to a great circle of the
fphere, and its height equal to the diameter of the
fphere, is to the fphere as 3 to 2.
Let ABEC be the quadrant of a circle, and ABDC
the circumfcribed fquare ; and likewife the triangle
ADC ; by the revolution of the figure about the right
line ^.C, as axis, a hemifphere will be generated by
the quadrant, a cylinder of the fame bafe and height
by the fquare, and a cone by the triangle. Let thefe
three be cut any how by the plane HF, parallel to the
bafe AB ; the ie&ion in the cylinder will be a circle
whofe radius is FH, in the hemifphere a circle of
the radius EF, and in the cone a circle of the radius
GF.
By art. 69. of Part I. EAy, or HFy^EFy and FAy
taken together (but AFy^FGy, becaufe AC=CD);
therefore the circle of the radius FH is equal to a circle
of the radius EF, together with a circle of the radius
GF ; and fince this is true every where, all the circles
together defcribed by the refpeftive radiiYLY (that is,
the cylinder) are equal to all the circles defcribed by
the refpe&ive radii EF and FG (that is, to the hemi¬
fphere and the cone taken together) ; but (by the 1 oth
12. Eucl.) the cone generated by the trinagle DAC is
one third part of the cylinder generated by the fquare
BC. Whence it follows, that the hemifphere gene¬
rated by the rotation of the quadrant ABEC is equal
to the remaining two third parts of the cylinder, and
that the whole fphere is y of the double cylinder, cir¬
cumfcribed about it.
This is that celebrated 39th prop. 1. book of Archi¬
medes of the fphere and cylinder ; in which he deter¬
mines the proportion of the cylinder to the fphere in-
fcribed to be that of 3 td 2.
COROLLARY.
Hence it follows, that the fphere is equal to a cone
whofe height is equal to the femidiameter of the
fphere, having for its bafe a circle equal to the fu-
perficies of the fphere, or to four great circles of the
fphere, or to a circle whofe radius is equal to the dia¬
meter of the fphere (by prop. 41. of this.) And in¬
deed a fphere differs very little from the fum of an in¬
finite number of cones that have their bafes in the fur-
face of the fphere, and their common vertex in the
centre of the fphere ; fo that the fuperficies of the
fphere (of whofe dimenfion fee prop. 41. of this) mul¬
tiplied into the third part of the femidiameter, gives the
folid content of the fphere.
E T R Y. 685
PROPOSITION XLTX. Gauging.
Fig. 28. To find the folid content of a feSor of the ”' v
fphere.—A fpherical feclor ABC (as appears by the
corollary of the preceding prop.) is very little different
from an infinite number of cones, having their bafes
in the fuperficies of the fphere BEC, and their com¬
mon vertex in the centre. Wherefore the fpherical
fuperficies BEC being found (by prop. 42. of this),
and multitplied into the third part of AB the radius of
the fphere, the product will give the folid content of
the fedfor ABC.
COROLLARY.
It is evident how to find the folidity of a fpherical
fegment Itfs than a hemifpherical, by fubtratling the
cone ABC from the fedtor already found. But if the
fpherical fegment be greater than a hemifphere, the
cone correfponding mult be added to the fedlor, to
make the fegment.
PROPOSITION L.
Fig. 29. To fnd the folidity of the fpheroid, and of its
fegments cut ly planes perpendicular to the axis.—
In prop. 44. of this, it is drown, that every where
EH : EG :: CF : CD ; but circles are as the fquares
defcribed upon their rays, that is, the circle of the
radius EH is to the circle of the radius EG, as CF? to
CD?. And fince it is fo every where, all the circles
defcribed with the refpedlive rays EH (that is, the
fpheroid made by the rotation of the femi-ellipfis AFB
around the axis AB) will be to all the circles defcri¬
bed by the refpedkive radii EG (that is, the fphere
defcribed by the rotation of the femicircle ADB on the
axis •.B) as FC? to CD?; that is, as the fpheroid to* ‘
the fphere on the fame axis, fo is the fquare of the
other axis of the generating ellipfe to the fquare of the
axis of the fphere.
And this holds, whether the fpheroid be found by a
revolution around the greater er leffer axis.
COROLLARY 1.
Hence it appears, that the half of the fpheroid,
formed by the rotation of the fpace AHFC around the
axis AC, is double of the cone generated by the triangle
AFC about the fame axis ; which is the 3 2d prop, of
Archimedes of conoids and fpberoids.
C 0 R 0 L LA R Y 2.
Hence, likewife, is evident the meafure of fegments
of the fpheroid cut by planes perpendicular to the
axis. For the fegment of the fpheroid made by the.
rotation of the fpace ANHE, round the axis AE, i&
to the fegment of the fphere having the fame axis AC,
and made by the rotation of the fegment of the circle
AMGE, as CF? to CD?.
But if the meafure of this folid be wanted with lefs.
labour, by the 34th prop, of Archimedes of conoids
and fpheroids, it will be as BE to AC+EB ; fo is the
cone generated by the rotation of the triangle AHE
round the axis AE, to the fegment of the fphere
made by the rotation of the fpace ANHE round the
fame axis AE; which could eafily be demonftrated by
the method of indivifibles.
COROLLARY 3.
Hence it is eafy to find the folid content of the feg¬
ment of a fphere or fphtroid intercepted between two
parallel planes, perpendicular to the axis. This agrees
as well to the oblate as to the oblong fpheroid ;. as is
obvious.
£ 0-
686
Gauging.
G E O M
COROLLARY 4.
Fig. 30. If a calk is to be.valued as the middle pi«ce
of an oblong fpheroid, cut by the two planes DC and
FG, at right angles to the axis: firft, let the folid con¬
tent of the half fpheroid ABCED be meafured by the
preceding prop, from which let the folidity of the feg-
ment DEC be fubtratded, and there will remain the
fegment ABCD ; and this doubled will give the capa¬
city of the cade required.
The following method is generally made ufe of for
finding the folid content of fuch veffels. The double
area of the greateft circle, that is, of that which is de¬
scribed by the diameter AB at the middle of the calk,
is added to the area of the circle at the end, that - is,
of the circle DC or FG (for they are ufually'equal),
and the third part of this fum is taken for a mean bafe
of the calk ; which therefore multiplied into the length
of the calk OP, gives the content of the velfel re¬
quired.
Sometimes vefiels have other figures, different from
thofe we have mentioned ; the eafy methods of mea-
furing which may be learned from thofe who pra£tife
this art. What hath already been delivered is fuffi-
cient for our purpofe.
PROPOSITION LI.
Fig. 31. and 3?. To find how much is contained in
a vejfel that is in part empty, whofe axis is parallel to the
horizon.—Let AGBH be the great tircle in the middle
of the calk, whole fegment GBH is filled with liquor,
the fegment GAH being empty ; the fegment GBH
is known, if the depth EB be known, and EH a mean
proportional between the fegments of the diameter AB
and EB; which are found by a rod or ruler put into
the veffel at the orifice. Let the bafis of the calk at
a medium be found* which fuppofe to be the circle
CKDL ; and let the fegment KCL be fimilar to the
fegment GAH (which is either found by the rule of
three, becaufe as the circle AGBH is to the circle
CKDL, fo is the fegment GAH to the fegment KCL;
or is found from the tables of fegments made by au¬
thors) ; and the product of this fegment multiplied
by the length of the calk will give the liquid content
remaining in the calk.
PROPOSITION LIE
To find the folid content of a regular and ordinate body.
—A tetraedon being a pyramid, the folid content is
found by the 44th prop. The hexaedron, or cube,
being a kind of prifm, it is meafured by the 43d prop.
An o&aedron confifts of two pyramids of the fame
fquare bafe, and of equal heights ; confequently its
meafure is found by the 44th prop. A dodecaedron
confifts of 12 pyramids having equal equilateral and
equiangular pentagonal bafes; and fo one of thefe be¬
ing meafured (by the 44th prop, of this), and multi¬
plied by 12, the product will be equal co the folid con¬
tent of the dodecaedron. The icofiaedron confifts of
20 equal pyramids having triangular bafts; the folid
content of one of which being found (by the 44th
prop.), and multiplied by 20, gives the whole folid.
The bafes and heights of thefe pyramids, if you want
to proceed more exactly, may be found by trigonome¬
try. See Trigonometry.
PROPOSITION LIII.
To find the folid content of a body however irregular.
•—Let the given body be immetfed into a velfel of
E T R Y. 1’artir.
water, having the figure of a paralleloptpedon or Gangirg,
prifm, and let it be noted how much the water is rai- v*
fed upon the immerfion of the body. For it is plain,
that the fpace which the water fills, after the immer-
lion of the body, exceeds the fpace filled before its
immerfion, by a fpace equal to the folid'content of the
body, however irregular. But when this excefs is of
the figure of a parallelopipedon or prifm, it is eafily
meafured by the 43d prop, of this, viz. by multiplying
the area of the bafe, or mouth of the velfel, into the
difference of the elevations of the water before and
after immerfion : Whence is found the folid content of
the body given.
In the fame way the folid content of a part of a
body may be found, by immftling that part only in
water.
There is no necefiity to infill here on diminilhing or
enlarging.folid bodies in a given proportion. It will
be eafy to deduce thefe things from the 1 ith and 12th
books of Euclid.
“ The following rules are fubjoined for the ready
computation of contents of veffels, and of any folids
in the meafures in ufe in Great Biitain.
“ I:.To find the content of a cylindric veffel in Eng-
lilh wine gallons, the diameter of the bafe and altitude
of the veffel being given in inches and decimals of an
inch.
“ Square the number of inches in the diameter of
the veifel; multiply this fquare by the number of
inches in the height: then multiply the produdl by
the decimal fraction .0034; and this laft produft fhall
give the content in wine-gallons and decimals of fuch
a gallon. To exprefs the rule arithmetically ; let D
reprefent the number of inches and decimals of an inch
in the diameter of the veffel, and H the decimals of
an inch in the height of the veffel; then the content
in wine-gallons fhall be DDHXt-qWq, or DDHX
.0034. Ex. Let the diameter D = 5i.2 inches, the
height H = 62.3 inches, then the content ftrall be
51.2 X512 X62.3 X.0034 = 555.27.332 wine-gallons.
This rule follows from prop. 33. and 45, For bythe
former, the area of the bafe of the veiftl is in fquare
inches DDX.7854 ; and by the latter, the content of
the veffel in folid inches is DDHx.7854; which di¬
vided by 231 (the number of cubical inches in a wine-
gallon) gives DDHx.0034, the content in wine gallons.
But though the charges in the excife are made (by
ftatute) on the fuppofition that the wine-gallon con¬
tains 231 cubical inches ; yet it is faid, that in fale
224-cubical inches, the content of the ftandard mea¬
fured at Guildhall (as was mentioned above), are allow¬
ed to be a wine-gallon.
“ II. Suppofing the Engliih ale gallon to contain
282 cubical inches, the content of a cylindric - veffel
is computed in fuch gallons, by multiplying the fquare
of the diameter of a veffel by its height as formerly,
and their produdl by the decimal fraction .0,027,851:
that is, the folid content in ale-gallons is DDHX
.©,027,851.
“ III. Suppofing the Scots pint'to contain about
103.4 cubical inches (which is the meafure given by
the ftandards at Edinburgh, according to experiments
mentioned above), the content of a cylindric veffel is
computed in Scots pints, by multiplying •tbe.'fquar'e of
the diameter of the veil'd bv ies height, and the pro¬
duct
Part IT. GEO M
Gauging. du& of thefe by the decimal fra&ion .0076. Or
the content of fuch a vefiel in Scots pints is DDHx
O.076.
“ Suppbfing the Winchdter budiel to contain 2187
cubical inches, the content of a cylindric veffel is com¬
puted in thofe bulhels by multiplying the fquare of
the diameter of the vefiel by the height, and the pro¬
duct by the decimal fra&ion .0,003,606. ' But the
ftahdard bufhel having been meafured by Mr Everard
and others in 1696, it was found to contain only
2145.6 folid inches; and therefore it was enafted in
the aft for laying a duty upon malt, That every round
bujhel, ’with a plain and even bottom, being 181 inches dia¬
meter throughout, and 8 inches deep, Jhould be ejleemed a legal
Winchefter lujhel. According to this a£t (ratified in
the firft year of queen Anne) the legal .Winchefter
bufhel contains only 2150.42 folid inches. And the
content of a cylindric veftel is computed in fuch bu-
fhels, by multiplying the fquare of the diameter by
the height, and their produft by the decimal ffa&ion
.0,003,625. Or the content of the veffel in thofe
bufhels is DDEIX.0,003,625.
“ V. Suppofing the £>cots wheat-firlot to contain
21I- Scots pints (as is appointed by the ftatute 1618),
and the pint to be conform to the Edinburgh ftandards
- above mentioned, the contents of a cylindric veffel in
fuch firlots is computed by multiplying the fquare of
the diameter by the height, and their produd by the
decimal fradion .00,358. This firlot, in 1426, is
appointed to contain 17 pints; in 1457, it was ap¬
pointed to contain 18 pints; in 1587, it is 19-J pints;
in 1628, it is 21^ pints : and though this laft ftatute
appears to have been founded on wrong computations
in feveral refpeds, yet this part of that ad that relates
to the number of pints in the firlot feems to be the leaft
exceptionable ; and therefore we fuppofe the firlot to
contain 21 ^ pints of the Edinburgh ftandard, or about
2 197 cubical inches; which a little exceeds the Win¬
chefter bufhel, from which it may have been originally
copied. •
“ VI. Suppofing the’bear-firlot to contain 31 Scots
pints (according to the ftatute 16x8), and the pint
conform to the Edinburgh ftandards, the content of a
eylindric veffel in fuch firlots is found by multiplying
the fquare of the diameter by the height, and this pro¬
dud by .000245.
When the fedion of the vefiel is not a circle, but
an ellipfis, the produd of the greateft diameter by the
leaft is to be fubftituted in thofe rules for the fquare
of the diameter.
“ VII. To.compute the content of a vefiel that may
be coniidered as a fruftum of a cone in any of thofe
meafures.
« Let A reprefent the number of inches in the
diameter of the greater bafe, B the number of inches
in the diameter of the Idler, bafe. Compute the
fquare of A, the produd of A multiplied by B, and
the fquare of B, and colled thefe into a fum. Then
find the third part of this fum, and fubfiitute it in
the preceding rules in the place of the fquare of the
diameter; and proceed in all other refpeds as before.
Thus, for example, the content in wine-gallons in
AAxABxBBXj-XHX.0034.
“ Or, to the fquare of half the fum of the diame¬
ters A and B, add one-third part of the fquare of
E T R Y. 687
half their difference, and fubftitute this fum in the Gauging,
preceding rules for the fquare of the diameter of the
veffel; for the fquare of -l-AX^B added to-f of the
fquare of |A—4-B, gives -f AAXyABXyBB.
“ VIII. When a veffel is a fmftum of a parabolic
Conoid, meafure the diameter of the fedion at the
middle of the height of the fruftum ; and the content
will be precisely the fame as of a cylinder of this dia¬
meter of the fame height with the veffel.
“ IX. When a veffel is a fruftum of a fphere, if
you meafure the diameter of the fedion at the middle
of the height of the fruftum, then compute the con¬
tent of a cylinder of this diameter of the fame height
with the vefiel, and from this fubtiad -j- of the content
of a cylinder of the fame height on a bafe whofe dia¬
meter is equal to its height ; the remainder will give
the content of the yeffel. That is, if D reprefent the
diameter of the middle fedion, and H the height of
the fruftum, you are to fubftitute D-D—f HH for the
fquare of the diameter of the cylindric veffel in the firft
fix rules.
“ X. When the veffel is a fruftum of a fpheroid,
if the bafes are equal, the content is readily found by
the rule in p.-685. In other cafes, let the axis of the
folid be to the conjugate axis as « to 1 ; let D be the
diameter of the middle fediqn of the fruftum, H the
height or length of the fruftum ; and fubftitute in the
firft fix rules DD—^ for the fq uare of the diameter
of the veffe].
“ XI. When the veffel is an hyperbolic conoid, let
the axis of the folid be to the conjugate axis as « to 1,
D the diameter of the fedion at the middle of the fruf¬
tum, H the height or length: compute DDXd-XHH,
and fubjlitute this fum for the fquare of the diameter
of the cylindric veffel in the firft fix rules.
“ XII. In general, it is ufual to meafure any round
veffel, by diftinguiftiing it into feveral fruftums, arid
taking the diameter of the fedion at the middle of
each fruftum; thence to compute the content of each,
as if it was a cylinder of that mean diameter; and to
give their fum as the content of the vefftl. Fiom the
total content, computed in this manner, they fubtrad
fucceffively the numbers which exprefs the circular
areas that correfpond to thofe mean diameters, each as
often as there are inches in the altitude of the fruftum
to which it belongs, beginning with the. uppermoft ;
and in this manner calculate a table for the vclfel, by
which it readily appears how much liquor is at any¬
time contained in it, by taking either the dry or wet
inches ; having regard to the inclination or drip of the
veffel when it has any.
“ This method of computing the content of a fruf¬
tum from the diameter of the fedion at the middle of
its height, is exad in that cafe only when it is a por¬
tion of a parabolic conoid ; but in fuch veffels as are
in common ufe, the error is not confiderable. When
the veffel is a portion of a cone or hyperbolic conoid,
the content by this method is found lefs than the truth,;
but when it is a portion of a fphere or fpheroid, the
content computed in this manner exceeds the truth.
The difference or error is always the fame in the dif¬
ferent parts of the fame or of fimilar veffels, when, the
altitude of the fruftum is given. And when the alti¬
tudes are different, the error is in the triplicate ratio-
of
688 G E O M
Gauging. 0f the altitude. If exa&nefs be required, the error in
*" meafuring the frultum of a conical veffel in this man¬
ner is J of the content of a cone fimilar to the veffel,
of an altitude equal to the height of the fruftum. In
a fphere, it is y of a cylinder of a diameter and height
equal to the fruftum. In the fpheroid and hyperbolic
conoid, it is the fame as in a cone generated by the
right-angled triangle, contained by the two femiaxes
of the figure, revolving about that fide which is the
femiaxis of the fruftum.
“ In the ufual method of computing a table for a
veffel, by fubdu&ing from the whole content the num¬
ber that expreffes the uppermoft area as often as there
are inches in the uppermoft fruftum, and afterwards
the numbers for the other areas fucceffively ; it is ob¬
vious, that the contents afligned by the table, when a
few of the uppermoft inches are dry, are ftated a little
too high if the veffel {lands upon its bafe, but too low
when it Hands on its greater bafe ; becaufe, when one
inch is dry, for example, it is not the area at the
middle of the uppermoft fruftum, but rather the area
at the middle of the uppermoft inch, that ought to be
fubdudled from the total content, in order to find the
content in this cafe.
“ XIII. To meafure round timber : Let the mean
circumference be found in feet and decimals of a foot;
fquare it; multiply this fquare by the decimal .079,577,
and the produft by the length. Ex. Let the mean
circumference of a tree be 10 3 feet, and the length
24 feet. Then 10 3X10 3X.079,577X24=202.615,
is the number of cubical feet in tlje tree. The foun
dation of this rule is, that when the circumference of a
circle is 1, the area is .0,795,774,715, and that the areas
of circles are as the fquares of their circumferences.
“ But the common way ufed by artificers for mea¬
furing round timber, differs much from this rule.
They call one fourth part of the circumference the
girt, which is by them reckoned the fide of a fquare,
whofe area is equal to the area of the feftion of the
tree; therefore they fqnare the girt, and then multiply
by the length of the tree. According to their method,
the tree of the laft example would be computed at
159.13 cubical feet only.
“ How fquare timber is meafured, will be eafily
underftood from the preceding propofitions. Fifty
folid feet of hewn timber, and forty of rough timber,
make a load.
£ T R Y. Part IT.
“ XIV. To find the burden of a fhip, or the num- Gauging,
ber of tons it will carry, the following rule is com- " *' v —
monly given. Multiply the length of the keel taken
within board, by the breadth of the fhip within board,
taken from the midfhip beam from plank to plank, and
the produdt by the depth of the hold, taken from the
plank below the keelfon to the under part of the upper
deck plank, and divide the produdt by 94, the quo¬
tient is the content of the tonnage required. This
rule, however, cannot be accurate; nor can one rule
be fuppofed to ferve for the meafuring exaftly the
burden of fhips of all forts. Of this the reader will
find more in the Memoirs of the Royal Academy of
Sciences at Paris for the year 1721.
“ Our author having faid *nothing of weights, it
may be of ufe to add briefly, that the Englifh Troy-
pound contains 12 ounces, the ounce 20 penny-weight,
and the penny-weight 24 grains ; that the Averdupois
pound contains 16 ounces, the ounce 16 drams, and
that r 12 pounds is ufually called the hundred weight.
It is commonly fuppofed, that 14 pounds Averdupois
are equal to 17 pounds Troy. According to Mr
Everard’s experiments, 1 pound Averdupois is equal
to 14 ounces 12 penny-weight and 16 grains Troy,
that is, to 7000 grains ; and an Averdupois ounce is
43grains. The Scots Troy-pound (which, by the
ftatute 1718, was to be the fame with the French) is
commonly fuppofed equal to 15^ ounces Englifh Troy,
or 7560 grains. By a mean of ftandards kept by the
deain of guild at Edinburgh, it is 7599-3V or 7600
grains. They who have meafured the weights which
were fent from London after the union of the king¬
doms to be the ftandards by which the weights in Scot¬
land fhould be made, have found the Engiifh Averdu¬
pois pound (from a medium of the feveral weights) to
weigh 7000 grains, the fame as Mr Everard ; accord¬
ing to which, the Scots, Paris, or Amfterdam pound,
will be to the pound Averdupois as 38 to 35. The
Scots Troy-ftone contains 16 pounds, the pound 3
marks or 16 ounces, an ounce 16 drops, a drop 36
grains. Twenty Scots ounces make a Tron-pound ;
but becaufe it is ufual to allow one to the fcore, the
Tron-pound is commonly 2 1 ounces. Sir John Skene,
however, makes the Tron-ftone to contain only
pounds.”
GEO
George. GEORGE I. II. and III. kings of Great Britain.
Y—/ -^George I. the fon of Erneft Auguftus, duke of
Brunfwick Lunenburgh, and ele&or of Hanover; fuc-
ceeded to the throne of Great Britain in 1714, in vir¬
tue of an adt of parliament, paffed in the latter part
of the reign of king William III. limiting the fuccef-
fion of the crown, after the demife of that monarch,
and queen Anne (without iffue), to the princefs Sophia
of Hanover, and thte heirs of her body, being Prote-
flasnts.—George II. the only fon of the former, fuc-
ceededhim in 1727, and enjoyed a long reign of glory;
dying amidft the mod rapid and extenfive Conquefts
in the 77th year of his age. He was fucceeded by
N° 138.
GEO
his grandfon George III. our prefent fovereign. For George,
particulars, fee Bkitain, n°374 — 701. w—.
George, or Knights of St George, has been the de¬
nomination of feveral military orders, whereof that of
the garter is one of the moft illuftrious. See Garter,
and St George, below.
King George’s IJlands, are two iflands ift the South
Sea, lying in W. Long. 144.56. S. Lat. 14. 28. They
were firft difcovered by commodore Byron in 1765,
and have fince been vifited by Captain Cook in 1774.
Commodore Byron’s people had an encounter with the
inhabitants, which proved fatal to fome of the natives;
but Captain Cook was more fortunate. A lieutenant
and
O E O t ^89 ] GEO
^ Oeorge. >an^ two boat* well armed were Tent on fliore by Cap-
r31-tain Cook ; and landed without oppolition. As footi
as the gentlemen landed, the iflanders embraced them
by touching nofes, a mode of civility ufed in New Zea¬
land, which is goo leagues diftant, and the only place
befides this where the cuftom has been obferved to pre¬
vail, Notwithftanding this ceremony, however, very
little real friendihip feemed to take place on the part
of the iflanders. They crowded about the boats as the
people were ftepping into them, and feemed in doubt
whether they (hould detain them or let them goj atlaft,
however, not thinking themfelves fufficiently ftrong,
they feemed contented with their departure, and affifted
them in pufhing off their boats; but fome of the moft
turbulent threw ftones into the water which fell very
■near them, and all feemed to glory that they had as it
were driven them off. The Britilh, however, brought
' off five dogs of a white colour with fine long Hair, with
which the ifland feemed to be plentifully fupplied.
Thefe they purchafed with fmall nails, and fome ripe
bananas which had been brought from the Marquefas.
On this ifland, Mr Foreller found a kind of fcurvy-
grafs, which the natives informed him they were wont
to bruife and mix with Ihell-fifh ; after which, they
threw it into the fea whenever they perceived a fhoalof
'fifli. This preparation intoxicates them for fome time;
and thus they are caught on the furface of the water
without any other trouble than that of taking them
out. The name of this plant among the natives is e
now. The largeft ifland, which they call ‘Tiookea, is
fomething of an oval fliape, and about 10 leagues in
circuit; the other ifland, which lies two leagues to the
weftward of Tiookea, is four leagues long from north-
eaft to fouthweft, and from five to three miles broad.
1 The foil of both is extremely fcanty ; the foundation
confifts of coral, very little elevated above the furface
1 of the water.
George (St) or George of Cappadocia', a name
whereby feveral orders, both military and religious, are
denominated. It took its rife from a faint or hero
famous throughout all the Eaft, called by the Greeks
MiyuRoftaplvg, q. d. great martyr.
On fome medals of the emperors John and Manuel
Comneni, we have the figure of St George armed, hold¬
ing a fword or javelin in one hand, and in the other a
buckler, with this infeription; an O, and therein a little
P
a, and rE—noC, making o apioe rEOPrior, Q J:oJy
O
George. He is generally reprefented on horfeback, as be¬
ing fuppofed to have frequently engaged in combats in
that manner. He is highly venerated throughout Arme¬
nia, Mufcovy, and all the countries which adhere to the
Greek rite : from the Greek, his worlhip has long ago
been received into the Latin church; and England and
Portugal have both chofen him for their patron faint.
Great difficulties have been railed about this faint
or hero. His very exiftetice has been called in que-
ftion. Dr Heylin, who wrote fiift and moft about
him, concluded with giving him entirely up, and fup-
pofing him only a fymtolical device; and Dr Pet¬
ti ngal has turned him into a mere Bafilidian fymbol
* Vol.I. I. of victory. Mr Pegg, in a paper in the Archaeologia*,
has attempted to reftore him. And, finally, Mr Gib-
4 Hi ft. Jjojj .j. }jas funk him into an Arian bilhop in the reigns
l*1, of Conftantius and Julian.—The bifltop alluded to,
4* “ VQI..VII. Part II.
George the Cappadocian, was fo furnamed, according
to our author, from his parents or education; and was
born at Epiphania in Cilicia, in a fuller’s ftiop. “ From
this obfcure and fervile origin he railed himfelf by the
talents of a parafite : and the patrons, whom he af-
fiduoufly flattered, procured for their worthlefs depen¬
dent a lucrative commiffion, or contraft, to fupply
the army with bacon. His employment was mean :
he rendered it infamous. He accumulated wealth by
the bafeft arts of fraud and corruption ; but his mal-
verfations were fo notorious, that George was com¬
pelled to efcape from the purfuits of juftice. After
this difgrace, in which he appears to have faved his
fortune at the expence of his honour, he embraced, with
real or affedted zeal, the profeffion of Arianifm. From
the love, or the oftentation, of learning, he colledted
a valuable library of hiftory, rhetoric, philofophy, and
theology; and the choice of the prevailing faction promo¬
ted George of Cappadocia to the throne of Athana-
fius.” Hiscondudt in this ftation is reprefented by our
hiftorian as polluted by cruelty and avarice, and his
death confidered as a juft punifliment for the enormi¬
ties of hi§ life, among which Mr Gibbon feems to
rank his “ enmity to the Gods.”
The immediate occafion of his death, however, as
narrated by ecclefiaftical writers, will not probably appear
calculated to add any ftain to his memory. “ There
was in the city of Alexandria a place in which the
heathen priefts had been ufed. to offer human facrifi-
ces. This place, as being of no ufe, Conftantius gave
to the church of Alexandria, and George the bifliop
gave orders for it to be cleared, in order to build a
Chriftian church on the fpot. In doing this they dif-
covered an immenfe fubterraneous cavern, in which
the heathen myfteries had beefi performed, and in it
were many human Ikulls. Thefe, and other things
which they found in the place, the Chriftians brought
out and expofed to public ridicule. The heathens,
provoked at this exhibition, fuddenly took arms, and
rulhing upon the Chriftians, killed many of them with
fwords, clubs, and ftones : fome alfo they ftrangled,
and feveral they crucified. On this the Chriftians pro¬
ceeded no farther in clearing the temple ; but the hea¬
thens, purfuing their advantage, feized the bilhop as
he was in the church, and put him in prifon. The
next day they difpatched him ; and then fattening, the
body to a camel, he was dragged about the ftreets all
day, and in the evening they burnt him and the
camel together. This fate, Sozomen fays, the bi-
fhop owed in part to his haughtinefs while he was in
favour with Conftantius, and fome fay the friends of
Athanafius were concerned in this maffacre ; but he a-
fcribes it chiefly tothe inveteracy of the heathens, whofe
fuperftitions he had been very aftive in abolifhing.
“ This George, the Arian bilhop of Alexandria,
was a man of letters, and had a very valuable library,
which Julian ordered to be feized for his own ufe;
and in his orders concerning it, he fays that many of
the books were on philofophical and rhetorical fub-
jefts, though many of them related to the do&rine
of the impious Galileans (as in his fneering contemp¬
tuous way he always affefted to call the Chriftians).
‘ Thefe books (fays he) 1 could wiftr to have utterly
deftroyed ; but left books of value ihould be deftroy-
ed along with them, let thefe alfo be carefully fought
for,*
4 S
But
GEO [ 690 ] GEO
George. I$ut Mr Gibbon gives a different turn to the affair
of George’s murder, as well as relates it with diffe¬
rent circumftances. “ The Pagans (fays he) excited
his devout avarice ; and the rich temples of Alexandria
were either pillaged or infulted, by the haughty pre¬
late, who exclaimed, in a loud and threatening tone,
* How long will thefe fepulchres be permitted to
ftand ?’ Under the reign of Conflantius, he was ex¬
pelled by the fury, or rather by the juftice, of the
people; and it was not without a violent ftruggle,
that the civil aad military powers of the ftate could
reft ore his authority, and gratify his revenge. The
meffenger who proclaimed at Alexandria the acceffion
of Julian, announced the downfall of the archbifhop.
George, with two of his obfequious- minifters* count
Diodorus, and Dracontius mafter of the mint, was
ignominioufly dragged in chains to the public prifon.
At the end of 24 days, the prifon was forced open by
the rage of a fuperftitious multitude, impatient of the
tedious forms of judicial proceedings. The enemies of
gods and men expired under their cruel infults; the
lifelefs bodies of the archbifhop and his affociates were
carried in triumph through the ftreets on the back of a
camel; and the inactivity of the Athanafia'n party was
efteemed a fhining example of evangelical patience.
The remains of thefe guilty wretches were thrown
into the fea; and the popular leaders of the tumult
declared their refolution to difappoint the devotion of
the Chriftians, and to intercept the future honours of
thefe martyrs, who had been punifhed, like their pre-
deceffors, by the enemies of their religion; The fears
of the Pagans were juft, and their precautions ineffec¬
tual. The meritorious death of the archbifhop obli¬
terated the memory of his life. The rival of Athana-
fius was dear and facred to the Arians, and the feem-
ing converfton of thefe feftaries introduced his wor-
ftiip into the bofom of the Catholic church. The o-
dious ftranger, difguifing every circumftance of time
and place, affumed the mafic of a martyr, a faint, and
a Chriftian hero; and the infamous George of Cappa¬
docia has been transformed into the renowned St
George of England, the patron of arms, of chivalry,
and of the garter.”
Knights of St George. See Ga&ter. There have been
various other orders under this denomination, moft of
which are now extinft ; particularly one founded by
the emperor Frederic Ilf. in the year 1470, to guard
the frontiers of Bohemia and Hungary againft the
Turks ; another, called St George of Alfama, founded
by the kings of Arragon; another in Auftria and Ca-
rinthia ; and another in the republic of Genoa, ftill
fubfifting, &c.
Religious of St George. Of thefe there are di¬
vers orders and congregations ; particularly canons re¬
gular of St George in Alga, at Venice, eftablifhed by
authority of pope Boniface IX. in the year 1404. The
foundation of this order was laid by Bartholomew Co-
lonna, who preached, in 1396, at Padua, and fomo
other villages in the ftate of Venice. Pope Pius V.
in 1570, gave thefe canons precedence of all other re¬
ligious. Another congregation of the fame inftitute
in Sicily, &c.
St George del Mina, the capital of the Dutch
fcttlements, on the gold-coads of Guinea, fituated fe-
ven or eight miles weft of Cage-coaft caftle, the capi¬
tal of the Britiih fettlements there. W. Long. r. and Geergii,
N. Lat. 50. , Geo^ia-
St George, a fort and town of Afia, in the penin- '
fula on this fide the Ganges, and on the coaft of Coro-
mandelf belonging to the Britifh; it is otherwife call¬
ed Madrafs, and by the natives Chili patam. It fronts
the fea, and has a falt-water river on its back fide, which
hinders the frefh-water fprings from coming near the
town, fo that they have no good water within a mile
of them. In the rainy feafons it is incommoded by in¬
undations ; and from April to September, it is fo fcorch*
• ing hot, that if the fea-breezes did not cool the air,
there would be no living there. There are two towns,
one of which is called the White Town, which is walled
round, and has feveral bulwarks and baftions to defend-
-it: it is 400 paces long and 150 broad, and is divided
into regular ftreets. Here are two churches, one for
the Proteftants, and the other for the Papifts ; as alfo
a good hofpital, a town hall, and a prifon for debtors.
They are a corporation, and have a mayor and aider-
men, with other proper officers. The Black Town is
inhabited by Gentoos, Mahometans, and Portuguefe
and Armeniajj Chriftians,. and each religion have their
temples and churches. This, as well as the White
Town, is ruled by the Englilh governor and his coun¬
cil. The diamond-mines are but a week’s journey
from this place, which renders them pretty plentiful,
but there are no large ones fince that great diamond was
procured by governor Pitt. This colony produces very
little of its own growth or manufacture for foreign
markets, and the trade is in the hands of the Arme¬
nians and Gentoos. The chief things tlie Britilh
deal in, befides diamonds, are calicoes, chintz, muf¬
fins, and the like. This colony may confift of 80,000
inhabitants in the towns and villages, and there are
generally 400 or 500 Europeans. Their rice is brought
by fea to Gangam and Orixa, their wheat from Su¬
rat and Bengal, and their fire-wood from the iflands
of Diu : fo that an enemy, with a fuperior force
at fta, may eafily diftrefs fthem; The houfes of the
White Town are built with brick, and have lofty
rooms and flat roofs; but the Black Town confifts '
chiefly of thatched cottages. The military power is
lodged in the governor and council, who are alfo the
laft refort in civil caufes. The company have two chap¬
lains, who officiate by turns, and have each 1001. a-
year, befides the advantages of trade. They never at¬
tempt to make profelytes, but leave that to the Popifft
miffionaries. The falaries of the company’s writers
are very fmall: but, if they have any fortune of their
own, they may make it up by trade ; which muft ge¬
nerally be the cafe, for they commonly grow rich. It
was taken by the French in 1746, who reftored it at
the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle.
St George's, the largeft of the Bermuda or Sum¬
mer iflands. W. Long. 65. 10. N. Lat. 32. 30.
Crofs of St George, a red one in a field argent,
‘ which makes part of the Britifh ftandard.
GEORGIA, a country of Afia, bounded on the
north by Circaffia, on the eaft by Dagheftan and
Shirvan, on the fouth by Armenia, and on the weft
by the Euxine or Black Sea; comprehending the
greateft part of the ancient Colchis, Iberia, and Alba¬
nia. About the etymon of the name of this country,
authors are not agreed. The moft probable opinion
isf.
GEO [ 691 ] GEO
Georgia. Is, that it is a corruption by foFtening of Kurgia,
from the river Kur; whence alfo it is fuppofed that
the inhabitants are called by the Periians indifferently
Gurgi and Kurgi; and the country Kurglftan and Gur-
gijian ; It is divided by a ridge of mountains into eaft-
ern and weftern ; the former of which is again fubdi-
vided into the kingdoms of Caket, Carduel or Car-
thuel, and Goguetia ; and the latter into the provin¬
ces of Abcaffia, Mireta, or Imaretta, and Guriel. Anp-
ther divifion is into Georgia Proper, Abcaffia, and
Mingrelia. A third divifion will be afterwards men¬
tioned.
“ Georgia (fays Sir George Chardin) is as fertile a
country as can be fcen ; the bread is as good here as
in any part of the world ; the fruit of an exquifite fla¬
vour, and of different forts ; no place in Europe yields
better pears and apples, and no place in Afia better
pomegranates. The country abounds with cattle, ve-
nifon, and wild-fowl, of all forts; the river Kur is well
flocked with fifh; and the wine is fo rich, that the king
of Perfia has always fome of it for his own tab(e. The
inhabitants are robuft, valiant, and of a jovial temper ;
great lovers of wine, and efteemed very trufty and
Faithful ; endowed with good natural parts, but, for
want of education, very vicious. The women are ge¬
nerally fo fair and comely, that the wives and concu¬
bines of the king of Perfia and his court are for the
moft part Georgian wmmen. Nature has adorned them
with graces no where elfe to be met with : it is im-
poffible to fee them without loving them 5 they are of
a good fize, clean limbed, and well-fhaped.” Another
traveller, however, of no mean character, thus expreffes
himfelf with refpeft to the women : “ As to the Geor¬
gian women, they did not at all furprife us ; for we
expe&ed to find them perfect beauties. They are, in¬
deed, no way difagreeable; and may be counted beau¬
ties, if compared with the Curdes. They have an air
of health that is pleafing enough ; but, after all, they
are neither fo handfome nor fo well fhaped as is
reported. Thofe who live in the towns have no¬
thing extraordinary more than the others; fo that I
may, I think, venture to contradict the accounts that
have been given of them by moft travellers.”
This country formerly abounded with great cities, as
appears not only from its hiftory, but from the ruins of
many of them {till vifible, which fhow that they muft
have been very large, opulent, and magnificently
built. Thefe were all deftroyed by the inundations of
northern barbarians from mount Caucafhs, as the A-
lans, Huns, Suevi, and fome others, fo much noted
in hiftory for their ftrength, courage, and conquefts.
The lateft divifion of this country is into nine pro¬
vinces ; five of which are fubjedt to the famous prince
Heraclius, forming what is commonly called the king¬
dom of Georgia ; and four are under the dominion of
David, compofing the kingdom or principality of Ime-
retia. See Imeretia.
This whole country is fo extremely beautiful, that
fome fanciful travellers have imagined they had here
found the fituation of the original garden of Eden.
The hills are covered with forefts of oak, aftr, beech,
chefnuts, walnuts, and elms, encircled with vines,
growing perfectly wild, but producing vaft quantities
of grapes. From theft is annually made as much wine
as is necefiary for the yearly confumption j the re¬
mainder are left to rot on the vines. Cotton grows tSeorgia.
fpontaneoufiy, as well as the fineft European fruit-  <—*
trees. Rice, wheat, millet, hemp, and flax, are raifed
on the plains, almoft without culture. The valleys
afford the fineft pafturage in the world ; the rivers are
full of fifh; the mountains abound in minerals, and the
climate is delicious; fo that nature appears to have la-
viflred on this favoured couatry every produdtion that
can contribute to the happinefs of its inhabitants.
On the other hand, the rivers of Georgia, being fed by
mountain torrents, are at all feafons either too rapid or
too fhallow for the purpofes of navigation: the Black
Sea, by which commerce and civilization might be intro¬
duced from Europe, has been till very lately in the ex-
clufive pofleflion of the Turks: the trade of Georgia
by land is greatly obftrmfted by the high mountains of
Caucafus: and this obftacle is Hill increafed by the
fwarms of predatory nations, by which thofe moun¬
tains are inhabited.
_ It is faid, that in the 15th century, a king of Geor¬
gia divided among his fiveTons the provinces of Car*
duel and Caket, Imeretia, Mingrelia, Guriel, and
Abkhafia. Thefe petty princes were too jealous
to unite for their common defence, and too weak
fingly to refill a foreign enemy, or even to check the
incroachments of their great vaflals, who foon became
independent. By forming a party among thefe nobles*
the Turks gradually gained pofleffion of all the weft*
ern provinces, while the Perfians occupied the govern¬
ments of Carduel and Caket. Since that period the
many unfuccefsful attempts of the Georgians to reco*
ver their liberty, have- repeatedly produced the deva*
Ration of their country. 'Abbas the Great is faid to
have carried off in one expedition from the province#
of Carduel and Caket no lefs than 80,000 families, a
number which, probably, exceeds the whole adlual po¬
pulation of thofe provinces. The moft horrible cruel¬
ties were.again exercifed on the unhappy people, at
the beginning of the prefent century, by the mercilefs
Nadir; but thefe were trifling evils, compared with
thofe arifing from the internal diflentions of the great
barons. This numerous body of men, idle, arrogant*
and ferocious, poflHfed of an unlimited power over the
lives and properties of their vaflals, having no employ¬
ment but that of arms, and no hopes of aggrandizing
themfelves but by the plunder of their rivals, were
conftantly in a ftate of warfare ; and as their fuccefs
was various, and the peafants of the vanquiflied were
conftantly carried off and fold to the Turks or Per¬
fians, every expedition increafed the depopulation of
the country. At length they invited the neighbour¬
ing mountaineers, by the hopes of plunder, to take
part in their quarrels; and thefe dangerous allies, be¬
coming acquainted with the country, and being fpec-
tators of the weaknefs of its inhabitants, foon com¬
pleted its defolation. A few fqualid wretches, half
naked, half ftarved* and driven to defpair by the mer¬
cilefs exa&ions of their landlords, are thinly difperfed
over the moft beautiful provinces of Georgia. The
revolutions of Perfia, and the weaknefs of the Turks,
have indeed enabled the princes of the country to re¬
cover their independence ; but the fmallnefs of their
revenue has hitherto difabled them from repreffing ef¬
fectually the tyranny of the nobles, and relieving the
burdens of the peafants.
The
GEO [ '692 ] GEO
Georgia. The capital of Georgia is Teflis, where prince He-
—"Nr-— radius refides (;See Teflis.) Of this prince, fo
celebrated for his exploits and fucccefs in lhaking off
the Ottoman yoke, we have the following account by
the late profeffor Guldenftaedt when he travelled into
thefe parts in 1770. “ Heraclius, or, as he is called,
the tzar Iracli, is above 60 years old, of a middle
fize, with a long countenance, a dark complexion,
large eyes, and a fmall beard. He palfed his youth at
the court and in the army of the celebrated Nadir
Shah, where he contra&ed a fondnefs for Perfian cu-
ftoms and manners, which he has introduced into his
kingdom. He has feven fons and fix daughters. He
is much revered and dreaded by the Perfian khans
his neighbours; and is ufualiy chofen to mediate be¬
tween them in their difputes with each other. When
they are at war, he fupports one of the parties with a
few troops, who diffufe a fpirit and courage among the
reft, becaufe the Georgian foldiers are efteemed the
brave ft of thofe parts ; and prince Heraclius himfelf is
renowned for his courage and military Hull. When
on horfeback he has always a pair of loaded piftols at
his girdle, and, if the enemy is near, a muiket flung
over his fhoulder. In all engagements he is the fore-
moft to give examples of perfonal bravery; and fre¬
quently charges the enemy at the head of his troops
with the fabre in his hand. He loves pomp and ex¬
pence ; he has adopted the drefs of Perfia ; and regu¬
lates his court after the manner of that country. From
the example of the Rulfian troops, who were quartered
in Georgia during the laft Turkilh war, he has learnt
the ufe of plates, knives, and forks, difhes and houfe-
hold-furniture, &c.”
The fubjecfts of Heraclius are eftimated at about
60,000 families ; but this, notvvithftanding the prefent
defolated ftate of the country, is probably an under
valuation. The peafants belonging to the queen, and
thofe of the patriarch, pay no tax to the prince, and
therefore do not appear on the books of the revenue
officers. Many fimilar exemptions have likewife been
granted by the prince to his fons in-law, and his fa¬
vourites. Befides, as the impoft on the peafants is not
a poll tax, but a tax on hearths, the inhabitants of a
village, on the approach of the colle&ors, frequently
carry the furniture of feveral huts into one, and deftroy
the remainder, which are afterwards very eafily repla¬
ced. It is probable, therefore, that the population of
Georgia does not fall ffiort of 350,000 fouls. The
revenues may be eftimated at abeut j 50,000 roubles,
or 26,250!. They confift of, 1. The cuftoms, farmed
at 17501.—2. Rent paid by the farmers of the mint
at Teflis, 17501.—3. The tribute paid by the Khans
of Erivan and Ganffia, 70001.-— and, 4. The hearth
money levied on the peafants, amounting to 15,750!.
The common.coins here are theabaffes, of about i5d.
value, and a fmall copper coin, ftamped at the mint at
Teflis. Befides thefe, a large quantity of gold and fil-
ver money is brought into the country from Perfia
and Turkey, in exchange for honey, butter, cattle,
and blue linens.
The government of Georgia is defpotic; but, were it
mot for the affiftance of the Ruffian troops, the prince
would be frequently unable to carry his decrees into
execution. The puniftiments in criminal cafes are
ftiockingly cruel; fortunately they are not frequent,
becaufe it is feldom difficult to efcape into fome of the Georgia,
neighbouring countries, and becaufe the prince is more —v—^
enriched by confifcating the property of the criminal,
than by putting him to torture. Judicial combats are
confidered as the privilege of nobility, and take place
when the caufe is extremely intricate^ or when the
power and intereft of two claimants are fo equal, that
neither can force a decifion of the court in his favour.
This mode of trial is called an appeal to the judgment
of God.
The drefs of the Georgians nearly refembles that of
the Cofaks ; but men of rank frequently wear the ha¬
bit of Perfia. They ufualiy dye their hair, beard, and
nails with red. The Georgian women employ the
fame colour to ftain the palms of their hands. On
their heads they wear a cap or fillet, under which their-
black hair falls on their forehead : behind, it is braid¬
ed into feveral trefles. Their eye-brows are painted
with black, in fuch a manner as to form one entire line,
and their faces are perfeftly coated with white and
red. TJieir robe is open to the girdle, fo that they,
are reduced to conceal the breafts with their hands.
Their air and manner are extremely voluptuous. Be-
ing generally educated in convents, they can all read'-
and write; a qualification which is very unufual among
the men, even of the higheft rank. Girls are be¬
trothed as foon as poffible, often at three or four years
of age. In the ftreets the women of rank are always
veiled, and then it is indecent in any man to accoft
them. It is likewife uncivil in converfation to inquire
after the wives of any of the company. Thefe, how¬
ever, are not ancient cuftoms, but are a confequence of
the violences committed by the Perfians, under Shah
Nadir.
Travellers accufe the Georgians of drunkennefs, fu-.:
perftition, cruelty, floth, avarice, and cowardice ; vices^
which are every where common to flaves and tyrants,
and are by no means peculiar to the natives of this-,
country. The defcendants of the colonifts, carried off
by Shah Abbas, and fettled at Peria, near Ifpahan,
and in Mafanderan, have changed their chara&er with
their government; and the Georgian troops, employ¬
ed in Perfia againft the Affghans, were advantageoufly,
diftinguifhed by their docility, their difcipline, and
their courage.
The other inhabitants of Georgia are Tartars, Offi,
and. Armenians,, called in the Georgian language So-
makhi. Thefe laft are found all over Georgia, fome-
times mixed with the natives, and fometimes in vil¬
lages of their own. They fpeak among themfelves
their own language, but all underftand and can talk,
the Georgian. Their religion is partly the Armenian,
and partly, the Roman Catholic. They are the molb
oppreffed of the inhabitants, but are ftill diftinguifhed ;
by that inftinctive induftry which every , where charac¬
terizes the nation.
Befides thefe, there are in Georgia confiderables
numbers of Jews, called, in the language of the coun¬
try, Uria. Some have villages of their own; and:
others are mixed with the Georgian, Armenian, and.
Tartar inhabitants, but never with the Offi.. They pay
a fmall tribute above that of the natives.
Georgia, one of the United States of America,
lying between South Carolina and Florida. It ex¬
tends 120 miles upon the fearcoait, and 300 milaa-
frena
GEO f 693 J GEO
Georgia, from thence to the Apalachian mountains, and its
"m boundaries to the north and fouth are the rivers Sa¬
vannah and Alatamaha. The whole coaft is bordered
with iflands ; the principal of which are Skidaway,
Wa(Taw,_ Offabaw, St Catherines, Sapelo, Frederica,
Jekyl, Cumberland, and Amelia.
The fettlement of a colony between the rivers Sa¬
vannah and Alatamaha was meditated in England in
— 1732> f°r the accommodation of poor people in Great
Britain and Ireland, and for the farther fecurity of
Carolina. Private compafllon and public fpirit con-
fpired to promote the benevolent defign. Humane
and opulent men fuggefted a plan of tranfporting a
number of indigent families to this part of America
free of expence. For this purpofe they applied to the
king, George II. and obtained from him letters pa¬
tent, bearing date June 9. 1732, for legally carrying
into execution what they had generoufly projedled.
They called the new province Georgia, in honour of
the king, who encouraged the plan. A corporation^
confifting of 21 perfons, was conllituted by the name
of, The Truftees for fettling and eilablifhing the colo¬
ny of Georgia.
In November 1732, n6 fettlers embarked for Geor¬
gia, to be conveyed thither free of expence, furniihed
with every thing requifite for building and for culti¬
vating the foil. Mr James Oglethorpe, one of the
trufiees, and an active promoter of the fettlement, em¬
barked as the head and dire&or of thefe fettlers.
They arrived at Chaileftown early in the next year.
Mr Oglethorpe, accompanied by William Bull, fhortly
after his arrival, vifited Georgia; and after furveying
the country, marked the fpot on which Savannah now
Hands, as the fitted to begin their fettlement. Here
they accordingly began and built a fmall fort; a num¬
ber of fmall huts for their defence and accommodation.
Such of the fettlers as were able to bear arms wrere
embodied, and well appointed with officers, arms,
and ammunition. A treaty of friendfhip was con¬
cluded between the fettlers and their neighbours the
Greek Indians, and every thing wore the afpe£t of
peace and future .profperity. But the fundamental
regulations edablifhed by the truftees of Georgia were
ill adapted to the circumftances and fituation of the
poor fettlers, and of pernicious confequences t© the
profperity. of the province. Yet although the truftees
were greatly miftaken with refpeck to their plan of
fettlement, it mud be acknowledged their views were
generous. Like other diftant legifiators, who framed-
their regulations upon principles of fpeculation, they
were liable to many errors and miftakes; and however
good their defign, their rules were found improper and
impracticable. Thefe injudicious regulations and re-
ftrictions, the wars in which they were involved with
the Spaniards and Indians, and the frequent infurrec-
tions among themfelves, threw the colony into a date
of confufion and wretchednefs too great for human
nature long to endure. Their oppreffed fituation was
reprefented to the truftees.by repeated complaints; till
at length finding that the province languiftred un-.
der their care, and weary with the complaints of the.
people, they in the year 1752 furrendered their charter
to the king, and it was made a royal government-
•—In the year 1740, the Rev. George Whitefiejd
founded an orphan-houfe academy in Georgia, .about
12 miles from Savannah. Mr Whitefield died at New- Georgia*
bury Port, in New England, in October 1770, in the 
56th year of his age, and was buried under the Pref-
byterian church in that place. From the time Geor¬
gia became a royal government in 1752, till the peace
of Paris in 1763, die ftruggled under many difficulties
arifing from the want of credit, from friends, and the
frequent moleftations of enemies. The good effeCts of
the peace were fenfibly felt in the province of Georgia.
From this time it began to flouriih under the fatherly
care of governor Wright. To form a judgment of the
rapid growth of the colony, we need only attend to
its exports. In the year 1763, they confiftedof 7500
barrels of rice, 9633 pound of indigo, 1250 bulhels of
Indian corn, which, together with deer and beaver
fkins, naval ftores, provifions, timber, &e, amounted to
no more than L. 27,021 fterling. Ten years after¬
wards, in 1773, they amounted to L. 12^677 fterling.
The chief articles of export from this ftate are rice,
tobacco, indigo, fago, lumber of various kinds, naval
ftores, leather, deer-lkins, fnake-root, myrtle, bees-wax,
corn, live flock, &c.
During the late war, Georgia was over-run by the
Britilh troops, and the inhabitants were obliged to
flee into the neighbouring ftates for fafety. Since the
peace, the progrefs of the population of this ftate is faid
to have been aftouifliingly rapid : though it has been a
good deal checked within thefe few years by the hoftile
irruptions of the Creek Indians, who continually harafs
the frontiers of the ftate. Treaties have been held, and
a ceffation of hoftilities agreed to, between the parties j .
but all have hitherto proved ineffedlual to the accom-
plilhment of a peace.
Thefe Indians inhabit the middle parts of the ftate,
and are the moft numerous tribe of Indians of any
within the limits of the United States. Their whole
number is 17,280, of which 5860 are fighting men.
Their principal towns lie in latitude 32? and longitude
x j° 20 from Philadelphia. They are fettled in a hilly
but not mountainous country. The foil is fruitful in
a high degree, and well watered, abounding in creek*
and rivulets, whence they are called the Crari In¬
dians. The Seminolas, a divifion of the Greek na¬
tion, inhabit a level flat country on the Apalachicola
and Flint rivers, fertile and well watered. The Chac-
taws or flat-heads inhabit a very fine and extenfive trait
of hilly country, with. large and fertile plains inter¬
vening, between the Alabama and Miffiffipi rivers, in
the weftern part of this ftate. This nation have ■
43 towns and villages, in three dfvifions, containing
12,123 fouls, of which .4041 are fighting, men. The
Chicafaws are fettled on the head branches of the Tom*
beckbe, Mobile, and Yazoo rivers, in the north-weft 1
corner of the ftate. Their country is-an extenfive
plain, tolerably well watered from fprings, and of a .
pretty good foil. They have 7 towns, the central :
one of which is in latitude 347 23', and longitude 140,
30'weft. The number of fouls in this nation have
been reckoned at 1725, of which 575 are fighting,
men.
That part of Georgia which has been laid out in-
counties is divided into the following, w'z. Chatham,
Effingham, Burke, Richmond, Wilkes, Libei ty, Glynn,
Camden, Wafhington, Greene, Franklin; and the chief
towns are, Savannah, Ebenezer, Waynelborough and?
3 Louifville,.
GEO f 694 1 G E P
iQeorgia. LoiiifvillejAugufta, Wafhington, Sunbury, Brunfwlck,
t—^—- St Patrick’s, Golphinton, Greenfbut g.— Savannah was
formerly the capital, and is ftill the largeft town (fee
Savannah). But the prefent feat of government in
this ftate is Augujla, fituated on the fouthweft bank of
Savannah river, about 134 miles from the fea, and 117
northweft of Savannah. The town, which contains
•'Dot far from 200 houfes, is on a fine large plain ; and
as it enjoys the beft foil, and the advantage of a cen¬
tral fituation between the upper and lower counties,
is riling fall into importance. Louifville, however, is
defigned as the future feat of government in this ftate.
It has lately been laid out on the bank of Ogeechee
river, about 70 miles from its mouth, but is not yet
built.
Savannah river forms a part of the divifional line
■which feparates this ftate from South Carolina. It
is formed principally of two branches, by the names of
Tugulo and Keoiuee, which fpring from the mountains.
Ogeechee river, about 18 miles fouth of the Savannah,
is a fmaller river, and nearly parallel with it in its
courfe. Alatamaha, about 60 miles fouth of Savannah
river, is formed by the jundlion of the Okonee and
Okemulgec branches. It is a noble river, but of dif¬
ficult entrance. Like the Nile, it difcharges itfelf by
feveral mouths into the fea. Befides thefe, there is
Turtle river, Little Sitilla, Great Sitilla, Crooked ri¬
ver, and St Mary’s, which form a part of the fouthern
boundary of the United States. The rivers in the
middle and weftern parts of this ftate are Apalachi-
ola, which is formed by the Chatahouchee and Flint
rivers, Mobile, Pafcagoula, and Pearl rivers. All
thefe running fouthwardly, empty into the Gulf of
Mexico.
In the grand convention at Philadelphia in 1787,
the inhabitants of this ftate were reckoned at 90,000,
including three-fifths of 20,000 negroes. But from
the number of the militia, which has been afcertained
with a confiderable degree of accuracy, there cannot
be at moft more than half that number. No general
character will apply to the inhabitants at large. Col-
lefted from different parts of the world, as intereft, ne-
ceffity, or inclination led them, their charafter and
manners muft of courfe partake of all the varieties
which diftinguilh the feveral ftates and kingdoms from
whence they came. There is fo little uniformity, that
it is difficult to trace any governing principles among
them. An averfion to labour is too predominant, ow¬
ing in part to the relaxing heat of the climate, and
partly to the want of neceffity to excite induftry. An
open and friendly hofpitality, particularly to ftrangers,
is an ornamental charafteriftic of a great part of this
. people.
In regard to religion, politics, and literature, this
ftate is yet in its infancy. In Savannah is an epifeo-
pal church, a preftyterian church, a fynagogue, and a
German Lutheran church, fupplied occafionally by a
German minifter from Ebenezer, where there is a large
convenient ftone church, and a fettlement of fober in-
* duftrious Germans of the Lutheran religion. In Au-
gufta they have an epifcopal church. In Midway is
a fociety of Chriftians eftablilhed on the congrega¬
tional plan. Their anceftors emigrated in a colony
from Dorchefter, near Bofton, about the year 1700,
and fettled at a place named Dorchefter, about 20 miles Georgia
fouthweft of Cnarleftown, South Carolina. In 1752, H
for the fake of a better climate and more land, almoft GePida!-
the whole fociety removed and fettled at Midway. V~""J
They, as a people, retain in a great meafure that fim-
plicity of manners, that unaffe&ed piety and brotherly
love which charadterized their anceftors, the firft fet-
tlers of New England. The upper counties are fup-
plied pretty generally by baptift and methodift mini-
fters ; but the greater part of the ftate is without mi-
nifters of any denomination.
The numerous defe&s in the late conftitution of
this ftate, induced the citizens pretty univerfally to
petition for a revifion of it. It was accordingly re¬
viled, or rather a new one was formed, in the courfe
of the year 1789, nearly upon the plan of the confti¬
tution of the United States, which has lately been
adopted by the ftate.
The charter containing the prefent fyftem of
education in this Hate was paffed in the year 1785,
A college, with ample and liberal endowments, is
inftituted in Louifville, a high and healthy part of
the country, near the centre of the ftate. There
is alfo provifion made for the inftitution of an aca¬
demy in each county in the ftate, to be fupport-
ed from the fame funds, and confidered as part*
and members of the fame inftitution, under the general
fuperintendance and dire&ion of a prefident and board
of truftees, appointed for their literary accompliftrments
from the different parts of the ftate, and invefted with
the cuftomary powers of corporations. The inftitu¬
tion thus compofed is denominated the univerjity of
Georgia. The funds for the fupport of this inftitu¬
tion are principally in lands, amounting in the whole
to about 50,000 acres, a great part of which is of the
beft quality, and at prefent very valuable. There are
alfo nearly L. 6000 fterling in bonds, houfes, and
town lots in the town of Augufta. Other public pro¬
perty to the amount of L. 1000 in each county has
been fet apart for the purpofes of building and fur-
nilhing their refpeftive academies. The funds origi¬
nally defigned for the fupport of the orphan-houfe, are
chiefly in rice plantations and negroes.
GEORGIC, a poetical compofition upon the fub-
jedt of hufbandry, containing rules, therein, put into a
pleafing drefs, and fet off with all the beauties and em-
bellifhments of poetry. The word is borrowed from
the Latin georgicus, and that of the Greek ytapyw;,
of terra, “ earth,” and opera, “ I work,
or labour,” of tpyo*, opus, “ work.” Hefiod and Virgil
are the two greateft mafters in this kind of poetry.
The moderns have produced nothing in this kind,
except Rapin’s book of Gardening ; and the celebrated
poem intitled Cyder, by Mr Philips, who, if he had
enjoyed the advantage of Virgil’s language, would have
been fecond to Virgil in a much nearer degree.
Georgwm Sidus. See Astronomy, n° 328, &c.
GEPIDiE, Gepides, or Gepidi (anc. geog.), ac¬
cording to Procopius, were a Gothic people, or a can¬
ton or branch of them ; fome of whom, in the migra¬
tion of the Goths, fettled in an ifland at the mouth of
the Viftula, which they called Gepidos after their own
name, which denotes lazy or flathful; others in Dacia,
calling their fettlement there Gepidia.
G£-
G E R L 695 ] G E R
Geranjtes, GERANITES, in natural hiftory, as appellation
Geranium. given to fuch of the femipellucid gems as art marked
^ T m'L with a fpot refembling a-crane’s eye.
GERANIUM, cranes bill, in botany : A genus
of the decandria order, belonging to the monodelphia
clafs of plants ; and in the natural method ranking
pnder the 14th order, Grim ales. Its cha rafters are
thefethe flower hath a permanent empalement, com-
pofed of five fmall oval leaves, and five oval or heart-
fhaped petals, fpreading open, which are in fome fpecies
equal, and in others the upper two are much larger
than the three lower. It has ten ftamina, alternately
longer than each other, but Ihorter than the petals,
and terminated by oblong fummits. In the bottom of
the flower is fituated a five-cornered germen, which is
permanent. The flower is fueceeded by five feeds,
each being wrapped up in the hulk of the beak, where
they are twilled together at the point, fo as to form the
refemblance of a ilork’s beak. There are above 80
fpecies.
The common wild forts of this plant, and thofe alfo
which are brought to the curious from the colder cli¬
mates, are hardy enough, and require little care;
but the African fpecies, and the others from hot
countries, which make fo very beautiful a figure in our
green-houfes, require great care in their culture and
propagation.
Thefe may be propagated by feed, which Ihould be
fown toward the end of March in beds of light earth,
and carefully lhading them from the fun, and giving
them frequent, but gentle waterings, till they are
well rooted. The mats with which thefe beds are co¬
vered are to be taken olf in gentle Ihowers, and always
in the hot weather at nights, that the plants may have
the benefit of the dew. They lliould remain about
two months in this bed, by which time they will have
taken root. Some pots of about feven inches wide are
then to be filled with light earth, and the plants are to
be carefully taken up with as much as poffible of their
own earth about them, and planted feverally in the
middle of thefe pots ; when they are to be fet in a
lhady place, and watered at times till they have taken
root. When they are well-rooted, they Ihould be fet
in a more expofed place to harden them, and Ihould
Hand out till the middle of O&ober ; but when the
mornings begin to grow frolly, they mull be removed
into the green-houfe, and then placed as near the win¬
dows as poflible,and the windowsIhould be opened upon
them till the weather is very cold. During the winter,
they muft be frequently watered a little at a time, and
their dead leaves fhould be pulled off. They muft not
fland under the lhade of other plants, nor need any ar¬
tificial heat.
Thofe who are defirous that their plants fhould be
large and flower foon, fow the feeds on a moderate
hot-bed in the fpring; when they are come up, they
fhould not be drawn weak, and the pots into which they
are tranfplanted fhould be plunged into another mode¬
rate hot-bed, fhading them from the fun till they have
taken root, and gradually inuring them to the open
air, into which they fhould be removed in the begin¬
ning of June, and placed in a fheltered fituation with
other exotic plants.
The fhrubby African geraniums are commonly pro¬
pagated by cuttings, which, planted in a fhady bor¬
der, in June or July, will take good root in five or fix Gerar
weeks; and they may then be taken up and planted M
in feparate pots, placing them in the fhade till they er^e a*
have taken new root ; after which they may be removed
into a fheltered fituation, and treated as the feedling
plants.
Geranium Hands recommended as one of the greateft
vulneraries and abftergents of the vegetable world, and
is highly extolled for its power of flopping profluvia of
the menfes, and haemorrhages of all kinds. Experience
confirms the truth of this, efpecially among the poor
people in the country ; and it were to be wifhed that
the plant could be brought into more efteem in the
fhops, where at prefent it is difregarded.
GERAR, or Gerara, (anc. geog.), the fouth.
boundary of Canaan near Berfeba ; fituated between
Cades and Sur; two defarts well known, the former
facing Egypt, the latter Arabia Petnea.
GERARD (John), a learned Lutheran divine, waa.
profeffor of divinity, and re&or of the academy of Je¬
na, the place of his birth. He wrote, 1. The har¬
mony of the eaftern languages; 2. A Treatife on the
Coptic Church ; and other works which are efteemed.
He died in 1668.
GERARDE (John), a furgeon in London, and -
the greateft botanift of his time, was many years chief
gardener to Lord Burleigh ; who was himfelf a great
lover of plants, and had the beft colleftion of any
nobleman in the kingdom, among which were a great
number of exotics introduced by Gerarde. In 1597
he publifhed his Herbal, which was printed at the ex¬
pence of J. Norton, who procured the figures from
Francfort. In 1663, Thomas johnfon, an apotheca¬
ry, publilhed an improved edition of Gerarde’s book ;
which met with fuch approbation by the Univerfity of
Oxford, that they conferred on him the degree of doc¬
tor of phyfic ; and it is ftill much efteemed. The de-
feription’s in the herbal are plain and familiar; and both
thefe authors have laboured more to make their readers
underftand the charadters of the plants, than to in¬
form them that they themfelves underftood Greek and
Latin.
GERARDIA, in botany : A genus of the angio-
fpermia order, belonging to the didynamia dafs off
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
40th order, Perfonata. The calyx is quinquefid, the
corolla bilabiate ; the under lip tripartite ; the fide
lobes emarginated, and the middle one bipartite; the
capfule bilocular and gaping.
GERBIER (Sir Balthazar), a painter of Antwerp,
born in the year 1592, diftinguiflied himfelf by paint¬
ing fmall figures in diftemper. King Charles I. was
fo pleafed with his performances, that he invited him
to bis court, where he obtained the efteem of the duke
of Buckingham, and grew into great favour. He was
not only knighted, but fent to Bruffels, where he long
refided as agent for the king of Great Britain.
GERFALCON. See Falcg.
GERGESA, (anc. geog.), a Transjordan town, no
otherwife known than by the Gergefeni of St Matthew,
and Gergefai of Mofes ; fuppofed to have flood in the
neighbourhood of Gadara and near the fea of Tiberias.
The Gergefaiy one of the feven ancient people of Ca¬
naan, lefs frequently mentioned than the reft, appear
to have been lefs confiderable and more obfeure: their
name
•G E R [ 69-6 ] -G E R
name is from one of Canaan** fofis. See GiK- Dacians, Huns, Gotlis, &c.'till the deftruAion of Germany,
gashites. the weftern Roman empire by them. Ancient Ger-  *
GERIZIM. See Garizim. many, therefore, we may reckon to have included the
GERM, among gardeners. See Germen. northern part of France, the Netherlands, Holland,
GERMAN, in matters of genealogy, fignifies Germany fo called at prefent, Denmark, Pruffia, Po-
whole, entire, or own. German!, quafi eademJiirpe ge- land, Hungary, part of Turky in Europe, and Muf-
nitl; (Fell.) Hence, covy.
Brother-GERMAN, denotes a brother both by the The Romans divided Germany into two regions;
father’s and mother’s fide, in contradiftin&ion to ute- Belgic or Lower Germany, which lay to the fouth-
rine brothers, &c. who are only fo by the mother’s ward of the Rhine 5 and Germany Proper, or High 4
fide. Germany. The firll lay between the rivers Seine and Nations ia^
CouJlns-GERMAN, are thofe in the firft or neareft de- the Rhine ; and in this we find a number of different habiting
gree, being the children of brothers or fillers. nations, the moll remarkable of which were the fol-L<nverGeif'
Among the Romans we have no inllance of mar- lowing,
riage between coufins-german before the time of the 1. The Ubii, whofe territory lay between the Rhine
emperor Claudius, when they were very frequent. and the Mofa or Maefe, and whofe capital was the ci-
Theodofius prohibited them under very fevere penal- ty of Cologne. 2. Next to them were the Tungri,
ties, even fine and profcription. See Consangui- fuppofed to be the fame whom Csefar calls Aforowxand
N[ty. Condrufi; and whofe metropolis, then called Bttuatica,
German, or lermanic, alfo denotes any thing be- has fince been named Tongrer. 3. Higher up from
longing to Gr uany ; as the German empire, German them, and on the other fide of the Mofelle, were the
flute, &c. Treviri, whofe capital was Augufla Trevirorum, now
GERMANDER, in botany. See the article Teu- Triers. 4. Next to them were the Tribocci, Nemetes,
Crium. and Vangiones. The former dwelt in Alface, and had
GERMANICUS Caesar, the fonof Drufus, and Argentoratum, now Strajburg, for their capital: the
paternal nephew to the emperor Tiberius, who adopted others inhabited the cities of Worms, Spire, and
him ; a renowned general, but Hill more illultrious for Mentz. 5. The Mediomatrici were fituated along the
his virtues, tie took the title oi Germanicus from his Mofelle, about the city of Metz in Lorrain ; and above
conquells in that country ; and though he had the mo- them were fituated another German nation, named
deration to refufe the emphe offered to him by his Raurici, Rauraci, or Rauriaci, and who inhabited that
army, Tiberius, jealous of his fuccefs, and of the uni- part of Helvetia, or Switzerland, about Bafil. To the
verfal efleem he acquired, caufed him to be poifoned, wellward and fouthwardof thefewere the Nervii, Suef-
-A. D. 29, aged 34. He was a p#0te6lor of learning ; fones, Silvanedtes, Leuci, Rhemi, Lingdnes, &c. who
and compofed fome Greek comedies and Latin poems, inhabited Belgic Gaul.
Lome of which are Hill extant. Between the heads of the Rhine and Danube were
GERMANY, a very extenfive .empire of Europe, feated the ancient kingdom of Vindelicia, whofe capi-
but which, in different ages of the world, has had tal was called Augujla Vindelicorum, now Augjburg. Be*
very different limits. Its name, according to the moil low it on the banks of the Danube were the kingdoms
probable conjecture, is derived [from the Celtic words ofNoricum and Pannonia. The firfl of thefe was di-
Ghar man, fignifying a warlike man, to which their vided into Noricum Ripenfe and Mediterraneum. It
other name, Allman, or Aleman, likewife alludes. contained a great part of the provinces of Auftria,
The ancient hiflory of the Germans is altogether Styria, Carinthia, Tyrol, Bavaria, and fome others
wrapped up in obfcurity; nor do we, for many ages, of lefs note. The latter contained the kingdom of
know any thing more of them than what may be learn- Hungary, divided into Upper and Lower; and ex-
ed from the hiflory of their wars wfith the Romans, tending from Illyricum to the Danube, and the moun-
The firft time we find them mentioned by the Roman tains Csetii in the neighbourhood of Vindelona, now
hiftorians, is about the year 2 x 1 B. C. at which time Vienna. *
Marcellus fubdued Infubria and Liguria, and defeated Upper or High Germany lay beyond the Rhine and Nations
the Gasfatae, a German nation fituated on the banks the Danube. Between the Rhine and the Elbe were ha.^tiBS
of the Rhine. From this time hiftory is filent with the following nations. 1. The Chauci, Upper and
regard to any of thefe northern nations, till the erup- Lower; who were divided from each other by the river
tion of the Cimbri and Teutones, who inhabited the Vifurges, now the IVefer. Their country contained
moil northerly parts of Germany^ The event of their what is now called Bremen, Lunenburg, Frie%land, and
enterprife is related under the articles Ambrones, Groninghen. The upper Chauci had the Cherufci, and
Cimbri, and Teutones. We muft not, however, the low-er theChamavi on the fouth-eaft, and the Ger-
imagine, becaufe thefe people happened to invade I- man Ocean on the north-weft. 2. The Frifii, upper
taly at the fame time, that therefore their countries and lower, w'ere divided from the lower Chauci by the
were contiguous to one another. The Cimbri and river Amifia, now the Ems ; and from one another by
Teutones only, dwelt beyond the Rhine; while the an arm of the Rhine. Their country ftifl retains the
Ambrones inhabited the country between Switzerland name of Friejland, and is divided into eaft and weft ;
and Provence. It is indeed very difficult to fix the li- but the latter is now difmembered from Germany, and
s mits of the country called Germany by the Romans, become one of the Seven United Provinces. . 3. Be-
Limits of The fouthern Germans were intermixed with the Gauls, yond the Ifela, now the Ifel, .which bounded the coun¬
iancient and the northern ones with the Scythians ; and thus try of the Frifii, were fituated the Brudleri, who inha-
Cermany. the ancient hiftory of the Germans includes that of the bited that trad now called Broecmorland4 and the
138* Marfi,
in ate CCXIX.
G E R C <597 ] G E R
'Germany. Mavfi, about the river Luppe. On the other fide of that
-"""■v  river were the Uftpii or UJipltes; but thefe were famed
for often changing their territories, and therefore found
in other places. 4. Next to thefe were the Juones, or
inhabitants of Juliers, between the Maefe and the
Rhine. 5. The Catti, another ancient and warlike
nation, inhabited Heffe and Thuringia, from the Hart-
zian mountains to the Rhine and Wefer ; among whom
vve#e comprehended the Mattiaci, whofe capital is by
fome thought to he. Marpufg^hy others Baden. 6. Next
to thefe were the Seducii bordering upon Suabia; Na-
rifei, or the ancient inhabitants of Northgow, whofe
capital was Nuremberg ; and the Marcomanni, whofe
country anciently reached from the Rhine to the head
of the Danube, and to the Neckar. The Marcoman-
ni afterwards' went and fettled 'in Bohemia and Mora¬
via, under their general or king Maroboduus; and fome
of them in Gaul, whence they drove the Boii, who
had feated themfelves there. 7. On the other fide of
the Danube, and between the Rhine and it, were the
Hermunduri, who pofieffed the country now called
Mlfnia in Upper Saxony; though fome make their
territories to have extended much farther, and to have
reached quite to, or even beyond, the kingdom of Bo¬
hemia, once the feat of the Boii, whence its name.
8. Beyond them, on the north of the Danube, was
another feat of the Marcomanni along the river Albis,
or Elbe. 9. Next to Bohemia were fituated the Qua-
di, whofe territories extended from the Danube to Mo¬
ravia, and the northern part of Aullria. Thefe are
comprehended under the ancient name of Suevi; part
©f whom at length forced their way into Spain, and
fettled a kingdom there. 10. Eaftward of the Quadi
■were fituated the Baftarnae, and parted from them by
the Granna, now Gran ; a river that falls into the Da¬
nube, and by the Carpathian mountains, from them
called Alpes Bajlarnica. The country of the Baftarnas
indeed made part of the European Sarmatia, and fo
was without the limits of Germany properly fo called ;
but we find thefe people fo often in league with the
German nations, and joining them for the ddlrudtion
of the Romans, that we cannot but account them as
one people.
Between thofe nations already taken notice of, feat¬
ed along the other fide of the Danube and the Hercy-
iiian foreft, were feveral others whofe exaft fituation is
uncertain, viz. the Martingi, Burii, Borades, Lygii, or
Logiones, and fome others, who are placed by our
geographers along the foreft above-mentioned, between
the Danube and the Viftula.
On this fide the Hercynian foreft, were the famed
Rhactii, now Griforis, feated among the Alps. Their
country, which was alfo called Wejlern Illyricum, was
divided into Rhsetia Prtma Or Propria, and Secunda;
and was then of much larger extent, fpreading itfelf to¬
wards Suabia, Bavaria, and Auftria.
On the other fide of the Hercynian foreft, were,
N The Suevi, who fpread themfelves from the Viftula
to the river.Elbe. 2. The Longobardi, fo called, accor¬
ding to fome, on account of their wearing long beards;
but, according to others, on account of their confid¬
ing of two nations, viz. the Bardi and Lingones.
Thefe dwelt along the river Elbe, and bordered fouth-
ward on the Chauci above mentioned. 3. The Bur-
gundi, of whofe original feat we are uncertain. 4. The
Vol. VII. Part II.
Semnones; who, about the time of Tiberius, were Germany,
feated on the river Elbe. 5. The Angles, Saxons,' v—J
and Goths ; were probably the defeendants of the
Cimbri; and inhabited the countries of Denmark, a-
long the Baltic fea, and the peninfula of Scandinavia,
containing Norway, Sweden, Lapland, and Finmark.
6. The, Vandals were a Gothic nation, who, proceed¬
ing from Scandinavia, fettled in the countries now
called Mecklenlurgh and Brandenburgh. 7. Of the fame
race were the Dacians, who fettled themfelves in the
neighbourhood of Palus Mseotis, and extended their
territories along the banks of the Danube. +
Thefe were the names of the German nations who Wars of th®
performed the moft remarkable exploits in their wars Scordifci
with the Romans. Befides thefe, however, we find p
mention made of the Scordifci, a Thracian nation, omails'
who afterwards fettled on the banks of the Danube.
About the year 11 3 B. C. they ravaged Macedon, and
cut off a whole Roman army fent againft them; the
general, M. Porcis Cato, grandfon to Cato the cen-
for, being the only perfon who had the good fortune to
make his efcape. After this, they ravaged all Thef-
faly ; and advanced to the coafts of the Adriatic, into
which, becaufe it flopped th^ir farther progrefs, they
difeharged a (hovver of darts. By another Roman ge*
neral, however, they were driven back into their own
country with great flaughter; and, foon after, Metel-
lus fo weakened them by repeated defeats, that they
were incapable, for fome time, of making any more
attempts on the Roman provinces. At laft, in the
confuhhip of M. Livius Drufus and L. Calpurnius Pi-
fo, the former prevailed on them to pafs the Danube*
which thenceforth became the boundary between the
Romans and them. Notwithftanding this, in the time
of the Jugurthine war, the Scordifci repaffed the Da¬
nube on the ice every winter, and being joined by the
Triballi a people of Lower Maefia, and the Daci of
Upper Masfia, penetrated as far as Macedon, commit¬
ting every where dreadful ravages. So early did thefe
northern nations begin to be formidable to the Ro¬
mans, even when they were moft renowned for warlike
exploits.
Till the time of Julius Caefar, however, we bear Espcdition
nothing more concerning the Germans. About j;8ofJullVs
years B. C. he undertook his expedition into Gaul ;
during which, his afnftance was implored by the vE- , " '
dui, againft Arioviftus, a German prince who op-
preffed them. C&far, pleafed with this opportunity of
increafing his power, invited Arioviftus to an inter¬
view ; but this being declined, he next fent deputies
defiring him to reftore the hoftages he had taken from
the iEdui, and t© bring no more troops over the
Rhine into Gaul. To this a haughty anfwer was re¬
turned ; and a battle foon after enfued, in which Ari¬
oviftus was entirely defeated, and with great difficulty
made his efcape.
In 55 B. G. Caefar having fubdued the Sueflbnes,
Bellovaci, Ambiani, Nervii, and other nations of Bel- \
gic Gaul, haftened to oppofe the Ufipetes and Tenc-
teri. Thefe nations having been driven out of their
own country by the Suevi, had crofted the Rhine with
a defign to fettle in Gaul. As foon as he appeared,
the Germans fent him a deputation, offering to join
him provided he would affign them lands. Csefar re¬
plied, that there was no room in Gaul for them; but
4 T he
G E R [ 698 ] G E R
Germany, he would defire the Ubii to give them leave to fettle
y—. among them. Upon this, they defired time to treat
with the Ubii; but in the mean time fell upon fome
Roman fquadrons: which fo provoked Caefar, that he
immediately marched againft them, and, coming unex¬
pectedly upon them, defeated them with great {laugh¬
ter. They fled in the utmoft confufion ; but the Ro¬
mans purfued them to the conflux of the Rhine and
the Maefe, where the flaughter was renewed with fuch
fury, that almofl: 400,000 of the Germans perifhed.
After this, Csefar being refoi ved to fpread the terror of
the Roman name thtough Germany, built a bridge
over the Rhine, and entered that country. In this
expedition, however, which was his laft in Germany,
he performed no remarkable exploit. A little before
his death, indeed, he had projected the conquefl: of
that as well as of- a great many other countries ; but
his afiaflination prevented the execution of his de¬
signs. Nor is there any thing recorded of the Ger¬
mans till about 17 B. C. when the I'enCteii made an
irruption into Gaul, and defeated M. Lollius, procon-
ful of that province. At lart, however, they were re-
pulfed, and forced to retire with great lofs beyond the
£ Rhine.
Stbreti in- - Soon after this the Rhasti invaded Italy, where they
•wade Italy committed the greateft devailations, putting all the
males they met to the fword, without diftindlion of
fex or age : nay, we are told, that when they happen¬
ed to take women with child, they confulted their au¬
gurs to know whether the child was a male or female;
and if they pronounced it a male, the mother was im¬
mediately maflacred. Againft thefe barbarians was
fent Drufus, the fecond fon of Livia, a youth of ex¬
traordinary valour and great accomplishments. He
found means to bring them to a battle ; in which the
Romans proved victorious, and cut in pieces great
numbers of their enemies, with very little lofs on their
own fide. Thofe who efcaped the general flaughter,
being joined by the Vindelici, took their rout towards
Gaul, with a defign to invade that province. But
Auguftus, upon the firft notice of their march, dif-
patched againft. them Tiberius with feveral chofen le¬
gions. He was no lefs fuc'cefsful than Drufus had
been ; for, having tranfpprted his troops over the lake
Brigantium, now Conftance, he fell unexpectedly on
the enemy, gave them a total overthrow, took moft of
their ftrong holds, and obliged the whole nation to
^ fubmit to fuch terms as he chofe to impofe upon them.
They are Thus were the Vindelici, the Rhssti, and Norici, three
fuhdued, Gf the moft barbarous nations in Germany, fuhdued.
wFthSe TiberIus> to keep the conquered countries in awe,
Vindelici planted two colonies in Vindelicia, and opened from
and Norici. thence a road into Rhastia and Noricum. One of the
cities which he built for the defence of his colonies, he
called, from his father Drufus, Drufomagus; the other
by the name of Auguftus, Augujia Vindelicorum; which
cities are now known by the names of Mimminghen and
Augjburg. He next encountered the Pannonians, who
had been fubdued by Agrippa, but revolted on hear¬
ing the news of that great commander’s death, which
happened 11 years B. C. Tiberius, however, with
g the afliftance of their neighbours the Scordifci, foon
And the forced them to fubmit. They delivered up their
Pannoni- arms, gave hoftages, and put the Romans in pofleffion
ans. 0f a]l their towns and ftrong holds. Tiberius fpared
their lives; but laid wafte their fields, plundered their Germany,
cities, and fent the heft part of their youth into other ^—v-—
countries.
In the mean time, Drufus having prevented the
Gauls from revolting, which they were ready ta do,
prepared to oppofe the Germans who dwelt beyond the
Rhine. They had collected the molt numerous and
formidable army that had ever been feen in thofe parts;
with which they were advancing towards the Rhine, in
order to invade Gaul. Drufus defeated them as they
attempted to crofs that river ; and, purfuing the ad¬
vantage he had gained, entered the country of the Ufi-
petes, now Relinchufen, and from thence advanced ^
againft the Sicambri, in the. neighbourhood of the Exploits of
Lyppe and Iflel. Them hel overthrew in a great nrufus in
battle, laid wafte their country, burnt moft of theirGermany*
cities, and following the courfe of the Rhine, ap¬
proached the German ocean, reducing the Frifii and
the Chauci between the Ems and the Elbe. In thefe
marches the troops fuffered extremely for want of pro-
vilions; and Drufus himfelf was often in great danger
of being drowned, as the Romans who attended him
were at that time quite unacquainted with the flux and
reflux of the ocean. '
The Roman forces went into eaft Friefland for their
winter-quarters; and next year (toB. C.) Drufus
marched againft the Tender!, whom he eafily fub¬
dued. Afterwards, palling the Lupias, now the Lyppe,
he reduced the Catti and Cherufci, extending his con-
quefts to the banks of the Vifurgis or Wefer: which
he would have pafied, had he not been in want of pro-
vifions, the enemy having laid wafte the country to a
confiderable diftance. As he was retiring, the Ger¬
mans unexpectedly fill upon him in a narrow paffage;
and having furrounded the Roman army, cut a great
many of them in pieces. But Drufus having animated
his men by his example, after a bloody conflict:, which
lafted the whole day, the Germans were defeated with
fuch flaughter, that the ground was ftrewed for feveral
miles with dead bodies. Drufus found in their camp a
great quantity of iron-chains which they had brought
for the Romans; and fo great was their confidence,
that they had agreed before hand about the divifion of
the booty. The Tencteri were to have the horfe, the
Cherufci and Sicambri the baggage, and the Ufipetes^
and Catti the captives. After this victory, Drufus
built two forts to keep the conquered countries in awe;
the one at the confluence of the Lyppe and the Alme,
the other in the country of the Catti on the Rhine.
Qn this occalion alfo he made a famous canal,'long af¬
ter called in honour of him Fo/fa Drujiana, to convey
the waters of the Rhine into tne Sala or Sale. It ex¬
tended eight miles ; and was very convenient for con¬
veying the Roman troops by water to the countries of
the Frifii and Chauci, which was the defign of the un¬
dertaking.
The following year (9 B. C.), Auguftus, bent on
fubduing the whole of Germany, advanced to the banks
of the Rhine, attended by his two fons in-law Tibe¬
rius and Drufus. The former he fent againft the
Daci, who lived up to the fouth of the Danube; and
the latter to complete the conquefts he had fo fuccefs-
fully begun in the vveftern parts of Germany. The
former eafily overcame the Daci, and tranfplanted
40,000 of them .into Gaul. The latter, having pafied
IO
Arminius
heads the
Germans
againft the
Romans.
1 Varus with
'his army.
G E R [ 699 1 G E R
the Rhine, fubdued all the nations from that river to manicUs were Appointed to command in Germany. Germany.
the Elbe; but having attempted in vain to crofs this The death of Auguftus, however, which happened  
lad, he fet out for Rome: an end, however, was put foon after,' prevented Tiberius from going on his ex-
to his conquells and his life by a violent fever, with pedition; and Germanicus was for fome time hindered
which he was feized on his return. from proceeding in his, by a revolt of the legions, firft
After the death of Drufus, Tiberius again over-ran in Pannonia, and then in Germany. About the year
all thofe countries in which Drufus had fpent the pre- 15, Germanicus having brought over the foldiers to
ceding fummer; and (truck fome of the northern na- their duty, laid a bridge acrofs the Rhine, over which
tions with fuch terror, that they fent deputies to fue he marched 12,000 legionaries, 26 cohorts of the al-
for peace. This, however, they could not obtain up- lies, and eight alas (fquadrons of 300 each) of horfe.
on any terms ; the emperor declaring that he would With thefe he firft traverfed the Coefian foreft (part
not conclude a peace with one, unlefs they all defired of the Hercynian, and thought to lie partly in the duchy
it. But the Catti, or according to fome the Sicambri, of Cleves, and partly in Weftphalia), and fome o-
could not by any means be prevailed upon to fubmit; ther woods. On his march he was informed that the
fo that the war was Hill carried on, though in a lan- Marfi were celebrating a feftival with great mirth iz
guid manner, for about 18 years. During this period, and jollity. Upon this he advanced with fuch expe-ExPl°*ts.0f
fome of the German nations had quitted their forefts, dition, that he furprifed them in the midft of their de-®®rma::u*
and begun to live in a civilized manner under the pro- bauch ; and giving his army full liberty to make what
te&ion of the Romans; but one Quintilius Varus be- havock* they pleafed, a terrible maflacre enfued, and
ing fent to command the Roman forces in that coun- the country was deftroyed with fire and fword for 50
try, fo provoked the inhabitants by his extortions, that miles round, without the lofs of a Angle man on the
not only thofe who ftill held out refufed to fubmit, but part of the Romans.—This general maflacre roufed
even the nations that had fubmitted were feized with the Brufteri, the Tubantes, and the Ufipetes; who,
an eager defire of throwing off the yoke. Among befetting the paffes through which the Roman army
them was a young nobleman of extraordinary parts was to return, fell upon their rear, and put them in-
and valour, named Arminius. He was the fon of Si- to fome diforder ; but the Romans foon recovered
gimer, one of the moft powerful lords among the themfelves, and defeated the Germans with confider-
Catti, had ferved with great reputation in the Ro- able lofs.
man armies, and been honoured by Auguftus with the The following year (A. D. 16), Germanicus ta-
privileges of a Roman citizen and the title of knight, king advantage of fome inteftine broils which hap-
But the love of his country prevailing over his grati- pened among the .Catti, entered their country, where
tude, he refolved to improve the general difcontent he put great numbers to the fword. Moft of their
which reigned among his countrymen, to deliver them youth, however, efcaped by fwiming over the Adrana,
from the bondage of a foreign dominion. With this now the Eder, and attempted to prevent the Romans
view he engaged, underhand, the leading men of all from laying a bridge over that river : .but being dif-
the nations between the Rhine and the Elbe, in a con- appointed in this, fome of them fubmitted to Germa-
fpiracy againft the Romans. In order to put Varus nicus, while the greater part, abandoning their vil-
,off his guard, he at the fame time advifed him to fhow lages, took refuge in the woods; fo that the Romans,
himfelf to the inhabitants of the more diftant provin- without oppofition, fet fire to all their villages, towns,
ces, adminifter juftice among them, and accuftom them, &c. and having laid their capital in allies, began their
by his example, to live after the Roman manner, which march back to the Rhine.
he faid would more effeftually fubdue them than the Germanicus had fcarce reached his camp, when he
Roman fword. As Varus was a man of a peaceable received a meffage from Begeftes, a German prince,
temper, and averfe from military toils, he readily con- in the intereft of the Romans, acquainting him that
Tented to this infidious propofal; and, leaving the neigh- he was befieged in his camp by Arminius. On this
bourhood of the Rhine, marched into the country of advice, he inftantly marched againft the befiegers; en¬
tire Cherufci. Having there fpent fome time in hear- tirely defeated them ; and took a great number of
ing caufes and deciding civil controverfies, Arminius prifoners, among whom was Thufneldis, the wife
perfuaded;him to weaken his army, by fending out of Arminius, and daughter of Segeftes, whom the
detachments to clear the country of robbers. When former had carried off, and married, againft her father's
.this was done, fome diftant nations of Germany rofe will. Arminius then, more enraged than ever, for
tip in arms by Arminius’s dire&ions ; while thofe the lofs of his wife, whom he tenderly loved, ftirred
through which Varus was to pafs in marching againft up all the neighbouring nations againft the Romans,
them, pretended to be in a ftate of profound tran- Germanicus, however, without being difmayed by
qnillity, and ready to join the Romans againft their fuch a formidable confederacy, prepared himfelf to op-
enemies. pofe the enemy with vigour : but, that he might not
On the firft news of the revolt, Varus marched a- be obliged to engage fuch numerous forces at once,
gain ft the enemy with three legions and fix cohorts; he detached his lieutenant Cascina, at the head of 40
but being attacked by the GerrT!ans as he paffed thro’ cohorts, into the territories of the Bru&eri; while his
a wood, his army was almoft totally cut off, while he cavalry, under the command of Pedo, entered the
himfelf and moft of his officers fell by their own hands, country of the Erifii. As for Gerrpanicus himfelf, he
Such a terrible overthrow, though it raifed a general embarked the remainder of his army, confiding of
confternation in Rome, did not, however, dilhearten four legions, on a neighbouring lake ; and tranfported
Auguftus, or caufe him to abandon his enterprife. A- them by rivers and canals to the place appointed on
bout two years after (A. D. 12.), Tiberius and Ger- the river Eras, where the three bodies met. In.theit
4 T 2 march
G E R [70!
Germany, march they found the fad remains of the legions con-
du&ed by Varus, which they buried with all the cere¬
mony their circumftances could admit. After this
they advanced againtl Arminius, who retired and poll¬
ed himfelf advantageoufly clofe to a wood. The Ro¬
man general followed him ; and coming up with him,
ordered his cavalry to advance and attack the enemy.
Arminius, at their firft approach, pretended to fly ;
but fuddenly wheeled about, and giving the fignal to a
body of troops, whom he had concealed in the wood,
to rufh out, obliged the cavalry to give ground. The
cohorts then advanced to their relief; but they too were
put into diforder, and would have, been pulhed into a
morafs, had not Germanicus himfelf advanced with
the reft of the cavalry to their relief. Arminius did
not think it prudent to engage thefe frefti troops, but
retired in good order; upon which Germanicus alfo
retired towards the Ems. Here he embarked with
four legions, ordered Caecina to recondutft the other
four by land, and fent the cavalry to the fea-fide, with
orders to march along the (bore to the Rhine. Tho’
Caecina was to return by roads well known, yet Ger¬
manicus advifed him to pafs, with all poffible fpeed, a
caufeway, called the long bridgest which led acrofs vaft
marfhes, furrounded on all Tides with woods and hills
that gently rofe from the plain.
Arminius, however, having got notice of Caecina’s
march, arrived at the long bridges before Caecina, and
filled the woods with his men, who, on the approach
of the Romans, rulhed out, and attacked them with
great fury. The legions, not able to manage their
arms in the deep waters and flippery ground, were ob¬
liged to yield ; and would in all p.obability have been
entirely defeated, had not night put an end to the
combat. The Germans, encouraged by their fuc-
cefs, inftead of refrelhing themfelves with deep, fpent
the whole night in diverting the courfes of the fprings
which rofe in the neighbouring mountains; fo that,
before day, the camp which the Romans had begun
was laid under water, and their works were overturned.
Csecina was for fome time at a lofs what to do; but
at laft refolved to attack the enemy by day-break, and,
having driven them to their woods, to keep them
there in a manner befieged, till the baggage and wound¬
ed men fltould pafs the caufeway, and get out of the
enemy’s reach. But when his army was drawn up, the
legions polled on the wings, feized with a fudden pa¬
nic, deferted their ftations, and occupied a field beyond
the marlhes. Csecina thought it advifable to follow
them; but the baggage (luck in the mire, as he at¬
tempted to crofs the marfhes, which greatly embarraf-
fed the foldiers. Arminius perceiving this, laid hold
of the opportunity to begin the attack; and crying
out, “ This is a fecond Varus, the fame fate attends
him and his legions,” fell on the Romans with inex-
preffible fury. As he had ordered his men to aim
chiefly at the horfes, great numbers of them were
killed; and the ground becoming llippery with their
blood and the flime of the marfh, the reft either fell
or threw their riders, and, galloping through the ranks,
put them in diforder. Caecina diftinguifhed himfelf
in a very eminent manner; but his horfe being killed,
he would have been taken prifoner, had not the firft
legion refeued him. The greedinefs of the enemy,
however, faved the Romans from utter deftru&ion 5
= ] G E R
for juft as the legions were quite fpent, and on the Germany. !
point of yielding, the barbarians on a fudden abandon- *—
ed them in order to feize their baggage. During this
refpite, the Romans ftruggled out of the marih, and
having gained the dry fields, formed a camp with all
pofiible fpeed, and fortified it in the beft maimer they
could. I
The Germans having loft the opportunity of de-
ftroying the Romans, contrary to the advice of Ar¬
minius, attacked their camp next morning, but were
repulfed with great (laughter; after which they gave
Caecina no more moleftation till he reached the banks
of the Rhine. Germanicus, in the mean time, having
conveyed the legions he had with him down the river
Ems into the ocean, in order to return by fea to the
river Rhine, and finding that his veffels were overload¬
ed, delivered the fecond and 14th legions to Publius
Vitellius, defiring him to condudl them by land. But
this march proved fatal to great numbers of them; who
were either buried in the quickfands, or fwallowed up
by the overflowing of the tide, to which they were
as yet utter ftrangers. Thofe who efcaped, loft their
arms, utenfils, and provifions; and palled a melan¬
choly night upon an eminence, which they had gained
by wading up to the chin. The next morning the
land returned with ’the tide of ebb ; when Vitellius,
by an hafty march, reached the river Ufingis, by fome
thought to be the Hoerenfter, on which the city of
Groningen (lands. There Germanieus, who had reach¬
ed that river with his fleet, took the legions again on
board, and conveyed them to the mouth of the Rhine,
whence they all returned to Cologne, at a time when
it was reported they were totally loft.
This expedition, however, coft the. Romans very
dear, and procured very few advantages. Great num¬
bers of men had perifhed ; and by far the greateft part
of thofe who had efcaped fo many dangers returned
without arms, utenfils, horfes, &c. half naked, lamed,
and unfit for fervice. The next year, however, Ger-His fgCon<j j
manicus, bent on the entire redu&ion of Germany, expedition.
made vaft preparations for another expedition. Ha¬
ving conlidered the various accidents that had befallen
him during the war, he found that the Germans were
chiefly indebted for their fafety to their woods and
marlhes, their (hort fummers and long winters ; and
that his troops fullered more from their long and te¬
dious marches than from the enemy. For this reafon
he refolved to enter the country by fea, hoping by
that means to begin the campaign earlier, and furprife
the enemy. Having therefore built with great dif-
patch, during the winter, 1000 veflels of different forts,
he ordered them early in the fpring (A. D. 16) to
fall down the Rhine, and appointed the ifland of the
Batavians for the general rendezvous of his forces.
When the fleet was failing, he detached Silius one of
his lieutenants, with orders to make a fudden irrup¬
tion into the country of the Catti; and, in the mean
time, he himfelf, upon. receiving intelligence that a
Roman fort on .the Luppias was befieged, haftened
with fix legions to its relief. Silius was prevented, by
fudden rains, from doing more than taking fome fmall
booty, with the wife and daughter of Arpen king
of the Catti ; neither did thofe who befieged the fort
wait the arrival of Germanicus. In the mean time,
the fleet arriving at the ifland of the Batavians, the
pro-
G E R r 7c
Germany, provifions and warlike engines were put on board and
v— fent forward ; fhips were affigned to the legions and
allies; and the whole array being embarked, the fleet
entered the canal formerly cut by Drufus, and from
his name called Fojfa Drujiana. Hence he failed pro-
fperoufly to- the mouth of the Eras; where, having
landed his troops, he marched directly to the Wefer,
where he found Arminius encamped on the oppofite
bank, and determined to difpute his pafiage. The
next day Arminius drew out his troops in order of
battle : but Germanicus, not thinking it advifable to
attack them, ordered the horfe to ford over under the
command of his lieutenants StertiniuS aud Emilius;
who, to divide the enemy’s forces, croffed the river in
two different places. At the fame time Cariovalda,
the leader of the Batavian auxiliaries, croffed the river
where it was molt rapid : but, being drawn into an
ambufcade, he was killed, together with moft of the
Batavian nobility; and the reft would have been totally
cut off, had not Stertinius and Emilius haftened to
their afiiftance. Germanicus in the mean time paffed
the river without moleftation. A battle foon after
enfued ; in which the Germans were defeated with fo
great a (laughter that the ground was covered with
arms and dead bodies for more than 10 miles round:
and among the fpoils taken on this occafion, were
found, as formerly, the chains with which the Ger¬
mans had hoped to bind their captives.
In memory of this fignal victory Germanicus raifed
a mount, upon wfiich he placed as trophies the arms of
the enemy, and infcrib^d underneath the names of the
conquered nations. This fo provoked the Germans,
though already vanquifhed and determined to abandon
their country, that they attacked the Roman army
unexpedledly on its march, and put them into fome
diforder. Being repulfed, they encamped between a
river and a large foreft furrounded by a marfh except
on one fide, where it was inclofed by a broad rampart
formerly raifed by the.Angrivarii as a barrier between
them and the Cherufci. Here another battle enfued;
in which the Germans behaved with great bravery, but
in the end were defeated with great (laughter.
After this fecond defeat, the Angrivarii fubmitted,
and were taken under the prote&ion of the Romans,
and Germanicus put an end to the campaign. Some
of the legions he fent to their winter-quarters by land,
while he himfelf embarked with the reft on the river
His fleet Ems, in order to return by fea. The ocean proved
difpeifedby very ca^m> and the wind favourable : but all of
a ftorm, a fudden a ftorm arifing, the fleet, confifting of 1000
veffels, was difperfed: fome of them were fwallowed up
by the waves; others were dafhed in pieces againft the
rocks, or driven upon remote and inhofpitable iflands,
where the men either perifhed by famifie, or lived up¬
on the flefh of the dead horfes with which the fhores
foon appeared ftrewcd; for, in order to lighten their
veffels, and difengage them from the fhoals, they had
been obliged to throw overboard their horfes and beafts
of burden, nay, even their arms and baggage. Moft of
the men, however, were faved, and even great part of
the fleet recovered. Some of them were driven upon
the coaft of Britain ; but the petty kings who reigned
there generoufly fent them back.
On the news of this misfortune, the Catti, taking
»ew courage, ran to arms; but Cains Silius being de-
>i 1 G E R
tached againft them with 30,000 foot and 3000 horfe, Gernia»y.
kept them in awe. Germanicus himfelf, at the head —
of a numerous body, made a hidden irruption into the
territories of the Marfi, where he recovered one of
Varus’s eagles, and having laid wafte the. country, he
returned to the frontiers of Ge.rmany, and put his troops
into winter-quarters ; whence he was foon recalled by
Tiberius, and never fuffered to return into Germany
again.
After the departure of Germanicus, the more nor¬
thern nations of Germany were no more molefted by
the Romans. Arminius carried on a long and fuc-.
cefsful war with Maroboduus king of the Marqo-
manni, whom he atlaft expelled, and forced to apply
to the Romans for afliftance; but, excepting Germani¬
cus, it feems they had at this time no other general
capable of oppofing Arminius, fo that Maroboduus was
never reftored. After the final departure of the Ro*Dea^f0f
mans, however, Arminius having attempted to cnflave
his country, fell by the treachery of his own kiiidred.
The Germans held his memory i^ great veneration ;
and Tacitus informs us, that in his time they ftill ce¬
lebrated him in their fongs.
Nothing remarkable occurs in the hiftory of Ger¬
many from this time till the reign of the emperor Clau¬
dius. A war indeed is faid to have been carried on
by Lucius Domitius, father to the emperor Nero.
But of his exploits we know nothing more than that
he penetrated beyond the river Elbe, and led his army
farther into the country than any of the Romans had
ever done. In the reign of Claudius, however, the
German territories were invaded by Cn. Domitius
Corbulo, one of the greateft generals of his age. But
when he was on the point of forcing them to fubmit to
the Roman yoke, he was recalled by Claudius, who was
jealous of the reputation he had acquired.
In the reign of Vefpafian, a terrible revoh happened
among the Batavians and thofe German nations who
had fubmitted to the Romans; a particular account of
which is given under the article Rome. The revolters
were with difficulty fubdued ; but, in the reign of The Pact.
Domitian, the Dacians invaded the empire, and proved ans invade
a more terrible enemy than any of the other Germanlhe l5omn
nations had been. After feveral defeats, the emperorem^ire*
was at laft obliged to confent to pay an annual tri¬
bute to Decebalus king of the Dacians; which con¬
tinued to the time of Trajan. But this warlike prince
refufed to pay tribute; alleging, when it was de¬
manded of him, that “he had never been conquered
by Decebalus.” Upon this the Dacians paffed the
Danube, and began to commit hoftilities in the Ro¬
man territories. Trajan, glad of this opportunity to
humble an enemy whom he began to fear, drew toge¬
ther a mighty army, and marched with the utmoft
expedition to the banks of the Danube. As Dece¬
balus was not apprifed of his arrival, the emperor
paffed the river without oppofition, and entering Dacia,
laid wafte the country with fire and fword. At laft
he was met by Dl» balus with a numerous army. A
bloody engagement enfued, in which the Dacians were
defeated ; though the victory coft the Romans dear :
the wounded were fo numerous, that they wanted
linen to bind up their wounds ; and to fupply the
defedt, the emperor generoufly devoted his own ward¬
robe. After the victory, he purfued Dscebalus from
place
G E R [lot } G E II
Germany, place to place, and at laft obliged him to confent to a
peace on the following terms: i. That he fhould
furrender the territories which he had unjuftly taken
from the neighbouring nations. 2. That he fhould
deliver up his arms, his warlike engines, with the ar¬
tificers who made them, and all the Roman deferters.
3. That for the future he fhould entertain no deferters,
nor take into his fervice the natives of any country
fubjeft to Rome. 4. That he fhould difman.tle all his
fortreffes, caftles, and flrong-holds. And, Vaflly, that
he fhbuld have the fame friends and foes with the people
of Rome.
With thefe hard terms Decebalus was obliged to
comply, though fore againft his will; and being in¬
troduced to Trajan, threw himfelf on the ground be¬
fore him, acknowledging himfelf his vaffal: after
which the latter, .having commanded him to fend de¬
puties to the fenate for the ratification of the peace,
returned to Rome.
This peace was of no long duration. Four years
after (A. D. 105),• Decebalus, unable to live in fer-
vitude as he called it, began, contrary to the late
treaty, to raife men, provide arms, entertain deferters,
fortify his caftles, and invite the neighbouring nations
to join him againft the Romans as a common enemy.
The Scythians hearkened to his felicitations ; but the
Jazyges, a neighbouring nation, refufing to bear arms
againft Rome, Decebalus invaded their country. Here¬
upon Trajan1 marched againft him; but the Dacian,
finding himfelf unable to withftand him by open force,
had recourfe to treachery, and attempted to get the
emperor murdered. His defign, however, proved
abortive, and Trajan purfued his march into Dacia.
That his troops might the more readily pafs and re-
pafs the Danube, he built a bridge over that river;
which by the ancients is ftyled the moft magnificent and
• See dr- wonderful of all his works *. To guard the bridge,
ciuaure, he ordered two caftles to be built; one on this fide
the Danube, and the othej on the oppofite fide; and
all this was accomplifhed in the fpace of one fummer.
Trajan, however, as the feafon was now far advanced,
did' not think it advifable to enter Dacia this year,
but contented himfelf with making the neceflary pre¬
parations.
*7 In the year 106, early in the fpring, Trajali' fet
fubduedby out f°r I^acia ? an(l having palled the Danube on the
Trajan. bridge he had built, reduced the whole country, and
would have taken Decebalus himfelf had he not put
an end to his own life, in order to avoid falling into
the hands of his enemies. After his death the king¬
dom of Dacia was reduced to a Roman province ; and
feveral caftles were built in it, and garrifons placed in
them, to keep the country in awe.
After the death of Trajan, the Roman empire be¬
gan to decline, and the northern nations to be daily
more and more formidable. The province of Dacia
indeed was held by the Romans till the reign of Gal-
lienus ; but Adrian, who fucceeded Trajan, caufed the
arches of the bridge over the Danube to be broken
down, left the barbarians Ihould make themfelves ma-
«8 fters of it, and invade the Roman territories. In the
Marco-^d time of Marcus Aurelius, the Marcomanni and Q_ua-
Quadi for- ^ iuvaded the empire, and gave the emperor a terrible
tnidabb to overthrow. He continued the war, however, with
the env.'ic. better fuccefs afterwards, and invaded their country in
his turn. It was during the courfe of this war that Gefmihyi
the Roman army'is faid to have been faved from de-
ftru&ion by that miraculous event related under the ar¬
ticle Christians, p. 717. col. 2.
In the end, the Marcomanni and Quadi were, by
repeated defeats, brought to the verge of deftruftion ;
infomuch that their country would probably have been
reduced to a Roman province, had not Marcus Aure¬
lius been diverted from purfuing his conquefts by the
revolt of one of his generals. After the death of
Marcus Aurelius, the Germanic nations became every
day more and more formidable to the Romans. Far
from being able to' invade and attempt the conqueft of
thefe northern countries, the Romans had the greateft
difficulty to reprefs the incurfions of their inhabitants.
But for a particular account of their various invafions
of the Roman empire, and its total deftrudtion by them
at laft, fee the article Rome. I9
The immediate deftroyers of the Roman empire Roman em :
were the Heruli; who, under their leader Odoacer, de-'Pire de¬
throned Auguftulus the laft Roman emperor, and pro-
claimed Odoacer king of Italy. The Heruli were ‘
foon expelled by the Oftrogoths; and thefe in their
turn were fubdued by Juftinian, who re-annexed Italy to
the eaftern empire. But the popes found means to
obtain the temporal as well as fpiritual jurifdi&ion over
a confiderable part of the country, while the Lom¬
bards fubdued the reft. Thefe laft proved very trouble-
fome to the popes, and at length befieged Adrian I.
in his capital. In this diftrefs he applied to Charles
the Great king of France ; wkp conquered both Italy
and Germany, and was crowned emperor of the weft
in 800.
The pofterity of Charlemagne inherited the empire Hiftory of
of Germany until the year 880; at which time the dif- Germany
ferent princes aflumed their original independence, re- hnce the
jedted the Carlovinian line, and placed Arnulph king
,of Bohemia on the throne. Since this time, Germany magne.
has ever been confidered as an eleftive monarchy.
Princes of different families, according to the preva¬
lence of their intereft and arms, have mounted the
throne. Of thefe the moft confiderable, until the Au-
ftrian line acquired the imperial power, were the hou-
fes of Saxony, Franconia, and Swabia. The reigns
of thefe emperors contain nothing more remarkable
than the contefts between them and the popes ; for an
account of which, fee the article Italy. From hence,
in the beginning of the 13th century, arofe the fac¬
tions of the Guelphs and Gibelines, of which the for¬
mer was attached to the popes, and the latter to the
emperor; and both, by their virulence and inveteracy,
tended to difquiet the empire for feveral ages. The
emperors too were often at war with the infidels; and
fometimes, as happens in all eledtive kingdoms, with
one another, abtiut the fucceffion.
But what more deferves our attention is the progrefs
of government in Germany, which was in fome mea-
fure oppofite to that of the other kingdoms of Europe.
When the empire raifed by Charlemagne fell afunder,
all the different independent princes affirmed the right
of eledtion ; and thofa now diftinguiffied by the name
of eleBors had no peculiar or legal influence in ap¬
pointing a fucceffor to the imperial throne; they were
only the officers of the king’s houfehold, his fecretary,
his fteward, chaplain, marfhal, or mafter • of ft if*
horfe;
G E R [ 703 ] G E R
Germany, liorfe, &c. By degrees, however, as they lived near
the king’s perfon, and had, like all other princes, in¬
dependent territories belonging to them, they increa-
fed their influence and authority; and in the reign
of Otho III. 984, acquired the foie right of ele&ing
the emperor. Thus, while in the other kingdoms, of
Europe, the dignity of the great lords, who were all
origina'ly allodial or independent barons, was dfmi-
nifhed by the power of the king, as in France, and by
the influence of the people, as in Great Britain-; in
Germany, on the other hand, the power of the elec¬
tors was railed upon the ruins of the emp.eror’s fupre-
macy, and of the people’s jurifdidfion. In 1440, Fre¬
deric III. duke of Auftria was eledted emperor, and
the imperial dignity continued in the male line of that
family for 300 years. His fucceflor Maximilian mar¬
ried the heirefs of Charles duke of Burgundy; where¬
by Burgundy and the 17 provinces of the Netherlands
were annexed to the houfe of Auftria. Charles V.
grandfon of Maximilian, and heir to .the kingdom of
Spain, was eledted emperor in the year 1519. Under
him Mexico and Peru were conquered by the Spa¬
niards ; and in his reign happened the Reformation
in feveral parts of Germany; which, however, was not
confirmed by public authority till the year 1648, by
the treaty of Weftphalia, and in the reign of Ferdi¬
nand III. The reign of Charles V. was continually
difturbed by his wars with the German princes and the
French king Francis I. Though fuccefsfulin the begin¬
ning of his reign, his good fortune towards the con-
clufion of it began to forfake him; which, with other
reafons, occafioned his abdication of the crown. See
Charles V.
His brother Ferdinand I. who in 1558 fucceeded
to the throne, proved a moderate prince with regard
to rejigion. He had the addrefs to get his fon Maxi¬
milian declared king of the Romans in his own life¬
time, and died in I5'64. By his laft will he ordered,
that if cither his own male iflue, or that of his brother
Charles, fhould fail, his Auftrian eftates fhould revert
to his fecond daughter Anne, wife to the eleftor of
Bavaria, and her iflue. We mention this deftination,-
as it gave rife to the late oppofition made by the houfe
of Bavaria to the pragmatic fan&ion, in favour of the
emprefs queen of Hungary, on the death of her father
Charles VI. The reign of Maximilian II. was difturb¬
ed with internal commotions, and an invafion fronrthe
Turks ; but he died in peace in 1576. He was fuc
ceeded by his fon Rodolph; who was involved in wars
with the Hungarians, and-in differences with his.bro¬
ther Matthias, to whom he ceded Hungary and Au-
flria in his lifetime. He was fucceeded in the empire
by Matthias; under whom the reformers, who went
under the names of Lutherans and Calvinifis, were fo
much divided among themfelves, as to threaten the
empire with a civil war. The ambition of Matthias
at laft tended to reconcile them ; but the Bohemians
revolted, and threw the imperial commiffaries out .of
a window at Prague-. This gave rife to a ruinous
war, which lafted 30 years. Matthias thought to have
exterminated both parties; but they formed a confe¬
deracy, called the Evangelic League, which was coun¬
terbalanced by a Catholic league.
Matthias dying in 1618, was fucceeded by his cou-
fin Ferdinand II.; but the Bohemians offered their
4. •
crown to Frederic the eledlor Palatihe, the moft power- Germany,
ful Proteftant prince in Germany, and fon-ia-law to ”—v—
his Britannic maj^dy James I. That prince was in¬
cautious enough to accept of the crown: but he loft it,
by being entirely defeated by the duke of Bavaria and
the imperial generals at the battle of Prague ; and he
was even deprived of his ele&orate, the beft part of
which was given to the duke of Bavaria. The Pro¬
teftant princes of Germany, however, had among them
at this time many^able commanders, who were at the
head of armies, and continued the war with wonderful
obftinacy: among them were the margrave of Baden
Durlach, Cht'iftian duke of Brunfwic, and count
Mansfield ; the laft was one of the beft generals of the
■age. Chriftiern IV. king of Denmark declared for
them; and Richlieu, the Fiencli minifter, was not
fond of feeing the houfe of Auftria aggrandized. The
emperor, on the other hand, had excellent generals ;
and Chriftiern, having put himfelf at the head of the
evangelic league, was defeated by Tilly, an Imperia-
lift of great reputation in war. Ferdinand made fo
moderate a ufe of his advantages obtained over the Pro-
teftants, that they formed a frefh confederacy at Leip-
fic, of which the celebrated Guilavus Adolphus king
of Sweden was the head. An account of his glorious
vidtories is given under the article Sweden. At laft
he was killed at the battle of Lutzen in 1632. But
the Proteftant caufe did not die with him. He had
brought up a fet of heroes, fuch as the duke of Saxe
Weimer, Torftenfon, Banier, and others, who fhook
the Auftrian power; till, under the mediation of'
Sweden, a general peace was concluded among all
the belligerent powers, at Munfter, in the year 1648 ;
which forms the bafts of the prefent political fyftem of
Europe.
Ferdinand II. vyas fucceeded by his fpn Ferdi¬
nand III. This prince died in 1657 ; and was fucceeded
by the emperor Leopold, a fevere, unamiable, and not
very fortunate prince. He had two great powers to
contend with, France on the one fide, and the Turks
on the other ; and was a lofer in his war with both.
Louis XIV. at that time king of France, was happy
in having the two celebrated generals Conde and Tu*
renne in his fervice. The latter had already diftin-
guiftud himfelf by great exploits againft the Spaniards;,
and, on the acceffion of Leopold, the court of France
had taken the opportunity of confirming the treaty of
Munfter, and attaching to her intereft feveral of the
independent princes of Germany. The tranquillity
which now took place,, however, was not eftablilhed
upon any permanent bafis. War with Spain was re¬
fumed in the year 1668; and the great fucceffes of
Turenne in the Netherlands ftimulated the ambition of
the prince of Conde to attempt the conqueft of Fran-
che Compte at that time under the protection of the
houfe of Auftria. This was accompliftied in three
weeks: but the rapid fuccefs of Louis had awakened
the jealoufy of his neighbours to fuch a degree, that a
league was formed agaihft him by England, Holland,
and Sweden ; and the French monarch, dreading to
enter the lifts with fuch formidable enemies, confented
to the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, by which,' among
other articles, Frandhe Compte was reftored. The
flames of war, however, were renewed by the infatiable:
ambition of the French monarch; who, having enter¬
ed!
C E R r 704 ] G E R
»cy. ed into afi alliance with Charles II. of England, aim-
—* ed at nothing lefs than the total overthrow of the
Dutch republic. The events of that war are related
under the article United Provinces : here it is
fufficient to obferve, that the misfortunes of the
Dutch excited the compaffion of the emperor and
■court of Spain, who now openly declared themfelves
their allies. Turenne was oppofed by the prince of
Orange in conjun&ion with the celebrated imperial
general Montecuculi, whofe artful conduct eluded
even the penetration of Turenne, and he fat down
fuddenly before the city of Bonne. Here he was
joined by the prince of Orange, who had likewife
found means to elude the vigilance of the French ge¬
nerals. Bonne furrendered in a Ihort time, and
feveral other places in Cologne fell into the hands of
the allies; who likewife cut off the communication
betwixt Fiance and the United Provinces; fo that
Louis was foon obliged to recal his armies, and aban¬
don all his conquefts with greater rapidity than they
had been made. In 1674 lie was abandoned by his
ally Charles II. of England, and thebifiiop ofMunfter
and ele&or of Cologne were compelled to renounce
their allegiance to him; but notwithftanding thefe
misfortunes, he continued every where to make head
againft his enemies, and even meditated new conquefts.
With a powerful army he again invaded Franche
Compte in perfon, and in fix weeks reduced the whole
province to his obedience. In Alface, Turenne de¬
feated the imperial general at Sintzheim, .and ravaged
the palatinate. Seventy thoufand Germans were fur-
•prifed ; a confiderable detachment was cat in pieces at
Mulhaufen ; the elector of Brandenburg, who had
been entrufted with the chief command, was routed
by Turenne near Colmar; a third body met with a
similar fate at Turkheim ; and the whole German
forces were obliged at laft to evacuate the province and
-repafs the Rhine.
In confequence of thefe difafters the Imperial general
Montecuculi was recalled to aft againft Turenne. The
military fkill of the two commanders feemed to be nearly
equal; but before the fuperiority could be adjudged to
either, Turenne was killed by a cannon ball as he was
reconnoitring a fituation for erefting a battery. By
his death the Imperialifts obtained a decided fuperiority.
Montecuculi penetrated into Alface; and the French,
under de Lorges nephew to the deceafed general, were
happy in being able to efcape a defeat.
Part of the German army now fat down before
Treves, where they were oppofed by Marefchal Crequi;
but the negligence of that general expofed him to fuch
a dreadful defeat, that he was obliged to fly into the
city with only four attendants. Here he endeavoured
in vain to animate the people to a vigorous defence.
The garrifon mutinied againft his authority; and,
when he refufed to fign the capitulation they made,
delivered him up prifoner to the enemy. Louis in the
mean time had taken .the field in perfon againft the
prince of Orange ; but the difaftrous ftate of affairs in
Germany induced him to recall the prince of Conde
to make head againft Montecuculi. In this campaign
the prince feemed to have the advantage. He com¬
pelled the Germans to raife the fieges of Hagenau and
' Saverne ; and at laft to repafs the Rhine without ha¬
ving been able to force him to a battle.
NJ 138.
This was the laft campaign made by thefe celebrated Germany,
commanders ; both of them now, contented with the
fame they had acquired, retiring from the field to !
fpend the remainder of their days in peace. The ex¬
cellent difcipline, however, which the two great French
generals had introduced into their armies, ftill con¬
tinued to make them very formidable, though it did
not always infure them of viftory. In Germany, the
duke of Lorrain, who had recovered Philipfburgh, was
repeatedly defeated by Marefchal Crequi, who had j
been ranfomed from his captivity, and become more •
prudent by his defeat. In Flanders, the prince of
Orange was overmatched by the duke of Orleans and
Marfhal Luxemburg. A peace was at length con¬
cluded at Nimeguen in 1679, f>y which the king of
France fecured himfelf Franche Compte with a great
many cities in the Netherlands ; while the king of
Sweden was reinftated in thofe places of which he had
been ftripped by the Danes and Germans. This tran¬
quillity, however, was of no long duration. Louis
employed every moment in preparations for new con¬
quefts; poffeffed himfelf of the imperial city of Straf-
burg by treachery ; and difpoffeffed the Eleftor Pala¬
tine and the eleftor of Treves of the lordfhips of Fal- '
kemburg, Germanflieim, and Valdentz. On the moft
frivolous pretences he had demanded Aloft from the
Spaniards; and on their refufal, feized upon Luxem¬
burg. His conduft, in fhort, was fo intolerable, that
the prince of Orange, his inveterate enemy, found
means to unite the whole empire in a league againft
him. Spain and Holland became parties in the fame
caufe ; and Sweden and Denmark feemed alfo inclined
to accede to the general confederacy. Notwithftand-
ing this formidable combination, however, Louis feem¬
ed ftill to have the advantage. He made himfelf ma¬
iler of the cities of Philipfburgh, Manheim, Franken-
dal, Spires, Worms, and Oppenheim; the fruitful
country of the palatinate was ravaged in a dreadful man¬
ner ; the towns were -reduced to allies ; and the people,
driven from their habitations, were every where left to
periih through the inclemency of the weather and
want of provilions. By this cruelty his enemies were
rather exafperated than vanquilhed : the Imperalifts,,
under the conduft of the duke of Lorrain, refumed
their courage, and put a Hop to the French conquefts. ■
At length all parties, weary of a deftruftive war, co*»-
fented to the treaty of Ryfwick in 1697. By this
treaty Louis gave up to the empire, Fribourg, Bri-
fac, Kheil, and Philipfburg: he confented alfo to de-
ftroy the fortifications of Strafburg. Fort Louis and
Ttaerbach, the works of which had exhaufted the
fit ill of the great Vauban, with Lorrain, Treves, and
the Palatinate, were refigned to their refpeftive
princes ; infomuch that the terms to which the French
monarch now confented, after fo many viftories, were
fuch as could fcarce have been expefted under the
preffure of the greateft misfortunes. The views of
Louis, however, in confuting to this apparently hu¬
miliating treaty, were beyond the views of ordinary
politicians. The health of the king of Spain was in
fuch a declining way, that his death appeared to be at
hand; and Louis now refolved to renew his preten-
fions to that kingdom, which he had formerly by
treaty folemnly renounced. His defigns in this re-
fpeft could not be concealed from the vigilance of
William
G E R l 7°£ 1 G E R
,7-*'emany. WiHiam III. of Britain ; of which Louis being fen- Eugene at the battle of Peterwaradin. They recei- Germany
'■“’f '—v—-' fible, and knowing that the emperor had claims of the ved another of equal importance from the fame gene-
fame nature on Spain, he thought proper to enter into ral in 1717, before Belgrade, which fell into the hands
a very extraordinary treaty with William. This w'as of the Imperialifts; „and next year the peace of Paffarn-
no lefs than the partition of the w'hoie Spanish domi- witz, between them and the Turks, was concluded,
nions, which were now to be diilfibuted in the follow- Charles employed every minute of his ieifure in ma-
ing manner. To the young prince of Bavaria were to king arrangements for increating and preferving his he-
be affigned Spain and the Eaft Indies ; the dauphin, reditary dominions in Italy and the Mediterranean,
fbn to Louis, was to have Naples, Sicily, and the pro- Happily for him, the crown of Britain devolved to the
vince of C uipufcoa; while the Archduke Charles, fon houfe of Hanover ; an event which gave him a very de-
to the Emperor Leopold, was to have only the duchy cifive weight in Europe, by the connexions between
of Milan. By this fcandalous treaty the indignation George I. and II. and the empire. Charles was fen-
of Charles was roofed, fo that he bequeathed the whole fible of this ; and carried matters with fo high a hand,
of his dominions to the prince of Bavaria. This that, about die years 1724 and 1725, a breach enfued
fcheme, however, was difconcerted by the hidden between him and George I. and fo unfteady was the
death of the prince; upon which a new treaty of parti- fyftem of affairs all over Europe at that time, that the
tion was concluded between Louis and William. By capital powers often changed their old alliances, and
this the kingdom of Spain, together with the Eaft concluded new ones contradiXory to their intereft.
India territories, were to be be&owed on the Arch- Without .entering into particulars, it is fufficient to
duke Charles, and the duchy of Milan upon the duke obferye, that the fafety of Hanover, and its aggrUn-
of Lorrain. Thelaft moments of the Spanifti monarch dizemtnt, was the main objeX of the Britifli court; as
were difturbed by the intrigues of the rival houfes of that of the emperor was the eftafoliftimentof the prag-
Aufttia and Bourbon ; but the haughtinefs of the Au- matic fanXion in favour of his daughter the (late em-
ftrian minifters fo drfgufted thofe of Spain, that they prefs-queen), he having on male iffue. Mutual concef-
prevaiied upon their dying monarch to make a new fions upon thofe great points reftored a good under-
will. By this the whole of his dominions wrere be- Handing between George II. and the emperor Charles;
queathed to Philip duke of Anjou, grand fan to the and the eleXor of Saxony, flattered with the view of
king of France ; and Louis, prompted by his natural gaining the throne of Poland, relinquifhed the great
ambition, accepted the kingdom bequeathed to his claims he had upon the Auftrian fueceffion,
grarvdfon, .exeufing himfelf to his allies in the beft The emperor, after this, had very bad fuccefs in a
manner he could for departing from his engagement* war he entered into with the Turks, which he had un-
with them. For this, however, he "was made to pay dertaken chiefly to indemnify himfelf for the great fa-
dear. His infatiable ambition and his former fucceffes crifices he had made in Italy to the princes of the houfe
had alarmed all Europe. The Emperor, the Dutch, of Bourbon. Prince Eugene was then dead, and he
and the king of England, entered into a new confede- had no general to fupply his place. The fyftem of
racy againft him; and a bloody war enfued, which threat- France, however, under cardinal Fleury, happened at
ened to overthrow the French monarchyentirely. While that time to be pacific ; and Ihe obtained for him, from
this war (of which an account is given under the ar- tlie Turk8? a better peace than he had reafon to ex-
ticle Britain) was carried on with fuch fuccefe, the peX. Charles, to keep the German and other powers
Emperor Leopold died in the year 1705. eafy, had, before his death, given his eldeft daughter, ,
He was fucceeded by his fon Jofeph, who put the -the late emprefs-queen, in marriage to the duke of
eleXors of Cologne and Bavaria to the ban of the em- Lorrain, a prince who could bring no acceffion of power
pire ; but being ill ferved by Prince Louis of Baden to the Auftrian family.
general of the empire, the French partly recovered Charles died in 1740; and was no fooner in the
their affairs, notwithftanding their repeated defeats, grave, than ail he had fo long laboured for muft have
The duke of Marlborough had not all the fuccefs he been overthrown, had it not been for the hrmnefs of •
expeXcd or deferved. jofeph himfelf was fufpeXed of George II. The young king of Prulfia entered and
adtiignto fubvert the Germanic liberties ; and it was conquered Silelia, which he faid had been wrongfully
plain by his conduX, that he expeXed England fhould difmembered from his family. The king of Spain and
take the labouring oar in the war, which was to be en- the eleXor of Bavaria fet up claims direXly incompa-
tirely carried on for his benefit. The Englifti were tible with the pragmatic fanXion, and in this they were
difgufted at his flownefs and felfiftinefs; but he died in joined by France ; though all thofe powers had folemn-
1711, before he had reduced the Hungarians; and ly guaranteed it. Tire imperial throne, after a confi-
leaving no male iffue, he was fucceeded in the em- derable vacancy, was filled up by the eleXor of Bava-
pire by his brother Charles VI. whom the allies ria, who took the title of Charles VII. in January
were endeavouring to place on the throne of Spain, 1742. The French poured their armies into Bohemia,
in oppofition to Philip duke of Anjou, grandfon to where they took Prague 5 and the queen of Hungary,
Louis XIV. to take off the weight of Pruffia, was forced to cede to
When the peace of Utrecht took place in 1713, that prince the moft valuable part of the duchy of Si-
. j' Charles at firl’t made a (how as if he would continue the lefia by a formal treaty.
war; but found himfelf unable, now that he was for- Her youth, her beauty, and fufferings, and the
faken by the Englifh. He therefore was obliged to noble fortitude with which {he bore them, touched
conclude a peace with France at Baden in 1714, that the hearts of the Hungarians, into whofe arms fire
he might attend the progrefs of the Turks in Hun- threw herfelf and her little fon ; and though they had
gary; where they received a total defeat from Prince been always remarkable for their difaffeXion to the
Vol.VII. Part II. 4U houfe
G E R [ 7°6 ] G E R
Germany, houfe of Auftria, they declared unanimoufly in her torrent, burtl in Saxony} totally defeated the imperial Germany.
favour. Her generals drove the French out of Bo- general Brown at the battle of Lowofitz ; forced the  v 
hernia; and George II. at the head of an Englilh and Saxons to lay down their arms, though almoft im-
Hanoverian army, gained the battle of Dettingen, in pregnably fortified at Pirna ; and the ele&or of Saxo-
1743. Charles VII. was at this time miferable on ny fled to his regal dominions in Poland. After this,
the imperial throne, and would have given the queen his Pruffian majefty was put to the ban of the empire;
of Hungary almoll her own terms ; but ftie haughtily and the French poured, by one quarter, their armies,
and impolitically reje&ed all accommodation, though, as the Ruffians did by another, into the empire. The
advifed to it by his Britannic majefty, her bell and condudl of his Pruffian majefty on this occafion is the
indeed only friend. This obftinacy gave a colour for moft amazing that is to be met with in hiftory ; for a
the king of Pruffia to invade Bohemia, under pretence particular account of which, fee the article Prussia.
of fupporting the imperial dignity; but though he At latt, however, the taking of Colberg by the
took Prague, and fubdued the greateft part of the Ruffians, and of Schweidnitz by the Auftrians, was
kingdom, he was not fupported by the French ; upon on the point of completing his ruin, when his moft
which he abandoned all his conquefts, and retired into formidable enemy, the emprefs of Ruffia, died, Ja-
Silefia. This event confirmed the obftinacy of the nuary 5th 1762; George II. his only ally, had died
queen of Hungary ; who came to an accommodation on the 25th of Odlober 1760.
with the emperor, that Ihe might recover Silefia. The deaths of thofe illuftrious perfonages were fol- ■
Soon after, his Imperial majefty, in the beginning of lowed by great confequences. The Britilh miniftry
the year 1745, died ; and the duke of Lorrain, then of George III. fought to finilh the war with honour,
grand duke of Tufcany, confort to the queen of Hun- and the new emperor of Ruffia recalled his armies,
gary, after furmounting fome difficulties, was chofen His Pruffian-majefty was, notwithftanding, fo very
emperor. much reduced by his Ioffes, that the emprefs-queen,
The bad fuccefs of the allies againft the French and probably, would have completed his deftrudlion, had
Bavarians in the Low Countries, and the lofs of the it not been for the wife backwardnefs of other Ger-
battle of Fontenoy, retarded the operations of the man princes, not to annihilate the houfe of Branden-
emprcfs-queen againft his Pruffian majefty. The lat- burg. At firft the emprefs queen rejedled all terms
ter beat the emperor’s brother, Prince Charles of Lor- propofed to her, and ordered 30,000 men to be added
rain, who had before driven the Pruffians out of Bo- to her armies. The vifible backwardnefs of her ge-
hemia; and the condudl of the emprefs-queen was nerals to execute her orders, and new fucceffes ob-
fuch, that his Britannic majefty -thought proper to tained by his Pruffian majefty', at laft prevailed on her
guarantee to him the poffeffion of Silefia, as ceded by to agree to an armiftice, which was foon followed by
treaty. Soon after, his Pruffian majefty pretended the treaty of Hubertftmrgh, which fecured to his Pruf-
that he had difcovered a fecret convention which had fian majefty the poffeffion of Silefia. Upon the death
been entered into between the emprefs-queen, the em- of the emperor her huffiand, in 1765, her fon Jo-
prefs of Ruffia, and the king of Poland as ele&or of feph, who ha i been crowned king of the Romans in
Saxony, to ftrip him of his dominions, and to divide 1764, fucceeded him in the empire,
them among themfelves. Upon this his Pruffian This prince -ffiowed an adlive and reftlefs difpo-
majefty, very fuddenly, drove tlje king of Poland out fition, much inclined to extend his territories by
of Saxony, defeated his troops, and took poffeffion conqueft, and to make reformations in the internal po¬
of Drefden ; which he held till a treaty was made un- licy of his dominions, yet without taking any proper
der the mediation of his Britannic majefty, by which methods for accompliffiing his purpofes. Hence he
the king of Pruffia acknowledged the duke of Lor- was almoft always dii'appointed ; infomuch that he
rain, great duke of Tufcany, for emperor. The wrote for himfelf the following epitaph: “ Here lies
war, however, continued in the Low Countries, not Jofeph, unfortunate in all his undertakings.” In the
only to the difavantage, but to the diferedit, of the year 1 788, a war commenced betwixt him and the king
Auftrians and Dutch, till it was finiffied by the treaty of Pruffia; in which, notwithftanding the impetuous
of Aix-la-Chapelle, in April 1 748. By that treaty valour of that monarch, Jofeph a£led with fuch cau-
Silefia was once more guaranteed to the king of Pruffia. tion that his adverfary could gain no advantage over
It was not long before that monarch’s jealoufies were him ; and an accommodation took place without any
renewed and verified; and the emprefs of Ruffia’s remarkable exploit on either fide. In 1781 he took
views falling in with thofe of the emprefs-queen and the opportunity of the quarrel betwixt Britain and the
the king of Poland, who were unnaturally fupported United Provinces, to deprive the latter of the barrier
by France in their new fchemes, a frefti war was. towns which had been fecured to them by the treaty
kindled in the empire. The king of Pruffia declared of Utrecht. Thefe indeed had frequently been of
againft the admiffion of the Ruffians into Germany, great ufe to the Houfe of Auftria in its ftate of weak-
and his Britannic majefty againft that of the French, nefs; but Jofeph, confcious of his own ftrength, looked
Upon thofe two principles all former differences be- upon it as derogatory-to his honour to allow fo many-
tween thefe monarchy were forgotten, and the Britifti of his cities to remain in the hands of foreigners, and
parliament agreed to pay an annual fubfidy of 670,000!. to be garrifoned at his expence. As at that time the
to his Pruffian majelty during the continuance of the Dutch were unable to refill, the Imperial orders for eva-
war. cuating the barrier towns were inftantly complied with ;
The flames of war now broke out in Germany with nor did the court of France, though then in friendfliip
greater fury and more deftru&ive violence than ever, with Holland, make any offer to interpofe. Encoiv
File armies of his Pruffian majefty, like an irrefiftible raged by this fuccefs, Jofeph next demanded the free
G E R f 707 1 G E R
Germany, navigation of the Scheldt; but as this would evident- ding corporations in Vienna, requefting that their Germany.
v ly have been very detrimental to the commercial in- youth might be received as apprentices in that city. ——y—-^
terefts of Holland, a flat refufal was given to his re- Severe laws againft gaming were enafted and put in
quifitions. In this the emperor was much difappoint- execution with equal rigour. Heavy reftridfions were
ed ; having flattered himfelf that the Hollanders, in- alfo laid on all the focieties of free mafons in Germa-
timidated by his power, would yield the navigation of ny, while thofe in the Netherlands were totally fup-
the river as eafily as they had done the barrier. Great prefled.
preparations were made by the emperor, which the
Dutch, on their part, feemed determined to refift.
But while the emperor appeared fo much fet upon
this acquifition, he fuddenly abandoned the projeft en¬
tirely, and entered into a new fcheme of exchanging
the Netherlands for the duchy of Bavaria. This was
oppofed by the king of Pruflia'; and by the interfe
rence of the court of France, the emperor found him¬
felf at laft obliged alfo to abandon his other fcheme of
The great number of innovations in religious mat¬
ters were highly refented by the inhabitants of the Ne¬
therlands, who have always been remarkable for their
attachment to the Romiih religion in its moft fuperfti-
tious form. Indeed the alterations in the civil confli-
tution were fo great, that even thofe who were leaft bi-
gotted in this refpeft began to fear that their liberties
were in danger, and an univerfal diflatisfaftion was
:ited. The emperor behaved at firil in a very
obtaining the navigation of the Scheldt. A treaty haughty manner, refufed to yield the fmalleft point
of peace was concluded, under the guarantee of his to the felicitations of his fubjefts. Finding, how-
moft Chriftian majefty. The principal articles were, ever, that a general revolt was about to take place,
that the States acknowledged the emperor’s fovereign- and being unable at that time, on accoynt of the Turk-
ty over the Scheldt from Antwerp to the limits of Sef- i(h war, to fpare fuch a force as would be necef-
tingen ; they agreed to demolifh certain forts, and to fary to reduce the provinces to obedience, he thought
pay a confiderable fum of money in lieu of fome proper, in the autumn of 1787, to promife a reflora-
claims which the emperor had on Maeftright, and by tion of their ancient conftitution and privileges. His
way of indemnification for laying part of his territories promifes, however, were found to be fo delufive, and
under water.
.The treaty with the Dutch was no fooner concluded
than a quarrel with the Turks took place, which ter¬
minated in an open war. It does not appear that the
emperor had at this time any real provocation, but
feems to have a&ed merely in confequence of his en¬
gagements with Ruflia to reduce the dominions of the
his conduct was fo arbitrary and capricious, that in
the end of the year 1789 the States of all the pro¬
vinces in the Auftrian Netherlands came to a refolution
of entirely throwing off- the yoke. Articles of a fede¬
ral union were drawn up, and a new republic was
formed under the title of. the Belgic Provinces. The
lituation of the emperor’s affairs at that time did not
Grand Signor. All thefe foreign engagements, howe- allow him to take the meafures neceflary for preventing
ver, did not in the leaft retard the progrefs of reforma¬
tion which the emperor carried on throughout his do¬
minions with a rapidity fcarcely to be matched, and
which at laft produced the revolt of the Auftrian Nether¬
lands. In the courfe of his labours in this way ;
this revolt^ to which perhaps his ill ftate of health alfp
contributed. About the beginning of February 1790
his diftemper increafed to fuch a degree as to be
thought dangerous ; and continuing daily to grow
worfe, he funk under it on the 20th of the fame month.
plete code of laws was compiled. Thefe were at firft in the 40th year of his age, and 26th of his reign.
greatly commended for their humanity, as excluding al-
moft entirely every fpecies of capital puniihment ; yet,
when narrowly confidered, the commutations were found
to be fo exceedingly fevere, that the moft cruel death
would, comparatively fpeaking, have been an aft of mer¬
cy. Even for fmaller crimes the puniftiments were fevere
beyond meafure; but the greateft fault of all was, that
the modes of trial were very defeftive, and the pu-
nifhments fo arbitrary, that the moft perfeft and in¬
nocent charafter lay at the mercy of a tyrannical judge.
The leaders of the Auftrian revolution, however,
foon became fo difagreeable to their countrymen, that
they were obliged to fly ; and the congrefs, which had
been eftablifhed as the fupreme legiflative body, beha¬
ved. with fuch tyranny, that they became generally de-
tefted. Mean time, the late emperor was fucceeded
by his brother Peter Leopold Jofeph grand duke of
Tufcany ; under whofe adminiftration matters have
taken a more favourable turn. By his wiidom, mo¬
deration, and humanity, he has already in a great mea-
The innovations in ecclefiaftical matters were, however, fure retrieved the bad eonfequences of his predeceffor’s
moft offenfive to his fubjdfts in the Netherlands. A-
mong the many changes introduced into this depart¬
ment, the following were fome of the moft remarkable,
1. An abridgment of divine fervice. 2. A total fuppref-
lion of vocal performers in choirs. 3. The introduftion
of the vernacular language inftead of the Latin in admi-
niftering the facraments 4 The prohibition of chanting
hymns in private houfes. 5. The fupprefiion of a
great number of religious houfes, and the reduftion of
the number of the clergy. 6 The total abolition of the
papal fupremacy throughout the Imperial dominions.
The fame fpirit of innovation difplayed itfelf even in
the moft minute mattefs. Many favours were beftow-
<d upon the Jews; and in 1786 the emperor wrote
with his own hand to the different handicraft and tra-
conduft, having made peace with the Ottomans, and
regained the allegiance of the Netherlands ; and upon
the whole feems to be aftuated not more by a ienfe
of his own rights, than by a regard to the rights and
happinefs of his fubjefts.
At prefent, Germany is bounded, on the north, by
the Baltic Sea, Denmark,' and the German Ocean ;
on the eaft, by Pruflia, Hungary, and Poland; and on
the weft, by the Low Countries, Lorraine, and Franche
Compte: fo that it now comprehends the Palatinate,
of Cologne, Triers, and Liege, which formerly belong*
ed to the Ganls; and is difmembered of Friefland-
Groningen, and Overyffel, which are now incorporated
with the Low Countries.
Since the time of Charles the Great, this country
4 U 2 has
G E R [ 708 ] G E R
GerBiady has been divided into High and Low Germany. The
w—v~“ firft comprehends the Palatinate of the Rhine* Fran-
3.1 conia, Siirfbia, Bavaria, Bohemia', Myfavia, Auftria,
extent^&c. Carinthia,' Carniola, Stlria* the Swifc* and the Orifons.
cf Germs- The provinces of Low Germany ^re* the Low Goufi-
ny. t,ry of the Rhine, Triers, Cologne, Mentz, Weltphalia*
Heffe, Brunfwic, Mifnia, Lufatia, High Saxony upon
the Elbe, Low Saxony Upon the Elbe, Mecklenburg,
Lunenburg, Brandenburg, and Pomerania.
Conftku- Monarchy was firft ellablhhed in Germany by CL-
tionofthe dovick : after him Charierftagrie extended his power
empire. anc| h;s dominions ; and fo great had the empire be¬
come* that during his reign, and that of his fort* go¬
vernment was admirtiftered irf the provinces by perfons
Veiled with power for that purpofe under the title of
Dukes. In the diftridls of thefe provinces, piftiee was
diftributed by a comes Or count, which officer Was in
German called Graf. But from their courts lay an
appeal to that of the emperor, before a prefident ftyled
Comes Palatinus, that is, “ count Palatine, or of the
palace,” in German denominated Pfctlzgi-af The
frontiers or marches were governed by a marquis,
ftyled by the Germans Marhgraf, fimilar to our lord
warden. Generally the centre of the empire Was
ruled by ah officer, who pofleffed a fimilar power* but
a greater extent of dominion, than the Grave, under
the title of Landgravi. ToWns and eaftles, which
•were occafionally honoured with the refidence of the
emperor* Were governed by a Bufggraf. It may be
remarked* however, that the figntfication of the above
mentioned titles, and the extent of power which
they conferred upoh the pet forts honoured with them,
differ according to the fucceffive ages and the gradual
developement of the German eonftitution.
By reafori of family broils in the Imperial houfe, and
civil wars in the dominions* the dignity of the fove-
re’gn Was deprefled* and a new form in the govern¬
ment raifed up. The dukes exalted thrtmfelves above
the power of the ernperor, and fecured for their fons a
fuccefikm to their grfeainfefs; While the iritereft of
the fovereign* in order to ftrengthert the bond of per-
fonal attachment, ratified to others and their defeen-
dants that fway which had been formerly delegated
and dependant on his will. Hence arofe the modern
conftitutiort of dillindl principalities, acknowledging
one head in the perfon of an emperor. Bait thortly
after the election of Gonrade duke of Franconia to the
throne, this new-gained authority of the princes be¬
came doubtful. However, after moft violent diftur-
bances and confufions, the regulations yielded to by
Albert II. and his fucedfors, particularly by Frede¬
rick III. laid the foundation of the German eonftitu¬
tion : but the power and form of which were after¬
wards improved by Maximilian. Before Charles V.
mounted the throne, on the death of Maximilian, the
eledtors formed a bulwark againft the Imperial power,
by an inftrument called the capitulation ; to which ar¬
ticles of government he and all emperors eledled linee
have fwom previous to their inveftiture with imperial
dignity.
Of the elec- When the German monarchy received an eledlive
tors. form, the right of eledlion was not limited to the great
officers of ftate, for other princes participated of this
privilege. But the empire being governed by four
dukes, the princes under their authority, in order to
court their favour, gave to them the difpofal of their Germany..
votes, and of thofe of their vaffals. The three arch-
bifhops alfo, who were neceffarily prefent at the coro¬
nation, obtained the eledloral dignity. However, be-
fide this origin of the ffiodehi eledlors, the high fla¬
ttens about court procured their poffeffors art influence
over other members, and their general refidence there
gave them a folid advantage in their conflant and
early prefehee at the diet of eledlion. For in times
of turbulence feveral emperors were elected, when
princes had not an opportunity to attend. And hence
fprung up a fandlion to that right* which the high
officers of the honfhold had a flu tried* of eledting With¬
out any confoltation of the o#itr members of the em¬
pire. Pope Gregory X. too* either conceiving that
they did poffefs, or willing that they fhortld acquire*
this right, exhorted them in a bull to terminate the
troubles of Germany by eledling an emperor. And
ftnee that period they have been held as the foie elec¬
tors. But the poffeffion of this high power was {Length¬
ened by a league among 11 themfelve%cailed the ehttoral
uhion, which received additional confirmation from the
emperor Louis of Bavaria, and was formally and fully
ratified by that famous eonftttutton of Charles IV.
termed the golden bull; according to which, the ter¬
ritories and the high offices by which the electoral dig¬
nity is conveyed, mull defeend according to the fight
of primogeniture, and are indivifiblg. f
The golden bull declares the following number and
titles pf the electors: The archbifhop of Mentz as
great chancellor of the Gentian empire ; the eledlor of
Cologne as great chancellor of the empire in Italy ;
the eledtor of Triers as great chancellor of the" empire
in Gaul and Arles; the king of Bohemia as cup¬
bearer; the count Palatine as high fteward ; the duko
of Sakony as grand rnarlhal; the margrave of Branden-
burgh as grand chamberlain. The number originally
was feven, but the emperor Leopold created the duke
tif Lunenburg, anceftof to our prefent Britifh fove¬
reign, an ele&or ; to whom the poll of areh-treafurer
was afterwards given; and thus Hanover forms the-
eighth electorate. But this number cannot be increa-
fed by the emperor without a previous eleftion by the
electors themfelves; who, thus capable of electing and
of being eleCted* riiay ftyle themfelves Coiinperautes; and
they exercife part of the imperial authority, if a vacan¬
cy of the throne happen. But when or before this Eleia**n o£
occurs, the eleCtion of the efnperor is proceeded to af- the empe-
ter the following manner : The eleCtor of Mtntz, be-ror.
fore the lapfe of a month after the death of the empe¬
ror, fummons, as great chancellor of the empire, the
reft of the ele&ors to attend on fome fixed day within
the fpace of three months from the date of the fum¬
mons. The electors generally fend their ambafladors
to the place of eleCtion, which is held at Frankfort on
the Mayne; but faving the right of the city of Frank¬
fort, it may be held elfewhere.
When the diet of electors is afiembled, they proceed
to compote the capitulation, to which the emperor
when eleCted is to fwear. The capitulation being ad-
jufted, the eleCtor of Mentz appoints a day for the
eleCtion. When this day arrives, the gates of the city
„ are flint, and the keys delivered to the eleCtor of Mentz.
The electors or their ambaffadors, proteftants except¬
ed, repair in great pomp to mafs; and after its cele¬
bration
G E R [7
Germany. br§tion they take a folemn oath to choofe, ttnbiafTed
1 y—w ancj uninfluenced, the perfon that appears moft proper
for the imperial dignity. After this they repair to
the facrifty, where the ekftor of Mefttz firft alks, if
there be any impediment known againft their proceed¬
ing at prcfent to an election ? and next he obtains a
promife, that the perfon elected by the majority fltall
be received as emperor. The declarations of the elec*
toral ambaflhdors, ift refpeft to thefe two points, are
recorded by two notaries of the empire. T!* n all
witneffes withdraw ; and the eleftor of Ment2 collett-
ing the fuffiages, which are %'iva lvocei and giving his
own laft, the witneffeS are recalled, and he declares the
perfon whom the elcftors have chofen. But the elec¬
tion is not complete, nor is the new emperor pro¬
claimed, until the capitulation be fworn to either by
himfdf or by his ambaffadors if he be abfent. From
this time he is ftyled king of the Romans until the co¬
ronation takes place ; which ceremony confers the
title of emperor. According to the golden bull, it
fhould be celebrated at Aix-la-Ghapelle, out of re-
fpe& to Charlemagne, who refided there ; but faving
the right to Aix-la-Chapelle, it may take place elfe-
where. The coronation is performed by the archbifhop
of Mentz or elector of Cologne. And when he is
feated on his throne, the duke of SaXOtiy delivers in¬
to his hand the fword of Charles the Great, with
which he makes fome knights of the holy Roman em¬
pire, and is alfo obliged to confer that honour upon
fueh others, as are nominated by the refpe£ti.ve elec¬
tors. When he proceeds to dinner in the great hall,
he is feated at a table elevated two ileps higher than
that of the electors, and is ferved by counts of the emo
pire. The electors, each of whom has alfo his table,
are attended by the gentlemen of their refpeftive
courts. Thefe electors, Who affift perfonally at the
ceremony, fit and eat at their own tables; but thofe
Who are reprefented by ambaffadors have only their
tables covered out of form with plates, at which the
ambaffadors do not fit.
For the benefit of the empire' during the reign of
an emperor, his prefumptive fueceffor may be ele&ed
king of the Romans. But this election confers at
firft a mere title ; for by an expfefs article in his Ca¬
pitulation, the king of the Romans fwears not to in¬
terfere with the government during the life of the
emperor ; but on his deceafe, the coronation con¬
firms him emperOr without a ftcotid election.
Should there not be a king of the Romatis, ahd the
throne become vacant, the government is adriiinJitered
by vicars of the empire, who are the ele&ors Palatine
and of Saxony, as count palatine and arclwnarfttal of
the empire. Each has his diftriA and tribunal of the
vicariate ; and by the golden bull it is eftabliftred, that
all a&s of the vicars are valid; but they are all fully
confirmed by the emperor; which confirmation, by
an article of his capitulation, he is bound to give.
There are alfo vicais of the emperor. Thefe offices
are conftituted by a delegation of the imperial power
from the emperor to any prince of the empire, when
he is unable to execute his authority himfelf. But
thefe vicars (land accountable to the emperor; their
a6b may be annulled and their offices revoked, all de¬
pendant on the will of the emperor, and determinable
at his pleafure.
C9 1 G E R
When the race of Charlemagne Ceafed to govern in Germany.
Germany, the princes and ftates affociated to continue '
the empire ; and that its majefty might be vifible, and
its laws enforced, they agreed to choofe an emperor.
From this emperor all electors and princes except thofe
before 1582 receive inVeftitiire of their dominions;
counts and free cities from the Aulic council. But
this inveftiture is no more than a fign of fubmifilon to
the majefty of the empire, which is depofited in the
emperor. For as the Conftituted members of the em¬
pire are dependent on that colle&ive union from which
they derive protection, they therefore fliow this de¬
pendence on the emperor, becaufe he reprefents the
majefty of that union or of the empire ; but in all
other refpe&s they are independent and free.
Thefe princes or fovereignS may even wage war
with the prince wearing the imperial crown, as pof-
feffed of other titles and dominions unconnected with
his imperial ftation. Nor can the fovereignty of any
member be affe&ed fo long as he remains loyal to the
empire; which loyalty conilitutes his duty, and fecures
him its protection. But ftiould he be guilty of any
violation againft the emperor, as head of the empire,
fuch a crime would commit him to the puniffiment of
its kws, and he would be put under the ban. For
this crime would be againft that eolle&ive body of fo-
vereigns whofe unionconftitutes the empire; and there¬
fore any violation of that union is juftly punifhed with
deprivation of thefe territories which render fuch fo-
vereigns members of the empire. Nor can thiV pu-
niftiment of the ban derogate from the dignity of thofe
princes who derive their fovereignty from this confti-
tutioftj and* whofe fubjedftion is an adt of their own
confent. However, no member of the empire can at
prefent be put under the ban without being firft heard,
and without the concurrence of the eledlors, princes,,
and ftates, being previofly obtained. ay
The emperor is endowed with many privilege?, and “
his power partly appears in the exercife of his referved ror.6™ ^
fights, or the peculiar prerogatives annexed to the im¬
perial dignity. , He grants to princes the inveftiture of
their dominions ; but to this he is bound as the laws
direft. He confers titles, but promifes that they
lhail he beftoWed only on fuch perfons as will maintain
their dignity, and can fupport their rank. Befide, he
can give merely the title ; for the power or privilege
of prince of count eau be obtained only from their re-
fpe&ive bodies. But in fome inttances, even titles are
of high importance. For the defeendants of a prince
afe incapable of fucceffion, if their mother be of inferior
' rank totheir father; butthe conferring ot a title ennobles,
her and removes the bar, if the collateral line confents.
The emperor can alfo make cities, found uni-
Verfities, grant the privilege of fairs, Ste. He can al¬
fo difpenle with the tedious terms of minority, and em ¬
power princes to affume at an earlier age the govern¬
ment of their own dominions. He decides all rank
and precedency, and has a power of prim<? prcccs, that
is, of granting for once in every chapter of the em¬
pire a vacant feat. But he is not above the law; for
debtors have not only chofen but depofed emperors..
However, the influence of the capitulation is to pre¬
vent fuch rigorous proceedings : but fhould the capi¬
tulation be violated, the college of debtors might pro¬
ceed to remonftrance ; and if thefe remonftrances fhould
be
G E R l 7i
flkrmany. be without effeft, in conjun&ion with the diet, they
might refort to more forcible remedies.
a6 The diet is that affembly of the ftates in which the
D.et of the legiflative power of the empire refides ; and is compo-
empire. fej Qf tbe eleclors, princes, prelates, counts, and free
aities of the empire. It has fat fince 1663, and
is held ufually at Ratifbon. The emperor, when pre¬
fect, prefides in perfon ; when abfent, by his commif-
fary, whofe communication of propofals from the
emperor to the afiembly is called the commjfforial de¬
cree. The eleftor of Mentz, as chancellor of the
empire, is direftor of the diet; and to his chancery
are all things addreffed that are to be fubmitted to
the empire ; the reading of which by his fecretary to
the fecretaries of the other minifters at the diet is de¬
nominated per didaturam, and conflitutes the form of
tranfmitting papers or memorials to the diftature of
the empire.—The diet is compofed of three diftindl
colleges, each of which has its particular dire&or.
The firft college is that of elc&ors; of which the arch-
biihop of Mentz is dire&or as frit eleftor. The fecond
college is that of princes. It confifts of princes, arch-
biihops, and bifhops; and of prelates, abbots, and
counts, who are not confidered as princes. Each
prince fpiritual and temporal has a vote, but prelates
and counts vote by benches. The prelates are divided
into two benches, the counts into four; and each bench
has only one vote. The archduke of Auftria and the
archbiihop of Saltzbur^ are alternately directors of the
college of princes. The third college is that of the
free cities of the empire ; the dirt&or of which is the
minifter of the city in which the diet happens to fit.
In all thefe colleges, the fentiments of the majority
are conclufive, except in refpedt of fundamental laws,
which affe£t the whole empire, or fuch matters as re¬
late to religion. In thefe they mult be unanimous.
Where religion is interefted, the proceedings are
alfo different. The colleges are then confidered as
confifling of two bodies, the evangelic and the catho¬
lic ; and if any religious point be propofed, it muft
meet not only the unanimous concurrence of the pro-
pofing body, but mutl have the majority of the other
to eftabliih it. This diftinftion arofe from a conjunc¬
tion called thcjvangelk body; which was formed by
the Protelbnt ftates and princes to guard the Pro-
teftant intereft in Germany, by watching over the
laws for the fecurity of their religion, and, in cafe
of violation, by obtaining redrefs from the imperial
throne. For in any part of the empire, as in the pa¬
latinate, where the count is a Papift and the fubjefts
are Proteftants, fhould oppreflions arife, application
would be made to the evangelic body through the di-
reftor. The ele&or of Saxony is diredftor of the evan¬
gelic body, though he is a Papift: but therefore his
reprefentations in favour of the Proteftants have more
force ; and befide, fhould he abufe an office which in-
vefts him with confiderable weight and influence, he
could be inftantly deprived of'it.
The firft two colleges are ftyled fuperior, and in ef-
fe& conftitute the diet: for ail points that come be¬
fore the diet, are generally firft deliberated in the col¬
lege of eleclors, and pals from that to the college of
princes; in which, if any objection ar-ife, a free con¬
ference takes place between the diredlors of each col¬
lege. And fhould they, in conlequence of this free
o 1 G E R
conference, concuf,,they invite the third college to Germany,
accede to their joint opinion ; which invitation is ge- v " J~f
nerally complied with: but fhould this college return a
refufal, the opinion of the other two colleges is in fome
few cafes engrofled in the chancery, and delivered to
the emperor’s commiflary as the opinion of the empire.
The opinion of the third college is merely mentioned
at the clofe. However, though the fuperior colleges
do in effedt cooftitute the diet; yet the received maxim
is, th vt no two colleges conftitute a majority, that is,
the majority of voices at the diet; nor can the empe¬
ror confirm the opinion of two colleges as an opinion
of the diet. By the peace of Weftphalia, a decifive
vote was recognized as a right of the imperial cities,
which the two fuperior colleges fhould not infringe
upon ; their vote being, by the fundamental law, of
equal weight with that of the eledtors and princes.
After a meafure is approved of by the colleges, it
is fubmitted to his Imperial majefty to receive his ne¬
gative or confirmation. Should he approve the point,
it is publifhed in his name as the refolution of the em¬
pire, which ftates are exhorted to obey, and tribunals
defired to confider as fuch.
The diet not only makes and explains laws, but de- x
cides ambiguous cafes. It muft alfo be confulted be¬
fore war is made ; appoints the field-marfhal whq is to
command the army, and affigns him his council of
war. The diet alfo enters into and makes alliances,
but ufually empowers the emperor to negociate them ;
and foreign ftates have their ambaffadors at the diet,
but the diet fends no minifters to foreign courts.
In the origin of the empire, juftice was adminiftered
in the diftridls of the provinces by counts, and appeals ftration of
lay from their courts to that of the emperor before the juftice, &c.
count palatine. But as civil broils fhook the power
of the emperor, they interrupted alfo the courfe of
juftice. The confequent inconveniences caufed feveral
felicitations to be preferred from the ftates to diffexent
emperors for the eftablifhment of a court of juftice,
which fhould take cognizance of great as well as fmall
caufes. And at length fuch a court was erefted by
Maximilian I. under the title of the Imperial Chamber
at Worms, in the year 1495 ; but was removed to
Spires in 1533, and to Wetzlar in 1696, where it is
now held. The members of this court are a judge of
the chamber and 25 afleffors, partly Proteftants partly
Papifts. The prefident is appointed by the emperor,
the afleffors by the ftates. The court receives appeals
from inferior juriidictions, and decides dubious titles;
and all caufes before it between prince and prince, or
princes and private perions, are adjudged according to
the laws of the rtfpedlive parties, or according to the
Imperial law. This tribunal is under the intpeblion
of vifitors appointed by the ftates; and, during their
viiitation, the fentences of the court are fubjedt to re-
viiion. Appeals he afterward alfo from the judgment
of the vifitors to that of the diet. 2g
The emperors, finding themfelves deprived of many Aulic coua-
of their powers, vvifhed to raife their prerogatives by
forming a tribunal, of wdnch they fhould name the
judges, and before whom cauies in the laft refort fhould
come. But Maximilian forefaw, in refpedt to the
new tribunal, that though a confcioufnefs of its im¬
portance made the ftates ftruggle for its eredlion, the
expences of its eftablifhment would make them neglect
G E R [ '
©errrany its fupport; and the event bore wltnefs to his fagacity.
v  But when, through the omiffions and negligence of
the ftatts, there happened to be a ceflation in the di-
ftribution of juftice by the Imperial chamber, he re¬
vived his court of the count Palatinate or Aulic coun¬
cil. And in order to gain the quiet acquiefcence of
the Hates, under the malic of a partition ol power, and
of generous moderation, he defired them to add eight
to the number of aflelTors, and the falaries of all Ihould
be difcharged by him. The Hates fw^allowed the bait,
but foon perceived that they had loll part of their li¬
berty.
The emperor, by keeping the tribunal always open,
by tilling its feats with men of firfl-rate talents, and
by having its fentences duly and fpeedily executed,
drew all caufes before it. The Hates remonHrated,
declaring, that the Imperial chamber ought to be not
only the fupreme, but foie tribunal of that kind. The
emperor anfwered, that he had erefted the Imperial
chamber in confequence of their felicitations ; but as
they had not fupplied the tribunal with judges, he pro¬
vided for that deficiency by a confiant ackniniHration
of juHice in the eHablilhment of another.
The Aulic council now fubfifls with equal authority,
each receiving appeals from inferior jurifdidtions; but
neither appealing to the other, as the dernier refort from
both mull be had to the diet. However, to the Aulic
council belong the referved rights of the emperor; and
to the Imperial chamber alfo are annexed peculiar
powers. The Imperial chamber fubfiHs during a va¬
cancy of the throne under the authority of the vicars
of the empire; whereas the Aulic council does not
exiil until appointed by the fucceeding emperor.
The Aulic council confiHs of a prefident, vice preH-
dent, and feventeen affcflbrs, of whom fix are Pro-
teHants. The vice chancellor of the empire is alfo in-
titled to a feat; and all decrees iffuing from the coun¬
cil pafs through his hands to rhofe who are to execute
them. This tribunal obtains for the emperor, through
the appeals from the courts of other princes, a new
authority befide that which he poflefles from his re¬
ferved rights ; but eledlors and fome princes, as thofe
of Hanover, Auflria, Brunfwick, Swedifh Pomerania,
Hefle, are free from this dependence on the emperor,
to whofe Aulic council their fubjedts cannot appeal;
nor can it take cognizance of ecclefiaHical or criminal
caufts, both of which appertain to territorial juHice ;
which we fhall prefently confider when we have furvey-
ed the executive inHrument of Imperial juHice.
The divifion of the empire into circles is a regula¬
tion coeval with the eHablilhment of the Imperial
chamber by Maximilian, in order to Hrengthen the
arm of juHice with vigour to enforce its decrees. The
original divifion was into fix circles, which are called
the ancient circles ; and are Bavaria, Franconia, Suabia,
Tower Saxony, the Upper Rhine, and Weflphalia :
but the powerful princes, who at firH declined bring¬
ing their dominions under the form of circles, were
led by a political finefle of the emperors to adopt
the regulation, and increafe the number to ten, by
forming the four new circles of Auilria, Burgundy,
the ek&orate circle, and Upper Saxony.
Over thefe circles prefide directors, to whom the
tribunals of juHice commit the execution of their de¬
crees, The fix old circles have two directors each,
■n ] G E R
the four new have one each. The office of direAor is Germ-any.
permanent and hereditary, as it belongs always to the  
firH prince in the circle, upon whom it confers high
authority ; for all the decrees of the Imperial chamber
and Aulic council are of no avail unlefs the diredor will
execute them.
The dire&ors of the circles"are not only inHruments
of war but of peace: for in cafe of an Imperial war,
they are to colled the troops of the circle ; and if any
Hate or prince of their refpedive circles fuffer violation
from others, they are to yield protedion and enforce
the peace; or fliould there be any tumultuous upri-
fmgs of the people, the fuppreffion of fuch belongs to
them.
The emperor is the executive inHrument of the
vdiole empire; the diredors are fuch of the conHitu-
tive parts called circles. The profperity and fecurity
of which being at Hake, the diredors, as prefidenes,
muH hold frequent diets in their refpedive circles, in
order to confult on and adopt falutary meafures for
their fafety and welfare : but as the intereHs of thofe
near to us are generally fo intimately blended with our
own, that the good of either cannot be purfued with¬
out the mutual concurrence of both, there arife nego-
ciations on particular points between the diets of dif¬
ferent circles, which are therefore flyled confederate
circles; and thefe negociations being more frequent
amongH the circles of the Upper and Lower Rhine,
or WeHphalia, they are denominated the correfponding
circles.
Every prince is fovereign in his own country ; and Powers of
may enter into alliances, and purfue by all political the Ger-
meafures his own private inter?H, as other fovereignsman Prin""
do ; for if even an Imperial war be declared, he mayces*
remain neuter if the fafety of the empire be not at
Hake.
Each Hate or fovereign appoints in general three
colleges for its government. The firH is the geheimde-
rath, or privy council; the fecond is the regierung, or
regeitcy ; the third the renthcamtner, or chamber of
finances. Each of thefe has a prefident; and a mem¬
ber of the firH college is always prefident of the fe¬
cond.—The geheimderath reprefents the prince, and
fuperintends the other two. The regierung regulates
limits of territories, holds conferences with other prin¬
ces, and is in moH countries a court of juflice : how¬
ever, in fome Hates there is alfo a court of juHice call¬
ed juftitz departement. And befides- the right of con¬
ferences affigned to the regierung. by the fovereign
when there are difputes between princes, there is alfo
an aujlrhge, or abitration, appointed in order to decide
them. Attention muH be paid to this privilege of
princes, who muH be called on to appoint an aultrage
before refort be had to the Imperial tribunal, but to
which there Hill lies an appeal from the judgment of
the auHrage. The renthcammer attends to the regu¬
lation of domains and eHates, to the territorial reve¬
nues, and management of the taxes.
Every fovereign or prince is arbitrary in laws of po¬
licy, but not of revenue; for no new tax or impoH
can be lard on his country without the confent of the
nobles and fubje&s. For this purpofe, on the land
tag, or day on which his fubjefts are to be convened,
which is once in the period of four or five years, and
at no.other time can he affemble them, he calls toge-
therr
. G E R [71
Germany, ther the nobles and commiffaries om deputies of the
*—""Y—' towns of his dominions. The nobles ufually attend
in perfon, but may fend reprefentatives. To this af-
fembly the prince propofes the taxes, &c. and a majo¬
rity of voices difpofes of the meafures.
Villages, though confiderable, fend no deputies to
this affembly ; becaufe they are either already repre-
fented by their refpe&ive lords, or becaufe they rank
too low, being in a ftate of vaffalage when compared
to towns: for their inhabitants mull mend highways,
and can be impreffed as foldiers; from both of which
inhabitants of towns are exempt.
On the land tag, the refpeftive quotas alfo of each
place are fixed, in order to difcharge the princes con-
,0 tingent in cafe of an Imperial war.
Military There is no fixed (landing army of the empire; but
force and the various Hates furnilh their quotas purfuant to the
annual re- agre£m£nt Gf 1681, when called upon by the diet in
Venue. br r . -r-' TT-.-r-
cafe of war, viz.
Upper Saxony
Lower Saxony
Weftphalia
Upper Rhine
Lower Rhine
Burgundy
Franconia
Auftria
Bavaria
Swabia
Total - 27,998 n,997
The whole number of forces in the ferviee of the
feveral German princes have been ftated at half a mil¬
lion ; others calculate, that the ecclefiaftical princes
can furnifh 74,500 men, the temporal princes 579,000,
and the emperor 90,000, as head of the houfe of
Auttria. Total 543,500.
The revenue accruing to the emperor as fuch in
time of peace, is very trifling, only about 20,000
crowns, being the contributions of a few imperial
towns; but in cafe of war, extraordinary aids, called
Roman months, laid on by the diet, are contributed by
the different circles at the following jate for rajfing i£
million of florins, viz.
Upper Saxony
Lower Saxony
Weflphalia
Upper Rhine
* Lower Rhine
Burgundy
Franconia
Auftria
Bavaria
Swabia -
Total - 1,499,999 40
The aftual revenue of all Germany has been calcu¬
lated at nearly L. 18.000,000 fterling, or 100 million
,r of dollars.
Froduc- From the great extent of the empire, every variety
tions and 0f foil is to be met with; but it is upon the whole
commerce. more fertile than otherwife. The middle parts are
mod produftive in corn and cattle; the fouthern abound
with excellent wines and fruits. The northern parte,
from their coldnefs, are rather unfavourable to vege-
N° 138. 5
2 1 G E R
tation ; however, agriculture throughout improves ex* Germany,
ceedingly. Their mines, though early explored, (till
continue great fources of wealth. They produce, ex¬
cepting tin, almoft every mineral. Of quickfilver, one
mine alone is computed to yield 50,000 pounds weight
a-year. They furnifh the fined fort of clay for porce¬
lain, and have excellent and extenfive falt-works.
From the central fituation of Germany, its com¬
merce with the reft of Rurope is very extenfive. Its
minerals are decidedly the firft native articles for trade j
after which its medicinal waters, fait, hemp, flax, linen,
filk, wines, fruits, corn, cattle, fluffs, cloths, timber,
porcelain, wrought iron and Heel, drugs, oil, and co¬
lours, are the principal. The artizans fyrniftied by
the revocation of the edi<5t of i£Iantz, enable Germany
on longer to (land in need of the wrought filks of other
countries. Great commercial fairs ftill exift in Ger¬
many, and it is confidered upon the whole that the
balance of trade is in its favour.
With regard to the character of the ancient Ger¬
mans, they are deCeribed to us by the Greek and Ro¬
man writers as rejfembling the Gauls; and differing
from other nations by the largenefs of their (lature, Charader
ruddy complexion, blue eyes, and yellow bufhy hair, of the auci*
haughty and threatening looks, ftrong eon lli tut ions,
and being proof againft hunger, cold, and all kinds of
hardfliip.
Their native difpofition difplayed itfelf chiefly in
their martial genius, and in their lingular fidelity.
The former of thefe they did indeed carry to fuch an
excefs as came little fhorfc of downright ferocity;
but, as to the latter, they not only valued themfelves
highly upon it, but were greatly efteemed by other
nations for it; infomuch that Auguffus, and feveral
of his fucceffors, committed the guard of their per-
fons to them, and almoft all other nations either court¬
ed their friendfluip and alliance, or hired them as auxi¬
liaries : though it mull be owned, at the lame time,
that their extreme love of liberty, and tlreir hatred of
tyranny and oppreflion, have often hurried them to
treachery and murder, efpecially when they hav£
thought themfelves ill ufed by thofe who hired them ;
for in all fueh cafes they were eafily ftirred up, and
extremely vindictive. In other cafes, Tacitus tells us,
they were noble, magnanimous, and beneficent, with¬
out ambition to aggrandize their dominions, or inva¬
ding thofe from whom they received no injury ; ra¬
ther choofing to employ their flreugth and valour de-
fenfively than offenfively ; to preferve their own, than
to ravage their neighbours.
Their friendlhip and interconrfe was rather a com¬
pound of honed Lluntnefs and bofpitality, than of
wit, humour, or gallantry. AH Itrangers were fure
to meet with a kind reception from them to the ut-
moft of their ability : even thofe who were not in a
capacity to entertain them, made it a piece of duty
•to introduce them to thofe who could ; and nothing
was looked upon as more fcandalous and deteftable,
than to refufe them either the one or the other. They
do not feem, indeed, to have had a tafte for grand and
elegant entertainments ; they affefted in every thing,
in their houfes, furniture, diet, &c. rather plainnefs
and fimplicity, than fumptuoufnefs and luxury. If
they learned of the Romans and Gauls the ufe of money,
it was rather becaufe they found it more convenient
than
O E R f ^13 1 C E R
•ermany. t|,an tlie'f ancient way of bartering one commodity for
■W~Y— another ; and then they preferred thofe ancient coifis
which had been damped during the times of the Ro¬
man liberty, efpecially inch as were either milled or
«ut in the rims, becaufe they could not be fo eafily
cheated in them as in fome others, which were fre¬
quently nothing but copper or iron plated over with
filver. This lall metal they likewife preferred before
gold, not becaufe it made a greater (how, but becaufe
It was more convenient for buying and felling: And
' as they became in time more feared by, or more ufeful
to, the Romans ; fo they learned how to draw enough
of it from them to fupply their whole country, befides.
what flowed to them from other nations.
As they defpifed fuperfluities in other cafes, fo
they did alfo in the connubial way : every man was
contented with one wife, except fome few of their
nobles, who allowed themfelves a plurality, more for
Alow than pleafure; and both were fo faithful to each
other, and chafte, true, and diflnterefted, in their
conjugal affedtions, that Tacitus prefers their manners
in this refpedf to thofe of the Romans. The men
fought not dowries from their wives, but beftowed
them upon them. Their youth, in thofe cold climes,
did not begin fo foon to feel the warmth of love as
they do in hotter ones: it was a common rule with
them not to marry young; and thofe were moft
■ cfteemed who continued longeft in celibacy, becaufe
they looked upon it as an effe&ual means to make
them grow tall and ftrong ; and to marry, or be con¬
cerned with a woman, before they were full 20 years
•Id, was accounted fliameful wantonnefs. The wo¬
men fhared with their hulbands not only the care
©f their family, and the education of their children,
but even the hardflups of war. They attended them
in the field, cooked their viftuals for themj drefied
their wounds, ftirred them up to fight manfully againft
their enemies, and fometimes have by their courage
and bravery recovered a vi&ory when it was upon
the point of being fnatched from them. In a word,
they looked upon fuch conftant attendance on them,
not as a fervitude, like the Roman dames, but as a
duty and an honour. But what appears to have
been ftill an harder fate upon the ancient German
dames was, that their great Odinus excluded all thofe
from his valhalla, or paradife, who did not, by fome
violent death, follow their deceafed huibands thither.
Yet notw ithftanding their having been anciently in fuch
high repute for their wifdom and fuppofed fpirit
of prophecy, and their continuing fuch faithful and
tender helpmates to their huibands, they funk in time
fo low in their efleem, that, according to the old
Saxon law, he that hurt or killed a woman was to pay
but half the fine that he ihould have done if he had
hurt or killed a man.
Their fune- There is fcarcely any one thing in which the Ger-
rais. mans, though fo nearly allied in moft of their other
cuftoms to the Gauls, were yet more oppofite to them
than in their funerals. Thofe of the latter were per¬
formed with great pomp and profufion; thofe of the
former were done with the fame plainnefs and fimplicity
which they obferved in all other things: the only gran¬
deur they affe&ed in them was, to burn the bodies of
their great men with fome peculiar kinds of wood ; but
then the funeral pile was neither adorned with theclothes
Vou VII. Part II.
and other fine ftirniture of the deceafed, flor perfiiwed Gewtstiqp
with fragrant herbs and gams : each man’s armour,  
that is, his fword, Ihield, and fpear, were flung into
it, and fometimes his riding-horfe. The Danes, in¬
deed, flung into the funeral-pile of a prince, gold,
filver, and other precious things, which the chief
mourners, who walked in a gloomy guife round the
fire, exhorted the byftanders to fling liberally into it
in honour of the deceafed. They afterwards depofited
their aflies in urns, like the Gauls, Romans, and other
nations; as it plainly appears, from the vaft number*
which have been dug up all over the country, as well
as from the fundry diflertations which have been writ¬
ten upon them by feveral learned moderns of that na¬
tion. One thing we may obferve, in general, that,
whatever facvifices they offered for their dead, whatever
prefents they made to them at their funerals, and
whatever other fuperftitious rites they might perform
at them, all was done in confequence of thofe excel¬
lent notions which their ancient religion had taught
them, the immortality of the foul, and the blifs or mi-
fery of a future life. ^
It is impoffible, indeed, as they, did not commit any Their bel{«#
thing to writing till very lately, and as none of the an- 4 futar®
cient writers have given us any account of it, to guefs late'
how foon the belief of their great Odin, and his para¬
dife, was received among them. It may, for aught
we know, have been older than the times of Tacitus,
and he have known nothing of it, by reafon of their
fcrupulous care in concealing their religion from ftran-
gera : but as they conveyed their doftrines to pofterity
by fongs and poems, and moft of the northern poets
tell us that they have drawn their intelligence from
thofe very poems which were ftill preferved among
them ; we may rightly enough fuppofe, that whatever
•do&rines are contained in them, were formerly profefs-
ed by the generality of the nation, efpecially fince we
find their ancient pra&ice fo exa&ly conformable to it.
Thus, fince the fureft road to this paradife was, to
excel in martial deeds, and to die intrepidly in the
field of battle; and fince none were excluded from it
but bafe cowards, and betrayers of their country ; it is
naturalto think, that the fignal and exceffive bravery
of the Germans flowed from this ancient belief of
theirs: and, if their females were fo brave and faith¬
ful, as not only to fiiare with their hufbands all the
dangers and fatigues of war, but at length to follow
them, by a voluntary death, into the other world ; it
can hardly be attributed to any thing elfe but a ftrong
perfuafion of their being admitted to live with them in
that place of blifs. This belief, therefore, whether
received originally from the old Celtes, or afterwards
taught them by the fince deified Odin, feems, from
their general praftice, to have been univerfally received
by all the Germans, though they might differ one
from another in their notions of that future life.
The notion of a future happinefs obtained by mar¬
tial exploits, efpecially by dying fword ,in hand, made
them bewail the fate of thofe who lived to an old age,
as diftionourable here, and hopelefs hereafter : upon
which account, they had a barbarous way of fending
them into the other world, willing or not willing^
And this cuftom lafted feveral ages after their receiving
Chriftianity, efpecially among the Pruflians and Veni-
di j the former of whom, it feems, difpatehed by a
4 X ^uick
G E R [ 7'4 ] G E R
Germany, quick death, not only their children, the Tick, fervants,
&c. but even their parents, and fometimes themfelves:
and among the latter vve have inftances of this horrid
parricide being pra&ifed even in the beginning of the
14th century. All that need be added is, that, if
thofe perfons, thus fuppofed to have lived long enough,
either defined to be put to death, or at kail feemed
cheerfully to fubmit tp what they knew they could not
avoid, their exit was commonly preceded with a faft,
and their funeral with a feaft ; but if they endeavour¬
ed" to Ihiin it, as it fometimes happened, both cere¬
monies were performed with the deepeft mourning. In
the former, they rejoiced at their deliverance, and be¬
ing admitted into blifs ; in the latter, they bewailed
their cowardly excluding themfelves from it. Much the
fame-thing was done towards thofe wives who betray-
2^ ed a backwardnefs to follow their dead hufbands.
Remark- We mull likewife obferve, that, in thefe funerals, as
able fcr well as in all their other feafts, they were famed for
excers'^ t0 drinking to excefs ; and one may fay of them, above
* all the other defcendants of the ancient Celtes, that
their hofpitality, banquets, &c. confided much more
in the quantity of ftrong liquors, than in the elegance
of eating. Beer and ftrong mead, which were their na¬
tural drink, were looked upon as the chief promoters of
health, ftrength, fertility, and bravery; upon which
account, they made no fcruple to indulge themfelves to
the utmoft in them, not only ih their feafts, and efpe-
cially before an engagement, but even in their com-
36 -mon meals.
Charader The modern Germans in their perfons are tall and
of the mo- ;ftrong built. The ladies have generally fine complexions;
mans^61" and ^ome tkem» efpeeially in baxony, have all the
delicacy of features and (hape that are fo bewitching in
a certain ifland of Europe.
Both men and women affeft rich drefies, which id
falhion are the fame as in France and England ; but
the better fort of men are exceffively fond of gold and
filver lace, efpecially if they are in the army. The la¬
dies at the principal courts differ not much in their
drefs from the French and Engliih, only they are not
fo exctflivfly fond of paint as the former. At fome
courts they appear in rich furs; and all of them are
loaded with jewels, if they can obtain them. The fe¬
male part of the burghers families, in many German
tow ns, drefs in a very different manner, and fome of
them inconceivably fantaftic, as may be feen in many
prints publifhed in books of Travels; but in this re-
fpeft they are gradually reforming, and many of them
make quite a different appearance in their drefs from
what they did 30 or 40 years ago. As to the peafan-
try and labourers, they drefs as in other parts of Eu¬
rope, according to their employments, conveniency,
and opulence. In Weftphalia, and moft other parts of
Germany, they fleep between two feather-beds, or ra
ther the upper one of dowm, with fneets Hitched to
them, which by ufe becomes a very comfortable prac¬
tice. The moil unhappy part of the Germans are the
tenants of little needy princes, who fqueeze them to
keep up their own grandeur ; but, in general, the cir-
cumftances of the common, people are far preferable to
thofe of the French.
The Germans are naturally a frank, honeft, hofpi-
table people, free from artifice and difguife. The
higher orders are ridiculoufly proud of titles, anceftry,
3
and lhow. The Germans, in general, are thought to Germany,
want animation, as their perfons promife more vigour —y——<
and aftivity than they commonly exert even in the
field of battle. But when commanded by able gene¬
rals, efpecially the Italians, fuch as Montecuculi and
prince Eugeni, they have done great things, both a-
gainft the Turks and the French. The Imperial arms
have feldom made any remarkable figure againft either
of thofe two nations, or againll the Swedes or Spani¬
ards, when commanded by German generals. This
pofiibly might be owing to the arbitrary obftinacy of
the court of Vienna ; for in the two laft wars the
Auftrians exhibited prodigies of military valour and
genius.
Induftry, application, and' perfeverance, are the
great charadlerittics of the German nation, efpecially
the mechanical part of it. Their works of art would
be incredible were they not vifible, efpecially in watch
and clock making, jewellery, turnery, fculpture, draw¬
ing, painting, and certain kinds of architecture. The
Germans have been charged with intemperance in eat¬
ing and drinking ; and perhaps not unjuftty, owing
to the vaft plenty of their country in wine and pro-
viiions of every kind. But thofe practices feem now
to be wearing out. At the greateft tables, though
the guefts drink pretty freely during dinner, yet the
repaft is commonly finiftied by coffee after three or
four public toads have been drank. But no people
have more feafting at marriages, funerals, and birth¬
days.
The German nobility are generally men of fo much
honour, that a (harper in jother countries, efpecially in
England, meets with more credit if he pretends to be
a German, than of any other nation.
The merchants and tradefmen are very civil and ob-
liging. All the fons of noblemen inherit their fa¬
thers titles, which greatly perplexes the heralds and
genealogifts of that country. This perhaps is one of
the reafons why the German hufttands are not quite fo
complaifant as they ought otherwife to be to their la¬
dies, who are not intitled to any pre-eminence at the
table ; nor indeed do they feem to affed it, being far ,
from either ambition or loquacity, though they are faid
to be fomewhat too fond of gaming. From what has
been premifed, it may eafily be conceived, that many
of the German nobility, having no other hereditary
ertate than a high-founding title, eafily enter into
their armies, and thofe of other fovereigns. Their
fondnefs for title is attended with many other inconve¬
niences. Their princes think that the cultivation of
their lands, though it may treble their revenue, is be¬
low their attention ; and that, as they are a fpecies'of
beings fuperior to labourers of every kind, they would
demean themfelves in being concerned in the improve¬
ment of their grounds. 37
The domeftic diverfions of the Germans are the fame Amufe-
as in England; billiards, cards, dice, fencing, dan-tnents* i
cing, and the like. Infummer, people of falhion re¬
pair to places of public refort, and drink the waters.
As to their field-diverfions, befides their favourite one
of hunting, they have bull and bear beating, and the
like. The inhabitants of Vienna live luxurioufiy, a
great part of their time being fpent in feafting and ca-
roufing ; and in winter, when the feveral branches of
the Danube are frozen over, and the ground covered
with
G E l\
Germany wub fnow, tbe ladies take their recreations iir fledges
of different fhapes, fuch as griffins, tygers, fwans,
fcollop fhells, &c. Here the lady fits, drefled in vel¬
vet lined with rich furs, and adorned with laces and
jewels, having on her head, a velvet cap ; and the
fledge is drawn by one horfe, flag, or other crea¬
ture, let off with plumes of feathers, ribbons, and
bells. As this diverfion is taken chiefly in the night¬
time, fervants ride before the fledge with torches, and
a gentleman fitting on the fledge behind guides the
horfe.
The Reformation firft fpread in Germany to moft
advantage; and fince the religious peace of 1555,
there have been eftablifhed the Roman Catholic, pre¬
vailing moftiy in the fouth; the Lutheran in the north;
and the Calvinift, called alfo the Reformed, near the
Rhine. ' Civil wars confiderably deranged this fettle-
ment: it was,-however, eftablifhed by the celebrated
peace of Wtilphalia, that the rt/’gion of the Seven
States fheuld remain as in 1624. The Romifh fupe-
vior chrgy con fill of 8 archbifhops,'40 bifltops, and
many abbots. The Proteftant clergy are governed by
confiftories under the foyereign of each ftate. The
Corpus Catholicorum is under the direction of the arch-
' bifhop, elector of Mentz ; and the Corpus R-vangelico-
rum, or Proteftants, under the ele&or of Saxony; who
have the care cf the public concerns of their refpedtive
bodies.
Literature is at prefent in a very advanced ftate
throughout almoft all Germany, but particularly in
the Proteftant ftates. It is but about half a century
fince the German language has been purified and culti¬
vated ; fince which various works of tafte and elegance,
as well as faperior productions in the different w’alks of
fcience, have appeared in it. — There are 38 univerfi-
ties in Germany; 19 Proteftant, 17 Catholic, and 2
which partake of both ; befides a number of literary
focieties and academic inftitutions : and education in
general is particularly attended to even in the very
loweft ranks.
GERMliN, the feed-bud; defined by Linnaeus to
be the bafe of the' ptflUlum, which contains the rudi¬
ments of the feed ; and, in progrefs of vegetation,
fwells and becomes the feed-veffel.
In affimilating.the vegetable and animal kingdoms,
Linnaeus denominates the feed-bud the ovarium or
uterus of plants ; and affirms its exiftence to be chief¬
ly at the time of the difperfion of the male-duft by the
anthers:; as, after its impregnation, it becomes a feed-
veffeL See Botany.
Gkrmen, by Pliny and the ancient botanifts,isufed
to fignify a bu.d containing the rudiments of the leaves.
See Gemma.
GERMINATION, among botanift§, comprehends
the preeife time which the feeds take to rifeafter they
have been committed to the foil.—The different fpeeies
of feeds are longer or fhorterin rifing according to the
degree of heat which is proper to each. Millet, wheat ,
and feveral of the graffes, rife in one day ; blite, fpinach,
beans, muftard, kidney-beans, turnips, and rocket, in
three days; lettuce and dill, in four; cucumber,
gourd, melon, and crefs, in five ; radifn and. beet, in
fix; barley, in feven; oracH, in eight; purfiane, in
nine; cabbage, in ten; hyffop, in thirty ; parfley, in
forty or fifty days; peach, almond, walnut, chefnut,
f vs 1
G E R
paeony, horned-ppppy, hypecoum, and ianuneul.13 fal- Genn'naf
catus, in, one year; rofe-bu-fh, cornel-tree, hawthorfi, u®n
medlar, and hazel-nut, in two. The feeds of fonteGerpp0 • ■
fpecies of orchis, and of fome liliaceous plants, never -l -L.J
rife at all. Of feeds, fome require to be fowed almoft..
as foon as they are ripe, otherwife they will not fprout
or germinate. Of this kind are the feeds of coffee and.
fraxinella. Others, particularly thofe of the pea-bloom
flowers, preferve their germinating faculty for a feries.
of years.—Mr Adanfon afferts, that the fenlitive plant
retains that virtue for 30 or 40 years.
Air and water are the agents of germination. The
hmv’dity of the air alone makes feveral feeds to rife
that are expofed to it. Seeds too are obferved to rife
in water, without the intervention of earth ; but wa-,
ter without air is infufficient.—Mr Plomherg’s experi¬
ments on this head are decifiye. He put i'everal feeds
under the exhaufted receiver of an air-pump, with ap
view to eftablifh fomething certain on the caufes of ger¬
mination. Some of them did not rife at all; and the,
greateft part of thofe which did, made very weak and
feeble produftions. Thus it is for want of air that feeds
which are buried at a very great depth in the earth,
either thrive but indifferently, or do not rife at alh
They frequently preferve, however, their germinating
-virtue for many years within the bowels of the earth;
and it is not unufual, upon a piece of ground being
newly dug to a confiderable depth, to obferve it foon
after covered with feveral plants, which had not been
fcen there in the memory of man. Were this precaution
frequently repeated, it would douhtlefs be the means of
recovering certain fpecies of plants which are regarded
as loft ; or which perhaps, never coming to the know¬
ledge of botanifts, might hence appear the refult of a
new creation. Some feeds require a greater quantity of
air than others. Thus purflane, which does not rife till
after lettuce in the free air, rifes before it in vacuo; and
both profper but little, or perifh altogether, while
creffes vegetate as freely* as in the open air.
GERONTES, in antiquity, a kind of judges, or
magiftrates, in ancient Sparta, anfwering to what
the Areopagites were at Athens. See Areopagus.
The word is formed of the Greek s which fig-
nifies old man.” Whence alfo the words gerontic^
fomething belonging to an old man ; and Geronicon, a
famous book among the modern Greeks, containing the
lives of the ancieiit monks. The fenate ofgerontes wa$
called gerufia, that is, aflembly or council of old men.
The gerontes were originally inftituted by Lycur-
gus : their number, according to fome, was 28; an4»
according to others, 32. They governed in conjunc¬
tion with the king, whofe authority they were intend¬
ed to balance, and to watch over the interefts of the
people. Polybius defines their office in few words,
when he fays, per ipfos, isf cum ipju omnia adminijirafu
None were to be admitted into this office under 63
years of age, and they held it for life. They were fufi-
ceeded by the ephqri.
GEROPOGON, in botany : A genus of the poly-
gamia asqualis order, belonging to the fyngenefia clafs
of plants ; and in the natural method ranking under
the 49th order, Compofta. The receptacle is paleaceous,
with the points of the palem {harp or brilily; the calyx
is fimple; the feeds of the dife have a feathered pap¬
pus ; thofe of the radius have a pappus of five awns,
4 X 2 GER-
G E S [ 716 1 G E S
Cerretz GERRETZ. See Rembrandt.
j.1^ GERVAISE, (or Gervase), of Tilbury, a fa-
,t: ngr' mous Englifh writer of the \ 3th century ; thus named
from his being born at Tilbury on the Thames. He
was nephew to Henry II. king of England; and was
in great credit with Otho IV. emperor of Germany, to
whom he dedicated a Defcription of the World, and a
Chronicle. He alfo compofed a Hiftory of England,
that of the Holy Land, and other works.
GERUND, in grammar, a verbal noun of the neu¬
ter gender, partaking of the nature of a participle,
declinable only in the Angular number, through all the
«afes except the vocative; as nom, amandum, gen.- a-
•mand't, dat. amando, accuf. amandum, abl. amando. The
word is formed of the Latin gerundivus, and that from
the verb gerere, “ to bear.”
The gerund, expreffes not only the time, but alfo the
manner, of an action ; as, “ he fell in running poll.”—
It differs from the participle, in that it expreffes the time,
which the participle does not; and from the tenfe pro¬
perly fo called, in that it expreffes the manner, which
the tenfe does not. See Grammar.
GERUND A, (anc. geog.), a town of the Aufe-
tani, in the Hither Spain, on the fouth or right fide
of the river Sambroca. Gerundenfes, the people. Now
Gironne in Catalonia, on the Ter. E. Long. 2. 35.
Lat. 42.
GESNER (Conrad), a celebrated phyfician and
naturalifi, was born at Zurich in 1516. Having fi-
nifhed his ftudies in France, he travelled into Italy,
and taught medicine and philofophy in his own coun¬
try with extraordinary reputation. He was acquaint¬
ed with the languages ; and excelled fo much in natu¬
ral hiftory, that he was furnamed the Pliny of Germany.
He died in 1564, leaving many works behind him;
the principal of which are, (. A hiftory of animals,
plants, and foffils; 2. Bibliotheca Univerfalis. A Greek
and Latin lexicon. This author is by Boerhaave em¬
phatically ftyled Monjlrum Eruditionis, a prodigy of
learning. Thofe indeed (as Mr Coxe obferves in his
Letters on Switzerland) “ who are converfant with the
works of this t'reat fcholar and naturalift, cannot reprefs
theirwonderand admirationat theamplitudeof hisknow-
ledge in every fp ’cies of erudition, and the variety of
his difeoveries in natural hiftory, which was his pecu¬
liar delight. Their wonder and admiration is ftill fur¬
ther augmented, when they confider the grofs igno¬
rance of the age which he helped to enlighten, and
the fcanty fuccours he poffefled to aid him in thus ex¬
tending the bounds of knowledge ; that he compofed
liis wmrks, and made thofe difeoveries which would
have done honour to the moft enlightened period, un¬
der the. complicated evils of poverty, ficknefs, and do-
meftic uneafinefs.”
GESNER (Solomon), the celebrated author of
the Death of Abel and many other admired works
in the German language, was born at Zurich in
the year 1730. In his early years he fhowed very
few figns of fuperior abilities; and his progrefs in the
rudiments of education was fo flow’, that his mafter
gave him up as incapable of amy greater attainments than
writing and the four firft rules of arithmetic. Upon
this he was placed under a clergyman in the neighbour¬
hood, a relation of his father’s, and who ftiowed him-
jfcif better acquainted with the art of difeovering the
natural inclinations of his pupils. This gentleman ©f- Ctefliea.
ten carried young Gefner with him into the fields, —
where he made him obferve the beauties of nature ;
and finding that he took great pleafure in fuch leflbas,
and feemed to liften to them with peculiar attention,
he occafionally repeated fome of the moft linking paf-
fages of the ancient authors, who have written on
thefe fubjedts, in the moft agreeable and pleafing man¬
ner. By this ingenious artifice, the mind of young
Gefner began to open, and its powers to expand; and
it is, perhaps, owing to this circumftance, that he be¬
came fo fond of the language of Virgil apd Theocritus.
When he arrived at a proper age to think of pur-
fuing fome line of bufinefs, Mr Gefner made choice of
that of a bookfeller, which was the profeffion of his
father, and in fome meafure of his family. Of five
houfes at Zurich in the printing and bookfelling bu¬
finefs, two were occupied by Gefners: one belonged
to two brothers-of that name; and the other, that in .
which our poet had a. (hare, was known by the firm
of Orel, Gefner, and Company. It wTas known alfo by
the extent of its correfpondence, and by the choice
and elegance of the works which it gave to the pu¬
blic.
Though Mr Gefner was a bookfeller, he did not,
however, damp his genius by fubmitting to the drud¬
gery of bufinefs. He indulged himfelf freely in pur¬
suing his favourite objedft, and his partners never en¬
vied him that time which he devoted to meditation
and to ftudy. In 1752, he made a tour through Ger¬
many, not fo much for the purpofe of extending his
commerce, as to fee and be acquainted with thofe au¬
thors who have done honour to their country. The
following circumftance, which occurred during this
tour, deferves to be mentioned, as it is ftrikingly cha-
radieriftic of that timidity which often accompanies
true genius. When Mr Gefner was at Berlin, he was
admitted into a literary fociety, of which Gleim and
Lefling were members. Each of the authors who
compofed it ufed to read in turn fome piece of their
own compofition, and Mr Gefner was very defirous of
fubmitting to thefe able critics a fmall work, which was
his firft attempt; but it was far from refembling thofe
poets, whom Horace, and other fatyrifts have ridiculed^
and who ftun every one they meet by reciting their verfes
before them. As each of the members had done reading,
Gefner was obferved to move his hand with a kind of tre¬
mor towards his pocket, and to draw it back attain with¬
out the manufeript which he ought to have produced.
Having not as yet publiftted anything, none of the com¬
pany could guefs the caufe of a motion which his mo-
defty prevented him from explaining. The work
which he had not the courage to fliow, was his fmall
poem, intitled Night, which he publilhed on his re¬
turn to Zurich in 1753. ft was confidered as an
original, of which no model is t© be found among the
moderns; but in the opinion of the author,, it was
only a piece of imaginary painting, or, to ule an ex-
preflion of his own, in one of his letters to Mr Huber
who has tranflated his works, “ A caricature com-
pofec in the moments of folly or intoxication.” In
this little poem he has introduced a fhort epifodc on
the origin of the glow-worm, containing a poetical
explanation of this natural phofphorus, which has all
the beauty of Ovid’s Metamorpholes without their pro¬
lixity. .
G E S [7
•efher. Hxity. The fuccefs of this effay emboldened the too
®""v timid mufe of our young bookfeller, and he publifhed
a paftoral romance, called Daphnh, in three cantos.
The applaufe that was defervedly bellowed upon this
performance induced the author to publilh, fome time
after, his Idylls and fome other rural poems in imi¬
tation of thofe of Theocritus. Paftoral poetry, which
at this time was little known in Germany but by
tranflations from foreign poets, began to find many
partifans, and to be preferred to every other kind.
Defirous, therefore, of tracing out a new path for him-
felf, our poet thought that he could not do a more
acceptable fervice to his countrymen, than to paint
the felicity of innocence and rural life, and the tender
tmotions of love and gratitude. The only author
worthy of notice who had preceded Mr Gefner in this
«areer, was Mr Roll of Leipfick, whofe paftoral poems
appeared for the firft time in 1744. This writer po-
lilhed the language of the German Ihepherds ; he had
addrefs enough to unite fpirit and fimplicity in a kind
of writing which appears iniipid without the former,
and which becomes unnatural and difgufting if it is
too abundant. He fometimes throws a delicate veil over
thofe images which are deficient in decency, but it is
to be regretted that it is often too flight. Such was
the antagonift againft whom Gefner had to contend.
Our poet, however, purfued a different courfe. In-
ftead of placing, like Roll, his feenes in modern times,
he goes back with Theocritus to the golden age, that
happy age which we are fond of reviewing when our
paffions are calm, and when freed from thofe anxious
cares which hurry us beyond ourfelves, we contem¬
plate amidft tranquillity the beauties and fertility of
the country. The characters of Gefner’s Idylls, there¬
fore, are taken from thofe focieties which exift no
longer but in the remembrance or rather the imagi¬
nation. His ftiepherds are fathers, children, and huf-
bands, who blufh not at thefe titles fo dear to nature,
and to whom generofity, beneficence, and refpeCt for
the Deity, are fentiments no lefs familiar than love.
Thefe Idylls were the principal and favourite objeCt of
his purfuit, and that part of his works which acquired
him the greateft reputation, efpecially among his coun¬
trymen. His death of Abel, which is well known, was
publifhed for the firft time in 1758. It is written,
like the reft of his pieces, in poetical profe ; and was
fo much fought after, that it went through no lefs
than three editions in the fpace of a year, without
fpeaking of the fpurious ones which appeared in Hol¬
land, at Berlin, and in France. The French edition
was followed by feveral others. One came out in Ita¬
liananother in the Dutch language; a fourth in the
Danifh ; and, lailly, two in Englifh, one of them in
profe and the other in verfe. Among the pieces which
Mr Gefner publifhed after the Death of Abel, was his
Firft Navigator, a poem in three cantos, which many
people in Germany confider as his mafterpiece. He
made an attempt alfo in the paftoral drama, but not
with the fame fuccefs as in other kinds of rural poetry.
He produced likewife, in the fame ftyle, Evander and
Alcimne, in three aCls; and Eraftus,. a-fmall piece of
©ne aft, which was reprefented with fome applaufe in
feveral focieties, both at Leipfick and Vienna.
But though poetry was Gefuer’s darling purfuit,
3nd.though he .ejirished the Utctature t*f his country
[7 1 g e s
with works which will render his name immortal, he ©efner,
did not confine himfelf to one manner of imitating na- v-“
ture ; he in turns took up the pencil and the pen, and
his aftive genius equally direfted them both. In his
infancy he had received a few leffons in drawing, and
he had afterwards purfued this ftudy, but without any
intention of becoming an artifl. At the age of thirty,
he felt that violent defire, which may be confidered as
the voice of genius ; and this was in fome meafure ex¬
cited by the fight of a beautiful colleftion formed by
Mr Heidegger, whofe daughter he had married. To
pleafe his father-in-law, he ftudied this treafure, com-
pofed principally of the bell pieces of the Flemilh
fchool; and to this new tafte he had almoft facrificed
every other. Mr Gefner at firft ventured only to de¬
lineate fome decorations for the frontifpieces of curious
books printed in his office; but by little and little,
he had the courage to make other attempts. In 1765,
he publilhed 10 landfcapes etched and engraved by him¬
felf, and dedicated them to his friend Mr Watelet. Mr
Gefner owed him this mark of refpeft for the care
which he took to ornament with beautiful vignettes
Mr Huber’s tranflation of his Idylls. Twelve other
pieces appeared in 1769 ; and after thefe attempts; Mr
Gefner executed ornaments for many works which
came from his preffes, among which were his own
works, a German tranflation of Swift, and feveral o-
thers.
Were we to judge from Mr Gefner’s enthufiafm for
hiS favourite purfuits, and from the time and atten¬
tion which he bellowed upon them, we flrould be apt
to conclude, that he found little leifure for difeharging
his duty as a citizen. The contrary, however, was
the cafe, for he paffed almoft the half of his life in the
firft employments of the ftate. In 1765 he was called
to the grand council, in 1767 to the leffer. In 1768
he was appointed bailiff of Eilibach; that of the four
guards in 1776, and in 1781 fuperintendant of waters,
which office in 1787 was continued to him for fix
years. In all thefe Rations Mr Gefner difeharged his
duty with the moft fcrupulous fidelity ; and died of a
paralytical diforder, lamented by his countrymen and
by thofe who had the pleafure of his acquaintance, on
the 2d of Ma*ch 1788, at the age of 56.
As a paftoral poet, Gefner undoubtedly is intitled
to a very diftinguifhed rank ; and we may juilly fay,
that if he has been equalled by any, he has been excel¬
led by none. It is commonly believed, that paftoral
poetry is very limited and confined ; but thofe who
read the works of Gefner will-be convinced, that it is
fufceptible of much variety when treated of by the
hand of a mailer. His paftoral romance of Daphnis is
not inferior in natural fimplicity to the celebrated work
of Longus ; but it furpaffes it far in variety of images
and incident* Eraftus and Evander are inftruftive and
interefting poems, on account of the contrail between
the world and nature which-reigns throughout them; .
and his Firft Navigator unites the mildeft philofo-
phy to all the fplendor- and imagery of fairy-land.
If we analyfe his dramatic poems, we (hall find in
them interefting fiftions, charafters well* delineated, ,
and fituations replete with novelty. His language is
that of the Graces, and the chafteft ears might liftett
to the love which he has created. If he has fometimes -
the humour of Sterne and Fontaine, it is without their
a-.-
G E S r 7>S
Gefner Ueentioufnefs. The fevereft taRe can find in his wri-
c tings no lacuna to fupply, no phrafe deferving repre-
'L ure' herifion, nor could a more ingenious choice of expref-
fions be fubftituted in the room of thofe which he has
adopted.—Gefner’s charaSer, as a man, appears to be
no lefs amiable. In whatever point of view we confi-
der him, whether as a hulband, a father, a friend, a
magiftrate, or a citizen, his virtues are equally con-
fpicuous. He was naturally of a melancholy turn, but
he was no enemy to rational and well-timed mirth;
while the mildnefs and affability of his temper rendered
his company always engaging, and endeared him to
thofe who had the pleafure of his acquaintance. Pof-
ftffed of that noblenefs of fentiment, united with great
modeftv, which is the ufual attendant of true genius,
}i£ was fimple in his external appearance, as well as in
his converfation. His language was lively and anima¬
ted; but his referve before {hangers refembled timidity,
and it was only in the prefence of thofe with whom he
was acauainted, that his real charafter appeared in its
full luftre.
Mr Gefner’s reputation and virtues were known even
to the remoteft parts of Europe. The emprefs of Ruffia
\ Catharine II. prefented him with a gold medal as a mark
of her efteem. Strangers of all nations gave him no lefs
flattering teftimonies of their admiration ; and travellers
thought they had feen only the half of Switzerland, if
they had not been in the company of Gefner, or pro¬
cured fome of his landfcapes or drawings. In this laft
way he had acquired fo much reputation, that he was
ranked among the beftartifts of Germany; and Mr Fuef-
lin, his countryman, who was himfelf a painter, in the
preface to the third volume of the new edition which
lie publifhed of his ‘ Hiftorical effay on the painters,
engravers, architefts, and fculptors, who have done
honour to Switzerland,’ gives a dittinguiflied place to
Mr Gefner, though then living.
GESNERIA, in botany : A genus of the angio-
fpermia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
qcth order, Perfcnata. The calyx is quinquefid, and
placed on the germen; the corolla incurvated and
then recurvated ; the capfule inferior and bilocular.
GESSORIACUM (anc. geog.), a port and ftation
for fhips of the Morini in Belgica. lu Caefar’s time,
according to Dio, there was no town ; but Florus
fpeaks of it as one : anc! the Geforiacenfes Muri are
mentioned by Eumenius in his Panegyric. The au¬
thor of Tabula Theodofiana, commonly called Peutin-
gePs map, fays exprefsly, that Gefforiacum was in his
time called Bontmia. Now Boulogne in Picardy.
E. Long. i. 30. N. Lat-50. 40.
GESTATION, among phyficians. See Preg¬
nancy.
GESTRICIA, a province of Sweden, bounded by
Helfingia on the north, by the Bothnic guiph on the
taft, by Upland on the fouth, and by Dalecarlia on
the welt.
GESTURE, a motion of the body, intended to
fignify fome idea or pafiion of the mind. It confifts
principally in the aftion of the hands and face ; and
may be defined, a fuitable conformity of the motions
of the countenance, and of feveral parts of the body,
in fpeaking to the fubjeft matter of the difeourfe.
SeeDECLAMATiON, and Oratory, n° 130, 131.
] GET
GETA (S&ptimius), a foil of the emperor Se- Get*
verus, brother to Caracalia. In the eighth year of his GJim
age, he was moved with compalhon at the fate of fome   *
of the partizans of Niger and Albinus who were to be
executed, and his father ftruck with his humanity re¬
traced the fentence. After Severus’s death, he
reigned at Rome conjointly with his brother; but
Caracalla, who envied his virtues and was jealous of his
popularity, ordered him to be poifoned; and when
this could not be effccled, he murdered him in the
arms of Hjs mother Julia, who in the attempt of de¬
fending the fatal blows from his body received a wound
in her arm, from the hand of her £>n, A. D. 213.
Gcta had not yet reached the 23d year of his age,
and the Romans had reafon lIHament the death of to
virtuous a prince, while they groaned under the cruel¬
ties and opprtffion of Caracalla.
GEfHIN (Lady Grace), an Englifc lady of un¬
common parts, was the daughter of Sir George Nor¬
ton of Abbots-Leigh in Somerfetftiire, and born in
the year 1676. She had all the advantages of a libe¬
ral education ; and became the wife of Sir Richard
Gpthin, of Gethin-Grott in Ireland. She was mif-
trefs of great accompliflunents, natural and acquired,
but did not live long enough to difplay them to the
world ; for fhe died in the 2 iff year of her age. She
was buried in Weftminffer-abbey, where a beautiful
monument with an infeription is ereCed over her ; and,
for perpetuating her memory, proviflon was made for
a fermon to be preached in Weftminfter-abbey, yearly,
on Afli-Wednefday for ever. She wrote, and left be¬
hind her, in loofe papers, a work which, foon after
her death, was methodized, and publilhed under the
title of “ Reliquitt Qethiniane; or, Some remains of
the moft ingenious and excellent lady, Grace lady
Gethin, lately deceafed- Being a colleCion of choice
difeourfes, pleafant apophthegms, and witty fentences.
Written by her, for the moil part, by way of effay,
and at fpare hours.” Loud. 1700, qto ; with her
pidlure before it.
GETHSEMANE (anc. geog.), a village in the
mount of Olives, whither J.efus Chriit fometimes rd-
treated in the night-time. It was in a garden belong¬
ing to this village that he fuffered the agony in which
he fweated drops of blood ; and here he was arreiled
by Judas and the reft who were conducted by this
traitor. The place is by Maundrel deferibed as an
even plot of ground, not. above 57 yards fquare, lying
between the foot of Mount Olivet and the brook
Cedron.
GETHYLLIS, in botany : A genus of the mono-
gynia order, belonging to the dodecandria clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
ninth order, Spathace#. The corolla is fix-cleft, and
the ftamina are in fix different directions; the capfule
is trilocular.
GEUM, A v e n s, or Herb- Bennet: A genus of the
polygamia order, belonging to the icofandria clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
35th order, Senticofa. The calyx is cleft into ten
parts; there are five petals, and each of the feeds has
a jointed awn. There are' five fpecies; of which the
mott remarkable are, i.The urbanum, with thick fi¬
brous roots of an aromatic tafte, rough, ferrated leaves,
and upright, round, hairy ftalks terminated by large
yellow
G H O [ 7:
Client, yellow flowers, fucceeded by globular fruit. 2. The
Ghoft. r;Vale, with a very thick, flelhy, and fibrous root, hairy
leaves, and upright ftalks, 10 or 12 inches high, ter¬
minated by purple flowers nodding on one fide.. Of
this there are varieties with red and with yellow flow¬
ers.—Both thefe are natives of Britain, and are eafily
propagated either by the root or feed. The roots of
the firft, gathered in the fpring before the Item comes
up, and infufed in ale, give it a pleafant flavour, and pre¬
vent its growing four. Infufed in wine, they have a
ftomachic virtue. The tafte is mildly auilere and aroma¬
tic, efpecially when the plant grows in warm dryfitua-
tions ; but in moift: flrady places, it hath little virtue
Cows, goats, fheep, and fwine, eat the plant; horfes
are not fond of it.—The powdered root of the fccofld
fpecies will cure tertian agues, and is daily ufed for that
purpofe by thd Canadians. Sheep and goats eat the
plant; cows, horfes, and fwine, are not fond of it.
GHENT, a city of the Auftrian Netherlands, ca¬
pital of the province of Flanders. It is feated on four
navigable rivers, the Scheld, the Lys, the Lieve, and
the Moere, which run through it, and divide it into
canals. Thefe form 26 little ifles, over which there
are 300 bridges: among which there is one remark¬
able for a ftatue of brafs of a young man who was ob¬
liged to cut off his father’s head ; hut as he was going
to ftrike, the blade flew into the air, and the' hilt re¬
mained in his hands upon which they were both par¬
doned. There is a pi&ure of the whole tranfa&ion in
the town-houfe. Ghent is furrounded with walls and
other fortifications, and is tolerably ftrong for a place
of its circumference. But all the ground within the
walls is not built upon. The ftreets are large and well
paved, the market places fpacious, and the houfes built,
v'ith brick. But the Friday’s market-place is the lar-
geft, and is remarkable for the ftatue of Charles V.
which Hands upon a pedeftal in the imperial habit.
That of Cortere is remarkable for. a fine walk under
feveral rows of trees. In 1737 a fine opera-houle
vyc.s built here, and a guard-houfe for the garrifon.
Near the town is a very high tower, with a handfome
dock and chimes. The great bell weighs 11,000
pounds.
This town is famous for the pacification figned here,
in 1526, for fettling the "tranquillity of the Seventeen
Provinces, which was afterwards confirmed by the
king of Spain. It _was taken by Louis XIV. in 1678,
who afiewards reilored it. The French took poftef-
fion of it again after the death of Charles II. of Spain.
In 1706, it w,as taken by the duke of Marlborough ;
and by the French in 1708; but it was retaken the
fame year. Laft of all, the French took it by fur-
prife after the battle of Fontenoy ; but at the peace of
Aix-la-Chapelle it was rendered back. This is tire,
birth-place of John of Gaunt. It is very well feated
for trade, on account of its rivers and canals. It carries
on a great commerce in corn ; and Ibis linen, woollen,
and filk manufadtures. The numbey of inhabitants is
about 70,000. E. Long. 4. o. N Lat. 51. 24.
GHOST, an apparition, or fpirit of a perfon de-
ceafed/
The ancients fuppofed every man to be pofleffed of
three different ghofts, which after the diffolution of
the human body were differently difpofed of. Thefe
three ghofts are diftinguiftied by the names of Manes,
> ] G H O
Spiritus, Umbra. The manes, they fancied, went Ghoft.
down into the infernal regions; the fplriius afeended 1v—~
to the Ikies; and the umbra hovered about the tomb,
as being unwilling to quit its old connexions. Thus
Dido (Virg. iEn. iv. 384.) threatens iEneas after
death that ihe will haunt him with her umbra, whilft
her manes rejoice in his torments below. This idea
of a threefold foul is very clearly exprefted in thefe
lines, which have been attributed to Ovid.
Bis duofunt homini: Manes, Caro, Spiritus, Umbra: '
Qua'.uor ijla loci bis duofis/ciphmt
Terra tegit Carnem, tumulum circumvolat Umbra,
Orcus kabet Manes, Spiritus afirapetit.
The moft ftrik ing outlines of the popular fuperftitions
refpeXing ghofts among us, are thus humoroufly collec¬
ted by Captain Grofe in his Provincial Gloffary : “A
ghoft is fuppefed to be the fpirit of a perfon deceafed,
who is either commifiioned to return for feme efpecial
errand, fuch as the difcovery>of ,a murder, to procure
reftitution of lands or money unjuftlv with-held from
an orphan or widow—or, having committed fome m-
juftice whilft living, cannot reft till that is redreffed.
Sometimes the occafion of fpirits revifiting this world,
is to inform their heir in what fecret place, or private
drawer in an old trunk, they had hidden the title-deeds
of the eftate; or where, in troublefome times, they
buried their money or plate. Some ghofts of mur¬
dered perfons, whofe bodies have been fecretly buried,
cannot be at eafe till their bones have been taken up,,
and depofited in confecrated ground with all the rites
of Chrillian burial.
“ Sometimes ghofts appear in confequence of an ai-
greement made, whilft living, with feme particular
friend, that he who firft died ihould appear to the fur-
vivor.
“ Glanvil tells us of the ghoft of a perfon who hai
lived but a diforderly kind of life, for which it was
condemned to wander Up and down the earth, in the
company of evil fpirits, till the day ofjudgment.
“ In moft of the relations of ghofts, they are fup¬
pofed to be mere aerial beings, without fubftance, and
that they can pafs through walls and other folid bo¬
dies at pleafure. A paiticular inftance of this is given,
in relation the 27th, in Glanvil’s colleXion, where one
David Hunter, neat-herd to the bilhop of Down and
Connor, was for a long time haunted by the appari¬
tion of an old woman, whom he was by a fecret im-
pulfe obliged to follow whenever fire appeared, which
he fays he did for a confiderable time, even if in bed
with his wife : and becaufe his wife could not hold
him in his bed, Ihe would go too, and walk after him
till day, though fhe faw nothing ; but his little dog
was fo well acquainted with the apparition, that he
would follow it as well as his mafter. If a tree ftood
in her walk, he obferved her always to go through it.
Notwithftanding this feeming immateriality, this very
ghoft was not without fome fubftance; for, having per¬
formed her errand, Ihe dtfired Hunter to lift her from
the ground ; in the doing of which, he fays, Ihe felt
juft like a bag of feathers. We fometimes alfo read of
ghofts ftriking violent blows ; and that, if not made
way for, they overturn all impediments, like a furious
whirlwind. Glanvil mentions an inftance of this, in
relation 17th, of a Dutch lieutenant who had the fa¬
culty of feeing ghofts j and who, being prevented ma-
feing
C H 0 { 720 ] G H O
•king way for one which he mentioned to fome friends
as coming towards them, was, with his companions,
violently thrown down, and forely bruifed. We fur¬
ther learn, by relation 16th, that the hand of a ghoft
is ‘ as cold as a clod.’
“ The ufual time at which ghofts make their ap¬
pearance is midnight, and feldom before it is dark;
-though fome audacious fpirits have been faid to appear
even by day-light: but of this there are few inltances,
and thofe moftly ghofts who have been laid, perhaps in
the Red Sea (of which more hereafter), and whofe
times of confinement were expired: thefe, like felons
•confined to the lighters, are faid to return more
•troublefome and daring than before. No ghofts can
appear on Chriftmas eve; this Shakefpeare has put in¬
to the mouth of one of his chara&ers in Hamlet.
“ Ghofts commonly appear in the fame drefs they
ufually wore whilft living, though they are fometimes
clothed all in white; but that is chiefly the church¬
yard ghofts, who have no particular bufinefs, but feem
to appear font* publko, or to fcare drunken ruftics
from tumbling over their graves.
“ I cannot learn that ghofts carry tapers in their
hands, as they are fometimes depi&ed, though the
room in which they appear, if without fire or candle,
is frequently faid to be as light as day. Dragging
chains is not the faihion of Englifh ghofts ; chains and
black veftments being chiefly the accoutrements of fo¬
reign fpe&res feen in arbitrary governments: dead or
alive, Englifti fpirits are free. One inftance, however,
of an Engliih ghoft drefled in black, is found in the
celebrated ballad of William and Margaret, in the fol¬
lowing lines:
And clay-cold was her lily hand,
That held her fableJhroivd.
This, however, may be confidered as a poetical licence,
ufed in all likelihood for the fake of the oppofition of
lily to fable.
“ If, during the time of an apparition, there is a
lighted candle in the room, it will burn extremely blue:
this is fo univerfally acknowledged, that many eminent
.philofophers have bufied themfelves in accounting for
it, without once doubting the truth of the fa6l. Dogs
too have the faculty of feeing fpirits, as is inftanced in
•David Hunter’s relation above quoted; but in that
cafe they ufually Ihow figns of terror, by whining and
creeping to their mafter for protedtion : and it is ge¬
nerally fuppofed that they often fee things of this na¬
ture when their^owner cannot; there being fome per-
fons, particularly thofe born on a Chriftmas eve, who
Cannot fee fpirits.
“ The coming of a fpirit is announced fome time
before its appearance, by a variety of loud and dread¬
ful noifes ; fometimes rattling in the old hall like a
coach and fix, and rumbling up and down the ftair-
cafe like the trundling of bowls or cannon balls. At
length the door flies open, and the fpedfre ftalks flow-
ly up to the bed’s foot, and opening the curtains, looks
ftedfaftly at the perfon in -bed by whom it is feen ; a
ghoft being very rarely vifible to more than one per-
fon, although there arefeveralin company. It is here
.tieceffary to obferve, that it has been univerfally found
by experience, as well as affirmed by diverfe appari¬
tions themfelves, that a ghoft has not the power to
fpeak till it has been firft fpoken tofo that, notwith-
'N® 138.
Handing the tirgesey of the bufinefs on which it may
come, every thing muft ftand ftill till the perfon vifited
can find fuffident courage to fpeak toil: an event
that fometimes does not take place for many years. It
has not been found that female ghofts are mare loqua¬
cious than thofe of the male fex, both being equally
reftrained by this law.
“ The mode of addrefiing a ghoft is by command¬
ing it, in the name of the Three Perfons of the Trinity,
to tell you who it is, and what is its bufinefs : this it
may be neceffary to repeat three times; after which
it will, in a low and hollow voice, declare its fatisfac-
tion at being fpoken to, and defire the party addref-
fing it not to be afraid, for it will do him no harm.
This being premifed, it commonly enters into its nar¬
rative ; which being completed, and its requeft or
commands given, with injunctions that they be imme¬
diately executed, it vanifiies away, frequently in a flafli
of light; in which cafe, fome ghofts have been fo con-
fiderate as to defire the party to whom they appeared
to flint their eyes : fometimes its departure is attended
with delightful mufic. During the- narration of its
bufinefs, a ghoft muft by no means be interrupted by
queftions of any kind ; fo doing is extremely dange¬
rous : if any doubts arife, they muft be dated after
the fpirit has done its tale. Queftions refpe&ing its
ftate, or the ftate of any of their former acquaintance*
are offenfive, and not often anfwered; fpirits perhaps
being reftrained from divulging the fecrets of their
prifon houfe. Occafionally fpirits will even condefcend
to talk on common occurrences, as is inftanced by
Glanvil in the apparition of Major George Sydenham
to Captain William Dyke, relation 10th, wherein tlie
major reproved the captain for fuffering a fword he had
given him to grow rufty ; faying, ‘ Captain, captain,
this fword did not ufe to be kept after this manner
when it was mine.’ This attention to the ftate of
arms, was a remnant of the major’s profeffional duty
when living.
“ It is fomewhat remarkable that ghoft* do not
go about their bufinefs like the perfons of this world.
In cafes of murder, a ghoft, inftead of going to the
next juftice of the peace, and laying its information, or
to the neare ft relation of the perfon murdered, appears
to fome poor labourer who knows ndne of the parties,
draws the curtains of fome decrepit nurfe or alms-
woman, or hovers about the place where his body is
depofited. The fame circuitous mode is purfued with
refpeft to redreffing injured orphans or widows; when
it feems as if the (horteft and moft certain way would
be, to go to the perfon guilty of the injuftice, and
haunt him continually tilt he be terrified into a reftitu-
tion. Nor are the painting out loft writings generally
managed in a more fummary way; the ghoft. common¬
ly applying to a third perfon, ignorant of the whole
affair, and a ftranger to all concerned. But it is pre-
fumptuous to ferutinize too far into thefe matters:
ghofts have undoubtedly forms and cuftoms peculiar to
themfelves.
“ If, after the firft appearance, the perfons employ¬
ed negledf, or are prevented from, performing the mef-
fage or bufinefs committed to their management, the
ghoft appears continually to them, at firft with a dif-
contented, next an angry, and at length with a furious,
countenance, threatening to tear them in pieces if the
•matter
G I A r 731 1 G I A
Ghoft,' matter is not forthwith executed ; fometimes terrifying
Giagh- them, as inGlanviPs relation 26th,by appearingin many
v formidable lhapes, and fometimes even itriking them a
violent blow. Of blows given by ghofts there are many
inftances, and fome wherein they have been followed
with an incurable lamenefs.
“ It (hould have been obferved, that gholts, in deli¬
vering their commiflions, in order to enfure belief,
communicate to the perfons employed fome fecret,
known only to the parties concerned and themfelves,
the relation of which always produces the effedt in¬
tended. The bufinefs being completed, ghofis appear
with a cheerful countenance, faying they (hall now be
at reft, and will never more difturb any one ; and,
thanking their agents, by way of reward communicate
to them fomething relative to themfelves, which they
will never reveal.
“ Sometimes ghofts appear, and difturb a houfe,
without deigning to give anyreafon for fo doing: with
thefe, the ftiorteft and only way is to exorcife, andejedt
them ; or, as the vulgar term is, lay them. For this
purpofe there muft be two or three dergymen, and the
ceremony muft be performed in Latin ; a language that
ftrikes the moft audacious ghoft with terror. A
ghoft may be laid for any term lefs than an 100
years, and in any place or body, full or empty; as, a
folid oak—the pommel of a fword—a barrel of beer,
if a yeoman or fimple gentleman—or a pipe of wine,
if an efquire or a juftice. But of all places the moft
common, and what a ghoft lead likes, is the Red
Sea ; it being related, in many inftances, that ghofts
have moft earneftly befought the exorcifts not to con¬
fine them in that place. It is neverthelefs confidered as
an indifputable fadt, that there are an infinite number
laid there, perhaps from its being a fafer prifon than
any other nearer at hand ; though neither hiftory nor
tradition gives us any inftance of ghofts efcaping or re¬
turning from this kind of tranfportation before their
time.
“ Another fpecies of human apparition maybe here
noticed, though it does not come under the ftridl de-
fcription of a ghoft. Thefe are the exadt figures and
refemblances of perfons then living, often feen not only
by their friends at a diftance, but many times by them¬
felves ; of which there are feveral inftances in Aubery’s
Mifcellanies: one of Sir Richard Napier, a phyfician
of London, who being on the road from Bedfordfhire
to vifit a friend in Berklhire, faw at an inn his own ap¬
parition lying on his bed as a dead corpfe ; he never¬
thelefs went forward, and died in a fhort time : ano¬
ther of Lady Diana Rich, daughter of the Earl of
Holland, who met her own apparition walking in a
garden at Kenfington, and died a month after of the
fmall-pox. Thefe apparitions are called fetches; in
Cumberlandj/wart/w; and in Scotland, wraiths: they
moft commonly appear to diftant friends and relations,
at the very inftant preceding the death of the perfon
whofe figure they put on. Sometimes, as in the inftan¬
ces above mentioned, there is a greater interval between
the appearance and death,” For a philofophical in¬
quiry into the fubjetl of apparitions in general, fee the
article Spectre.
GIAGH, in chronology, a cycle of 12 years ; in
ufe among the Turks and Cathayans.
Each year of the giagh bears a name of fome ani¬
mal : the firft that of a moufe; the fecond that of a
Vot.VII. Part II.
bullock j the third of a lynx or leopard ; the fourth OLIloUrfo,
of a hare ; the fifth of a crocodile ; the fixth of a fen Gia,tlt-
pent; the feventh of a horfe ; the eighth of a iheep ; ’
the ninth of a monkey ; the tenth of a hen j the
eleventh of a dog ; and the twelfth of a hog.
They alfo divide the .day into 12 parts, which they
call giaghs, and diftinguifti them by the name of fome
animals. Each giagh contains two of our hours, and
is divided into eight kehs, as many as there are quar¬
ters in our hours.
GIALLOLINO, in natural hiftory, a fine yellow
pigment much ufed under the name of Naples Yel¬
low.
GIANT, a perfon of extraordinary bulk and fta*
ture.
The Romances of all ages have furnifhed us with fo
many extravagant accounts of giants of incredible bulk
and ftrength, that the exiftence of fuch people is now
generally difbelieved. It is commonly thought, that
the ftature of man hath been the fame in all ages; and
fome have even pretended to demonjlrate the impoffibi-
lity of the exiftence of giants mathematically. Of
thefe our countryman M‘Laurin hath been the moil
explicit. “ In general (fays he) it will eafily appear,
that the efforts tending to deftroy the cohefion of
beams arifing from their own gravity only, increafe in
the quadruplicate ratio of their lengths; but that the
oppofite efforts tending to preferve their cohefion,
increafe only in the triplicate proportion of the fame
lengths. From which it follows, that the greater beams
muft be in greater danger of breaking than the leffer
fimilar ones j and that though a lefler beam may be
firm and fecure, yet a greater fimilar one may be made
fo long, that it will neceflarily break by its own weight.
Hence Galileo juftly concludes, that what appears very
firm, and fucceeds very well in models, may be very
weak and infirm, or even fall to pieces by its own
weight, when it oomes to be executed in large dimen-
fions according to the model. From the fame prin¬
ciple he argues, that there are necefiary limits in the
operations of nature and art, which they cannot fur-
pafs in magnitude. Were trees of a very enormous
fize, their branches would fall by their own weight.
Large animals have not ftrength in proportion to their
fize ; and if there were any land-animals much larger
than thofe we know, they could hardly move, and
would be perpetually fubjerft to the moft dangerous
accidents. As to the animals of the fea, indeed, the
cafe is different; for the gravity of the water in a great
meafure fuftains thofe animals; and in faft thefe are
known fometimes to be vaftly larger than the greateft
land-animals. Nor does it avail againft this do&rine
to tell us, that bones have fometimes been found which
were fuppofed to have belonged to giants of immenfe
fize; fuch as the fkeletons mentioned by Strabo and
Pliny, the former of which was 60 cubits high, and the
latter 46: for naturalifts have concluded on juft grounds,
that in fome cafes thefe bones had belonged to ele¬
phants; and that the larger ones were bones of whales,
which had been brought to the places where they were
found by the revolutions of nature that have happened
in paft times. Though it muft be owned, that there
appears no reafon why there may not have been met!
who have exceeded by fome feet in height the tailed;
we have feen.”
It will eafily be feen, that arguments of this kind
4 Y can
G I A [ 722 ] G I A
Giant, can never be conqlufive ; becaufe, along with an in-
creafe of ftature in any animal, we muft always fuppofe
a proportional increafe in the cohefion of the parts of
its body. Large works fometimes fail when conftruft-
ed on the plan of models, becaufe the cohefion of the
materials whereof the model is made, and of the large
work, are the fame; but a difference in this refpedt
will produce a very remarkable difference in the ulti¬
mate refult. Thus, fuppofe a model is made of fir-
wood, the model may be firm and flrong enough; but
a large work made alfo of fir, when executed accord¬
ing to the plan of the model, may be fo weak that it
will fall to pieces with its own weight. If, however,
we make ufe of iron for the large work inftead of fir,
the whole will be fuffieiently ftrong, even though made-
exactly according to the plan of the model. The like
may be faid with regard to large and fmall animals.
If we could find an animal whofe bones exceeded in
hardnefs and ftrength the bones of other animals as
much as iron exceeds fir, fuch an animal might be of a
monftrous fize, and yet be exceedingly ftrong. In
like manner, if we fuppofe the flefh and bones of a
giant to be greatly fuperior in hardnefs and ftrength
to the bones of other men, the great fize of his body
will be no objection at all to his ftrength. The whole
of the matter therefore concerning the exiftence of
giants muft reft on the credibility of the accounts we
have from thofc who pretend to have feen them, and
not on any arguments drawn a priori.
In the fcripture we are told of giants, who were
produced from the marriages of the Jons of God with
•■See Ante-the daughters of men*. This pafiage indeed has been
Muvians, differently interpreted, fo as to render it doubtful whe-
p. 66. co r. tjier wor(j tranflated giants does there imply any
extraordinary ftature. In other parts of fcripture,
however, giants, with their dimenfions, are mentioned
in fuch a manner that we cannot poffibly doubt; as in
the cafe of Og king of Balkan, and Goliath. In a
-memoir read before the Academy of Sciences at Rouen,
M. Le Cat gives the following account of giants that
are faid to have exifted in different ages.
“ Profane hiftorians have given feven feet of height
to Hercules their firft hero ; and in our days we have
feen men eight feet high. The giant who was Ihown
in Rouen in 1735, meafured eight feet fome inches.
The emperor Maximin was of that fize; Shenkius and
Platerus, phyficians of the laft century, faw feveral of
that ftature; and Goropius faw a girl who was ten
feet high.—The body of Oreftes, according to the
Greeks, was eleven feet and a half; the giant Galba-
ra, brought from Arabia to Rome under Claudius
Csefar, was near ten feet; and the bones of Secondil-
la and Pufio, keepers of the gardens of Salluft, were
but fix inches fhorter. Funnam, a Scotfman, who li¬
ved in the time of Eugene II. king of Scotland, mea-
fared eleven feet and a half: and Jacob le Maire, in
his voyage to the ftraits of Magellan, reports, that on
the 17th of December 1615, they found at Port De¬
fire feveral graves covered with ftones; and having the
curiolity to remove the ftones, they difcovered human
Ikeletons of ten and eleven feet long. The chevalier
Scory, in his voyage to the peak of Teneriffe, fays,
that they found in one of the fepulchre caverns of that)
mountain the head of a Guanche which had 80 teeth,
and that the body was not lefs than 15 feet long. The
giant Ferragus, fialn by Orlando nephew of Charle¬
magne, was 18 feet high. Rioland, a celebrated ana-
tomift, who wrote in 1614, fays, that fome years be¬
fore there was to be feen in the fuburbs of St Germain
the tomb of the giant Iforet, who was 20 feet . high.
In Rouen, in 1509, in digging in the ditches near
the Dominicans, they found a ftone tomb containing
a Ikeleton whofe ikull held a bulhel of corn, and whofe
Ihin-bone reached up to the girdle of the talleft man
there, being about four feet long, and confequently
the body muft have been 17 or 18 feet high. Upon
the tomb was a plate of copper, whereon was engra¬
ved, “ In this tomb lies the noble and puiffant lord,
the chevalier Ricon de Vallemont, and his bones.”
Platerus, a famous phyriciat* declares, that he faw at
Lucerne the true human bones of a fubjedt which
muft have been at leaft 19 feet high. Valence in Dau-
phine boafts of poffefling the bones of the giant Bu-
cart, tyrant of the Vivarais, who was fiain by an ar¬
row by the count De Cabillon his vaffal. The Domini¬
cans had a part of the fhin-bone, with the articulation
of the knee, and his figure painted in frefco, with
an infcription, flowing that this giant was 22 feet and
a half high, and that his bones were found in 1705,
near the banks of the Morderi, a little river at the foot
of the mountain of Cruffol, upon which (tradition fays)
the giant dwelt.
“ January 11. 1613, fome mafons digging near the
ruins of a caftle in Dauphine, in a field which (by tra¬
dition) had long been called the giant’s field, at the
depth of 18 feet difcovered a brick-tomb 30 feet long,
12 feet wide, and 8 feet high; on which was a grey
ftone, with the words Theutohochus Rex cut thereon.
When the tomb was opened, they found' a human fke-
leton entire, 25 feet and a half long, 10 feet wide a-
crofs the ftioulders, and five feet deep from the breaft-
bone to the back. His teeth were about the fize each
of an ox’s foot, and his (hin-bone meafured four feet.
—Near Mazariho, in Sicily, in 1516, was found a giant
30 feet high ; his head was the fize of an hogftiead,
and each of his teeth weighed five ounces. Near Pa¬
lermo, in the valley of Mazara, in Sicily, a Ikekton of
a giant 30 feet long was found, in the year and
another of 33 feet high, in 1550; and many curious
perfons have preferved feveral of thefe gigantic bones.
“ The Athenians found near their city two famous
Ikeletons, one of 34 and the other of 36 feet high.
“ At Totu, in Bohemia, in 758, was found a ikele¬
ton, the head of which could fcarce be encompaffed by
the arms of two men together, and whofe legs, which
they ftill keep in the caftle of that city, were 26 feet
long. The ikull of the giant found in Macedonia, Sep¬
tember 1691, held 210 pounds of corn.
“ The celebrated Sir Hans Sloane, who treated
this matter very learnedly, does not doubt thefe fafls^
but thinks the bones were thofe of elephants, whales,
or other enormous animals.
“ Elephants bones may be ihown for thofe of giants;
but they can never impofe on connoiffeurs. Whales,
which, by their immenfe bulk, are more proper to be
fubftituted for the largeft giants, have neither arms
nor legs; and the head of tha£ animal hath not the leaft
refemblance to that of a man. If it be true, there¬
fore, that a great number of the gigantic hones which
we have mentioned have been feen by anatomifts, and
by
Giant.
G I A I 723 ] G I A
Giant, by them have been reputed real human bones, the exift-
ence of giants is proved.”
With regard to the credibility of all or any of
thefe accounts, it is difficult to determine any thing.
If, in any caftle of Bohemia, the bones of a man’s
leg 26 feet in length are preferved, we have indeed a
decifive proof of the exiftence of a giant, in comparifon
of whom moil others would be but pigmies. Nor in¬
deed could thefe bones be fuppofed to belong to an
elephant; for an elephant itfelf would be but a dwarf
in compaiifon of fuch an enormous monfter. But if
thefe bones were really kept in any part of Bohemia,
it feems ftrange that they have not been frequently
vifited, and particular defcriptions of them given by
the learned who have travelled into that country. It
is certain, however, that there have been nations of
men confiderably exceeding the common ftature. Thus,
all the Roman hiftorians inform us, that the Gauls and
Germans exceeded the Italians in fize; and it appears
that the Italians in thofe days were of much the fame
ftature with the people of the prefent age. Among
thefe northern nations, it is alfo probable, that there
would be as great differences in ftature as there are
among the prefent race of men. If that can be al¬
lowed, we may eafily believe thdt fome of thefe bar¬
barians might be called without any great im¬
propriety. Of this fuperiority of fize, indeed, the
hiftorian Florus gives a notable inftance in Teutobo-
chus, above mentioned, king of theTeutones: who
being defeated and taken prifoner by Marius, was car¬
ried in triumph before him at Rome, when his head
reached above the trophies that were carried in the
fame proeeffion.
But whether thefe accounts are credited or not, we
are very certain, that the ftature of the human body
is by no means abfolutely fixed. We arc ourfelves a
kind of giants in comparifon of the Laplander; nor
are thefe the moil diminutive people to be found upon
the earth. The abbe la Chappe, in his journey into
Siberia in order to obferve the laft tranfit of Venus,
paffed through a village inhabited by people called
Wot inch, neither men nor women of whom were above
four feet high. The accounts of the Patagonians alfo,
which cannot be entirely diferedited, render it very
probable, that fomewhere in South America there is
a race of people Very confiderably exceeding the com¬
mon fize of mankind, and confequently that we can¬
not altogether difcredit the relations of giants handed
down to us by ancient authors ; though what degree
of credit we ought to give them, is not eafy to be
determined. See Patagonia.
Relel Giants, in ancient mythology, were the fons
of Ccelus and Terra. According to Hefiod, they
fprang from the blood of the wound which Ccelus re¬
ceived from his fon Saturn, and Hyginus calls them
funs of Tartarus and Terra. They are reprefented as
men of uncommon ftature, with ftrength proportioned
to their gigantic fize. Some of them, as Cottus, Bri-
areus, and Gyges, had each 50 heads and 100 arms,
and ferpents mftead of legs. They were of a terrible
afpeft, their hair hung loofe about their Ihoulders, and
their beard was fuffered to grow unmolefted. Pallene
and its neighbourhood was the place of their refidence.
The defeat of the Titans, to whom they were nearly
related, incenfed them againft Jupiter, and they all
confpired to dethrone him. Accordingly they reared Giants-
Mount Offa upon Pelion, and Olympus upon Offa ; Caufewayv
and from thence attacked the gods with huge rocks, ~
fome of which fell into the fea and became iflands,
and others fell on the earth and formed mountains.
Jupiter fuminoned a council of the gods ; when being
informed that it was neceffary to obtain the affiftance
of fome mortal, he by the advice of Pallas called up his
fon Hercules; and with the aid of this hero he ex¬
terminated the giants Enceladus, Polybotes, Alcyon,
Porphyrion, the two fons of Alceus, Ephialtus, Othus,
Eurytus, Clytius, Tythyus, Pallas, Hippolitus, Agrius,
Thoon, and Typhon, the laft of whom it was more
difficult to vanquifh than all the others. Jupiter ha¬
ving thus gained a complete vidftory, call the rebels
down to Tartarus, where they were to receive the full
punifhment of their enormous crimes: according to
the accounts of fome of the poets, he buried them alive
under Mount Etna and different iflands.
GiANTs-Caufe^way, a vaft collection of Bafaltic pil¬
lars in the county of Antrim in Ireland. See the ar¬
ticle Basaltes.
The principal or grand caufeway (for there are
feveral lefs confiderable and fcattered fragments of fi-
milar workmanfhip) confilts of a moft irregular arr
rangement of many hundred thoufands of columns of a
black kind of rock, hard as marble : • almoft all of
them are of a pentagonal figure, but fo clofely and
compaftly fituated on their fides, though perfectly
diftindt from top to bottom, that fcarce any thing can
be introduced between them. The columns are of an
unequal height and breadth ; fome of the higheft, vi-
fible above the furface of the ftrand, and at the foot
of the impending angular precipice, may be about 20
feet; they do not exceed this height, at leaft none of
the principal arrangement. How deep they are fixed
in the ftrand, was never yet difcovered. This grand
arrangement extends nearly zoo yards, vifible at low
water; how far beyond is uncertain: from its decli¬
ning appearance, however, at low water, it is probable
it does not extend under water to a diftance any thing
equal to what is feen above. The breadth of the
principal caufeway, which runs out in one continued
range of columns, is, in general, from 20 to 30 feet;
at one place or two it may be nearly 40 for a few
yards. In this account are excluded the broken and
fcattered pieces of the fame kind of conftru&ion, that
are detached from the fides of the grand caufeway, as
they do not appear to have ever been contiguous to the
principal arrangement, though they have frequently
been taken into the width ; which has been the caufe
of fuch wild and diffimilar reprefentations of this caufe¬
way, which different accounts have exhibited. The
higheft part of this caufeway is the narrqweft, at the
very foot of the impending cliff from whence the
whole projects, where, for four or five yards, it is not
above ten or fifteen feet wide. The columns of this
narrow part incline from a perpendicular a little to the
weftward, and form a Hope on their tops, by the very
unequal height of the columns on the two fides, by
which an afcentis made at the foot of the cliff, from
the head of one column to the next above, gradatmt
to the top of the great caufeway, which, at the di¬
ftance of half a dozen yardsTrom the cliff, obtains a
perjpehdicular pofition, and lowering in its general
4 Y 2 height,
G I A [ 724 ] G I A
Giants- height, widens to about 20 or between 20 and 30 feet,
Caufcway. and for
100 yards nearly is always above water. The
' ' v " “ tops of the columns for this length being nearly of an
equal height, they form a grand and Angular parade,
that may be eafily walked on, rather inclining to the
water’s edge. But from high-water mark, as it is
perpetually walked by the beating furges on every
return of the tide, the platform lowers confiderably,
and becomes more and more uneven, fo as not to be
walked on but with the greateft care. At the diftance
of 150 yards from the cliff, it turns a little to the call
for 20 or 30 yards, and then finks into the fea. The
figure of thefe columns is almoft unexceptionably pen¬
tagonal, or compofed of five fides ; there are but very
few of any other figure introduced : fome few there
are of three, four, and fix fides, but the generality of
them are five-fided, and the fpe&ator muft look very
nicely to find any of a different coriftruftion: yet
what is very extraordinary, and particularly curious,
there are not two columns in ten thoufand to be found,
that either have their fides equal among themfelves,
or whofe figures are alike. Nor is the compofition of
thefe columns or pillars lefs deferving the attention of
the curious fpeftator. They are not of one folid (tone
in an upright pofition ; but compofed of feveral fhort
lengths, curioufly joined, not with flat furfaces, but
articulated into each other like ball and focket, or
like the joints in the vertebrae of fome of the larger
kind of fifh, the one end at the joint having a cavity,
into which the convex end of the oppofite is exadtly
fitted. This is not vifible, but by disjoining the two
ftones. The depth of the concavity or convexity is
generally about three or four inches. And what is
flill farther remarkable of the joint, the convexity, and
the correfpondent concavity, is not conformed to the
external angular figure of the column, but exaftly
round, and as large as the fize or diameter of the co¬
lumn will admit; and confequently as the angles of
thefe columns are in general extremely unequal, the
circular edges of the joint are feidom coincident with
more than two or three fides of the pentagonal, and
from the edge of the circular part of the joint to the
exterior fides and angles they are quite plain. It is
ft ill farther very remarkable, likewife, that the arti¬
culations of thefe joints are frequently inverted ; in
fome the concavity is upwards, in others the reverfe.
This occafions that variety and mixture of concavities
and convexities on the tops of the columns, which is
obfervable throughout the platform of this caufeway,
yet without any difcoverable defign or regularity with
refpedt to the number of either. The length alfo
of thefe particular ftones, from joint to joint, is va¬
rious : in general, they are from 18 to 24 inches long;
and, for the moft part, longer toward the bottom of
the columns than nearer the top, and the articulation
of the joints fomething deeper. The fize or diameter
likewife of the columns is as different as their length
and figure; in general, they are from 15 to 20 inches
in diameter. There are really no traces of uniformity
or defign difcovered throughout the whole combina¬
tion, except in the form of the joint, which is inva¬
riably by an articulation of the convex into the con¬
cave of the piece next above or below it; nor are there
any traces of a finifhing in any part, either in height)
length, or breadth, of this curious caufeway. if there
is here and there a fmooth top to any ©f the columns Giants- |
above water, there are others juft by, of equal height, Caufewa^*]
that are more or lefs convex or concave, which Ihow
them to have been joined to pieces that have been
waftied or by other means taken off. And undoubt¬
edly thofe parts that are always above water have,
from time to time, been made as even as might be ;
and the remaining furfaces of the joints muft naturally
have been worn fmoother by the conftant fridtion of
weather and walking, than where the fea, at every
tide, is beating upon it and continually removing
fome of the upper ftones and expofing frefh joinis.
And farther, as thefe columns preferve their diameters
from top to bottom, in all the exterior ones, which
have two or three fides expofed to view, the fame may
with reafon be inferred of the interior columns whofe
tops only are vifible. Yet what is very extraordinary,
and equally curious, in this phenomenon, is, that not-
withftanding the univerfal diflimilitude of the columns,
both as to their figure and diameter, and though per-
fedlly diftinft from top to bottom, yet is the whole
arrangement fo clofely combined at all points, that
hardly a knife can be introduced between them either
on the fides or angles. And it is really a moft curious
piece of entertainment to examine the clofe contexture
and nice infertion of fuch an infinite variety of angular
figures as are exhibited on the furface of this grand
parade. From the infinite difiimilarity of the figure
of thefe columns, this will appear a moft furprifing
circumftance to the curious fpe&ator ; and would in¬
cline him to believe it a work of human art, were it
not, on the other hand, inconceivable that the wit
or invention of man Ihould conftruift and combine fuch
an infinite number of columns, which ftiould have a
general apparent likenefs, and yet be fo univerfally
diflimilar in their figure, as that, from the minuteft
examination, not two in ten or twenty thoufand Ihould
be found, whofe angles and fides are equal among
themfelves, or of the one column to thofe of the other.
That it is the work of nature, there can be no doubt
to an attentive fpeftator, who carefully furveys the
general form and fituation, with the infinitely various
figuration of the feveral parts of this caufeway. There
are no traces of regularity or defign in the outlines of
this curious phenomenon; which, including the broken
and detached pieces of the fame kind of workmanftiip,
are extremely fcattered and confufed, and, whatever
they might originally, do not at prefent appear to
have any connexion with the grand or principal
caufeway, as to any fuppofable defign or ufe in its
firft conftrudtion, and as little defign can be inferred
from the figure or fituation of the feveral conftituent
parts. The whole exhibition is, indeed, extremely
confufed, difuniform, and deftitute of every appear¬
ance of ufe or defign in its original conftru&ion. But
what, beyond difpute, determines its original to have
been from nature, is, that the very cliffs, at a great
diftance from the caufeway, efpecially in the bay to
the eaftward, exhibit at many places the fame kind of
columns, figured and jointed in all refpeAs like thofe
of the grand caufeway : fome of them are feen near
to the top of the cliff, which in general, in thefe bays
to the eaft and weft of the caufeway, is near 300 feet
in height; others again are fecn about midway, and
at different elevations from the ftrand. A very con-
fiderable
G I A [ 72 c ] G I A
Giants- fiderable expofure of them is feen in the very bottom
Caufeway Qf t[le |jay to eaftWard, near a hundred roods from
Gibbous t^ie caufeway> where the earth has evidently fallen
. 1 ° ' away from them upon the ftrand, and exhibits a moft
— curious arrangement of many of thefe pentagonal co¬
lumns, in a perpendicular pofition, fupporting, in ap¬
pearance, a cliff of different ftrata of earth, clay, rock,
&c. to the height of 150 feet or more, above. Some
of thefe columns are between 30 and 40 feet high,
from the top of the doping bank below them ; and,
being longeft in the middle of the arrangement, fhort-
ening on either hand in view, they have obtained the
appellation of organs, from a rude likenefs in this par¬
ticular to the exterior or frontal tubes of that inftru-
ment ; and as there are few broken pieces on the
ftrand near it, it is probable that the outfide range of
columns that now appears is really the original exte¬
rior line, to the feaward, of this colietftion. But how
far they extend internally into the bowels of the in¬
cumbent cliff, is unknown. The very fubftance, in¬
deed, of that part of the cliff which projefls to a point,
between the two bays on the eaft and weft of the
caufeway, feems compofed of this kind of materials ;
for befides the many pieces that are feen on the fides
of the cliff that circulate to the bottom of the bays,
particularly the eaftern fide, there is, at the very point
of the cliff, and juft above the narrow and higheft part
of the caufeway, a long colledfion of them feen, whofe
heads or tops juft appearing without the doping bank,
plainly fhow them to be in an oblique pofition, and
about half-way between the perpendicular and hori¬
zontal. The heads of thefe, likewife, are of mixed
furfaces, convex and concave, and the columns evident¬
ly appear to have been removed from their original up¬
right, to their prefent inclining or oblique podtion, by
the finking or falling of the cliff.
GIBBET, or Gibet, a machine in manner of a gal¬
lows, whereon notorious criminals, after execution, are
hung in irons or chains, as fpedfacles in terrorem. See
Gallows.—The word in French, gilet, properly de¬
notes what we call gallows: it is fuppofed to come
originally from the Arabic gild, “ mount or elevation
of ground;” by reafon gilds are ufually placed on hills
or eminences.
GIBBOUS, a term in medicine, denoting any pro¬
tuberance or convexity of the body, as a perfon
hunched or hump backed.
Infants are much more fubjeft to gibbofity than adults,
and it oftener proceeds from external than internal
caufes. A fall, blow, or the like, frequently thus di-
ftorts the tender bones of infants. When it proceeds
from an internal caufe, it is generally from a relaxa¬
tion of the ligaments that fuftain the fpine, or a caries
of its vertebra;; though the fpine may be infle&ed fore¬
ward, and the vertebrae thrown out by a too ftrong
and repeated aftion of the abdominal mufcles. This,
if not timely redreffed, grows up and fixes as the bones
harden, till in adults it is totally irretrievable : but
when the diforder is recent, and the perfon young,
there are hopes of a cure. The common method is
by a machine of pafteboard, wood, or fteel, which is
made to prefs principally on the gibbous part ; and
this by long wearing may fet all right. The furgeons,
however, have a different inftrument, which they call
a crofs, much more efficacious, though not quite fo
convenient in the wearing. By the ufe of this, the Gibbous
parts are always prevented from growing any worfe, II
and are often cured. During the application of thefe Glbco:l-
affiftances, the parts Ihould be at times rubbed with
hungary-water, fpirit of lavender, or the like, and de¬
fended with a ftrengthening plafter.
Gibbous, in aftronomy, a term ufed in reference to
the enlightened parts of the moon, whilft Ihe is mo¬
ving from the firft quarter to the full, and from the
full to the laft quarter: for all that time the dark part
appears horned or falcated; and the light one hunched
out, convex, or gibbous.
GIBEAH, a city in the tribe of Benjamin, lying
north of Jerufalem about 20 or 30 furlongs, and built
upon a hill as its name imports.—This city gave birth
to Saul, the firft king of Ifrael, for which reafon it is
frequently called Gibeah of Saul, or Gibeah the native
country of Saul.
GIBELINS, or Gibellins, a famous faftion in Ita¬
ly, oppofite to another called the Guelphs.
Thofe two factions ravaged and laid wafte Italy for
a long feries of years; fo that the hiftory of that coun¬
try, for the fpace of two centuries, is no more than
a detail of their mutual violences and flaughters. The
Gibelins flood for the emperor againft the pope : but
concerning their origin and the reafon of their names
we have but a very obfcure account. According to
the generality of authors, they rofe about the year
1240, upon the emperor Frederick II.’s being excom¬
municated by the pope Gregory IX. Other writers
maintain, that the two fadlions arofe ten years before,
though ft ill under the fame pope and emperor. But
the moft probable opinion is that of Maimbourg, who
fays, that the two factions of Guelphs and Gibelins
arofe from a quarrel between two ancient and illuftri-
ous houfes on the confines of Germany, that of the
Henries of Gibeling, and that of the Guelphs of Adorf.
GIBEON, a city feated on an eminence about 40
furlongs from Jer^ufalem northward, and not far from
the city of Gibean. See Geba.
This was the capital city of the Gibeonites, who
took the advantage of Joftma’s oath, and of that which
the elders of Ifrael likewife fwore to them, upon an
artificial reprefentation which they made of their be¬
longing to a very remote country, and their defire of
making an alliance with the Hebrews. Jolhua (ix. 3,
4, &feq.) and the elders inconfiderately entered into
a league with thefe people ; but foon difcovered their
miftake. Upon this, fending for the Gibeonites, they
reproached them with their fraud; and without revo¬
king the promife which they had made to them, of
giving them their lives, they condemned them to carry
wood and watet to the tabernacle of the Lord, as
Haves and captives taken in war; in which ftate of
fervitude they remained till the ruin and entire difper-
fion of the Jewilh nation.
The Gibeonites were defcended from the Hivites,
the old inhabitants of that country ; and pofieffed four
cities, whereof Gibeon was the capital. The cities were
Cephira, Beeroth, Kirjathjearim, and Gibeon, Jofti. ix.
17. Thefe cities were afterwards given to the tribe of
Benjamin, except Kirjathjearim, which fell to the tribe
of Judah. The Gibeonites continued ever after fubjedl
to thofe burdens which Joftrua had impofed on them,
and were very faithful to the Ifraelites.
GIBLETS,
GIB [ 726 ] GIB
GIBLETSf the offals or entrails of a goofe y» in-
’ eluding the heart and liver, with the feet, gizzard, See.
The word, is fuppofed to be formed of goblets ; from
the French gobeau, “ mouthful.”—Giblets make a cou-
fiderable article* in cookery : they boil giblets, ftew
giblets, make ragous of giblets, giblet-pies, &c.
GIBRALTAR, a famous promontory, or rather
peninfula, of Spain, lying in N. Lat. 35. 50. W.
Long. 5. 35. To the ancients it was known by the
name of Calpe, and was alfo called one of the Pillars of
Hercules; by the Arabians it is called Gebel Tarek, that
is, “ the mount of Tarek,” from Tarek, the name of the
Saracen general who conquered Spain in the beginning
of the eighth century. The whole is an immenfe rock,
riiing perpendicularly about 440 yards, meafuring
from north to fouth about two Englifh miles, but
not above one in breadth from eaft to weft.—The town
lies along the bay on the weft fide of the mountain on
-a decline ; by which, generally fpeaking, the rains
pafs through it, and keep it clean. The old town was
confiderably larger than the new, which at prefent con-
fifts of between 400 and 500 houfes. Many of the ftreets
are narrow and irregular : the buildings are of differ¬
ent materials ; fome of natural ftone out of the quar¬
ries, fome of a fa&itious or artificial ftone, and a few
of brick. The people are fupplied with freih provi-
fions chiefly from the coaft of Barbary, with fruit,
roots, and vegetables of all forts from thence, or from
their own gardens. Befides what is properly called the
town, there are feveral fpacious and commodious pub¬
lic edifices erefted ; fuch as barracks for the foldiers,
with apartments for their officers, magazines of dif¬
ferent kinds, ftorehoufes for provifions, &c. The in¬
habitants, exclufive of the Britifli fubjects dependent
on the garrifon, or who refide there from other motives,
confift of fome Spaniards, a few Portuguefe, a confider-
able number of Genoefe, and about as .many Jews;
.making in the whole, according to Dr Campbell, be¬
tween two and three thoufand, without reckoning the
garrifon ; though fome make them much fewer. The
town may be faid to have two ports; the firft lying to
the north, and is proper only for fmall veffels ; the o-
ther is very commodious for large veffels, and has a
fine ftone quay. The bay is very beautiful and capa¬
cious, being in breadth about five miles, and in length
.eight or nine, with feveral fmall rivers running into it.
It is very advantageous to the place. There is no ground
to be found in the middle of it at ico fathoms depth,
fo that a fquadron may lie there in great fafety; the
breezes from it are very refreftiing; and it contributes
likewife to the fubfiftence of the inhabitants, by fup-
plying them with plenty of fifii.
The ftrait of Gibraltar, through which the ocean
paffes into the Mediterranean, thereby dividing Europe
from Africa, runs from weft to eaft about 13 leagues.
In this ftrait there are three remarkable promontories
or capes on the Spanilh, fide, and as many oppofite to
them on the Barbary fide. The firft of thefe, on the
fide of Spain, is cape Trefalgar, oppofite to which is
cape Spartel; and in the neighbourhood of this flood
the fortrefs of Tangier, once in the poffeffion of the
Britifh. The next on the Spanifli fide is Tarifa ; and
over againft it lies Malabata, near the town of Alcaf-
far, where'the ftraits are about five leagues broad. Laft-
ly, Gibraltar^ facing the mountain of Abyla, near the
fortrefs and town of Ceuta, which make the eaftern Gibraltar.
entry of the ftraits.  j —J
This important fortrefs feems to have been firft par- Fottr1f
ticularly noticed as a place of confequence in the yearg^g'g^^
712. At that time the general of the caliph A1 Wa- by the Sa-
lid landed with an army of 12,000 men on the ifthmusraceH3»
between Mons Calpe and the continent; and that he
might fecure an intercourfe with Africa, ordered a
callle to be built on the face of that hill. Part of the
building ftill remains; and, from an infeription dif-
covered above the principal gate, appears to have been
finifhed in 725. It continued in the poffeffion of the
Saracens till the beginning of the 14th century, when \
it was recovered by Ferdinand king of Caftile. In Various re-
133 3, however, it was obliged to furrender to the fonvolution9*
of the emperor of Fez, who came to the affiftance of
the Moo'riftt king of Granada. An attempt was made
upon it in 1349 by Alonzo king of Caftile ; but when
the fortrefs had been reduced to thejaft extremity, a
peftilential fever broke out in the Spanifli camp, which
carried off the king himfelf, with great part of his
army ; after which the enterprife was abandoned.
The fortrefs continued in the poffeffion of the Sa¬
racen defeendants of the prince of Fez until the year
1410, when it was taken poffeffion of by Jofeph III.
king of Granada. A defign of attacking it was form¬
ed by Henry de Gufman in 1435 ; but the enterprife
having mifearried through his imprudence, he was de¬
feated and flain. However, it was at length taken
after a gallant defence by his fon John de Gufman in
1462; fince which time it has remained in the hands
of the Chriftians. In 1540, it was furprifed and pil¬
laged by Piali Hamet, one of Barbaroffa’s corfairs ;
but the pirates having fallen in with fome Sicilian gal¬
leys, were by them defeated, and all either killed or
taken. ^
In the reign of Charles V. the fortifications of Gib-Its fortifka-
raltar were modernifed, and fuch additions made as to tions impra
render them almoft impregnable. It was taken by theXed an?
Englifh, however, in the reign of queen Anne, andej> °
fince that time has remained in their poffeffion ; and
probably will always do fo, unlefs ceded by treaty, as
it appears altogether impoffible to reduce it by any
force of artillery let it be ever fo great. In the year'pa]cel^{,
1704, in confequence of the rtfolution adopted by thegjj. Georgs
court of Britain to affift the archduke Charles in hisRookein
pretenfions to the Spanifli crown, Sir George RookeD0'*-
was fent with a powerful fleet into the Mediterranean.
His orders being limited, nothing of confequence was
done for fome time, until at tail an attempt on Gibral¬
tar was refolved upon; not fo much on' account of the
importance of the conqueft, as to prevent any reflec¬
tions againft the admiral for inadtivity. On the 21ft
of July that year, 1800 troops were landed upon the
ifthmus under the command of the prince of Heffe
Darmftadt; and on the refufal of the governor to fur-
render, preparations were made for attacking the place.
Early in the morning of the 23d, a cannonade was
begun from the fleet, and kept up fo brifldy, that in
five or fix hours the Spaniards were driven from many
of their guns, efptcially at the new mole-head. The
admiral perceiving, that by gaining this part of the
fortification, the redudlion of the reft would be faci¬
litated, ordered out fome armed boats to take poffef-
fion of it. On their approach the Spaniards fprung a
4 mine.
GIB [ 727 1 GIB
Gibraltar, mine, which demoliihed part of the works, killed two
/-—a—— lieutenants and 40 private foldiers, wounding about
60 more. Notwithftanding this difafter, the affail-
ants kept poffeffion of the work, and took a fmall ba-
ftion, now the eight-gun battery, half way between
the mole and the town. On this the governor thought
proper to capitulate, and the prince of Heffe took pof-
fefiion of the gates on the 24th. The garrifon, con¬
fiding at mod of 150 men, marched out with the ho¬
nours of war ; and the Spaniards who chofe to remain
were allowed the fame privileges they had enjoyed
under the reign of Charles II. The works were found
very drong, and the place well provided with ammu¬
nition and military dores.
This conqued was atchieved with the lofs of about
60 killed and 216 wounded on the part of the Eng-
lifh. The prince of Heffe remained governor; and 18
men of war were left at Lifbon tinder the command
of Sir John Leake, to fuccour the garrifon if there
fhould be occafion. The lofs of fuch an important
fortrefs, however, having alarmed both the courts of
5 Madrid and Paris, orders were fent to the marquis de
Bcfieged Villadarias, a Spanifh grandee, to lay fiege to it, in
year by^he which he was to be affided by a naval force from Tou-
Marquis delon. The prince immediately applied to Sir John
Viliadarias. Leake for affidance; but before the latter had time
to comply with his requed, a French fleet arrived,
and debarked fix battalions to the affidance of the
Spaniards ; after which they proceeded to the wed-
ward, leaving only fix frigates in the bay. The
trenches were opened on the 1 ith of Oftobtr, about
which time Sir John arrived with 20 fail of Englifh
and Dutch drips; but hearing that the French were
about to attack him with a fuperior force, he judged
it proper to return and refit. Having very prudently
left orders at Lifbon to make preparations for this
purpofe in his abfence, he was enabled, to accomplifh
the work with fuch expedition, that on the 29th of
the fame month, he returned, and furprifed in the bay
6 three frigates, a fire-fhip, two Englifh prizes, a tar-
Thegarri- tan> and a dore-fhip. After this exploit he landed
fon fup- fome reinforcements, fupplied the garrifon with fix
plied with months provifion and ammunition ; at the fame time
mentsand ^etac^'ng on ^10re a body of 500 failors to afiid in
provifions repairing the breaches which had been made by the
by Sir John enemy’s fire.
Leake. Thus the Spaniards wTere difappointed in their hopes
of fuccefs from an attack which had been proje&ed
that very night, and for which purpofe 200 boats had
been collefted. Still, however, they did not defpair ;
and fuppofing that the garrifon would be off their
guard and fecure on account of the vicinity of their
fleet, they formed the rafh defign of attempting to
furprife the place though the Britifh admiral was ftill
^ f ^ before it. In this mad attempt 500 volunteers affo-
attemptof ciated, taking the facrament never to return unlefs
fome Spa- they accomplifhed their purpofe. They were conduC-
mfh voiun- te(j by a goat herd to the fouth fide of the rock near
teers. the cave-guard, at that time called the pafs of locujl-
trees. This they mounted, and lodged themfelves the
firft night in the Cave of St Michael: the next they
fcaled Charles V.’s Wall; furprifed and maflacred the
guard at Middle-hill; where afterwards, by ropes and
ladders, feveral hundreds of the party defigned to fup-
pojt them were hauled up ; but being difcovered,.they
were attacked by a ftrong party of grenadiers, and all Gibraltar,
of them at laft either killed or taken. Thefe brave '
adventurers were to have been fupported by a body ofT, *
French troops, and fome feints were propofed to drawai;
off the attention of the garrifon; but, through the taken,
difagreement of the commanding officers, thefe pro-
pofals were not put in execution, and thus the volun¬
teers were left to their fate.
Notwithflanding thefe misfortunes the Spaniards ftill The fiege
continued the fiege, and fitted out a ftrong fquadron coati*
from Cadiz, with a defign to intercept the convoys ofnue<**
provifions which might be fent to the garrifon ; flat¬
tering themfelves at the fame time, that, on the ar¬
rival of their fleet. Sir John would be obliged to re¬
tire, and the garrifon of confequehce to furrender to
their united attacks. They continued their fire there¬
fore with additional fury, difmounted many of the can¬
non, and did effential injury to the works in feveral
different places. The prince of Heffe, however, was
by no means deficient in his endeavours to difappoint
their expeftations. As it was probable that an at¬
tempt might be made to ftorm the curtain, a cuvette
was dug in the ditch, which was filled by the tide, and
a double row of palifades placed parallel to the works.
The chambers of the mine under the glacis were load¬
ed, and all means taken to defeat fuch an attempt; but
on a fudden the Spaniards feemed to have altered
their defi'gn, and threatened an attack on the lines
which the garrifon had on the declivity of the
hill to flank the glacis, and overlook their advan¬
ced works. While affairs remained in this fituation, ro .
part of the fuccours they had long expected arrived in fon rfjn/”
the bay, December 7. 1704, and in two days after, forced,
the remainder came in with near 2000 men, along
with a proportionable quantity of ammuniiion and
provifions. Thefe had failed from Cape Spartel un¬
der convoy of four frigates; but were in imminent
danger of falling into the hands of the enemy, whofe
fleet they miftook for their own; however they efca-
ped by the fortunate circumftance of being becalmed,
lo that they could not get up to them.
Sir John Leake having thus powerfully reinforced
the garrifon, thought his prefence in the bay no loager
necefl'ary, and therefore fet fail for Lifbon, where he
arrived about the end of the year. In the beginning of
January 1 705 the Spaniards were reinforced by a con-
fiderable body of infantry, and on the nth of the
month made an attack on the extremity of the King’s
Lines, but were repulfed. The attack was renewed Vignrous-
next day with 600 grenadiers, French and Walloons, attack by
fupported-by 1000 Spaniards under lieutenant-general ^ sPa'
Fuy. They difpofed themfelves in fueh a manner asniards‘'
ffiowed an intention to ftorm a breach which had been
made in the Round Tower at the extremity of the
King’s Lines, and another in the entrenchment on the
hill. The retrenchment which covered the latter
breach, with part of the entrenchment joining the pre¬
cipice of the rock, was defended at night by a cap¬
tain, three fubalterns,. and 90 men ; but it was cufto-
mary for the captain to withdraw, with two fubalterns
and 60 men, at day-break. The Round Tower was
defended by 180. men, commanded by a lieute¬
nant colonel. The marquis, by deferters from the
garrifon, had obtained intelligence of the ftreugth of
thefe polls,, and planned his attack accordingly. The
GIB [ 728 ] GIB
Gibraltar, defacement for the upper breach mounted the rock at
L"—midnight, and concealed themfelves in the clifts until
the captain had withdrawn ; after which, advancing
to the point of the entrenchment, they threw grenades
on the fubaltern and his party, fo that they were obli¬
ged to leave the place. At the fame time 300 men
llormed the Round Tower, where lieutenant-colonel
Bar made a vigorous defence, though the enemy, ha¬
ving paffed the breach above, annoyed them on the
flanks with great flones and grenades. Obferving,
however, the Spaniards marching down to cut off his
retreat from the town, he retired ; and, by getting
over the'parapet of the King’s Lines, defcended into the
covered way, where the Englifh guards were polled.
Thus the garrifon were alarmed; all the regiments were
affembled at their proper polls; and captain Filher en¬
deavoured to Hop the progrefs of the enemy with 17
ii men, but they were repulfed, and himfelf taken pri-
They are foner. At laft, however, the Tower was retaken by
repulfed lieutenant-colonel Moncal at the head of 400 or 500
men, after it had been in the poffeffion of the enemy up¬
wards of an hour.
The garrifon were now farther reinforced by fix com-
T3 panics of Dutch troops and 200 Englilh foldiers, toge-
The liege ther with fome provifions and ftores. The affailants,
carried on however, were (till determined to goon. The mar-
ardour qu's de Villadarias was fuperfeded by the Marifchal Tefle
a Frenchman, with whom Admiral Pointis was defired
to co-operate in blocking up the place. The Marifchal
therefore joined the army with fourfrelh battalions, be-
fides eight companies which had been fent before; the
ordnance, which had been greatly injured by conftant
ufe, was exchanged for others, and the works, as they
then Hood, put into the belt repair. On the part of
the Englifh a reinforcement was ordered under the
command of Sir Thomas Dilkes and Sir John Hardy,
to join Admiral Leake at Lifbon ; which jun&ion be¬
ing effefted, the whole fleet, confiding of 28 Englilh,
4 Dutch, and 8 Portuguefe men of war, having
14 on board two battalions of land forces, fet fail from
The French Happily for the befieged, however, the in-
®jetht*‘*>er'cedant rains and dorms about this time had retarded
florin. the operations of the land-forces, and greatly didrefled
the fleet of the enemy. Eight Ihips of the latter were
forced from their anchors by the drong wederly wind,
and obliged to drive aloft. At this critical period Sir
John Leake, with the allied fleet, entered the draits.
On his approach the few remaining French fhips put
out to fea; and the Britilh admiral difcovering five
fail making out of the bay, and a gun fired at them
from the garrifon, immediately gave chace. Three
French men of war were taken, and the admiral’s Ihip
and another driven on fhore, where they were burnt.
The red, on hearing the report of the guns, had made
the bed of their way to Toulon.
The liege The garrifon was now fo well fupplied, that Mar-
turned into fhal Teffe withdrew his troops from the trenches, and
a blockade, formed a blockade, drawing an intrenchment acrofsthe
and at laft ifthmu8 to prevent the garrifon from ravaging the
ra ed' country. The prince of Hefie remained for fome time
in the place, where he repaired the batteries, and made
fome additions to the fortifications; after which he
N° 139.
joined the arch duke Charles at Lifbon. As the latter, Gibraltar,
however, was refolved to try his fortune with the Earl ——y-*™'
of Peterborough in Valencia and Catalonia, the prince
was fent back to Gibraltar to prepare part of the gar¬
rifon for embarkation, and foon after was followed by
the whole fleet. Major General Ramos was now ap¬
pointed governor of Gibraltar, in which only two new
battalions were left, as nothing was to be feared from
the enemy. The new governor, however, brought with
him 400 men for the greater fecurity of the place ; but
foon refigned his government to Colonel Roger Elliot,
during whofe time Gibraltar was made a free port by a
fpecial order from the queen.
Colonel Elliot was fucceeded by "colonel Congreve
before the year 1714, and be by Colonel Cotton a Jg
fliort time after. In 1720 the Spaniards feem to have a new at-
threatened another attack. Ceuta, a Spanilh fortrefs tack threat-
in Barbary, had been for many years befieged by theened.bythc
Moors; and a powerful armament, commanded by the *
marquis de Lada, was now aflembled in Gibraltar-bay, ’
under pretence of relieving the African fortrefs, but
with a fecret defign of firft furpriting Gibraltar ; for
which purpofe they had provided fcaling ladders, &c.
The armament, however, had not been fitted out with
fuch fecrecy, but that the Britifh miniftry had intelli¬
gence of it. On this they fent orders to colonel Kane,
governor of Minorca, to embark with part of his gar¬
rifon for Gibraltar under convoy of the fleet in the Me¬
diterranean. On his arrival he found the place in a
critical fituation. The garrifon confided only of three
weak battalions under major Hetherington, befides
whom there was only one other field-officer, major
Balteroux, in the place, and no more than 14 days
provifions remaining. The pofture of affairs, however,
was altered by the arrival of colonel Kane with 500
men with provifions and ammunition; which reinforce¬
ment, together with the fpirited behaviour of the Bri- yheVeftgn
tifh commodore, induced the Spanifh commander to a-given upi
bandon his defign, though he remained of opinion that
the fortrefs might then have been carried by a general
affault.
Notwithflanding this difappointment, the ®Pan,'ar<^s Anot]fer-at-
continued to keep a watchful eye over Gibraltar ; and,tempt in
in the latter end of the year 1726, affembled an army in 17*6.
the neighbourhood of Algefiras, encamping, on the
20th of January following, on the plain below St
Roch, and erecting a battery on the beach to protedl
their camp. Though admiral Hopfon was then at an¬
chor in the bay of Gibraltar, yet, as he had received
no intelligence of the adlual commencement of hoftili-
ties between Britain and Spain, he was obliged to al¬
low the boats of the latter to pafs with provifions, arms,
and ammunition, between Algefiras and the camp, at
the fame time that colonel now brigadier Kane, who
had been a fecond time fent from Minorca, lay under
fimilar embarraffments. The operations of the Spa¬
niards, however, feemed fo evidently to tend towards
an attack, that the governor thought proper to or¬
der fuch of that nation as were in the town to leave
it, and to forbid their galleys to anchor under his
guns (a).
The count de Las Torres commanded the Spanifh
forces
(a) At this time the fortifications of Gibraltar were confiderably different from what they had been in 1 yoy.
Several
GIB L 729 1 GIB
Gibraltar, force?, amounting to near 20,000 men 5 and foon af-
  ter forming his camp, he advanced within reach of the
garrifon. The brigadier then defired him to keep out
of his reach, otherwife he fhould do his utmoft to force
him ; but to this the Spanilh commander replied, that,
as the garrifon could command no more than they had
power to maintain, he fhould obey his Catholic maje-
fty’s orders, and incroach as far as poffible. Hollili-
ties, however, were not commenced until the 1 oth of Fe¬
bruary 1727, when the Spaniards, having brought ma¬
terials for batteries to the old wind-mill on the neutral
ground, it was determined in a council of war, that the
Spanifh general had commenced hoftilities by incroach-
ing fo far on the liberties of the garrifon. Still, how¬
ever, the governor fent to the count to know the rea-
fon of breaking ground before the garrifon ; but recei¬
ved for anfwer, that “ he was in his matter’s territories,
and was not anfwerable to any other perfon for his con¬
duct.” On this the governor opened the batteries of
the Old Mole and thofe of Willis upon the Spanifh
workmen ; however, they perfifted in carrying on their
operations, and at night marched a party down to the
Devil’s Tower, where they immediately broke ground,
and began a communication with their other works.
The governor was now informed by fome deferters, that
the enemy were forming a mine in a cave under Willis’s
Battery, with a defign to blow it up : but the plot be¬
ing thus happily difcovered, a party was immediately
flationed to cut off the communication. On the 22d
of February the Spaniards opened on the garrifon with
1 7 pieces of cannon befides mortars; and the day fol¬
lowing brigadier Kane left Gibraltar to fend a rein¬
forcement from Minorca. On the 3d of March the
enemy opened a new battery of 22 guns on the Old
Mole, and on the 8th another of 15 guns, bearing al-
fo upon the fame Mole, the guns of which had annoyed
the w eftern flank of their approaches.
All this time the garrifon had kept up a conftant
and well dire&ed fire from the batteries which bore up¬
on the works of the enemy ; but the ordnance in ge-
- neral being old, were frequently burfting ; by which
they fuffered more than from the fire of the befiegers.
The latter were alfo greatly diftreffed by the fleet un¬
der admiral Hopfon and Sir Charles Wager, who, fince
the beginning of the fiege, had intercepted their home-
bound fhips, and at the fame time greatly benefited the
garrifon by bringing the prizes into the bay. Finding
the Spaniards, however, obftinately bent on their en-
terprife, they formed a defign, on the fecond of April,
to bombard Algefiras, from whence the befieged were
fupplitd with various articles of ammunition ; but the
fleet happening to be becalmed, the defign was after¬
wards unaccountably abandoned ; and on the arrival of
a reinforcement from Minorca, they failed to the weft-
ward, leaving the garrifon to defend themfelvcs the bell
way they could-
The enemy continued to augment their batteries,
and ereft new ones, until they amounted at laft to 60
cannon befides mortars ; and, on the 3d of May, the
governor received intelligence that a general aflault was
Vol.VII. Part II.
intended ; to repel which he took every proper precau- Gibraltar,
tion. The enemy, however, ttill added to their ap- —-v——'
proaches, and confiderable reinforcements were received I0
by both parties. Hoftilities, however, ceafed on the Ceffation
12th, when news arrived that the preliminaries of a ge-of hoftilj.
neral peace were figned ; fince which time to the yearties'
1779 no farther attempts were made on Gibral- 20
tar. In the courfe of thefe two fieges the lofs of the Great lof* ,
Spaniards was very confiderable; that of lyoj colling0^rhf Sf)‘k'
them not lefs than 16,000 men, including thofe w ho^heirat-
died of ficknefs ; and in that of 1727 their lofs wastempu.
computed at near 3000, befides cafualties, which could
not be afeertained. That of the garrifon amounted in
1705 to 40Q.; and in 1727 to 300; a very fmall num¬
ber, conlidering that during the fiege 70 cannon and
30 mortars burft on the batteries.
The hoftile manifefto prefented by the Spanifh am- Gibraltar
haffador to the court of London at the commencement blocked up
of the late war, was foon followed by an interruption ofin 1779-
communication betwixt Spain and the fo’rtrefs of Gibral¬
tar. Nodireftintentionofattackingordiftreffing it, how¬
ever, was manifefted till the 16th of July, when the port
was completely blocked up by a fquadron of two74gun
fhips, feveral frigates, galleys, &c. Ten days after they
began to form a camp on the plain below St Koch, three
miles from the fortrefs. The garrifon at this time con-
fitted of 5382 men, including officers, with a company
of engineers and artificers 5 but the greateft expe&a-
tions were formed from the abilities and valour of gene¬
ral Elliot the governor. As foon as the breaking off
the communication with Spain indicated approaching
hoftilities, the governor took every precaution that
could be fuggefted by military wifdom; but though
informed of the rupture betwixt the two courts ha¬
ving adtually taken place, and though he beheld the 22
hoftile operations of the enemy, no means were ufed to Hoftilities
interrupt them till the 12th of September, when the 5-ommence(*
batteries of Green’s Lodge, Willis, and Queen Char-gar*
lotte, were opened for a few hours, with a view to di-
fturb the workmen.
From this time to the beginning of the year 1780
the enemy continued the blockade both by fea and
land, but without doing any damage to the works or
garrifon; and it was not until the t2th of January 2,
that a fingle perfon was wounded. This happened to A woman
be a woman, who, palling near one of the houfes, wasfirftvvound*
flightly hurt by a fhot from the enemy. In the mean®^ ‘n J.hc
time, however, the ufual fupplies of provilions being 01tre***
cut off, the garrifon began to feel all the horrors of t4
famine. All the neceffaries of life were very fcarce, and Exceffive
to he procured only at exorbitant prices. Veal, mut- dearnefs of
ton, and beef, fold from half a crown to four lhillingsprovifions*
per pound ; frefh pork from two to three fhillings;
faked beef and pork fifteen pence ; fowls eighteen {hil¬
lings per couple ; ducks a guinea ; fire-wood, five fhil¬
lings per hundred weight; a pint of milk and water
fifteen pence ; a fmall cabbage coft five fhiilings, and a
fmall bunch of outer leaves five pence; Irifh butter
half a crown per pound; candles as much ; and eggs
fixpence each. As the rock, however, is almoft fur-
4 Z rounded
Several works were erefted on the heights above the lines called Willis's Batteries f-the Prince’s Lines were ex¬
tended to the extremity of the rock, and an inundation was formed out of the iporafs in front of the grand
battery.
GIB [ 730 1 GIB
The Spa-
Jiifh fleet
defeated
and their
admiral
taken by
Rodney.
Gibraltar, rounded by the fea, it was natural to fuppofe, that in
' fuch a fcarcity of other provifions great benefit would
have been derived from the ocean ; but the fiftiertnen,
being all foreigners, and under no regulation, took ad¬
vantage of the prefent fcarcity of provifions in the gar-
rifon to exa& a moft exorbitant price for the fifti they
fupplied.
5 Had matters remained long in this ftate, it is plain
that the fortrefs, however ftrong, muft have fallen into
the hands of the enemy. They were, however, effec¬
tually relieved in confequence of the vidtory gained by
admiral Rodney over the Spanifh fleet commanded by
Don Juan de Langara. The former had been furnifhed'
with a ftrong fquadron, in order to relieve this import¬
ant fortrefs; with which having fet fail, he in a few
days fell in with a Spanifh fleet of 16 tranfports bound
from Bilboa to Cadiz, and laden with provifiorrs and
naval ftores, conveyed by a man of waT of 64 guns,
four frigates, and two armed veffels. Of thefe only a
fingle tranfport efcaped, the reft being all captured on
the 8th of January 1780 ; and the lofs of them, at the
fame time that it promifed to be very ferviceable to the
garrifon, was equally detrimental to the enemy, who
were now in great want both of provifions and mate¬
rials for their {hipping.
This advantage was foon after followed by a much
greater. On the 16th of the fame month a Spanifh
fquadron of 11 fail of the line was difcovered off Cape
St Vincent; and the Britifh admiral having taken the
proper methods to come Up with them as quickly as
poffible, an engagement took place about four in the
afternoon. At this time the headmoft fhips of the
Britifh line clofed in with the neareft of the enemy,
and in half an hour one of the Spaniards, mounting 70
guns, and having on board 600 men, blew up, and all
on board perifhed. In two hours more another Spa¬
nifh (hip of the line was taken ; notwithftanding which
the fight continued with great vigour till two in the
morning, when the headmoft (hip of the enemy ftruck
to the Sandwich ; after which the firing ceafed. The
weather throughout the night was fo tempeftuousthat
it was with the utmoft difficulty the Britifh could take
pofleffion of thofe ffiips which furrendered. Thefe
were fix in number, but two of them drove afhore and
were loft, only four being brought fafe into Gibraltar.
Thefe were the admiral’s fhip of 80 guns and 700 men,
with three others of 70 guns and 600 men. The en¬
gagement, however, happened fo near the fhore, and
the Britifh were fo eager in fecuring the lee-gage to
prevent the enemy’s efcape, that Admiral Rodney’s
ihip, together with fome of the largeft in the fleet, were
in great danger of running on the flroals of St Lucar;
nor could they be got into deep water again without
much labour and the exertion of great naval flcill. It
was the opinion of all who were prefent in the arftion,
that had this engagement happened in the day-time,
or had the weather been lefs boifterous, not one of the
Spanifh fhips could have efcaped; and even as it was,
thofe which got off were fo effentially damaged as to
be unfit for fei vice.
The garri The news of this important vi£lory arrived at Gib-
fon relieved raltar on the evening of the day after it was fought;
and rein- and in two days more the garrifon was completely re-
iurced. fjeved by the arrival of the fleet and convoy, at the fame
time that they were farther reinforced by a regiment
of Highlanders, confifting of 1051 men, officers in- Gibraltar,
eluded. An opportunity was alfo taken of fending —
away with the fleet all the invalids and women in the
garrifon ; with whom they fet fail on the 10th of Fe¬
bruary, leaving in the bay only the Edgar and Panther
fhips of the line, with two frigates.
On the departure of the Britiffi fleet the blockade
was immediately refumed ; and notwithftanding the
ample fupplies lately received, the garrifon foon began
again to experience the inconveniency of wanting frefh
provifions. It had hitherto received thefe in abun¬
dance from the coaft of Barbary; but an unaccount¬
able alteration had now taken place, fo that the friend-
fhip of the emperor of Morocco was transferred from
Great Britain to Spain in a manner totally unprece¬
dented. His partiality towards the latter was the
more furprifing, as Britain had given no provocation,
and the enmity between Spain and Morocco feemed to
be in a manner conftitutional, and founded upon fuch ^
caufes as could never ceafe to operate. Thus, how- The garri-
ever, the garrifon became daily more and more dif- fon again
treffed, from being obliged to make conftant ufe of to
their fait provifions, and even this with the ftrifteft
economy. The induftry and refolution of the Bi itifh
feamen and officers, indeed, fometimes overcame all
obftacles, fo that they found means to procure the ne-
ceflary refrefhments; though in fo doing they were
certainly expofed to the utmoft danger from the enemy.
At the fame time the defence of the garrifon was fo
vigorous, that while it continued to be fupplied even
in this fcanty manner, the Spaniards began to lofe all
hope of reducing it; for which reafon they formed a
projeft of burning all the Britifh flopping in the bay.
The night appointed for putting this fcheme in exe- unfuccefs-
cution was the 6th of June 1780, when ten fire fhips,fuiattempt
favoured by an uncommon daiknefs, flood over fromfo hum the
the Spanifh to the Britifh fide of the bay. 1 heir de* Britifhftrij!-
fign was to fet fire to the ftorehoufes neareft to the ^in^'
water fide, as well as to the flopping there ; but ha¬
ving been too precipitate in firing their fhips, and
being received alfo by a very heavy cannonade, the at¬
tempt was fruflrated. On this occafion the fkill and
intrepidity of the Britifh feamen was eminently dif-
played. Having manned their boats, they grappled
the firefhips already in flames; and, notwithftanding
their dreadful appearance and the danger of their ex¬
ploding, towed them clear of the veffels under the
walls, and extinguifhed them.
The failure of this project was a grievous difap-
pointment to Don Barcelo the Spanifh admiral, who
lay ready with his fquadron to intercept the Britifh
v^ffels that might attempt to efcape ; at the fame time
that the batteries on their lines were in readinefs to
bombard the town, if the fire-fhips had fucceeded in
caufing any conflagration on fhore. The failure of the
prefent attempt, however, was foon followed by other
difafters As foon as they had, with great labour, 5pan21^l
pufhed forward their new works, and conihufted newworks de.
batteries, they were certainly deftroyed by the be-llroyed.
fieged ; and their mortification on thefe occafions was
the greater, as it was ufual for the governor to allow
them to complete their works before he commenced
his deftruttive operations. Thus the labour of many
days was often loft in a few hours, and afterwards was
to be refumed with as little profpect of fuccefs as be-
1 fore.
GIB l 73' ] GIB
Gibraltar, fore. The garrifon were now confiderably annoyed by exprefled liquor about five or ten gallons of brandy, Gib rJtar*
   the Spanilh gun-boats, to which indeed the fhipping which kept it in fo wholefome a ftate, that feveral ' » -•
3° . were equally expofed with themfelves. Thefe wereveflels caflcs were opened in good condition at the clofe of
fon^nnoy- ^rom 3° to 4° tons burden, conftrufted fo that they lay the fiege. The old juice, however, was not fo fpeedi-
ed by the low in the water, which rendered them difficult to be ly efficacious as the fruit, though by perfevering longer
Spanllh aimed at. They had 15 oars on a fide, carried 40 or
gua-boats. j-q men, with a 26 pounder on the prow; and, from
the facility of managing them, two were deemed, in
calm weather, to be a match for a frigate of moderate
fize. All their efforts, however, could ftill do no
more than to reduce the garrifon to great ftraits for
in its ufe it feldom failed." ^
Till this month the allowance of fait proviiions had The^garri-
continued undiminifhed ; but now it was judged necef-fon diftref-
fary to reduce the allowance of bread and meat, and fefd fo‘Tant
to make fome other regulations in order to enforce the {ions.071"
ftri&eft economy with regard to food. Every thing
want of provifions ; and to this dreadful inconvenience of this kind that could be pradtifed, however, feemed
the Britifh fubmitted with the greateft cheerfulnefs. infufficient to preferve the garrifon from abfolute
From the time of Admiral Rodney’s departure in the want. In the beginning of the year 1781 provifions
month of February 1780 to the month of Oftober,
almoft the only provifions in the garrifon were fuch as
tended to produce the feurvy; which accordingly
Thefcurvy raged in fuch a manner as to threaten the moft fatal
Tages in the confequences. An antidote, however, was happily
garrifon. procured by the capture of a Danifh dogger from wanted bread. The price of freffi provifions again
Malaga laden with lemons and oranges, which the go- rofe to a mqft enormous height. Small pigs fold at
vernor immediately purchafed for the ufe of the gar¬
rifon, and diftributed among them. “ At this time
(fays Captain Drinkwater) the feurvy had made dread¬
ful ravages in our hofpitals, and more were daily
became exceedingly fcarce, by reafon of the almoft to¬
tal expenditure of what was contained in the public
ftores, and the vigilance of the enemy’s cruizers. A-
bout the middle of February the town bakers left off
work for want of flour; and many of the poorer fort
two guineas ; turkeys at three ; geefe at 30 /hillings ;
fowls and ducks at 10 /hillings ; damaged bifeuit a
/hilling the pound j peafe i8d. ; and all other neceffa-
proportion ; at the fame time the fcarcity of
confined; many, however, unwilling to yield to its fuel was fuch, that it was fometimes fcarcely procu-
firft attacks, perfevered in their duty to the more ad¬
vanced ftages. It was therefore not uncommon, at
this period, to fee men, who, fome months.before,
were hale, and capable of enduring any fatigue, fup-
porting themfelves to their pofts upon crutches, and
even with that affiftance fcarcely able to move along.
The moft fatal confequences in /hort were to be appre¬
hended to the garrifon from this terrible diforder,
when this Dane was happily direfted to our relief.”
34 According to Mr Cairncrofs, an eminent furgeon,
Cairncrofs’sw}10 was prefent during this fiege, “the feurvy, which
account o nQW rage(j jn Gibraltar, differed in no refpeft from
that difeafe ufually contracted by failors in long fea-
rable in quantity fufficient to drefs the victuals.
The garrifon had hitherto derived affiftance occa- The'garri-
fionally from the gardens on the neutral ground, tho’ entire-
vaft quantities of vegetables had been removed thence b' deprived
by the enemy. Towards the end of the month of of the neu-
October 1780, however, the Spaniards determined to tralground,
expel the Briti/h from the gardens entirely ; and this
they accompli/hed in fpite of all that could be done to
prevent them. From this time the refources with re¬
gard to vegetables depended entirely upon the atten¬
tion paid to cultivation ; which, happily for the garri¬
fon, was attended with fuch fuccefs, efpecially during
the winter months, that the produce came at laft to be 3<f
voyages ; and of which the immediate caufe feemed to nearly equal to the demands. At laft, on the 1 2th of Supplied by
be the fubfifting for a length of time upon failed pro¬
vifions only, without a fufficient quantity of vegetables
or other acefcent foods. The circumftances related in
the voyage of that celebrated circumnavigator Lord
Anfon, of confolidated fractures difuniting, and the
callofity of the bone being perfeftly diffolved, occur¬
red frequently in our hofpitals, and old fores and
April 1781, fupplies were brought by the Briti/h fleetthe Britilh
under admirals Darby, Digby, and Rofs, though they ®eet*
could not be got in without great difficulty. The
gun-boats already mentioned were now much increafed
in number and ftrength of conftru&ion ; infefting the
bay in fuch a manner as greatly to interrupt the de¬
barkation of the ftores. As no veffds of the fame
wounds opened anew from the nature of the diforder. kind h^d been prepared to oppofe them, they could
Various antifcorbutics were ufed without fuccefs, fuch fcarce be prevented from effe&ing their purpofe of burn-
as acid of vitriol, four crout, extract of malt, effence of ing the /tore-flrips. With this view they had approach-
fpruce, &c. ; but the only fpecifics were fre/h lemons
and oranges given liberally ; or, when they could not
be procured, the preferred juice in fuch quantities,
from one to four ounces per day, as the patient could
bear. Whilft the lemons were found, from one to
three were adminiftred each day as circumftances di-
redted. The juice given to thofe in the moft malig¬
nant ftate was fometimes diluted with fugar, wine, or
fpirits; but the convalefcents took it without dilu¬
tion Women and children were equally affedted, nor
were the officers exempted from this dreadful diforder.
„„ It became almoft general at the commencement of the
Method of wjnter fcafon, owing to the cold and moifture; and in
temonjuice. t^ie beginning of fpring when vegetables were fcarce.
The juice was preferved by adding to 60 gallons of
ed them every morning in hazy weather to the num¬
ber of between 20 and 30, feveral of them carrying
mortar-pieces ; and as they ufed both fails and oars,
they eluded all purfuit, by withdrawing on the rife of
any breeze. To keep off thefe troublefome guefts fe¬
veral ftout frigates were obliged to ftation themfelves
along the bay for the protedtion of the /hipping ; but
even this did not prevent them from continuing their
moleftation; and notwithftanding the vigilance and
adlivity of the Briti/h failors, it was feldom that they
could come near enough to do them any damage. In 37
fpite of all their endeavours, however, the garrifon was TbySpa-
effedtually relieved; an exploit which fo exceedingly fj[ve t0 ex_
irritated the court of Spain, that they determined to <_rt them-
exert the utmoft force of the kingdom rather than fail fc-lves u
„ the utmoft.
G I B
Gibraltar. ;n the execution of their favourite project. The works
before the town were therefore carried on with more
vigour than ever, and the moft tremendous prepara¬
tions made to caufe the obftinate garrifon feel the re-
fentment of an exafperated enemy. Their batteries
were now mounted with guns of the heavieft metal,
and with mortar-pieces of the largeft fize ; tire number
of the former augmented to near zoo, and of the lattei
r 732 1
G I B
as were obliged to ftay; allowing them a free paflage Gibraltar,
to England, and fupplying them with proviiions for —~v—
the voyage.
During this bombardment, not only the greateft
pait of the effe&s belonging to the inhabitants were
deltroyed, but the fortifications were in many places ~
greatly injured ; and the word was, that the remainder Diforderly
 , deilroyed by the foldiers, who had arrived at fuch behaviour
to upwards of 80. For three weeks this prodigious a pitch of licentioufnefs, that they neither regarded
artillery continued to pour forth an almoft inceffant
(hower of {hot and (hells, infornnch that, in the time
juft mentioned, they had confumed 100,000 lb. of
gunpowder, and thrown into the town four or five
3g thoufand (hot or fhells every 24 hours.
The town By fuch an immenfe bombardment the town was al-
entirely de-moft totally laid in ruins. The inhabitants, computed
ftroyed. at more tiian gooo in number, experienced every dif-
culty that could arife from the deftru&ion of their ha¬
bitations : feveral of them were killed, and all forced
to leave the town, and take ftielter under tents with
what accommodation could be provided for them in
fuch fcenes of horror and confufion. Numbers took
the opportunity of retiring with the fleet; while many
that remained were now reduced from a ftate of opu¬
lence to the greateft diftrefs. The condudl of Gover¬
nor Elliot was very humane and compafiionate to fuch
nor would obey their officers. They were incited to^'er8‘
this deftruftive fcheme by the avarice of fome of the
inhabitants who had hoarded upland concealed a qnan-
tity of necefiary articles, in order to procure an advan¬
ced price. They now, therefore, kept no bounds in
diffipation, wafte, and extravagance ; a remarkable in-
ftance of which is given by Captain Drinkwater, in
their roafting a pig by a fire made of cinnamon. To
put a ftop to thefe atrocious proceedings, rigorous mea-
fures were of neceffity adopted ; and it was intimated,
that any foldier convicted of being drunk or afleep upon
his poll, or found marauding, ffiould be immediately
executed. The lofs of human lives during this dread¬
ful bombardment was lefs than could have been expec¬
ted; but many remarkable circumftances are taken
notice of by Captain Drintcwater, fome of which are
related in the note (a).
(b) Two boys belonging to the artificer company were endowed with fuch wonderful ftrength of vifion, that
they could fee the (hot of the enemy in the air almoft as foon as it came from the mouth of the gun ; and
were therefore conilantly placed upon fome part of the works to give notice to the foldiers of the approaching
danger. During the time of the hotteft fire, however, the men were fo habituated to the fall of {hells and
{hot around them, that they contra&ed an infenfibiiity of danger, and almoft required to be cautioned by their
officers to avoid the explofion of a (hell when lying with the fufee burning at their feet. In confequence of
this inattention, they frequently negledted the advice of the boys above mentioned, and their negledt could not
but be produ&ive of fatal effects. An inftance of this happened on the Princefs Amelia’s battery, where a
{hot thus difregarded came through one of the capped embrafures, carried off one of the legs from three fol¬
diers, and wounded a fourth in both. In other cafes, in which the perfons themfelves have "obferved the (hot
or {hells coming towards them, they have been fafcinated by its appearance, and unable to move from the
fpot, as fmall birds are faid to be by the rattle-fnake. “ This fudden arreft ofthe faculties (fays our author) was
nothing uncommon : jfeveral inftances occurred to my own obfervation, where men, totally free, Lave had their
fenfes fo engaged by a (hell in its defcent, that though fenfible of their danger, even fo far as to cry for affift-
ance, they have been immoveably fixed to the place. But what is more remarkable, thefe men have fo inftan-
taneoufly recovered themfelves on its fall to the ground, as to remove to a place of fafety before the {hell
burft.” In this manner Lieutenant Lowe of the 12th regiment was fafcinated by a {hot which he faw coming,
but had not power to remove from the place before it fell upon him and took off his leg.
Where thefe {hells burft they produced inftant and certain deftru&ion, mangling in the moft dreadful man¬
ner. The following are fome inftances. A matrofs had the misfortune of breaking his thigh by fome acci¬
dent ; and being a man of great fpirit, could fcarce bear the confinement neceffary for its reunion. In confe-
quence of this he went abroad too foon, and thus unfortunately broke the bone a fecond time. Being now
confined to bed, a (hell happened to fall into the room where he was, and, rebounding, lodged itfelf diredtly
upon him. The cqnvalefcents and fick inftantly fummoned all their ftrength, and crawled out of the room,
while the poor matrofs lay below the {hell, kept down by its weight, and utterly unable to Air. In a few fe-
conds it burft, and took off both his legs, and fcorched him in a dreadful manner. He furvived the explofion,
was fenfible to the laft moment, and died regretting that he had not been killed on the batteries. The cafe
of a foldier of the 73d regiment {hows that even in the moft dangerous cafes we ffiould never defpair of reco¬
very while life remains. This unfortunate man had been knocked down by the wind of a (hell, which, inftantly
burfting, killed his companion, and mangled himfelf in a (hocking manner. His {kull was dreadfully fraftured,
his left arm broken in two places, one of his legs {battered, the Ikin and mufcles torn off from part of his right
hand, the middle finger broken to pieces, and his whole body moft feverely bruifed and marked with gun¬
powder. He prefented fo horrid an object to the furgeons, that they had not the leaft hopes of faving his
life, and were at a lofs what part to attend to firft. He was that evening trepanned ; a few days afterwards
his leg was amputated, and other wounds and fraftures were dreffed. Being poffeffed of a moft excellent conftitu-
tion, nature performed wonders in his favour, and in 11 weeks his cure was completely effefted. On the
18th of September a Ihell from the lipes fell into a houfe where the town-major captain Burke, with majors
Mercier
G I B
40
The works
my brought
to the ut-
moft per¬
fection.
By the beginning of June 1781, the enemy had re¬
laxed confiderably in their firing, feldom exceeding
600 (hot in a day ; and continued gradually to dimi-
nifh this number fo remarkably, that towards the end
of Auguft they feldom fired in the day, and only dif-
charged fix or feven, and fometimes not above three,
(hot in the night. The batteries at land, however,
were fucceeded by the gun-boats; which renewed their
attacks every day, keeping the garrifon in continual
alarm, and never failing to do more or lefs execution.
To rtftiain them, therefore, a battery of guns capable
of throwing their (hot to a great difiance was eredled
as near as poffible to the enemy; and as it reached
their very camp, it was determined to open it
upon them as often as the gun-boats made their
attacks ; which being foon perceived, they thought
it prudent to defifi in fome meafure from that mode
of hoftility. They continued ftill, however, to im¬
prove their works, and for this purpofe employed the
beft engineers both of France and Spain ; fo that by
[ 733 1
G I B
every fide ; the guns and mortars on the batteries Gibraltar,
were all fpiked up ; and the artillery-men, artificers, —'1 *j
and failors, exerted themfdves fo vigoroufly, that in
the fpace of an hour the magazines were blown up,
the ftore-houfes of arms, ammunition, and 1 military
implepients'of every kind, and all the works that had
been conftrudted, were fet On fire, and totally confir¬
med ; the whole damage done on this occafion being
eftimated at upwards of two millions Iterling.
For feveral days after this difader the Spaniards
continued inaftive, without even making any attempt
to extinguidr their batteries, which ftill continued in
flames ; but in the beginning of December, as if fud-
denly aroufed from their reverie, upwards of 1000
men were fet to work in order to prepare a great
number of fafcines, from whence it was concluded that
they defigned to repair their works. In this thfy
proceeded with their ufual perfeverence and diligence;
but as the former methods of attack had conftantly
failed, it was evident, that if the place could be reduced
the latter part of November 1781, they had them at all, it mud be by fome means hitherto unattempted;
■They ar
entirely de-
ftroyed.
brought to fuch a (late of perfection as filled both
kingdoms with the moift fanguine expectations of fuc-
cefs. Governor Elliot, however, far from being dif-
mayed at thefe formidable bulwarks, fuffered them to
proceed without moleftation to the end of their fcheme,
that he might as in a moment deftroy the labour of fo
many months, and thus render the difappointment the
greater. In the night of the 27th of November, a
chofen party of 2000 men was detached, in order to
deftroy the enemies works and batteries; and their
fuccefs was equal to their moft fanguine expectation.
They marched out in great order and filence about
two o’clock in the morning, under the command of fides of wood and cork long foaked in water, with a
and for the reduction of this fingle fortrefs, the Spa-
niih monarch, after the conqueft of Minorca, deter¬
mined to employ the whole ftrength of his empire.
Among the various projects formed at this time, that 4*
of the chevalier D’Arcon, a French engineer of di-FI0*1'!1??
ftinCtion, proved the moft acceptable to the court of!5attene^,
Spain ; and though the expence attending it was im-the cheva/
menfe, this feemed in the prefent circumftances to be Her D’Ar-
but a matter of fmall confideration. His plan was tocon*
conftrudt fuch floating batteries as might neither be
liable to be funk nor fet on fire. With this view their
bottoms were made of the thickeft timber, and their
brigadier-general Rofs ; after which they- proceeded
with the fame circumfpeCtion, but with the utmoft
celerity, to the enemy’s works, which they (formed
and overthrew with aftoniftiing rapidity. The Spa¬
niards were inftantly thrown into confufion, and fled
layer of wet-fand betwixt them. Their thicknefs v
fuch, that they were impenetrable to cannon-fliot;
and to prevent the effeCts of red-hot balls, a num¬
ber of pipes were contrived to carry water through
every part of the veffel, and pumps fufficieat to fur-
ni(h
Mercier and Yignoles of the 39th regiment were fitting. It took off major Burke’s thigh ; afterwards fell
through the floor into the cellar : there it burft, and forced the flooring with the unfortunate major up to
the ceiling. When affiftance came, they found him almoft buried in the ruins of the room. He was in¬
ftantly conveyed to the hofpital, where he died foon after the wounded part had been amputated. Majors
Mercier and Vignoles had time to efcape before the (hell burft; neverthelefs they were (lightly wounded by
the fplinters, as were a Cerjeant and his daughter, who happened to be in the cellar when the (hell entered.
The following are related as initances of very extraordinary efcapes from the deftructive power of thefe en¬
gines, and which indeed it feems difficult to account for.— A corporal had the muzzle of his firelock clofed,
and the barrel twilled like a French horn, by a (hell, without any injury to his perfoni A ihell happened to
fall into a tent where two foldiers were afleep, without awakening them by its fall. A ferjeant in an adjacent
tent heard it, and ran near 40 yards to a place of fafety, when he recolle6ted the fituation of his comrades.
Thinking the (hell had fallen blind, he returned and awakened them ; both immediately rofe, but continued
by the place, debating on the narrow efcape they had had, when the (hell exploded, and forced them with
great violence againft a garden wall, but “ miracu.loufiy” did no further mifehief than deftroying every thing
in the tent. On the new year’s day of 1782, an officer of artillery obferved a (hell falling towards the place
where he (food, and got behind a traverfe for prote&ion. This he had fcarcely done, when the (hell fell into
the traverfe, and inftantly entangled him in the rubbifh : one of the guard, named Martin, obferving his dif-
trefs, generoufly rifleed his own iife in defence of his officer, and ran to extricate him : but finding his own
efforts ineffedfual, called for affiitance; when another of the guard joining him, they relieved the officer from
his fituation 5 and almoft the fame inftant the (hell burft, and levelled the traverfe with the ground. Martin
was afterwards promoted, and rewarded by the governor ; who at the fame time told him, that “ he fliould
equally have noticed him for attending to his comrade.” A (hell happening to fall into the room where en-
fign Mackenzie of the 73d regiment was fitting, carried away part of his chair, and fell into the room below,
where it burft, lifting him and the chair from the floor without further injury.
GIB [ 734 1 GIB
Gibraltar, nifli a conftant fupply for the purpofe. The people
‘"’’"Y-"” at the batteries were flickered from the bombs by a
rope-netting made Hoping, that they might roll off,
and fpread with wet flcins to prevent fire. Ten of
thefe batteries were conftru&ed out of the hulls of large
veflels, fome of 50 or 60 guns, cut down for that pur¬
pofe, and carrying from 10 to 28 guns each, with
about half as many in referve in cafe of accidents.
Each gun was ferved by 36 artillery-men; and thefe
floating batteries were to be feconded by 80 large
boats carrying guns and mortars of heavy metal; a
reat number of ftrips of force and frigates, with fome
undreds of fmall craft, were to accompany them with
troops, for the inftant execution of what might be
judged neceflary. On this occafion upwards of 1000
pieces of artillery and 80,000 barrels of gun-powder
w-Cre provided. A body of 12,000 of the beft troops
of France were now added to the Spanifti army be/ore
the place; the body of engineers was the beft. that both ,
kingdoms could produce; and numbers of volunteers,
of the beft families in both, attended the fiege. Num¬
bers of military gentlemen alfo came from every part
of Europe to be witneffes of what palled at this cele¬
brated fiege, which was now compared to the moft fa¬
mous recorded in hiftory. The conducing of it was
committed to the duke de Crillon, who had diftin-
guiflied himfelf by the conqueft of Minorca. Two
princes of the blood royal of France, the count of Ar¬
tois brother to the king, and the duke of Bourbon his
coufin, came to be wicneffes of this extraordinary en-
terprize. Thefe behaved with the greateft politenefs
both to the governor and garrifon. The count of Ar¬
tois tranfmitted a packet of letters for various indivi¬
duals in the garrifon, which had been intercepted and
carried to Madrid, and which he requefted that he
might be the means of conveying to thofe for whom
they were defigned. Both he and the duke ©f Bour¬
bon fignified to General Elliot the high regard they
had for his perfon and charafter; and the duke de
Crillon himfelf took this opportunity of exprefling
the fame fentiments, and to intreat him to accept of
fome refrefliments. General Elliot returned a polite
anfwer, but accepted of the prefent with relu&ance,
and requefted him for the future not to confer any fa¬
vours of that kind upon him.
Such a prodigious armament raifed the confidence
of the beliegers fo high, that they looked upon the
conqueft of the place as an abfolute certainty. They
began to be impatient at the delays which arofe in
bringing matters to the utmoft point of perfe&ion ;
and the commander in chief was thought by far too
modeft, when he faid, that the garrifon might hold
Prodigious out for a fortnight. “ It appeared (fays Captain
armament Drinkwater) that they meant, previous to their final
foredlefor"e^orts> t0 ^ poffible a terror through their op-
trefs. ’ponents, by difplaying an armament more powerful
than had probably ever been brought before any for-
trefs. Forty-feven fail of the line, including three in¬
ferior two deckers; ten battering {hips, deemed per¬
fect in defign, and efteemed invincible, carrying 212
guns ; innumerable frigates, xebeques, bomb-ketches,
cutters, gun and mortar boats, and fmaller craft for Gibraltar,
difembarking men, were aflembled in the bay. On v-—'
the land fide were moft ftupendous and ftrong batteries
and works, mounting 200 pieces of heavy ordnance,
and proteded by an army of near 40,000 men, com¬
manded by a vidorious and adive general, and anima¬
ted by the immediate prefence of two princes of the
blood royal of France, with other dignified perfonages,
and many of their own nobility. In their certainty
of fuccefs, however, the enemy feemed entirely to have
overlooked the nature of that force which was oppo-
fed to them; for though the garrifon fcarcely con-
fifted of more than 7000 effedive men, including the
marine brigade, they forgot that they were now ve¬
terans in this fervice, had long" been habituated to the
effeds of artillery, and were by degrees prepared for
the arduous conflid that awaited them. We were at
the fame time commanded by officers of approved cou¬
rage, prudence, and adivity; eminent for all the ac-
compliftiments of their profeffion, and in whom we had
unbounded confidence. Our fpirits too were not a
little elevated by the fuccefs attending the firing of
red-hot fhot(c), which in this attack we hoped would
enable us to bring our labours to a conclufion, and
relieve us from the tedious cruelty of a vexatious
blockade.”
As a prelude to the dreadful ftorm which was about
to be poured forth on this devoted garrifon, the ene¬
my, on the 9th of September 1782, opened a battery
of 64 of their largeft cannon, which was fliortly ac¬
companied with a terrible fire from other batteries,
and a great number of mortars. On this and the fol¬
lowing day an attack was made upon the batteries
ereded on Europa Point (fo called from being the
moft foutherly point of the continent of Europe),
which at that time were entirely under the manage¬
ment of captain Curtis of the Brilliant frigate, who
had diftinguiftied himfelf during the fiege, and now
commanded a brigade of feamen by whom the batteries
were ferved. By thefe the fire of the Spaniards was
fo warmly returned, that they not only could make no
imprefiion, but were forced to retire, after having re¬
ceived fo much damage, that two of their principal
{hips were obliged to withdraw to the bay of Algefiras,
oppofite to Gibraltar, in order to refit. On the 12th
the enemy made preparations for the enfuing day,
which was allotted for their grand and decifive attack. ^
Accordingly, on the morning of the 13th, the ten Decifive at-
floating batteries came forward, under the command of tack on the
Don Buenventura de Moreno, a Spanifti officer of great i3th°f SeP*
gallantry, and who had fignalized himfelf at the taking 7,“^*
of Minorca. Before ten o’clock they had all got into
their proper ftations, anchoring in a line about a thou-
fand yards diftant from the fliore. As foon as they
were properly arranged, they began a heavy cannonade,
and were feconded by all the cannon and mortars in
the enemy’s lines and approaches, at the fame time
that the garrifon opened all its batteries both with
hot and cold fhot from the guns, and (hells from the
howitzers and mortars. This terrible fire continued
on both fides without intermifiion until noon ; wdien
that
(c) This was fuggefted by lieutenant-governor Boyd, and had been attended with remarkable fuccefs, Sep-
iember 8th, when the enemy’s advanced works were almoft deftroyed by it.
GIB [ 735 ] GIB
Gibraltar, that of the Spaniards began to flacken, and the fire themfelves that Britain would not be able to colleft a Gibraltar.
 of the garrifon to obtain a fuperiority. About two naval force fufficient to drive their fleet from the bay
o’clock the principal battering Ihip commanded by before the fortrefs was reduced to extremity ; and this,
Don Moreno was obfervcd to emit fmoke as if on fire, they imagined, muft be the cafe in a few days. Such
and fome men were feen bufy upon the roof fearching diligence, however, had been ufed on the part of the
from whence it proceeded. The fire from the garrifon Britifh, that a fleet was already affembled at Portf-
was now kept up without the leafi difcontinuance or mouth, confifting of 35 fail of the line, in excellent
diminution, while that from the floating batteries was condition, and filled with the beft officers and failors in
perceived ftnfibly to decreafe; fo that about feven in Europe. The command was given to Lord Howe,
the evening they fired but few guns, and that only at who was accompanied in the expedition by admirals
intervals. At midnight the admiral’s ffiip was plainly Barrington, Milbank, Hood, Sir Richard Hughes, and
45 feen to burn, and an hour after was completely in commodore Hotham, all of them men eminent in their
Temhle flames. Eight more of thefe batteries took fire fuc- profeffion. At the fame time alfo it fortunately hap-
deftruefhon ctffivcly ; and 0n the fignals of diftrefs made by them, pened, that a large Britifh fleet of merchantmen had
Biards ',pa' the multitude of feluccas, launches, and boats, with juft arrived in fafety from the Baltic ; and that a Dutch
which they were furrounded, all came to their affiftance, fquadron, which had been cruizing on their own coafts,
and began to take the men out of the burning veflels. not being able to penetrate fouthwards in order to join
Captain Curtis, who lay ready with the gun-boats to the Frencli, had retired into port, and given up the in¬
take advantage of any favourable circumftance, came tention of effe&ing any junftion for that feafon.
upon them at two in the morning, and forming a line At this time the Britifh nation was in the utmoft
on the enemy’s flank, advanced upon them with fuch anxiety about the fate of Gibraltar. The progrefs of
order and expedition as to throw them into immediate the fhips was delayed by contrary winds, and it was not
confufion. At this fudden and unexpected attack until they had gained the fouthern coaft of Portugal
they were fo aftonifhed and difconcerted, that they fled that they received information of the defeat of the
precipitately with all their boats, totally abandoning enemy’s attempt on the 13th of September. On the
their floating batteries to be burnt, and all who were 1 ith of O&ober Lord Howe entered the Straits, and
in them to penfh in the flames. This would undoubt- feveral of the ftorefhips deftined for Gibraltar came fafe
edly have been their fate, had not captain Curtis ex- to-anchor under the cannon of the fort without any
tricated them from the fire at the imminent danger of moleftation from the enemy. The combined fleet in
his;own life and that of his men. In this work he was the mean time had been much damaged by a ftorm ;
fo eager, that while his boat was along-fide of one of two fhips of the line were driven afhore near Algefiras;
the largeft batteries, it blew up, and the fragments of two more were driven out of the bay into the Mediter-
the wreck fpreading all around to a vaft diftance, fome ranean ; others loft their mafts, and moft of them fuf-
heavy pieces of timber fell into his boat and pierced fered confiderably. One in particular, a fhip of 70
through its bottom, killing one man and wounding guns, was carried by the ftorm acrofs the bay, and ran
Everal others. He efcaped with difficulty out of this aground under the works of Gibraltar, where fhe was
boat, which was funk, as well as another, by the fame taken by the garrifon, with her whole complement of
accident. The floating batteries were every one con- men, confifting of 700. Notwithftanding the endea-
fumed; and the violence with which they exploded was vours of the enemy to deftroy her, fire was fafely got
fuch, that doors and windows at a great diftance on off, and properly repaired. The combined fleet, how-
fliore were burft open. About 400 people were faved ever, put to fea on the 13th, with a view to prevent
from them ; many of whom were picked up floating on the remaining ftorefhips that had overfhot the bay to
rafts and pieces of timber. Indeed the blowing up of the eaft from making good their entrance into it; and
the batteries as the flames reached their powder-rooms, at the fame time to rejoin the two fhips that had been
and the difeharge of the guns in fucceffion as the me- feparated from the main body by the ftorm. Having
tal became heated by the fire, rendered any attempt the advantage of the wind, they bore down upon the
46 to fave them very dangerous. Britifh fleet, which drew up in order of battle to re-
Iha&ivify , 1'his terrible-cataftrophe took place in fight of the ceive them; but notwithftanding their fuperiority,
of the com- combined fleets of France and Spain. It had been pro- they declined coming to an engagement. On the wind
bined fleet. p0fe(j {foould co-operate upon this important becoming more favourable next day, Lord Howe took
occafion, by attacking the garrifon at Europa Point, the opportunity to bring in the ftorefhips that were in
and fuch places as appeared moft expofed to an attempt company ; and the day following the remainder were
by fea. This, it was afterwards faid, muft have occa- conveyed to Gibraltar, the troops for the reinfo; cemei.t
fioned a material diverfion of the garrifon’s force, and, of the gan ifdn were landed, with a large fupply of
by dividing it, have weakened confiderably the vigorous powder and ample provifion in every other refpedl.
means of defence ufed in thofe parts which were aftu- As they returned through the ftraits they were threat-
ally attacked. The reafon affigned for this inactivity ened with an engagement by the combined fleets; but
was the want of wind. though the latter had a fuperiority of 12 fhips of the
Thetiiock- Though this terrible repulfe effectually convinced line, they kept at a wary diftance. Some firing indeed
ade conti- Spaniards that Gibraltar could not be taken by took place, but it was attended with little effeCl on-
nued. force, fome hope ftill remained, that, without any fur- either fide.
ther exertions on their part, the garrifon would be This la ft relief proved entirely decifive ; for though The ^arri^
obliged to furrender from want of ammunition and the blockade continued till news arrived of the prelimi- f°n final!/
.provifions. With this view they continued to blockade naries of peace being figned, in the beginning of Feb- re^eveii"
itclofely, and to cut off all communication, flattering niary 17^3., no other attack was made. The news of
• the-
G I B
r
Gibraltar, the pacification were received with the utmoft joy by
t Ginkm. Spanjards. Mutual civilities paffed between the
^ commanders in chief, and the Duke de Crillon paid
many hardfome compliments to the governor and gar-
fifon for their noble defence ; declaring that he had ex¬
erted himfelf to the utmoft of his abilities, and thoug-h
he had not proved fuccefsful, yet he was happy.in ha¬
ving his fovereign’s approbation of his conduct.
The pofiefiion of Gibraltar is tfteemed of very great
confequence to Britain. It not only gives us the com¬
mand of the Straits, and their navigation ; but affords
refrelhmentand accommodation to our fleets in time of
war, and to our merchantment at all times; which, to
a maritime power, is of very great advantage. From
its fituation, it divides both the kingdoms of France
and Spain ; that is, it hinders a ready communica¬
tion by fea between the different parts of thefe king¬
doms. This, of courfe, hinders the conjun&ion of
the fleets and fquadrons with each other, or at leaf!
renders it fo difficult as to be a perpetual check upon
thefe ambitious powers. It awes alfo the piratical
Hates of Barbary, and in like manner the emperor of
Morocco ; infomuch, that our commerce is more fafe
than that of any other European power, which gives
us great advantages in point of freight. It is other-
wife highly favourable to our trade in the Mediterra¬
nean and Levant. It procures us the refpedi of the Ita¬
lian and other powers ; who, though far diilant from
Britain, muft confider this as an inftance of her power
to hurt or affift them. It alfo faves us the cxpence of
fquadrons and convoys, upon any difputes or diftur-
bances that may happen among thofe powers, and
which would olherwife be neceffary for the prote&ion
of our navigation.
GIBSON (Richard), an Engliflr painter, com¬
monly called the Dwarf, was originarlly page to a'la-
dy at Mortlake ; who, obferving that his genius led
him to painting, had the generofity to get him in*
ftru&ed in the rudiments of that art. He devoted him¬
felf to Sir Peter Lely’s manner, and copied his pisftures
to admiration, efpecially his portraits: his paintings
in water-colours were alfo efteemed. He was in great
favour with Charles I. who made him his page of the
back-ftairs; and lie had the honour to inftrudt indrawing
queen Mary and queen Anne when they were princeffes.
He married one Mrs Anne Shepherd, who was alfo a
dwarf; on which occafion king Charles I. honoured
their marriage with his prefence, and gave away the
bride. Mr Waller wrote a poem on this occafion,
intitled “ The marriage of the Dwarfsin which are
thefe lines:
“ Defign or chance makes others wive,
“ But nature did this match contrive ;
“ £ve might as well have Adam fled,
“ As Ihe deny’d her little bed
“ To him, for whom heav’n feem’d to frame
“ And meafure out this only dame."
Mr Fenton, in his notes on this poem, obferves that
he had feen this couple painted by Sir Peter Lely;
and that they were of an equal ftature, each being
three feet ten inches high. However, they had nine
children, five of whom arrived at maturity ; thefe well
proportioned, and of the ufual ftandard of mankind.
But what nature denied this couple in ftature, (lie gave
them in length of days : for Mr Gibfon^ died in the
N' 139. ' J
36 ] GIB
75th year of his age ; and his wife, having furvived him Oibfon,
almoft 20 years, died in ! 709, aged 89. “‘"v—
Gibson (Dr Edmund), bifno'Ji of London, was
born in Weftmoreland, in 1669. He applied himfelf
early and vigoroufly to learning, and difplayed his
knowledge in feveral writings and tranflations, which
recommended him to the patronage of archbifliop
Tennifon. He was appointed domeftic chaplain to
his Grace ; and we foon after find him reftor of Lam¬
beth, and archdeacon of Surry. Becoming thus a
member of the convocation, he engaged in a contro-
verfy, which was carried on with great warmth by
the members of both houfes, and defended his pa¬
tron’s rights, as prefident, in eleven pamphlets ; he
then formed and completed his more comprehenfivc
fcheme of the legal duties and rights of the Engliih
clergy, which was at length publiihed under the title
of Cos/ex Juris Ecckjiajlici Anglicani, in folio. Arch-
bifhop Tennifon dying in 1715, and Dr Wake bifhop of
Lincoln being made archbifliop of Canterbury, Dr Gib-
fon fucceeded the latter in the fee of Lincoln, and in
1720 was promoted to the biffioprick of London. He
now not only governed his diocefe with the moll exaft
regularity, but by his great care promoted the fpiritual
affairs of the "church of England colonies in the Weft
Indies. He was extremely jealous of the leaft of the
privileges belonging to the church; and therefore,
though he approved of the toleration of the Proteftaut
Diffenters, he continually guarded againft all the at¬
tempts made to procure a repeal of the corporation
and teft adtsin particular, his oppofition to thofe li¬
centious affemblies called mafquerada, gave great um¬
brage at court, and effedtually excluded him from all
further favours. He fpent the latter part of his life
in writing and printing paftoral letters, vifitation-
charges, occafional fermons, and tradls againft the
prevailing immoralities of the age. His paftoral let¬
ters are juftly efteemed as the moil mafterly productions
againft infidelity and enthuiiafm. His inoft celebrated
work, the Codex, has been already mentioned. His
other publications are, 1. An edition of Drummond’s
Polemo-Middiana, and James V. of Scotland’s Can¬
tilena Rujlica, with notes. 2. The Chronicon Saxoni-
cum, with a Latin tranflation, and notes. 3. Reli-
quia Spelmanniana, the pofthumous works of Sir
Henry Spelman, relating to the laws and -antiquities
of England. 4. An edition of Quintilian de Arte
Oratoria, with notes. 5. An Englifti tranflation of
Camden’s Britannia, with additions, two volumes
folio : and, 6. A number of fmall pieces, that have been
cofledted together and printed in three volumes folio.—
His intenfe application to ftudy impaired his health;
notwithftanding which, he attained the age of 79. He
expired in September 1748, after an epifcopateof near
33 years.—With regard to bifhop Gibfon’s private life
and character, he was in every refpeCt a perfeCt econo-
mift. His abilities were fo well adapted to difcharge
the duties of his facred function, that, during the in¬
capacity of archbifhop Wake, the tranfadion of ec-
clefiaftical affairs was committed to the bifhop of Lon¬
don. He was a true friend to the eftablifhed church
and government, and as great an enemy to perfecu-
tion. He was ufually conlulted by the moft learned
and exalted perfonages in church and ftate, and the
great-
G I G [ 737 ] GIL
■Gideon greateft deference was paid to his judgment. He
. i! poffeffed the focial virtues in an eminent degree ; his
wfck6 beneficence was very extenfive ; and had fuch genero-
■ t - fity, that he freely gave two thoufand five hundred
pounds, left him by Dr Crow, who was once his
chaplain, to Crow’s own relations, who were very poor.
GIDEON the fon of Joafh, of the tribe of Manaf-
feh. He dwelt in the city of Ophrah ; and had a very
extraordinary call to deliver the Ifraelites from the op-
prefiion of the Midianites, to which they had be¬
come fubjeft after the death of Barak and Deborah.
Having effefted their deliverance by fupernatural aid,
he was chofen judge of Ifrael in the year of the world
2759, and died in 2768. (See Judges, Chap, vi, vii,
& viii.
GIFT, Donum, in law, is a conveyance which
paffeth either lands or goods; and is of a larger ex¬
tent than a grant, being applied to things moveable
and immoveable; yet as to things immoveable, when
taken ftridtly, it is applicable only to lands and tene¬
ments given in tail; but gift and grant are too often
confounded.
New-Year's Gift#, prefents made on new-year’s
day, as a token of the giver’s good-will, as well as by
way of prefage of a happy year.
This practice is very ancient, the origin of it among
the Romans being referred to Tatius king of the Sa¬
bines, who reigned at Rome conjointly with Romu¬
lus, and who having confidered as a good omen a pre-
fent of fome fprigs of vervain gathered in a wood con-
fecrated to Strenia the goddefs of ftrength, which he
received on the firft day of the new year, authorifed
this cuftom afterwards, and gave to thefe prefents the
name of Strense. However this may be, the Romans
on that day celebrated a feftival in honour of Janus,
and paid their refpefts at the fame time to Juno ; but
they did not pafs it in idlenefs, left they ftiould become
indolent during the reft of the year. They fent pre¬
fents to one another of figs, dates, honey, &c. to fhow
their friends that they wiihed them a happy and agree¬
able life. Clients, that is to fay thofe who were un¬
der the prote&ion of the great, carried prefents of
this kind to their patrons, adding to them a fmall
piece of filver. Under Auguftus, the fenate, the
knights, and the people, prefented fuch gifts to him,
and in his abfence depofited them in the Capitol. Of
the fucceeding princes fome adopted this cuftom, and
ethers aboliftied it, but it always continued among the
people. The early Chriftians condemned it, becaufe
it appeared to be a relique of Paganifm, and a fpecies
of fuperftition ; but when it began to have no other
objeft than that of being a mark of veneration and
efteem, the church ceafed to difapprove of it.
G1GG, Giga, or Jig, in mufic and dancing, a
gay, briik, fprightly compofition, and yet in full mea-
fure, as well as the allemand, which is more ferious.
Menage takes the word to arife from the Italian giga,
a mufical inftrument mentioned by Dante. Others
fuppofe it to be derived from the Teutonic gieg, or
ghiighe, “ a fiddle.” This is a favourite air in moft
nations of Europe : its chara&eriftic is duple time,
marked or : it confifts of two ftrains, without
eny determinate number of bars.
GIGGLEWICK, a town in the Weft Riding of
Yorkftiire, half a mile from Settle, ftands on the river
Vox.. VII. Part. II.
Ribble ; where, at the foot of a mountain, is a fpring, Gila*
the moft noted in England for ebbing and flowing II
fometimes thrice in an hour, and the water fubfides Gilfiert-
three quarters of a yard at the reflux, though the fea '"'‘'V*"'
is 30 miles off. At this town is an eminent free gram¬
mar fchool; and in the neighbourhood are dug up
flags, flate, and ftone, with a good lime-kiln.
GILAN, or Ghilan, a confiderable province of
Afia in Perlia, lying on the fide of the Cafpian fea,
and to the S. W. of it. It is fuppofed to be the Hyr-
cania of the ancients. It is very agreeably fituated,
having the fea on one fide and high mountains on
the other ; and there is no entering in but through
narrow pafles, which may eafily be defended. The
lides of the mountains are covered with many forts of
fruit-trees, and in the higheft parts of them .there are
deer, bears, wolves, leopards, and tygers; which
laft the Perfians have a method of taming, and hunt
with them as we do with dogs. Gilan is one of the
moft fruitful provinces of all Perfia; and produces
abundance of filk, oil, wine, rice, and tobacco, befides
.excellent fruits. The inhabitants are brave, and of a
better complexion than the other Indians, and the wo¬
men arre.accounted extremely handfome. Reflrt is the
capital town.
G1HON, (anc. geog.) one of the rivers of Para-
dife ; according to Wells, the eaftern branch of the
Euphrates, into which it divides after its conjunftioa
with the Tigris.
GILBERT, or Gilberd, (William), a phyfician,
was born at Colchefter in the year 1540, the el.left:
fon of the recorder of that borough. Having fpent
fome time in both univerfities, he wrent abroad ;
and at his return fettled in London, where he prafti-
fed with confiderable reputation. He became a mem¬
ber of the college of phyficians, and phyfician in or¬
dinary to Queen Elizabeth, who, we are told, gave
him a penfion to encourage him in his ftudies. From
his epitaph it appears that he was alfo phyfician to
King James T. He died in the year 1603, aged 63 ;
and was buried in Trinity-church in Colchefter, where
a handfome monument was ere&edto his memory. His
books, globes, inftruments, and foflils, he bequeath¬
ed to the college of phyficians, and his piclure to the
fchool-gallery at Oxford. He wrote, 1. De magnete,
magneticefque corporibus, et de magno magnete tellure,
phyfiohgia nova; London 1600, folio. 2. De mun-
do nojlro fublunari, phllofophia nova; Amfterdam 1651,
4to. He was alfo the inventor of two mathematical in¬
ftruments for finding the latitude at fea without the help
of foon, moon, or ftars A defeription of thefe in¬
ftruments was afterwards publiflted by Thomas Blon-
deville in his Tbeoriqucs__ of the planets.
Gilbert (Sir Humphrey], 4 brave officer and
fkilful navigator, was born about the year 1539, in
Devonfhire, of an ancient and honourable family.
Though a fecond fon, he inherited a confiderable for¬
tune from his father. He was educated at Eaton, and
afterwards at Oxford ; where probably he did not con¬
tinue long, as he hath efcaped the induftrious Antho¬
ny Wood. It feems he was intended to finifh his ftu¬
dies in the Temple ; but being introduced at court
by his aunt Mrs Catherine Afhley, then in the_queen’s
fervice, he was diverted from the ftudy of the law,
and commenced foldier. Having diftinguifhed him-
5 A felf
GIL L 738 1 GIL
Gilbert felf in fevcral military expeditions, particularly that
5 to Newhaven in 1563, he was fent over to Ireland to
Gl oa* affift in fuppreffing a rebellion ; where, for his fignal
fervices, he was made commander in chief and gover¬
nor of Munfter, and knighted by the lord deputy, Sir
Henry ^Sidney, on the firft day of the year 1570.
He returned foon after to England, where he married
a rich heirefs. Neverthelefs, in 1572, he failed with
a fquadron of nine Ihips to reinforce Colonel Morgan,
who at that time meditated the recovery of Flufhing.
Probably on his return to England he refumed his
cofmographical ftudies, to which he was naturally in¬
clined : for, in the year 1576, he publifhed his book
on the north-weft paffage to the Eaft Indies ; and as
Martin Frobilher failed the fame year, probably it was
in confequence of this treatife. In 157^* obtained
from the queen a very ample patent, empowering him
to difcover and poflefs in North America any lands then
unfettled. He failed to Newfoundland, but foon re¬
turned to England without fuccefs: neverthelefs, in
1583, he embarked a fecond time with five fhips, the
largeft of which put back on account of a contagious
diftemper on board. Our general landed on New¬
foundland on the third of Auguft, and on the fifth
took pofiefiion of the harbour of St John’s. By vir¬
tue of his patent, he granted leafes to feveral people ;
but though hone of them remained there at that time,
they fettled afterwards in confequence of thefe leafes :
fo that Sir Plumphrey deferves to be remembered as
the real founder of the vaft American empire. On the
20th of Auguft he put to fea again, on board a fmall
(loop; which on the 29th foundered in a hard gale of
wind. Thus periftied Sir Humphry Gilbert; a man
of quick parts, a brave foldier, a good mathemati¬
cian, a fkilful navigator, and of a very enterprifing
genius. We learn alfo, that he was remarkable for
his eloquence, being much admired for his patriotic
fpeeches both in the Englilh and Irifh parliaments. He
wrote “ A difcourfe to prove a paffage by the north-
weft to Cathaia and the Eaft Indies, printed Lond.
1576.” This treatife, which is a mafterly performance,
is preferved in Hakluyt’s colleftion of voyages, vol.
>iii. p. 1 t. The ftyle is fuperior to moft, if not to all,
the writers of that age ; and fhows the author to have
been a man of confiderable reading. He mentions,
at the clofe of this \york, another treatife on naviga¬
tion, which he intended to publifir : it is probably
loft.
GILBERT1NES, an order of religious, thus call¬
ed from St Gilbert of Sempringham, in the county of
Lincoln, who founded the fame about the year 1x48:
the monks of which obferved the rule of St Auguftine;
and were accounted canons : and the nuns that of St
Benedict.
The founder of this order erefted a double monafte-
ry, or rather two different ones, contiguous to each o-
ther, the one for men, the other for women,'but part¬
ed by a very high wall.
St Gilbert himfelf founded 13 monafteries of this
order, viz. four for men alone, and nine for men and
women together, which had in them 700 brethrea
and 1500 filters. At the diffolution there were about
25 houfes of this order in England and Wales.
GILBOA, (anc. geog.), mountains of Samaria,
firetching out from weft to eaft, on the confines of the
half tribe of Manaffeh, and of the tribe of Iffachar; Gilchrift
and to the fouth part of the valley of Jezreel, begin- I]
ning weftward at the city of Jezreel, fituatedat the foot Gl as'
of thefe mountains, reaching almoft quite to the Jor¬
dan, lying at the diftance of fix miles from Scythopo-
lis. Famous for the death of Saul and his fon Jona¬
than, and the defeat of the Ifraelites by the Phili-
ftines.
GILCHRIST (Dr Ebenezer), an eminent Scots
phyfician, veas born at Dumfries in 1707. He began
the ftudy of medicine at Edinburgh,, which he after¬
wards profecuted at London and Paris. He obtained
the degree of dodtor of medicine from the univerfity of
Rheims; and in the year 1732 he returned to the place
of his nativity, where he afterwards conftantly redded,
and continued the practice of medicine till his death.
It may with juftice be faid, that few phyficians of the
prefent century have exercifed theirprofelfion in a manner
more refpe&able or fuccefsful than Dr1 Gilchrift; and
few have contributed more to the improvement of the
healing art. Having engaged in bufinefs in an early
period of life, his attention was wholly devoted to ob-
fervation. Endowed by nature with a judgment acute
and folid, with a genius adtive and inventive, he foon
diftinguilhed himfeif by departing, in various important
particulars, from eftablifhed but unfuccefsful modes of
pradb’ce.' Several of the improvements which he in¬
troduced have procured him great and deferved reputa¬
tion, both at home and abroad. His pradtice, in or¬
dinary cafes, was allowed to be judicious, and placed
him high in the confidence and efteem of the inhabi¬
tants of that part of the country where he lived. But
his ufefulnefs was not confined to his own neighbour¬
hood. On many occafions he was confulted by letter
from the moft diftant parts of the country. In diffe¬
rent colledtions are to be found feveral of his perfor¬
mances, which prove that he had fomething new and
ufeful to offer upon every fubjedl to which he applied
himfelf. But thofe writings which do him the greateft
honour, are two long differtations on Nervous Fevers,
in the Medical Effays and Obfervations publifhed by a
Society in Edinburgh; and a treatife on the ufe of Sea-
voyages in medicine, which firft made its appearance in
the year 1757, and was afterwards re-printed in X77i.
By means of the former, the attention of phyficians was
firft turned to a fpecies of fever which is now found to
prevail univerfally in .this country; and the liberal ufe
of wine, which he was the firft among the moderns to
recommend, has fince been adopted in thefe fevers by
the moft judicious phyficians of the prefent age, and
has probably contributed not a little to the fuccefs of
their pradice. His treatife on Sea-voyages points out in
a manner fo clear, and fo much on the lure footing of
experience, their utility in various diftempers, particu¬
larly in confumptions, that there is now a profped of
our being able to employ a remedy in this untradable
difeafe much more efficacious than any hitherto in ufe.
Dr Gilchrift died in 1774.
GILD, or Guild. See Guild.
GILDAS (furnamed the Wife), was born in Wales
in the year 5 11. Where he was educated is uncer¬
tain ; but it appears from his own writings that he
was a monk. Some writers fay that he went over to
Ireland; others, that he vifited France and Italy.
They agree however in afferting, that after his return to
G I L
Gilding.
[ 739 ]
England he became a celebrated and moll afliduous
preacher of the gofpel. Du Pin fays he founded a
G I L
all the brilliancy of the metals beneath. Many orna- Gilding’,
ments of brafs are varnifhed in this manner, which is y—
Amongft the falfe gilding may alfo be reckoned
thofe which are made with thin leaves of copper or brafs,
called Dutch-leaf. In this manner are made all the
kinds of what is called gilt paper.
In the true guilding, gold is applied to the furface of
bodies. The gold intended for this purpofe ought in
when fkfl:
introduced
at Rome.
monaftery at Venetia in Britain. Gildas is the only called gold laquering, to diftinguilh them from thofe
Britilh author of the fixth century whofe works are which are really gilt. Silver-leaves thus varnilhed are
printed; they are therefore valuable on account of put upon leather, which is then called gilt leather. See
their antiquity, and as containing the only informa- Laquer.
tion we have concerning the times of which he wrote.
His Hiftory of Britain is, however, a very flimfy per¬
formance, and his ftyle obfcure and inelegant.
GILDING, the art of fpreading or covering a
thing oyer with gold, either in leaf or liquid. The
art of gilding was not unknown among the ancients,
though it never arrived among them at the perfeftion general to be beat into thin leaves, or otherwife divided
to which the moderns have carried it. Pliny affures into very fine parts,
us, that the firft gilding feen at Rome was after the As metals cannot adhere well merely by contact to Gilding
deftru&ion of Carthage, under the cenforlhip of Lucius any but to other metallic fubftances, when gold is to Wlt^^ze*
Mummius, when they began to gild the ceilings of be applied to the furface of fome unmetallic body, that
their temples and palaces ; the Capitol being the fill furface muft be previoully covered with fome gluey and
place on which this enrichment was bellowed. But tenacious fubttance, by which the gold ihall b6 made
he adds, that luxury advanced on them fo hallily, that to adhere. Thefe fubftances are in general calledfzcs.
in a little time you might fee all, even private and poor Some of thefe are made of vegetable and animal glues,
-perfons, gild the very walls, vaults, &c. of their and others of oily, gluey, and drying matters. Up¬
on them the leaves of gold are applied, and preffed
down with a little cotton or a hare’s foot; and when
the whole is dry, the work is to be finilhed and polilh-
houfes.
We need not doubt but they had the fame method
with tls, of beating gold, and reducing it into leaves ;
though it ftiould feem they did not carry it to the ed with a hard inftrument, called a dog's toothy to give
fame height, if it be true which Pliny relates, that luftre.
they only made 750 leaves of four fingers fquare out of
a whole ounce. Indeed he adds, that they could make ing rain
more ; that the thickeft were called braUea Pranejlina, with a
by reafon of a ftatue of the goddefs Fortune at Prte
When the work is required to be capable of refill- With ail,
• moillure, it ought to be previoufly covered
npofition of drying oil and yellow ochre
ground together; othervvife a water-fize may be ufed.
nefte gilt with fuch leaves ; and that the thinner fort which is prepared by boiling cuttings of parchment
were called hraclea quejlor'ue.
white leather in water, and by mixing with this fome
Ancient
Gilding ir
The modern gilders do alfo make ufe of gold-leaves chalk or whiting : feveral layers of this lize mull be
of divers thickneffes ; but there are fome fo fine, that laid upon the wood, and over thefe a layer of the fame
a thoufand do not weigh above four or five drachms, fize mixed with yellow ochre. Laftly, another mix-
The thickeft are ufed for gilding on iron and other ture, calledis to be applied above thefe; up-
metals; and the thinneft on wood. But we have ano- on which the gold-leaves are to be fixed. This gold
ther advantage over the ancients in the manner of ufing fize, the ufe of which is to make the gold-leaf capable
or applying the gold : the fecret of painting in oil, of being burniftied, is compofed of tobacco-pipe clay,
' difeovered of late ages, furnilhes us witLmeans of gild- ground with fome ruddle or black lead, and tempered
ing works that fhall endure all the injuries.of time and with a little tallow or oil of olives. The edges of glafles
weather, which to the ancients was impracticable, may be guilt by applying firft a very thin coat of var-
They had no way to lay the gold on bodies that nilh, upon which the gold-leaf is to be fixed; and when
would not endure the fire but with whites of eggs or the varnifn is hardened, may be burnifhed. This var-
fize, neither of which will endure the water; fo that nifhfis prepared by boiling powdered amber with linfeed
they could only gild fuch places as were Iheltered from oil in a brafs veffel to which a yalve is fitted, and by
the moifture of the weather.
The Greeks called the compofition
applied their gilding on wood kucophaum or leucophcrum;
which is deferibed as a fort of glutinous compound
earth, ferving in all probability to make the gold flick different. The furface of the metal to be gilt is firll metals.
diluting the above folution with four or five times its
which they quantity of oil of turpentine ; and that it may dry
1 '' fooner, it may be ground with fome white lead. 6
The method of applying gold upon metals is entirely Of gilding
and bear polifhing. But the particulars of this earth,
its colour, ingredients, &c. the antiquaries and natura-
lifls are not agreed upon.
The luftre and beauty of gold have occafioned feve-
to be cleaned; and then leaves are to be applied to it,
which, by means of rubbing with a polifned blood-
ftone, and a certain degree of heat, are made to ad¬
here perfectly well. In this manner filver-leaf is fixed
ral inquiries and difeoveries concerning the different and burniflred upon brafs in the making of what is call-
methods of applying it to different fubftances. Hence ed French plate, and fometimes alfo gold-leaf is burniftt-
the art of gilding is very extenfive, and contains many ed upon copper and upon ii
particular operations and various management.
A colour of gold is given by painting and by var-
Gold is applied to metals in feveral other manners.
One of theie is by previoufly forming the gold into a
L* nifties, without employing gold; but this is a falfe kind pafte or amalgam with mercury. In order to obtain
. of gilding. Thus a very fine golden colour is given a fmall amalgam of gold and mercury, the gold is firft
to brafs and to filver, by applying upon thefe metals a
gold-coloured varaifh, which, being tranfpaient, fhows
to be reduced into thin plates or grains, which are
heated red-hot, and thrown into mercury previoufly
5 A 2 heated,
G I L [-740 ] GIL
GUding heated, till it begins to fmoke. Upon flirring the
mercury with an iron rod, the gold totally difappears.
The proportion of mercury to gold is generally as fix
or eight to one.
With this amalgam the furface of the metal to be
gilded is to be coveted; then a fufficient heat is to be
applied to evaporate the mercury; and the gold is laftly
to be burniihed with a blood-ftone.
This method of gilding by amalgamation is chiefly
ufed for gilding copper, or an allay of copper, with a
fmall portion of zinc, which more readily receives the
amalgam ; and is alfo preferable for its colour, which
more refembles that of gold than the colour of cop¬
per. When the metal to be gilt is wrought or chafed, it
ought to be previoufly covered with quickfilver before
the amalgam is applied, that this may be eafier fpread:
but when the furface of the metal is plain, the amalgam
may be applied diredlly to it. The quickfilver or amal¬
gam is made to adhere to the metal by means of a little
aquafortis, which is rubbed on the metallic furface at the
fame time, by which this furface is cleanfed from any
ruft or tarnilh which might prevent the union or adhe-
fion of the metals. But the ufe of the nitrous acid in
this operation is not, as is generally fuppofed, confined
merely to cleanfe the furface of the metal to be gilt
from any ruft or tarniih it may have acquired ; but it
alfo greatly facilitates the application of the amalgam
Ufe of the t0 t^ie fur^ace °f t^at rnetal, probably in the following
l^itrous acid manner: It firft diffolves part of the mercury of the
ngildin. amalgam; and when this folution is applied to the cop-v
per, this latter metal having a ftronger difpofition to
finite with the nitrous acid than the mercury has, pre¬
cipitates the mercury upon its furface, in the fame man¬
ner as a poliihed piece of iron precipitates upon its fur¬
face copper from a folution of blue vitriol. When
the metal to be gilt is thus covered over with a thin
precip-itated coat of mercury, it readily receives the a-
malgam. In this folution and precipitation of mer¬
cury, the principal ufe of the nitrous acid in the pro-
cefs of gilding appears to confift. The amalgam be¬
ing equally fpread over the furface of the metal to be
gilt by means of a brulh, the mercury is then to be
evaporated by a heat juft fulficient for that purpofe ;
for if it be too great, part of the gold may alfo be ex¬
pelled, and part of it will run together, and leave fome
of the furface of the metal bare : while the mercury is
evaporating, the piece is to be from time to time
taken from the fire, that it may be examined, that the
amalgam may be fpread more equally by means of a
brulh, that any defeftive parts of it may be again co¬
vered, and that the heat may not be too fuddenly ap¬
plied to it: when the mercury is evaporated, which is
known by the furface being entirely become of a dull
yellow colour, the metal mull then undergo other ope¬
rations, by which the fine gold colour is given to
it. Firft, the gilded piece of metal is rubbed with a
fcratch brulh (which is a brulh compofed of brafs wire)
till its furface is made fmooth ; then it is covered over
with a compofition called gilding wax, and is again ex.-
pofed to the fire till the wax be burnt olf. This wax
is compofed of bees-wax, fometimes mixed with fome
of the following fubftances; red ochre, verdegrife, cop-
per-fcales, alum, vitriols, borax : but according to Dr
.Lewis, the faline fubftances alone are fufficient; with-
eut any wax. By this operation the cojour of the gild¬
ing is heightened ; and this effeft feems to be produ¬
ced by a perfect diffipation of fome mercury remaining
after the former operation. This diffipation is well ef-
fedted by this equable application of heat. The gilt
furface is then covered over with a faline compofition,
confiding of nitre, alum, or other vitriolic fait, ground
together, and mixed up into a pafte with water or urine.
The piece of metal thus covered is expofed to a certain
degree of heat, and then quenched in water. By this-
method its colour is further improved, and brought
nearer to that of gold. This effedt feems to be produ¬
ced by the acid of nitre (which is difengaged by the
vitriolic acid of the alum or other vitriolic fait during
the expofure to heat) adting upon any particles of cop¬
per which may happen to Ire on the gilded furface.
L^ftly, fome artifts think that they give an additional
luftre to their gilt-work by dipping it in a liquor
prepared by boiling fome yellow materials, as ful-
yffiur, orpiment, or turmeric. The only advantage
of this operation is, that a part of the yellow matter*
as the fulphur or turmeric, remains in fome of the
hollows of the carved work, in which the gilding is apt
to be more imperfedt, and to which it gives a rich and.
folid appearance.
Iron cannot be gilt by amalgamation, unlefs, as it is
faid, it be previoufly coated with copper by dipping in
a folution of blue vitriol. Iron may alio receive a gol¬
den coat from a faturated folution of gold in aqua-
regia, mixed with fpirit of wine, the iron having a great-.
er affinity with the acid, from which it therefore pre¬
cipitates the gold. Whether any of thefe two methods
be applicable to ufe, is uncertain: but the method com¬
monly employed of fixing gold upon iron is that a-
bove mentioned, of burmfhing gold-leaf upon this me¬
tal when heated fo as to become blue ; and the opera-;
tion will be more perfedl if the furface has been pre¬
vioufly fcratched or graved.
Another method is mentioned by authors of gilding
upon metals, and alfo upon earthen ware, and upon
glafs ; which is, to fufe gold with regulus of antimo¬
ny, to pulverife the mafs .which is fufficiently brittle.
to admit that- operation, to fpread this powder upon
the piece to be gilt, and expofe it toTuch a fire that
the regulus may be evaporated, while the gold re¬
mains fixed. The inconveniences of this method, acr
cording to Dr Lewis, are, that the powder does not
adhere to the piece, and cannot be equally fpread ;
that part of the gold is diffipated along with the regm-
lus; that glafs is fufible with the heat neceffary for the
evaporation of regulus of antimony ; and that copper
is liable to be corroded by the regulus, and to have its
furface rendered uneven.
Gilding.
On the fubjedl of gilding by amalgamation Dr Lewis Improve-:
has the following remarks. “ There are two principal cuts by
inconveniences in this bufinefs : One, that the work,- D‘ Lew‘®*'-
men are expofed to the fumes of the mercury, and gene¬
rally, fooneror later, have their health greatly impaired phn. Com**
by them.: the other, the lofs of the. mercury; for thq’ 0f Arts,:.
part of it is faid to be detained in cavities made in the
chimney for that purpofe, yet the greateft part of it is
loft. From fome trials I have made, it. appeared that
both thefe inconveniences, particularly the firft and
moft confideiable one, might in good meafure be a-
voided, by means of a furnace of a due conitrudlion. If
the comijauaication of a furnaqe with its chimneyj ifi-
ilead
G I L
' Gilding, ftead of being over the fire, is made under the grate,
U—>—~ the afh-pit door, or other apertures beneath the grate,
clofed, and the mouth of the furnace left open ; the
current of air, which otherwife would have entered be¬
neath, enters now at the top, and, pafling down thro’
the grate to the chimney, carries with it completely
both the vapour of the fuel and the fumes of fuch mat-
[ 74i 1
G I h
where the gold is eonne&ed with fubftances incapableof Gilding,
bearing fire, may be reftored to their colour by the fame .
means. 10
“ The, foregoing procefs is given entirely on the Another^
authority of the Frensh writer. I have had no expe-lnct^0^*'
rience of it myfelf, but have feen very elegant figures of
gold raifed upon filver, on the fame principle, by a
ters as are placed upon it: the back part of the fur- different procedure. Some cinnabar was ground, not
nace fhould’ be raifed a little higher above the fire than
the fore part, and an iron plate laid over it, that the air
may enter only at the front, where the workman ftands,
who will be thus effectually fecftred from the fumes, and
from being incommoded by the heat, and at the fame
time have full liberty of introducing, infpe&ing, and^
removing the work. If fuch
{Irong forged (not milled) ir
ith the diftilled fpirit, but with the expreffed juice of
garlick, a fluid remarkably tenacious. This mixture
was fpread all over the polifhed filver ; and when the
firfl layer was dry, a fecond, and after this a third, was
applied. Over thefe were fpread as many layers of
another mixture, cdmpofed chiefly of afphaltum and
furnace is made of linfted oil boiled down to a due confluence. The whole
plate, it will be fuffi- being dried with a gentle heat on a kind of wire-
ciently durable: the upper end of the chimney may grate, the figures were traced and cut down to the fil-
reach above a-foot and a half higher than the level of ver fo as to make its furface rough : the incifions were
the fire: over this is to be placed a larger tube, lea- filled with an amalgam of gold, raifed to different
ving an interval of an inch or more ail round between heights in different parts according to the nature of the
it and the chimney, and reaching to the height of 10 defign ; after which a gentle fire, at the fame time that
or 12 feet, the higher the better. The external air, it evaporated the mercury, deftroyed the tenacity of
pafling up between the chimney and the outer pipe, the gummy juice, fo that the coating, which ferved to
prevents the latter from being much heated, fo that the confine the amalgam, and as a guide in the application
mercurial fumes will condenfe againlt its lidts into run- of it, was now ealily got off. The gold was then
ning <*uickfilver, which, falling down to the bottom, prefled down and embclliflied as in the former method;
is there catched in a hollow rim, formed by turning, inr and had this advantage, that the futface of the filver
wards a portion of the lower part, and conveyed, by a under it having been made rough, it adhered more
pipe at one fide, into a proper receiver. firmly, fo as not to be in danger of coming off, as M.
“ Mr Hellot communicates, in the Memoirs of the^-du-Fay fays the gold applied in his way fometimes did.
French Academy for the year 1745, a meth°d of ma- ' The artift, however, found the procefs fo troublefome.
M du
thod of rai ki ra;ft;d ggUrc8 0f gold on works of gold or filver,
gu*® found among the papers of M. du Fay, and of which
M. du Fay himfelf had feen feveral trials. Fine gold in
powder, fuch as refults from the parting of gold and
filver by aquafortis, is directed to be laid in a heap on
a levigating Hone, a cavity made in the middle of the
heap, and half its weight of pure mercury put into
the cavity ; fome of the fetid fpirit obtained from
garlic root by diflillation in a retort, is then to be ad¬
ded, and the whole immediately mingled and ground
with a muller till the mixture is reduced into an uni¬
form grey powder. The powder js to be ground with
lemon juice to the confiftence of paint, and applied on
the piece previoufly well cleaned and rubbed over with
the lame acid juice : the figures drawn with it may be
that though he purchafed the receipt for a confiderable
fum, he has laid the pra&ice afide.”
Finally, fome metals, particularly filver, may be gilt
in the following manner : ir
Let gold be diffolved in aqua-regia. In this fold-F.afy me*
tion pieces of linen are to be dipt, and burnt to black.^yj? ,
afhes. Thefe afhes being rubbed on the furface of the ' '
filver by means of a.wet linen rag, apply the particles
of gold which they contain, and which by this method
adhere very well. The-remaining part of the afhes is
to be wafhed off; and the furface of the filver,_which
in this flate does not feem to be gilt, is to be burnifh-
ed with a blood-ftone, till it acquire a fine colour of
gold. This method, of gilding, is very e?.ry, and con-
fumes a very fmall quantity of gold. Moil gilt orna-
raifed to any degree by repeating the application. The ments upon fans, fnuff-boxes,' and other toys of much
piece is expofed to a gentle fire till the mercury is eva¬
porated fo as to leave the gold yellow, which is then to
be preffed down, and rubbed with the finger and a
little fand, which makes it appear folid and brilliant:
after this it may be cut and embellifhed. T.he. author
obferves, that being of a fpongy texture, itis more ad-
fhow and little value, are nothing but .filver gilt in this
manner.
Gold may alfo be applied to glafs, porcelain, and o-
ther vitrified matters. As the fuiiace of thefe matters
is very fmooth, and confequently is capable of a very
perfect contact with gold leaves, thefe leaves adhere to
liable to cut it with a chifiel than to raife it with a them with fome force, although' they are not of mp-
graver ; that it has an imperfedtion of being always
pale ; and that it would be a defirable thing to. find
means of giving it colour, as by this method ornaments
might be made of exquifite beauty and with great fa¬
cility. As the paleneis appears to proceed from a part lulfre.
tallic nature. This gilding is fo muqh more perfeiS;,
as the gold is more exactly applied to the furface of of gilding r
the glafs.. The pieces are then to be.expofed to a cer-glafs.
’ 1 degree' of heat, and burnifhed flightly to give them
of the mercury retained by the gold, I apprehend it
might be remedied by the prudent application ol a
little warm aquafortis, which, diflblving the nurcury
from the exterior part, would give at. leal! a.fuperticial
high colour: if the piece is lilver,,it mu ft be defend¬
ed from the aquafortis by covering it with wax. In-
fttuments or ornaments of gold, ftained by mercury,
A more fubftantial gilding is fixed upon glafs, ena¬
mel,, and porcelain, by applying to thefe fubftances
powder of gold mixed with a folution of gum arabic,
or with fume eflential oil, and a fmall quantity of bo¬
rax ; after which a fufficienuheat is to be applied-to faf-
ten the glafs and the gold, which is then to be burjrifh-
ed. With this mixture any figures may be drawn.
The e
GIL L 742 ] GIL
GHead Thf powders for this purpofe may be made, 1. By
grinding gold-leaf with honey, which is afterwards
to be wafhed away with water. 2. By diftilling to
drynefs a folutiori of gold in aqua-regia. 3. By eva¬
porating. the mercury from an amalgam of gold, taking
care to ftir well the mafs near the end of the procefs.
4. By precipitating gold from its folution in aqua-re¬
gia by applying to it a folution of green vitriol in wa¬
ter, or feme copper, and perhaps fome other metallic
fubitances.
GILEAD, the fori of Machir, and grandfon-of
Minaffeh, had his inheritance allotted him in the moun¬
tains of Gilead, from whence he took his name. The
mountains of Gilead were part of that ridge which
runs from mount Lebanon fouthward, on the eaft of
the Holy Land; gave their name to the whole country
which lies on the eaft of the fea of Galilee, and inclu¬
ded the mountainous region called in the New Tefta-
ment Trcichomth. Jeremiah (xxii. 6.) feems to fay,
that Gilead begins from mount Libanus. ‘ Thou art
Gilead unto me, and the head of Lebanon.’ Jjcob,
at his return from Mefopotamia, came in fix days to
the mountains of Gilead (Gen. xxxi. 21, &c.) where
this patriarch, with Laban his father-in-law, raifed'a
heap of ftones, in memory of their agreement and co¬
venant, and called it Gaked, i. e. “ an heap of wit-
neffes,” and which Laban called Jegar-fahadutha. Thefe
mountains were covered with a fort of trees abounding
with gum, called the balm of Gilead, which the ferip-
ture commends much. (Jef. viii. 21. xlvi. n.li. 8.) The
merchants who bought Jofeph came from Gilead, and
were carrying balm into Egypt. (Gen. xxxvii. 25.)
The Gileadites being invaded by the Ammonites,
&c. chofe Jephthah for their general, who vanquifhed
all their enemies.
Balm of Gilead. See Amyris.
GILGAL (anc. geog.), a place between Jericho
and Jordan, noted for the firft encampment of the If-
rrelites on this fide Jordan, about a mile from Jeri¬
cho. It fometimes alfo denotes Galilee, (Joftuiaxii.23.)
GILL (John), D. D. a Proteftant diflenting mini-
fter of the Baptift denomination, and the fon of Ed¬
ward and Elizabeth Gill, was born at Kettering in
Northamptonfhire, November 23. 1697. At a very
early period of life, his father, who was a deacon of
the Baptift church at Kettering, difeovered in him an
uncommon capacity for learning; and his ability for
literary purfuits was afterwards evidenced by fuch rapid
progrefs in whatever became the objeft of tuition, that
it was found neceflary to remove him from the fchool
in wdiich his ftriking talents were firft manifefted, and
to place him in one more favourable to his improve¬
ment. He was therefore fent to a grammar fchool in
the neighbourhood; where he very foon furpafied thofe
boys who wxre much his feniors in age and as pupils.
At this fchool he continued till he arrived at his nth
year; where, befides going through the common
fchool-books, he read moft of the Latin claffics, and
made very confiderable proficiency in the Greek lan-
guage.
Mr Gill’s celebrity as a fcholar, and his ftrong at¬
tachment to books,, were foon obferved by the neigh¬
bouring clergy, who frequently met and converfed with
him at a bookfeller’s (hop, to which he at every op¬
portunity reforted for the purpofe of reading; and
indeed fuch was his application to books, that it be- Gill,
came a proverbial faying among the common people,
“ Such a thing is as certain, as that John Gill is in
the bookfeller’s Ihop.”
He left the grammar fchool, however, early in life.
This was occafiorted by the imperious conduct of his
mafter, who infilled that the children of diflenting pa¬
tents Ihould, with other fcholars that belonged to the
eftablilhment, attend him to church on week days du¬
ring the performance of divine fervice. The difienterS
confidered this requifition as a ftretch of power to
which his engagements with them gave no claim ; and
as it was virtually making conformity a teft by which
his pupils were to expedt the benefits of tuition, they
refented his conduft ; and thd children of thofe parents
that were in affluent circumftances were removed to
feminaries where the fame advantages might be ob¬
tained without being fubjedl to the impofitions of cle¬
rical bigotry. But as the parents of Mr Gill had it
not in their power to confer on him the fame privi¬
lege, the fame fteps could not be taken to facilitate
his advancement in learning. To pave the way, how¬
ever, for the completion of his ftudies, efforts were
made by feveral minifters, of different denominations,
to get him uport one or other of the funds in London.
For this purpofe, fpecimens of his progrefs in the dif¬
ferent branches of literature were tranfmitted to the
metropolis: in anfwer to which it was obje&ed, “ that
he was too young, and that fhould he continue, as it
might be expedled he would, to make fuch rapid ad¬
vances in his ftudies, he would go through the com¬
mon circle before he could be capable of taking care
of himfelf, or of being employed in any public fervice.”
But thefe formidable objections were of no weight
with our young fcholar: his love of learning was un¬
conquerable. Infuperable difficulties, it is true, ob-
ftrudled the. way in which literary eminence is ufually
acquired; but thefe difficulties could neither reprefs
his ardent defire of knowledge, nor damp the zeal and
application that had marked his former ftudies. For
though his time was daily devoted to the bufinefs of
his father ; yet he had fo far improved the hours of
leifure, as to be able, before he arrived at his 19th
year, to read all the Greek and Latin authors that
fell in his way. He ftudied logic, rhetoric, moral and
natural philofophyj; and learnt the Hebrew language,
fo as to read it with eafe, without any other afiiftafice
than Buxtorf’s grammar and lexicon.
Neither the purfuit of learning, however, nor the
other neceflary avocations incumbent on Mr Gill, could
eradicate thofe religious impreflions received in early
life. * On November 1. 1716, he made a public pro-
feffion of his faith before the Baptift church at Ket¬
tering, and was baptized the fame day by Mr Tho¬
mas Wallis. Of this church Mr Gill had not been long
a member before he was called to the work of the
miniftry : foon after which, he removed to Higham-
Ferrers, with a view to purfue his ftudies under the
diredlion of Mr Davis; but his flay at this place was
foon interrupted by an invitation from London in
1719, to preach to the Baptift church in Horflydown,
over which he was the fame year, being the 2zd of his
age, ordained pallor; which office he fuftained up¬
wards of 51 years.
Mr Gill had not been long in Hondon before rab¬
binical
GIL' [ 743 1 GIL
Gill, binical learning, of which he had before confiderable
""Y*""** knowledge, became an objedt of purfuit. To facili¬
tate his progrefs through the intricacies of this laby¬
rinth, he contrafted an acquaintance with one of the
moft. learned Jewifh rabbies. He read the Targums,
the Talmuds, the Rabbot; their ancient commenta¬
ries, the book Zohar, and whatever elfe of this kind
he was able to procure. Of the Oriental languages he
made himfelf a complete mafter : in fhort, there was no
branch of knowledge that could either enlarge or en¬
rich biblical learning, which, however difficult, was
not attempted and attained : and it may be truly af-
ferted, that in this line he had but few equals, and that
the annals of literature do not exhibit a chara&er by
whom he was excelled.
In 1748 Mr Gill publiffied a commentary on the
New Teftament in three vols folio. The immenfe
reading and learning difcoverable in this arduous work,
jattra&ed the attention of the Marifehal College and
Univeyfity of Aberdeen ; and procured for him, with-
put either his folieitation or his knowledge, a diploma,
creating him Doftor in divinity. This intelligence
was communicated to, the Dodlor in the moft hand-
fome terms by the profeflbrs Olborn and Pollock; who
declared, “ that on account of his knowledge of the
fcriptures,. of the Oriental languages, and of Jewiffi
antiquities, of his learned defence of the fcriptures a-
gainft Deifts and Infidels, and the reputation gained
by his other works ; the univerfity had, without his
privity, unanimoufly agreed to confer on him the de¬
gree of Do&or in divinity.”
Dr Gill’s fentiments, as a divine, were throughout
Calviniftic: “ And perhaps no man (fays the Reverend
Mr Toplady, a minifter in the church of England)
fmce the days of Auftin, has written fo largely in de¬
fence of the fyftem of grace ; and certainly no man
has treated that momentous fubjeft in all its brandies,
more clofely, judicioufly, and fuccefsfuUy. What was
faid of Edward the black prince, that he never fought
a battle which he did not win ; what has been remark¬
ed of the great Duke of Marlborough, that he never
undertook a fiege which he did not carry ; may be
juftly accommodated to our great philofopher and di¬
vine ; who, fo far as the diftinguifiiing dodrines of the
gofpel are concerned, never befieged an error which
he did not force from its ftrongholds, nor ever en¬
countered an adverfary whom he did not baffle and
fubdue. His learning and labours, if exceedable,
were exceeded only by the invariable fandity of his
life and converfation. From his childhood to his
entrance on the miniftry, and from his entrance on
the miniftry to the moment of his difiblution, not
one of his moft inveterate oppofers was ever able to
charge him with the lead ffiadow of immorality.
Himfelf, no lefs than his writings, demonftrated that
the dodrine of grace does not lead to licentiopfnefs.
Thofe who had the honour and happinefs of being
admitted into the number of his friends, can go
ftill farther in their teftimony. They know that his
moral demeanor was more than blamelefs : it was from
firft to laft confidently exemplary. And indeed an
undeviating confiftency, both in his views of evange¬
lical truths, and in his obedience as a fervant of God,
was one of thofe qualities by which his call of charac¬
ter was eminently marked. He was in every refped
3
a burning and a fhining light : Burning with love to Gill
God, to truth, and to fouls; Ihining as an example to H
believers, in word, in faith, .in purity, a pattern of Gilling-
good works, and a model of all holy cpnverfation and  
godlinefs; and while true religion and found learning
have a fingle friend remaining in the Britifh empire,
the works and name of Gill will be precious and re¬
vered ”
He died at Camberwell, Oftober 14. 1771, ag ed
73 years 10 months and 10 days. In 1718 the Doc¬
tor married Mrs Elizabeth Negus; by whom he had
many children, two of whom only furvived him. Mrs
Gill died in 1764.
His works are, A Commentary on the Old and New
Teftament, in 9 vols folio. A Body of Divinity in 3 vols
quarto. The Caufe of God and Truth, 4 vols odtavo.
A Treatife concerning the Prophecies of the Old Tef¬
tament refpedling the Meffiah. A Diflertation on the
antiquity of the Hebrew Language, Letters, Vowel-
Points, and Accents. Sermons on the Canticles, folio;
befides a great number of fermons and controverlial
pieces on different fubjects.
Gill, a meafure of capacity, containing a quarter
of an Englifti pint.
GILLS, or Branchi.® of fifties. See Compare?
Tifr'E Anatomy, n° 160.
GILLINGHAM, a parifti in the county of Dor-
fetfhire, on the river Stour, near the foreft of its own
name; where, anno 1016, king Edmund Ironfide van-
quiftied the Danes. It is one of the lafgeft parilhes in
the county, being 41 miles in circuit, containing 64,000
acres. It lies on the borders of Wilts and Somerfet,
4 miles N. W. of Shaftlbury. It has a ma'nufadlure
of linen, but the chief produce is grazing and the
dairies. Near it are the traces of an ancient refidence
of Norman or Saxon kings, 320 feet long and 240
broad, furrounded by a rampart of earth. Henry I.
refided here, and king John repaired it at the expence
of the county. Edward I. fpent his Chriftmas here in
1270 ; but the whole of the materials are removed,
and the foundation of the houfe- only can be traced,
which was in the form of the letter L, in length 180
feet by 80 broad, and the foot of the letter 48 by 40.
The area of the houfe containing 168,000 fquare feet.
It flood half a mile from the church, on the read to
Shafton, encompaffed by a moat, now dry, in fome
places 9 feet deep and 20 broad. The rampart ap¬
pears to have been 30 feet thick. Here is a free
fchool, a large old building, and a werkhoufe, as well
as two ftone bridges. In 1694 It received damage of
near 4000I. by a fire. Near it is Giliingham foreft,
four miles long and one mile broad. The church is a
large ancient fabrick.
Gillingham, a parifh of Kent, three miles below
Chatham, and on the fame fide of the Medway. Part
of Chatham-dock is in this parifh; and here is a caftle
well furnifhed with guns that commands the river,
there being no lefs than 170 embvSzurcs for cannon ;
which would flop the progrefs of any enemy that fhould
happen to make way by Sheernefs-fort, before they
could reach Chatham. Idere are alfo copperas works.
At this place 600 Norman gentlemen, who came over
in the retinue of the two princes Alfred and Edward,
were all barbaroufly murdered by earl Godwin. It
was in remote times the property of the archbiihop of
Canterbury,
GIL L 744 J GIL
tfUolo, 'Canterbury, who had here an elegant palace, the o]d
Giipin. 0f whieh is now converted to a barn : it is built
i—'-'Y'"-- principally of ilint, but the windows are filled up with
brick. Near it are the remains of the chapel, &c. and
a great part of the whole of its original outer walls
may be traced.
GILOLO, a large ifland of the Pacific Ocean, ly¬
ing between i° S. Lat. and 2° N. Lat. and between
}25° and 128° E. Long. It belongs to the Dutch ;
■but does not produce any of the fine fpices. tho’ it lies
in the neighbourhood of the fpice-iflands. The natives
■ are fierce and cruel favages.
GILPIN (Bernard), re&or of Houghton, diftin-
•guifiled by his extraordinary piety and hofpitality, was .
-defcended from an ancient and honourable family in
Weftmoreland, and born in 1517. As he was bred
in the Catholic religion, fo he for fome time defended
it againft the reformers, and at Oxford held a difputa-
tion with Hooper afterward bifiiop of Worcefter and
martyr for the Proteftant faith; but was ftaggered in
another difputation with Peter Martyr, and began fe-
rioufly to examine the contefted pcfints by the bell au¬
thorities. Thus, being prefented to the vicarage of
Norton in the diocefe of Durham, he foon refigned it,
■and went abroad t» confult eminent profeffors on both
fides ; and after three years abfence returned a little
•before the death of queen Mary, fatislled in the gene¬
ral do&rines of the reformation. He was kindly re¬
ceived by his uncle Dr Tonftall, bifiiop of Durham ;
who foon after gave him the archdeaconry of Durham,
to which the redlory of Effington was annexed. When
.repairing to his parifii, though the perfecution was
then at its height, he boldly preached againfi the vices,
errors, and corruptions of the times, efpecially in the
-clergy, on which a charge confiding of 13 articles was
drawn up againft him, and prefented in form to the
bifhop. But Dr Tonftall found a method ofdifmiffing
the caufe in fuch a manner as to protedf his nephew,
without endangering himfelf, and foon after prefented
.him to the rich living of Houghton le Spring. He was
a fecond time accufed to the bilhop, and again protec¬
ted ; when his enemies, enraged at this fecond defeat,
laid their complaint before Dr Bonner, biftiop of Lon¬
don ; who immediately gave orders to apprehend him.
■Upon which Mr Gilpin bravely prepared for maityr-
dom ; and ordering his houfe-fteward to provide him
a long garment that he might make a decent appear¬
ance at the flake, fet out for London. Luckily, how¬
ever, he broke his leg on the journey ; which pro¬
tracted his arrival until the news of the queen’s death
freed him from all further apprehenfions. Being imme¬
diately fet at liberty, he returned to Houghton, where
he was received by his pariftiioners with the fincereft
joy-
Upon the deprivation of the Popifh biftiops, he was
offered the fee of CaiMe, which he declined ; and con¬
fining his attention to his redory, difeharged all the
-duties of his function in the moll exemplary manner.
To the greateft humanity and courtefy, he added an
■unwearied application to the inflrudion of thofe under
his care. He was not fatisfied with the advice he gave
in public, but ufed to inftrudt in private ; and brought
his pavifhioners to come to him with their doubts and
difficulties. He had a moft engaging manner towards
■thofe .whom he thought well-difpofed: nay, his very
N° 139-
reproof was fo conduded, that it feldom gave offence; Gl!P
the becoming gentlenefs with which it was urged, made ^
it always appear the effed of friendfhip. Thus, with
unceafing affiduity, did he employ himfelf in admonifh-
ing the vicious, and encouraging the well-intentioned ;
by which means, in a few years, he made a greater
change in his neighbourhood than could well have
been imagined. A remarkable inftance, what reforma¬
tion a fingle man may effed, when he hath it earneftly
at heart!
But his hopes were not fo much in the prefent gene¬
ration, as in the fucceeding. It was an eafier talk, he
found, to prevent vice, than to corred it; to form the
young to virtue, than to amend the bad habits of the
old. He employed much of his time, therefore, in
endeavouring to improve the minds of the younger part
of his pariffi ; fuffering none to grow up in an igno¬
rance of their duty; but preffing it as the wifeft part .
to mix religion with their labour, and amidft the cares
of this life to have a conftant eye upoq the next. He
attended to every thing which might be of fervice to
his parifhioners. He was very affiduous in preventing
all law-fuits among them. His hall is faid to have been
often thronged with people, who came to him about
their differences. He was not indeed much acquaint¬
ed with law ; but he could decide equitably, and that
fatisfied : uor could his fovereign’s commiffion have gi¬
ven him more weight than his own charader gave
him.
His hofpitable manner of living was the admiration
of the whole country. He fpent in his family every
fortnight 40 hufhels of corn, 20 bufhels of malt, and a
whole ox; befides a proportionable quantity of othef
kinds of provifion.' Strangers and travellers found a
cheerful reception. All were welcome that came; and
even their beafts had fo much care taken of them, that
it was humoroufly faid, “ If a horfe was turned loofe
in any part of the country, it would immediately make
its way to the rector of Houghton’s.”
Every Sunday, from Michaelmas till Eafter, was a
fort of public day with him. During this feafon he
expeded to fee all his parifhioners and their families.
For their reception, he had three tables well covered :
the firft was for gentlemen, the fecond for hufbandmen
and farmers, and the third for day-labourers. This
piece of hofpitality he never omitted, even when Ioffes,
or a fcarcity of provifion, made its continuance rather
difficult to him. He thought it his duty, and that
was a deciding motive. Even when he was abfent
from home, no alteration was made in his family-ex-
pences; the poor were fed as ufual, and his neighbours
entertained.
But notwithftanding all this painful induftry, and
the large foope it had in fo extended a parifti, Mr Gil¬
pin thought the fphere of his benevolence yet too con¬
fined. It grieved him extremely to fee every where,
in the parilhes around him, fo great a degree qf igno¬
rance and fuperftition, occafibned by the (hameful ne-
gletl of the pa;Loral care in the clergy of thofe parts.
Thefe bad confequences induced him to fupp'ty, as
far as he could, what was wanting in others. For
this purpofe, every year he ufed regularly to vifit the
moft neglebled panfhes in Northumberland, York-
ffiire, Cheffiire, Weftmoreland, and Cumberland ; and
that his own pariffi in the mean time might not fuffer.
GIL [ 745 1 GIL
he was at the expence of a conftant affiflant. In each
place he ftaid two or three days ; and his method
was, to call the people about him, and lay before
them, in as plain a way as pofiible, the danger of
leading wicked or even carelefs lives; explaining to
them the nature of true religion ; inftrufting them in
the duties they owed to God, their neighbour, and
themfelves: and Ihowing them how greatly a moral and
religious conduft would contribute to their prcfent as
well as future happinefs.
As Mr Gilpin had all the warmth of an enthufiaft,
though under the direftion of a very calm and fober
judgment, he never wanted an audience, even in the
vvildeft parts ; where he roufed many to a fenfe of reli¬
gion, who had contra&ed the moll inveterate habits
of inattention to every thing of a ferious nature. And
wherever he came, he ufed to vilit all the gaols and
places of confinement; few in the kingdom having at
that time any appointed minifter. And by his labours,
and affeflionate manner of behaving, he is faid to
have reformed many very abandoned perfons in thofe
places. He would employ his intereft Ijkewife for
fuch criminals whofe cafes he thought attended with
any hard circumllances, and often procured pardons
for them.
There is a tradl of country upon the border of Nor¬
thumberland, called Readf-dale and 'Tine-dale, of all
barbarous places in the north, at that time the moft
barbarous. Before the Union, this place was called
the debaleable land, as fubjeft by turns to England and
Scotland, and the common theatre where the two na¬
tions were continually a£ting their bloody fcenes. It
was inhabited by a kind of defperate banditti, render¬
ed -fierce and adiive by conftant alarms : they lived by
theft, ufed to plunder on both fides of the barrier; and
what they plundered on one, they expofed to fale on
the other; by that means efcaping juftice. And in
this dreadful country, where no man would even travel
that could help it, Mr Gilpin never failed to Ipend
fome part of every year.
He -generally chofe the Chrillian holidays for his
journey, becaufe he found the people at that feafon
moil difengaged, and moft eafily affembled. He had
let places for preaching, which were as regularly at¬
tended as the affize towns of a circuit, if h.e came
vyhere there was a church, he made ufe of it: if pot,
of barns, or any other large building ; where great
crowds of people were fure to attend him, fome for his
inftruftions, and others for his charity.—This was a
very difficult and "laborious employment. The coun¬
try was fo poor, that what provilion he could get, ex¬
treme hunger only could make palatable. The incle¬
mency of the weather, and the badnefs of the roads
through a mountainous country, and at that feafon co¬
vered with fnow, expofed him likewife often to great
hardihips. Sometimes he was overtaken by the night,
tire country being in many places defolate for feveral
miles together, and obliged to lodge out in the cold.
At fuch times, we are told, he would make his fervant
ride about with his horfes, whilil himfelf on foot ufed
as much exercife as his age and the fatigues of the pre¬
ceding day would permit. All this he cheerfully under¬
went ; efteeming fuch fervices well compenfated by the
advantages which he hoped might accrue from them to
his uninftru&ed fellow-creatures.
You VII. Part II.
The difintcrefted pains he took among thefe barba- Gdp>
rous people, and the good offices he was always ready
to do them, drew from them the warmeft and (incereit
expreffions of gratitude. Indeed, he was little lefs than
adored among them, and might have brought the
whole country almoft to what he pleafed. One in-
ftance that is related, (hows how greatly he was reve¬
red. By the careleffnefs of his fervants, his horfes
were one day ftolen. The news was quickly propaga¬
ted, and every one expreffed the highell indignation at
the fadt. The thief was rejoicing over his prize, when,
by the report of the country, he found whofe horfes he
had taken. Terrified at what he had done, he inftant-
ly came trembling back, confeffed the fa6l, returned
the horfes, and declared he believed the devil would
have feized him diredlly, had he carried them off know¬
ing them to have been Mr Gilpin’s.
We have already taken notice of Mr Gilpin’s un¬
commonly generous and. hofpitable manner of living.
The value of his re&ory was about 400 1. a-year : an
income, indeed, at that time very coniiderable, but yet
in appearance very unproportionate to the generous
things he did: indeed, he could not have done them,
unlefs his frugality had been equal to his generofity.
His friends, therefore, could not but Wonder to find
him, anaidil his many great and continual expences, en¬
tertain the defign of building and endowing a gram-
mar-fehool: a dellgn, however, which his exa6t eco¬
nomy foon enabled him to accomplifti, though the ex¬
pence of it amounted to upwards of 500 1. His fchool
was no fooner opened, than it began to flouriffi; and
there was fo great a refort of young people to it, that
in a little time the town was not able to accommodate
them. He put himfelf, therefore, to the inconvenience
of fitting up a part of his own houfe for that purpofe,
where he feldom had fewer than 20 or 30 children.
Some of thefe were the fons of perfons of diftinclion,
whom he boarded at eafy rates : but the greater part
were poor children, whom he not only educated, but
clothed and maintained : he was at the expence like¬
wife of boarding in the town many other poor children,
He ufed to bring feveral every year from the different
parts where he preached, particularly Readf-dale and
Tine-dale; which places he was at great pains in ci¬
vilizing, and contributed not a little towards rooting
out that barbarifm which every year prevailed lefs a-
mong them.
As to his fchool, he not only placed able mafters in
it, whom he procured from Oxford, but himfelf like-
wife conilantly infpe&ed it. And, that encouragement
might quicken the application of his boys, he always
took particular notice of the moft forward : he would
call them his own fcholafs, and Would fend for them
often into his ftudy, and there inftrudl them himfelf.
One method ufed b) him to fill his fchool was a little
fingular. Whenever he met a .poor boy upon the road,
.he would make trial of his capacity by a few queftions;
and if he found it fuch as pleafed him, he would pro¬
vide for his education. And befides thofe whom he
fent from his own fchool to the univeriities, and there
wholly maintained, he would likewife give to others,
who were in circumftances to do fomething for them¬
felves, what farther affiftance theyi needed. By which
means he induced many parents to allow their children
a liberal education', who otherwife would not have done
5 B rS,
GIL [ 746 j GIN
Gilpin, it, And Mr Gilpin did not think it enough to afford
“"“"V—the means only of an academical education to thefe
young people, but-endeavoured to make it as benefi¬
cial to them as he. could. He ftill confidered himfelf
as thtir proper guardian ; and feemed to think himfelf
bound to the public for their being made ufeful mem¬
bers of it, as far as it lay in his power to make them
fo. With this view he held a punctual correfpond-
ence with their tutors; and made the youths them-
felves frequently write to him, and give him an ac¬
count of their ftudies. So folicitous indeed was he
about them, knowing the many temptations to which
their age and fituation expofed them, that once every
other year he generally made a journey to the univer-
fities to infpedt their behaviour. And this uncommon
care was not unrewarded ; for many of his fcholars be¬
came ornaments to the church, and exemplary inftanees
of piety.
To the account that hath been already given of Mr
Gilpin’s hofpitality and benevolence, the following par¬
ticulars may be added. Every Thurfday throughout the
year, a very large quantity of meat was drefied wholly
for the poor; and every day they had what quantity
of broth they wanted. Twenty-four of the pooreft were
his conftant penfioners. Four times in the year a dinner
was provided for them ; when they received from his
fteward a certain quantity of corn, and a, fum of mo¬
ney : and at Chriitmas they had always an ox divided
among them.
Whenever he heard of any in diftrefs, whether of
his own parifii or any other, he was fure to relieve
them. In his walks abroad, he would frequently bring
home with him poor people, and fend them away
clothed as well as fed. Fie took great pains to inform
himfelf of the circumftances of his neighbours, that the
modefty of the fufferer might not prevent his relief.
But the money beft laid out was, in his opinion, that
which encouraged induftry. It was one of his greateft
pleafures to make up the Ioffes of his laborious neigh¬
bours, and prevent their finking under them. If a poor
man had loll a beaft, he would fend him another in his
room : or if any farmer had had a bad year, he would
make him an abatement in his tythes.—Thus, as far
as he was able, he took the misfortunes of his parifh
upon himfelf; and, like a true fhepherd, expofed him¬
felf for his flock. But of all kinds of induftrious poor,
he was molt forward to affift thofe who had large fami¬
lies : fuch never failed to meet with his bounty, when
they wanted to fettle their children in the world.
In the diftant parifhes where he preached, as well as
in his own neighbourhood, his generofity and benevo¬
lence were continually ihowing themfelves ; particular¬
ly in the defolate parts of Northumberland. “ When
he began his journey,” fays an old manufcript life of
him, “ he would have 10 pounds in his purfe; and,
at his coming home, he would be 20 nobles in debt,
which he would always pay within a fortnight af¬
ter.”—In the gaols he vifited, he was not only care¬
ful to give the prifoners proper inftru&ions, but ufed
to purchafe for them likewife what neceffaries they
wanted.
Even upon the public road, he never let flip an op¬
portunity of doing good. He has often been known
to take off his cloak, and give it to an half-naked tra¬
veller : and when he has had fcarce money enough in
4
his pocket to provide himfelf a dinner, yet would he Gilthead
give away part of that little, or the whole, if he found . H.
any who feemed to ftand in need of it.—Of this bene- Gingir0, , j
volent temper, the following inftance is preferved. One v " '
day returning home, he faw in a field feveral people
crowding together ; and judging fomething more than
ordinary had happened, he rode up, and found that
one of the horfes in a team had fuddenly dropped
down, which they were endeavouring to raife ; but in
vain, for the horfe was dead. The owner of it feemed
much dejeSed wuth his misfortune ; and declaring how
grievous a lofs it would be to him, Mr Gilpin bade him
not be dilheartened : “ I’ll let you have (fays he),
hoUeft man, that horfe of mine,” and pointed to his
fervant’s.—“ Ah! maftei^(replied the countryman),
my pocket will not reach fuch a beaft as that.”
“ Come, come (faid Mr Gilpin), take him, take him;
and when I demand my money, then thou flialt pay
me.”
This worthy and excellent divine, who merited and
obtained the glorious titles of the Father of the Poor,
and the Apoflk of the North, died in 1583, in the 66th
year of his age.
GILTHEAD, in ichthyology. See Sparus.
GIN. See Geneva.
Gin, in mechanics, a machine for driving piles,
fitted with a windlafs and winches at each end,Where
eight or nine men heave, and round which a rope is
reeved that goes over the wheel at the top : one end
of this rope is feized to an iron-monkey, that hooks
to a beetle of different weights, according to the piles
they are to drive, being from eight to thirteen hun¬
dred weight; and when hove up to a crofs-piece, near
the wheel, it unhooks the monkey, and lets the beetle
fall on the upper end of the pile, and forces the fame into
the ground : then the monkey’s own weight overhauls
the windlafs, in order for its being hooked again to
the beetle.
GINGER, the root of a fpecies of amomum. See
Amomum.
GINGIDIUM, in botany : A genus of the digy-
nia order, belonging to the pentandiia clafs of plants.
The calyx is an involucrum, with about fix linear
leaves ; the corolla confifts of five oval-lanceofated
petals-; the ftamina are five filaments; the antherre
roundifh ; the pericarpium an ovato-truncated fruit,
with eight ftriae; there are two ftriated feeds, in fome
places plane, and in others convex.
GINGIRO, or ZiNDERO, a fmall territory of Africa
to the fouth of Abyfiinia ; being feparated from it by
the river Zebee, by which it is alfo almoft entirely fur-
rounded. This river is extremely large, having more
water than the Nile, and being much more rapid ; fo
that, during the rainy feafon, it would be altogether
impaffable, were it not for the large rocks which are
in its channel. The extreme difficulty which occurs
in paffing this river, however, is the means of prefer-
ving the kingdom of Gingiro, which would otherwife
be conquered in a fingle feafon by the Galla.
The moll remarkable particular with regard to this
kingdom is, that the fovereign is a profeffed votary of
the devil. “ This fuperftition (fays Mr Bruce) reaches
down all the weftern fide of the continent on the At¬
lantic ocean, in the countries of Congo, Angola, and
Benin. In fpite of the firmelt foundation in true
philo-
GIN [ ?47 J G I O
Gingiro philofophy, a traveller, who decides from the informa-
II tion and inveftigation of fads, will find it very difficult
Gilglytr.us t0 j-reat thefe appearances as abfolute fiftions, or as
v— owing to the fuperiority of cunning of one man in
over-reaching another. For my own part, I confefs,
I am equally at a lofs to affign reafons for diffielieving
the fi&ion on which their pretenfions to fome preter¬
natural information are founded, as to account for them
by the operation of ordinary courfes.”
In this kingdom every thing is condu&ed, or pre¬
tended to be conduded, by magic; and all thofe
flaves, which in other African oountries are fold to
Europeans, are here facrificed to the devil, human
blood being a neCeflary part in all their accurfed fo-
lemnities. “ How far (fays Mr Bruce) this reaches to
the fouthward, I do not know; but I look upon this
to be the geographical bounds of the reign of the
devil on the north fide of the equator in the peninfula
of Africa.”
With regard to this country, very little farther is
known than fome of the cuftoms of the people
tranfiently picked up by the Jefuit miffionaries in
Abyffinia. From them we learn, that the kingdom is
hereditary in one family, though it does not regularly
defcend to the eldeft fon, the king being chofen by
the nobles ; in which they refemble their neighbo-urs
the Abyffinians. When the king dies, his body is
wrapped in a fine cloth, and a cow is killed. The
body fo wrapped up is next inclofed in the cow’s flein;
and all the princes of the royal family fly and hide
themfelves in the bulhes, while thofe who areintrufted
with the' eledfion enter the thickets, beating about
every where as if for game. At lafi: a bird of prey,
called in their language Tiher, appears, and hovers over
the perfon deftined to be king ; crying and making a
great noife without quitting his ftation. By this
means the perfon deftined to be eledted is found out,
furrounded, as is reported, by lions, tigers, panthers,
and other wild beafts ; all which art fuppofed to be
brought by the power of magic or of the devil.—
After the king is found, he flies upon thofe who came
jn queft of him with great fury* killing and wound¬
ing as many as he can reach, until at laft he is dragged
^ to the throne whether he will or not* One particular
family have the privilege of condudting him to the
throne ; and if they ftrould not happen to find him at
firft, they have a right to take him out of the hands of
thofe who did fo ; and thus another battle enfues be¬
fore the vacant throne can be filled. Laftly, before
he enters his palace, two men muft be killed; one at
the foot of a tree by which the houfe is fupported ;
and the other at the threlhold of the door, which is
befmeared with the blood of the vidlim. It is the
particular privilege of one family to afford thefe
vidtims; and fo far are they from feeking to avoid
this fate, that they glory in the occafion; and willing¬
ly offer themfelves to meet it. This laft particular, Mr
Bruce fays he had in Abyffinia from people coming
from Gingiro.
GINGIVjE, the gums. See Gums.
GINGLYMUS, in anatomy, one of the fpecies of
articulation. It is that jointure of the bones where
each bone mutually receives the other ; fo that each
bone both receives and is received. See An atomy,n°2.
GINKGO, the maden-hair-tree. See Mauri- Ginfegsi
tia. _ . II
GINORA, in botany : A genus of the monogynia Gi0tt0' ,
order, belonging to the dodecandria clafs of plants ; v
and in the natural method ranking with thofe of which
the order is doubtful. The calyx is cleft into fix
parts; the petals fix ; the capfule unilocular, quad-
rivalved, coloured, and polyfpermous.
GINSENG. See Panax.
GIOIA (Flavio), of Amalfi, in the kingdom of
Naples, the celebrated mathematician ; who, "from his
knowledege of the magnetic powers, invented the ma¬
riner’s compafs, by which the navigation of the Eu¬
ropeans was extended to the moft diftant regions of .
the globe : before this invention, navigation was con¬
fined to coafting. The king of Naples being a younger
branch of the royal family of France, he marked the
north point with a fleur de lis, in compliment to that
country. It is faid the Chinefe knew the compafs
long before; be this as it may, the Europeans are in¬
debted to Gioia for this invaluable difcovery. He flou-
riftied A. D. 1300.
GIORDANO (Luca.) SeeJoRDANO.
GIORGIONE, fo called from his comely afpedl,
was an illuftrious Venetian painter, born in 1478. He
received his firft inftru&ions from Giovanni Bellino;
but ftudying afterwards the works of Leonardo da
Vinci* he foon furpaffed them both, being the firft;
among the Lombards who found out the admirable
effefts of ftrong lights and fhadows. Titian became
his rival in this art; and was fo careful in copying the
life, that he excelled Giorgione in difcovering the de¬
licacies of nature, by tempering the boldnefs of his
colouring. The moft valuable piece of Giorgione in
oil is that of Chrift carrying his crofs, now in the
church of San Rovo in Venice; where it is held in
great veneration. He died of the plague young, in
1511.
GIOSEPPINO, an eminent painter, fo called by
way of contraction from Giofeppe d’ Arpino the town
of Naples where he was born in 1560. Being car¬
ried to Rome very young, and employed by painters
then at work in the Vatican to grind their colours, he
foon made himfelf mailer of the elements of defign, and
by degrees grew very famous. His wit and humour
gained him the favour of popes and cardinals, who
found him bufinefs in plenty. Gregory XIII. fhowed
him great refpedt; and Louis XIII. of France made
him a knight of the order of St Michael. By the force
of a happy genius he acquired a light and agreeable
manner of defigning ; though it is remarked by De
Piles, that he degenerated into a ftyle which neither
partook of true nature nor of the antique. His battles
in the Capitol are the moft efteemed of all his pieces.
He died at Rdme in 1640.
GIOTTO, an ingenious painter, fculptor, and ar-
chited of Florence, born in 1276. He was the dif-
ciple of Cimabue ; but far fuperior to his matter in the
air of his heads, the attitude of his figures, and in the
tone of his colouring ; but could not exprefs livelinefs
in the eyes, tendernefs in rhe flelh, or ftrength in the
mufcles of his naked figures. He was principally ad¬
mired for his works in mofaic; the belt of which is
over the grand entrance of St Peter’s church at Rome*
5 B 2 The
G I R [ 74$ 1 G I R
©ira& The obfervation of Alberti on that piece is, that in the
!l ftip of Giotto, the expreflion of fright and amazement
Girdle. 0f t{je dj{"c;ples at feeing St Peter walk upon the water
~y is fo excellent, that each of them exhibits fome cha-
rafleriflic fign of his terror. His death happened in
J336, and the city of Florence honoured his memory
■with a ftatue of marble over his tomb.
GIRAFFE, in zoology. See Cervus.
GIRALD (Barry), or Giraldus Cambrenfu. See
Barry.
GIRALDI (Lilio Gregorio), an ingenious critic,
and one of the moft learned men that modern Italy
has produced, was born at Ferrara in 1479. He was
at Rome when it was plundered by the emperor
Charles V.; and having thus loft all he had, and being
tormented by the gout, he ftruggled-through life with
ill fortune and ill health. He wrote, nererthelefs, 17
performances, which were collefted and publiftied at
Bafil in 2 vols folio in 1580,..and at Leyden in 1696.
Authors of the firft rank have beftowed the higheft
eulogies on Giraldus; particularly. Cafaubon and
Thuanus.
Giraldi (John Baptift Cintio), an Italian poet of
the fame family with the foregoing Lilio, was born
in 1504. He was fecretary to the duke of Ferrara,
and afterwards became proftffor of rhetoric at Pavia.
He died in 1573. His works, which confift chiefly of
tragedies, were collefted and publiftied at Venice by his
fon Celfo Giraldi, in 1583 ; and fome fcruple not
to rank him among the beft tragic writers Italy has
produced.
GIRARDON (Francis), a celebrated French ar-
chiteft and fculptor, born at Troyes in 1627. Louis
XIV. being informed of his great talents, fent him to
Rome with a penfion of tcoo crowns. At his return
into France, he laboured for the royal palaces, and
the gardens of Verfailles and Trianon ; where there
are many of his works executed in bronze and in mar¬
ble, from the defigns of Charles le Brun. The mau-
foleum of cardinal de Richelieu, in the Sorbonne, and
the equeftrian ftatue of Louis XIV. at the Place de
Vendome, where the ftatue and horfe are call in one
piece, pafs for his moft excellent performances. Gi-
rardon was profeffor, reftor, and chancellor, of the
Academy of Painting and Sculpture; and had the poll
of infpeftor-general of all the works done in fculpture.
He died in 1715.
GIRDERS, in archite&ure, the largeft pieces of
timber in a floor. Their ends are ufually faftened in¬
to the fummers, or breft-fummers; and the joifts are
framed in at one end to the girders.
By the ftatute for rebuilding London, no girder is
to lie kfs than ten inches into the wall, and their ends
to be always laid in loam, &c.
GIRDLE (Cingulus or Zona), a belt or band of
leather or other matter, tied about the reins to keep
that part more firm and tight.
It was anciently the cuftom for bankrupts and other
infolvent debtors to put off and furrender their girdle
in open court. The reafon of this was, that our an-
eeftors ufed to carry all their neceffary utenfils, as
purfe, keys, &c. tied to the girdle ; whence the girdle
became a fymbol of the eftate. Hiftory relates, that
the widow of Philip I. duke of Burgundy, renounced
her right of fucceffion by putting off her girdle upon Gitgafhites,
the duke’s tomb. Gir^li“u',
The Romans, always wore a girdle: to tuck up the v
tunica when they had occafioo to do any things: this
cuftom was fo general, that fuch as went without
girdles, and let their gowns hang Ipofe, were reputed
idle, diffolute, perfons.
Maidens or Virgins Girdle. It was the cuftom among
the Greeks and Romans for the hufband to untie his
bride’s girdle. Homer,,lib. xi. of his Odyffey, calls the
girdle fy/m, maid's girdle. Feftus relates, that
it was made of ftieep’s wool, and that the huiband. un¬
tied it in bed: he adds, that it was tied ip the Htr-
culanean knot ; and that the hufbaod unloofed it, as a
happy prefage of his having as many children as Her¬
cules, who at his death left feventy behind him.
The poets attribute to Venus a particular kind of
girdle called cejlus, to which they annexed a faculty of
infpiring the pafiion of love.
GIRGASHITES, or Gergesenes, an ancient
people of the land of Canaan, whofe habitation was
beyond the fea of Tiberias, where we find fome foot-
fteps of their name in the city of Gergefa, upon the
lake of Tiberias. The J.ewifta doctors inform us, that
when Joftma firft came into the land of Canaan, the
Girgaihites took a refolution rather to forfake their
country than fubmit to the Hebrews, and accordingly
retired into Africa. Neverthelefs, it is certain that a
good number of them ftaid behind, fince Joftiua (xxiv.
11.) informs us that he fubdued the Girgaihites, and
they whom heovercame were certainly on this fide Jordan.
GlRGENTI, a town of Sicily, which occupies pait
of the fite of the ancient Agrigentum. It has only one
ftreet fit for carriages. It is inhabited by 15,000 per¬
fons ; but has no remarkable buildings or works of art
that deferve mention : the only antiquities to be feen
were a Latin infcription of the time of the Antonines,
as is pretended, relative to fome affociation between
Agrigentum and Lilybseum ; and a piece of ancient
mafonry in the foundations of a church pretended
to be the remains of a temple of Jupiter. At fome
diftance, on the old ground in the vale, Hands the
cathedral, a clumfy building patched up by barba¬
rous archite&s with various difcordant parts. This
church is enriched with no works of modern
painters or fculptors that claim any title to praife,
but the baptifmal font is made out of an ancient
farcophagus faced with very beautiful baffo relievos.
This fee is the richeft in Sicily, but has the charac¬
ter of being lefs enlightened and polilhed than the reft
of the ifland. Among the curiofities belonging to the
cathedral is an Etrufcan vafe of rare fize and prefer-
vation. There are alfo fome golden pateras of ex¬
treme rarity. The monaftery of San Nicolo Hands
on a little eminence in the centre of the old city, ad¬
mirably fituated. The range of hills towards the
fouth eaft finks gradually, fo as to admit a noble
reach of fea and of plain, terminated on each fide by
thick groves of fruit-trees. Above appear the re¬
mains of ancient grandeur, wonderfully contrafted
with the humble ftraw cottages built at their feet.
In the orchard of this convent is a fquare building with
pilafters, which is fuppofed to have been part of the
palace of the Roman praetor.
Gir-
G 1 R f 749 1 G I S
Oironne Girgenti has the convenience of a port; for which,
li however, it is lefs indebted to its natural lituatipn
Glula- than to the recent affidance of art. The harbour is
' ' formed by means of a pier carried out in three lides
of an oftagon, with a battery at the head ; the light-
• houfe is to be erefted on the cliffs on ft ore, as there is no
poffibility of raiding it high enough on the «iole with¬
out danger of finking. The work is admirable as to
ftrength and neatneft, but the intention of creating a
fafe and complete haven has not been fully anfwered ;
the Scirocco commands it entirely, and drives in great
quantities of fand, which it is feared will in time choak
lip the port; even now Ihips of burden find it difficult
to get in, but the Caricatore is confiderable, and
t:he: magazines in the rocks along the ffiore are very
fpacious.
GIRONNE, or Gironny, in heraldry, a coat of
arms divided into girons, or triangular figures, meet¬
ing in the centre of the fhield, and alternately colour
and metal.
CISCO, fon of Himilco the Carthaginian gene¬
ral, was banifhed from Carthage by the influence of his
enemies. Being afterwards recalled, he was made ge¬
neral in Sicily againfl: the Corinthians, about 309,
years before the Chriftian era, and by his fuccefs and
intrepidity he obliged the enemies of his country to
fue for peace. See Carthage.
GISBOROUGH, a town of England, in the Weft
Riding of York (hire,, on the road from Whitby to
Durham, 224 miles from London, and 4 miles from
the mouth of the Tees, where is. a bay and harbour for
ffiips. It had formerly an abbey, which was once the
common burial-pla.ce of the nobility of thefe parts, and
its church by the ruins feems to have been equal to the
beft cathedrals in England. The foil, befides its fer¬
tility in pafture and a conftant verdure adorned with
plenty of field-flowers almoft all the year, has earths
of fundry colours, fomc iron, and mines of alum, which
were firft difcovered in the reign of king James I. and
Irave been fince very much improved. Sir Paul Pin¬
dar, who firft farmed them, paid rents to the king
12,500!. to the Earl Mufgrave 1640 b and to Sir
William Penniman 6col. and had moreover 800 men
by fea and land in conftant pay; yet he was a confi¬
derable gainer, becaufe there was then fcarce any other
to be had, and the price was 261. a ton : but now
there are feveral other alum-works in this county,
which have taken a great part of the trade from hence;
fo that the works here have for fome years lain ne-
gledfed.
GITTITH, a Hebrew word occurring frequently
in the Pfalms, and generally tranflated wineprejjes. The
conjectures of interpreters are various concerning this
word. Some think it fignifies a fort of mufical inftru-
ment ; others, that the pfalms with this title were
fung after the vintage ; laftly, others, that the hymns
of this kind were invented in the city of Gath. Cal-
met is rather of opinion, that it was given to the clafs
of yoqng women or fongftrefies of Gath to be fung by
them ; Pfal. viii. 1. Ixxxi. 1. Ixxxiv. 1. Dr Ham¬
mond thinks that the pfalms with this title were all fet
to the fame tune, and made on Goliah the Gittite.
GIULA, a ftrong town of Upper Hungary, on
the frontiers of Tranfilvania. It was taken by the
Turks in 1566, and retaken by the Imperialifts in
6
1695. It is feated on the river Kerefblan, in E. Long* GuifiandeJ,
21. I. N. Lat. 46. 25. Glaciers'.
GIUSTANDEL, a large and ftrong town of
Turkey in Europe, and in Macedonia, with a Greek
arcfibilhop’s fee. It is feated near the lake Ochrida,
in E. Long. 20. 50. N. Lat. 41. 10.
GLACIERS, a name given to fome very extenfive
fields of ice among the Alps.—Mr Coxe obferves of
thefe mountains in general, that they are compofed. of
many parallel chains, the higheft of which occupy the
centre, and the others gradually diminiih in proportion
as we recede from thence. The central chain appears
covered with pointed rocks ; all pa.rts of which, that
are hot abfolutely perpendicular, lie hid under perpe¬
tual fnow and ice even in fummer. On each, fide of
this ridge are fertile and cultivated valleys, interfperfed
with numerous villages, and watered by numerous
ftreams. The elevated peaks of the central chain are
covered with fnow-: but their declivities, excepting;
thofe that are extremely fteep, have all a covering of
ice as well as fnow ; the intermediate parts being filled
wdth vaft fields of ice, terminating in the cultivated,
valleys above mentioned. The fame phenomena, though
on a fmaller fcale, occur in thofe chains that are at a
diftance from the principal one : In thofe which are
moft remote, no ice, and fcarcely any fnow, is obferved,
unlefs upon fome of the molt elevated fummits.; and
the mountains diminiffiing in height and ruggednefs,
appear covered with verdure, until at laft they termi¬
nate in final! hills and. plains.
Thus the glaciers may be divided into two forts;
one occupying the deep valleys fitu,ated in the bofom of
the Alps, and diftinguifi ed by the name of Ice-valleys;
the others are thofe which clothe the declivities and
fides of the mountains. Thefe two kinds of glaciers
are diftinguifhed by Mr Coxe into the upper and lower
glaciers.
The lower glaciers are by far the moft confiderable;
fome of them extending feveral leagues in length.
They do not communicate with each other,, as. has been,
generally fuppofed, few of them being parallel to th.e
Central chain; but, ftretching moftly in a tranfverfe dh
re&ion, are bordered at the higher extremity by in.ac-
ceffible rocks, and at the lower extending into the cul¬
tivated valleys. The thicknefs of the ice varies in dif¬
ferent parts. In the glacier dcs Bois, which extends
more than 15 miles in length, and upwards of three in
breadth, M. Sauffure found it generally from 80 to
100 feet; but he was credibly informed that in fome
places it was not lefs than 600 feet, and even more.
Thefe vaft mafles of ice ufually reft on an inclined plain;
where, being puftied forward by their own weight, and
but weakly fupported by the rugged rocks beneath
them, they are interfered by large crevices, and. have
an appearance of walls, pyramids, &c. according tp the
pofition of the eye in viewing them. In thofe parts,
however, where they lie upon even ground, or fuch as
has only a gentle inclination, the furface of the ice is
nearly uniform, the crevices being few and narrow, and
the glacier being crofled by travellers on foot without
any difficulty. The furface of the ice is rough and gra¬
nulated, fo that people may walk upon it excepting fuch
places as have a fteep defeent. It is opaque, full of
fin all bubbles about the fize of a pea, very porous, and
greatly refembhs a mixture of fnow and water congeal-
C L A [ 750 ] G L A
Glaciers ed. A vail quantity of ftoncs and earth falls down
from the mountains upon the glaciers, and are by them
thrown off on each fide according to the defcent of the
ice, as will be afterwards explained. The place on
which thefe reft is more hard and elevated than the reft
of the ice, and is very difficult to walk upon ; the earth
is likewife laid upon them in fuch regular heaps, that
it appears to have been done by art. This colle&ion
of earth and ftones is termed by the natives the Mo¬
raine.
Mr Coxe, who vifited the glacier des Bois, informs
us, that the appearance of it at a diftance was fo tremen¬
dous, that it feemed imprafticable to crofs it. Nume¬
rous and broad chafms interfered it in every direction;
but entering upon it, the company found that courage
and activity were only required to aceomplifti the tafk.
They had large nails in their ftroes and fpiked fticks ;
which on this occafion were found to be particularly
ferviceable. Having pafled the Moraine, and defcend-
ed upon the glacier itfelf, they found the ice foftened
by a warm wind which rendered it lefs llippery than
ufual. Having walked acrofs it for about a quarter of
an hour, they came again to the Moraine, along which
they continued their journey for half an hour, and then
entered upon the great body of the glacier. “ Here
(fays Mr Coxe) it was curious to obferve the numerous
little rills produced by the colleftion of drops occa-
fioned by the thawing of the ice on the upper part of
the glacier : thefe little rills hollow out fmall channels,
and, torrent-like, precipitate themfelves into the chafms
with a violent noife, inereafing the body of waters form¬
ed by the melting of the interior furface, and finding
an outlet under the immenfe arch of ice in the valley
of Chamouni, from which the Arveron rulhes.” As
our traveller proceeded on his journey, he was fur-
prized by the noife of a large fragment of rock which
had detached itfelf from one of the higheft needles, and
bounded from one precipice to another with great ra¬
pidity ; but before it reached the plain, it was almoft
reduced to dull. “ Having proceeded about an hour
( fay she), we were aftonifhed with a view more magnficent
than imagination can conceive : hitherto the glaciers
had fcarcely anfwered my expe&ations, but now they
far furpaffed them. Nature had clad herfelf in all her
terrors. Before us was a valley of ice 20 miles in ex¬
tent, bounded by a circular glacier of pure unbroken
fnow, named Takul, which leads direftly to the foot
Of Mont Blanc, and is furrounded by large conical
rocks, terminating in ftiarp points like the towers of an
ancient fortification ; to the right rofe a range of mag¬
nificent peaks, their intervals filled w'ith glaciers ; and
far above the reft, the magnificent fummit of Mont
Blanc, his higheft point obfcured with clouds. He ap¬
peared of fuch immenfe magnitude, that, at his pre¬
fence, the circumjacent mountains, however gigantic,
feemed to {brink before him, and hide their dimini/hed
heads. In half an hour We at rived at the Moraine^
which forms a boundary of the valley, crofted it, and
proceeded upon a body of ice about three quarters of a
mile broad. Here the ice was more even and free from
chafms than in the great valley. We then paffed a fe-
Cond moraine, and beyond that another mafs of ice to
a third moraine : defeending from thence we came upon
the laft ridge of ice, broader confiderably than the two
former, and full of large chafms : it is feparated from
the rock only by a very narrow moraine. Thefe nio- Glacier*
raines contain great quantities of cryftal.” —y—
They continued to afeend the valley of ice, the feene
conftantly increafing in magnificence and horror; and
having walked about five miles on the ice, they arrived
at laft at the foot of the eminence named Cou-verde,
where they were obliged to quit the ice. The doing
this was extremely dangerous, and at one place very tre¬
mendous. It was a bulging fmooth rock, vyith a pre¬
cipice of confiderable depth terminated by a vaft crevice
in the ice, which feemed to ftop all further progrefs:
a fmall hollow in the middle, however, afforded room
for one foot; and having fixed this, they fprung over to
the other fide, being helped and direttedby the guides
who went over firft. Having gained the top of the
Couvercle, they had a view of three of the glaciers, viz.
that of Talefre to the left, VEihaut in front, and Ta¬
kul on the right; all uniting in that great one called
the Glacier de Bois. The Couverde itfelf is a moft ex¬
traordinary rock, having the appearance of a large ir¬
regular building with many tides; the fubftance of
which is granite. Having reached the top, they were
furprized with a thunder-ftorm, from whence they took
ftielter under an impending rock. The view was ex¬
ceedingly magnificent; the glaciers appearing like a
rugged expanfe of frozen fea bounded by gigantic
rocks, and terminated by Mount Blanc. A Angle rock
appeared of a triangular figure, covered with Alpine
plants ; and which, by reafon of its contraft with the
rugged and fnowy mountains in the neighbourhood^
has obtained the name of the Garden.—During this, as
well as other excurfions among the Alps, Mr Coxe had
occafion to obferve that the colour of the Iky was of a
much deeper blue than in the lower regions.
The upper glaciers may be fubdivided into thofe
which cover-the fummits, and thofe which extend along
the fides of the Alps. Thofe on the very fummit,
however, though they have the appearance of ice, are
not fo in reality, but confift entirely of fnow hardened
by the extreme cold. M. Sauffure found that which
covered the top of Mount Blanc to be penetrable, though
with difficulty, by a flick ; but below this hard cruft
was a foft fnow without coherence. The fides are co¬
vered with a mixture of ice and fnow ; by reafon of the
fuperior power of the fummer fun to diffolve the fnow,
which afterwards congeals into hard ice.
Several conje&ures have been made concerning the
formation of thefe extraordinary bodies of ice. Mr
Goxe agrees with M. Gruner in opinion, that they are
produced by the continual diffolution of the fnow in
fummer, and its congelation by the fucceeding frofts.
Heftce, on the fummits of the mountains where the fun!
has very little power, the glacier is foft, and contains
no ice : as we defeend the mountains the confiftence
becomes firmer, becaufe there is a confiderable mixture:
of fnow-water, the congelation of which augments the
hardnefs ; and in the valleys, the glacier is hardeft of
all, becaufe the portion of water is there much fuperior
to that of the fnow. Hence it feems plain that the
glaciers derive their origin from the meltingof the fnow
on the upper parts of the mountains, and the congela¬
tion of the water as it advances : and to this caufe
M. Sauffure adds the quantity of fnow which often
rolls down into the valleys and congeals along with thd
water juft mentioned;
Another
OLA [ 75i 1 G L A
Glacitrs. Another queftion concerning the glaciers naturally
occurs, namely, Whether they are to be confidered as
in a ftate of increafe or diminution ? Mr Coxe is of opi¬
nion, that they occafionally increafe and decreafe ; in
proof of which he adduces the following obfervation.
“ The borders of the glacier of Montanvert are moft-
ly fkirted with trees : towards its bafe a vaft arch of
ice rifes to near 100 feet in height; under which the
river Arveron rufhes with confiderable force, and in a
large body of water. As we approached the ice, we
parted through a wood of firs : thofe trees which ftand
at a little diftance from the arch are about 80 feet high,
and are undoubtedly of a very great age. Between
thefe and the glacier the trees are of a later growth; as
is evident from their texture and inferior fize. Others,
Hill fmaller, have been overturned and enveloped in the
ice : there feems to be a hind of regular gradation in
the age of thefe feveral trees, from the largeft which
are Handing, to the fmalleft that lie proftrate.”—Hence
our author concludes, that the glacier.once extended
as far as the.row of fmall firs; but that, upon its gra¬
dual difiblution, a number of trees fhbt up on the fpot
it had occupied ; fince which time the ice has again ad¬
vanced, and overturned the laft grown trees before they
had attained to any confiderable height.—This he
thinks alfo confirmed by the following faff.—“ Large
Hones of granite are ufually found at a fmall diHance
from the extremities of the glacier. Thefe Hones have
certainly fallen from the mountains upon the ice ; have
been carried on in its progrefs; and have tumbled into
the plain upon the difiblution or finking of the ice which
fupported them. Thefe Hones, which the natives call
Moraine, form a kind of border towards the foot of the
valley of ice, and have been pufhed forward by the gla¬
cier in its advances : they extend even to the place oc^
cupied by the larger pines.”
In oppofition to thofe who maintain that there is a
conrtant accumulation of ice and fnow in the Alpine
regions, our author makes the following remarks.
1. Between the years 1776 and 1785 the glacier of
Grindelevald had dimini/hed to fuch a degree, that the
fpot which its extremity occupied in the former year,
was at leafl 400 paces from that occupied by it in the
latter. 2. In the year 1785 the Murailles de Glace,
which in 1776 he had defcribed as forming the border
of the glacier of Bofibn, no longer exiHed ; and young
trees had rtiot up in the parts which were then covered
by the glacier of Montanvert. Still, however, it may
be urged, that thefe changes only take place in the
valleys where the power of the fun is confiderablc;
and that from thence we cannot form any adequate
idea of what pafies in the more elevated regions, where
in all probability more fnow falls than can be diflblved.
In fupport of this opinion, it is alleged, that the cold
produced by the mafs of ice already formed ought to
augment it Hill more ; and that, within the memory of
the prefent generation, many places have been covered
with ice which were not fo before. To thefe argm
ments, however,, Mr Coxe replies, that the caufes,
which diminifii the ice in the npper regions, are no
lefs powerful than the cold which tends to - augment
it. Thefe are, 1. Rain or fleet; which falling upon
the lower glaciers, thaw the ice, iacreafe the rills on
its furface, excavate channels, and in many ways tend
tp diminifli its quantity. 2, Evaporation, which takes
place even from the furface of the ice itfelf, .a&s Hill Glacier*
more powerfully'; and its a&ion is not confined to any .
particular feafon. 3. The falling of the fnow and a 1
ice; both that which comes gradually from the
clouds, and which defcends from the mountains in
great mafies, called by the natives avalanches. When
thefe lart fall down into milder regions, though fome-
times they may refiH the influence of the fun and
form ice-valleys, yet they generally diflblve. They
are moH common in the upper glaciers', though fome-
times they defcend upon the lower, while the gradual
defcent of fnow from the clouds, which chiefly takes
place in the lower, contributes very much to lefien the
mafs. 4. All the lower glaciers or valleys of ice reR,
on an inclined plane, are hollow, and undermined by
torrents which are confiantly flowing from the upper
glaciers, as well as from their own lowermoH furface.
Their foundation being thus conHantly diminifhing,
the lower glaciers are carried imperceptibly forward
into the cultivated fields, where an end is neceflarilyput
to their progrefs by the heat of the fun. Hence we
may fee the reafon of that Hrange phenomenon taken
notice of by Mr Coxe, that with one hand he could
touch ripe corn, and with the other foil'd ice. This
defcent of the glacier is demonHrable from the trees
overturned by it, and the morain always obferved at
the bottom of the lower glaciers. 5. The heat of the
fun is an evident caufe of the diminution of the gla¬
ciers. To this Mr Coxe adds another caufe lefs gene¬
rally known, viz. the warm winds which blow by night
as well as by day both in the upper and lower glaciers.
“ Thefe warm winds (fays he) are during fummerfo
common in thofe parts, that I never crofled a glacier
without feeling in fome particular pofitions a warmth
fimilar to the air of a hot-bath.” 6. Another caule
is the mean temperature of the earth itfelf; which,.
where it is not expofed to the piercing cold of the at-
mofphere, is found to have a temperature always above
the freezing point. As the vaH thicknefs of the fu-
perincumbent ice, therefore, is in the prefent cafe abun¬
dantly fufficient to prevent the accefs of the atmo-
fphere, it is plain that the lower furface of it muH, by
being in contaft with the earth, continually decay.
With regard to the other argument drawn from the
known incrtafe of the ice in fome place's, Mr. Coxe
does not deny it; but infifis, that there is no continual,
iricreafe of the whole, but that if it increafes in fome
places, it diminiflies in others ; and his opinion in this
refpeCl was confirmed by thofe who frequent the
mountains.
GLACIS, in building, an eafy infenfible flope or
declivity.
The defcent of the glacis is lefs fleep than that of
the talus. In gardening, a defcent fometimes begins
in talus, and ends in glacis.
The glacis of the corniche, is an eafy imperceptible
Hope in the cymatium, to promote the defcent and:
draining off the rain-water.
Glacis,\ in fortification, that mafs of earth which,
ferves as a parapet to the covered. way, Hoping eafily
towards the champaign, or field.
GLADE, in gardening and agriculture, an open¬
ing and light paffage made through a wood, by lopping-
off the branches of trees along that way.
GLADIATORS, in antiquity, perfons who fought,,
generally/
6 L A C 75
generally In the arena at Rome, for the entertainment
of the people.
The gladiators were ufually Haves, and fought out
of neceflity ; though fometlmes freemen made profef-
fion thereof, like our prize-fighters, for a livelihood.
The Romans borrowed this cruel diverfion from the
Afiatics : fome fuppofe that there was policy in the
pra&ice, the frequent combats of gladiators tending to
accuftom the people to defpife dangers and death.
The origin of fuch combats feems to be as follows.
Trdfn the earlieft times with which we have any ac¬
quaintance in profane hiftory, it hud been the cuftom
to facrifice captives, or prifoners of war, to the manes
of the great men who had died in the engagement:
thus Achilles, in the Iliad, lib. xxiii. facrifices twelve
youngTrojans to the manes of Patroclus; and in Virgil,
lib. xi. ver. 8i- JEneas fends captives to Evander, to be
fiver(ficed at the funeial of his fon Pallas.
'In couvfe of time they came alfo to facrifice Haves
at the funerals of all perfons of condition: this was
even efteemed a ueCeflary part of the ceremony ; but
as it Avould have appeared barbarous to have maflacred
them like beads, they were appointed to fight with
each other, and endeavour to fave their own lives
by killing their adverfary. This feemed fomewhat lefs
inhuman, hecaufe there was a poffibility of avoiding
death, by an exertion of fleill and courage.
This occafioned the profeffion of gladiator to become
an art: hence arofe mailers'of the art, and men learned
to fight and exercife it. Thefe mailers, whom the
Latins called lanijla, bought them Haves to be trained
up to this cruel trade, whom they afterwards fold to
fuch as had occafion to prefent the people with fo hor¬
rible a Hvow.
Thefe exhibitions were at firtl performed near the
fepulchre of the deceaftd, or about the funeral pile;
but were afterwards removed to the circus and amphi¬
theatres, and became ordinary amufements.
The fil'd {how of gladiators, called munus gladiator urn,
was exhibited at Rome, according to Valerius Maximus,
by M. and D. Brutus, upon the death of their father, in
the year of the city 490. On this occafion there were
probably only three pair of gladiators. In 537, the three
funs t f M. iEmilius Lepidus the augur, who had been
ih'ree times conful, entertained the people with the cruel
pleafure of feeing 22 gladiators fight in the forum. In
547, the fird Africanus diverted his army at New Car¬
thage with a Ihow of gladiators, which he exhibited in
honour of his father and uncle, who had begun the re-
du£lion of Spain. In prncefs of time, the Romans
became fo fond of thefe bloody entertainments, that
not only the heir of any great and rich citizen lately de-
ceafed, but all the principal magidrates, prefented the
people with (hows of this nature, to procure their af-
feftion. The sediles, pretors, confuls, and, above
all, the candidates for offices, made their court to the
people, by entertaining Ahem frequently with thefe
fights: and the prieds were fometimes the exhibitors
of the barbarous (hows; for we meet with the ludi pon-
tificahs in Suetonius, Augud. cap. 44. and with the
ludi facerdotales, in Pliny, Epid. lib. vii. As for the
emperors, it vvas fo much their intered to ingratiate
themfelves with the populace, that they obliged them
with combats of gladiators aimed upon all occafions ;
and as thefe increafed, the number of combatants in-
N3 139.
2 ] G L A
creafed likewife. Accordingly, Julius Casfar, in hisOladiat
sedik-fhip, diverted the people with 320 couple. Titus —V”
exhibited a fivow of gladiators, wild beads, and repre-
fentations of fea-fights, which laded 100 days; and
Trajan continued a folemnity of this nature for 123
days; during which time he brought out 1000 pair of
gladiators. Before this time, under the republic, the
number of gladiators was fo great, that when the con-
fpiracy of Catiline broke out, the fenate ordered
them to be difperfed into the garrifon and fecured,
led they ihould have joined the difaffe&ed party. See
Gladiators War.
Thefe fpoits were become fo common, and their
confequences in a variety of refpe&s fo dangerous,
that Cicero preferred a law that no perfon fhould ex¬
hibit a dvow of gladiators within two years before he
appeared candidate for any office. Julius Csefar orders
ed, that only a certain number of men of this profef*
fion Ihould be in Rome at a time ; Augudus decreed,
that only two Avows of gladiators Hvoold be prefented
in a year, and never above fixty couple of combatants
’in a Avow ; and Tiberius provided by an order of fe¬
nate, that Uo perfon fhould have the privilege of gra¬
tifying the people with fuch a folemnity unlefs he was
worth 400,000 federces. They were alfo confiderably
regulated by Nerva.
The emperor Claudius redrained therrt to certain
occafions: but he foon afterwards annulled what he de¬
creed, and private perfons began to exhibit them at
pleafure as ufual; and fome carried the brutal fatis-
fa&ion fo far as to have them at their ordinary feails.
And not Haves only, but other perfons, would hire
themfelves to this infamous office.
The ffiader of the gladiators made them all fird fwear
that they would fight to death;’and if they failed, they
were put to death either by fire or fwords, clubs,
whips, or the like.
It was a crime for the wretches to complain when
they were wounded, or to afk for death or feek to
avoid it when overcome ; but it was ufual for the em¬
peror or the people to grant them life when they gave
no figns of fear, but waited the fatal droke with cou¬
rage and intrepidity: Augudus even decreed that it
fhould always be granted them.
From Haves and freedmen the inhuman fport at
length fpread to people of rank and condition; fo that
Augudus was obliged to iffue a public edidl that none
of the fenatorian order flvould become gladiators ; and
foon after he laid the fame redraint on the knights:
neverthelefs Nero is related to have brought upwards
of 400 hundred fenators and 600 Roman knights up¬
on the areha ; though Lipfius takes both thefe num¬
bers to be falsified, and not without reafon reduces
them to 40 fenators and 60 knights: yet Domitian,
that other monder of cruelty, refined upon Nero, ex¬
hibiting combats of women in the night-time.
Condantine the Great is faid to have fird prohibited
the combats of gladiators in the Ead. At lead he for¬
bad thofe jvho were condemned to death for their crimes
to be employed; there being an order dill extant to
the prtefeilus pretorii rather to fend them to work in
the mines in lieu thereof: it is dated at Berytus in
Phoenicia the id of O&ober 325.
The emperor Honorius forbad them at Rome on oc¬
cafion of the death of Telemachus, who coming out
of
G L A C 753 1 G L A
Gladiator, of the Eall into Rome at the time of one of thefe fpec-
'“'•"v—""" tacles, went down into the arena, and ufed all his en¬
deavours to prevent the gladiators from continuing the
fport; upon which the fpeftators of that carnage, fired
with anger, ftoned him to death. It mull be obferved,
however, that the practice was not entirely aboliihed
in the Weft before Theodoric king of the Oftrogoths.
Honorius, on the occafion firft mentioned, had prohibit¬
ed them; but the prohibition does not feem to have been
executed. Theodoric, in the year 500, abolilh^i them
finally.
Some time before the day of combat, the perfon who
prefented-the people with the (hows gave them notice
thereof by programmas or bills, containing the names
of the gladiators, and the marks whereby they were
to be diftinguifhed: for each had his feveral badge ;
which was moft commonly a peacock’s feather, as
appears from the fcholiaft of Juvenal on the 158th
verfe of the third fatire, and Turnebus Adverb lib. ii.
cap. 8. They alfo gave notice how long the fhows would
laft, and how many couples of gladiators there were ;
and it even appears, from the yad verfe of the feventh
fatire of the fecond book of Horace, that they fome-
times made reprefentations of thefe things in painting,
as is praftifed among us by thofe who have any thing
to ftiow at fairs.
The day being come, they began the entertainment
by bringing two kinds of weapons; the firft were
ftaves or wooden files, called rudes ; and the fecond
were effe&ive weapons, as fwords, poniards, &c.
The firft were called arma luforia, or exercitoria; the
fecond decretorla, as being given by decree or fentence
of the praetor, or of him at whofe expence the fpec-
tacle was exhibited.* They began to fence or fkir-
mifh with the firft, which was to be the prelude
to the battle; and from thefe, when well warmed,
they advanced to the fecond at the found of the
trumpets, with which they fought naked. Then
they were faid vertere arma. The terms of ftriking
were petere iff repetere; of avoiding a blow, exire;
and when one of the combatants received a remaik-
able wound, his adverfary or the people cried out,
Habet, or Hoc habet. The firft part of the engagement
was Called ventilare, pradudere; and the fecond, dimicare
tut certum, or verjis armis pugnare: and fome authors
think, with much probability, that it is to thefe two
kinds of combat that St Paul alludes in the paffage
1 Cor. ix. 26, 27. “ I fight, not as one that beateth
the air ; but I keep my body, and bring it into fub-
jeftion.”
If the vanquilhed furrendered his arms, it was not
in the vigor’s power to grant him life: it was the
people during the time of the republic, and the prince
or people during the time of the empire, that were
alone empowered to grant the boon. The reward
of the conqueror wasr a branch of palm-tree, and
a fum of money, probably colle&ed among the fpec-
tators: fometimes they gave him his conge, or dif-
miffed him by putting one of the wooden files or
rudis in his hand; and fometimes they even gave
him his’ freedom, putting the pikus on his head.
The fign or indication, whereby the fpe&ators fiiow-
ed that they granted the favour, was premere polliceniy
which M. Dacier takes to be a clenching of the fingers
Vol.VII. PartII.
of both hands between one another, and fo holding Gladiator,
the two thumbs upright clofe together; and, when Gladiolus'
they would have the combat finilhed and the vanquifti-
ed flain, •oerterunt pollicem, they bent back the thumb ;
which we learn from Juvenah Sat. iii. ver. 36. The
gladiators challenged or defied each other, by ftiow-
ing the little finger ; and, by extending this, or
fome other, during the combat, they owned them-
felves vanquilhed, and begged mercy from the people:
Vicli ojlenfam digiti •ueniam a populo pojluldbaht, fays the
old fcholiaft on Perfius.
There were various kinds of gladiators, diftinguifhed
by their weapons, manner, and time of fighting &c.
as, The andabata, mentioned under Andabat^e. The
catervarii, who always fought in troops or compan&s,
number againft number; or, according to others, who
fought promifcuoully, without any certain order. The
dimachmy who fought armed with two poniards or fwords.
or with fword and dagger. The ejfsdarii, who fought in
Cars. The Jifcales, or Ctefarlani, who belonged to the em¬
peror’s company ; and who, being more robuft and
dexterous than the reft, were frequently called for ;
and therefore named alfo p(>flulatitu. Several other kinds
ate mentioned in the ancient authors.
Gladiators War (bellum Gladiatorlum or Sparta-
cum), called alfo the fervile war, was a war which the
Romans fuftained about the year of their city 680.
Spartacus, Crinus, and Oenomaus, having efcaped, with
other gladiators to the number of feventy four, out
of the place where they had been kept at Capua, ga¬
thered together a body of flaves, put themfelves at
their head, rendered themfelves mafters of all Campa¬
nia, and gained feveral victories over the Romam prae¬
tors. At length they were defeated in the year 682,
at the extremity of Italy ; having, in vain, attempted
to pafs over into Sicily.
This war proved very formidable to the Romans.
Craffus was not able to finifh it : the great Pompey
was forced to be fent as general.
Tbe Dying Gladiator, a moft valuable monument
of ancient fculpture^ which is now preferved in the pa¬
lace of Chighi. This man, when he had received the
mortal ftroke, is particularly careful utprocumbat homjle,
that he might fall honourably. He is feated in a re¬
clining pofture on the ground, and has juft ftrength
fufficient to fupport himfelf on his right arm : and in
his expiring moments it is plainly feen, that he does
not abandon himfelf to grief and dejedtion ; but is fe¬
licitous to maintain that firmnefs of afpedt which the
gladiators valued themfelves on preferving in this fea-
fon of diftrefs, and that attitude which they had learnt
of the mafters of defence. He fears not death, nor
feems to betray any tokens of fear by his countenance,
nor to filed one tear: quis mediocris gladiator ingemuit,
quit vultum mutavit unquam, quis non modo Jletit, verunt
etiam decubuit turpiter, fays Cicero, in that part of his
Tufculan where he is deferibing the aftoniftiing firm¬
nefs of thofe perfons. We fee, in this inftance, not-'
withftanding his remaining ftrength, that he has but
a moment to live ; and we view him with attention,
that we may fee him expire and fall: thus the ancients
knew how to animate marble, and to give it almoft
every expreflion of life.
GLADIOLUS, Corn-flag : A genus of the
5 C monogynia
G L A [ 754 ] G L A
Glair, monogynia order, belonging to the triandria clafs of
Giamor- p}ants. an(j in natural method ranking under the
i ‘ 1 fixth order, Enfata. The corolla is fexpartite, and
ringent; the ftamina afcending and bending upwards.
There are io fpecies, of which the moft remarkable is
the communis, or common gladiolus. This hath a
round, compreffed, tuberous root; long fword-fhaped
leaves ; an ereft flowcr-ftalk, two or three feet high ;
the top garniihed with feveral pretty large flowers of a
red or white colour, having each fix petals. They ap¬
pear in May and June, and are fucceeded by plenty of
■feed in Auguft. The plants are very hardy, and will
thrive in any foil or fituation. They are propagated
by offsets from the roots.
GLAtR of eggs, is the fame as the white of eggs,
and is ufed as a varnifh for preferving paintings. For
this purpofe it is beat to an unftuous confidence, and
com monly mixed with a little brandy or fpirit of wine,
to make it work more freely, and with a lump of fu-
gar to give it body and prevent its cracking : and then
fipread over the picture or painting with a brufh.
I GLAMORGANSHIRE, a county of South
Wales, faid to have denied its name from a contrac¬
tion of the Welfh-jirtJfds Gwald. Morgan, or “ the
county of Morgan,” and fuppofcd to have been thus
called from a prince of this part of the country, faid
to have been killed 8oo years before the birth of
our Saviour : but fome other writers derive the name
from the word Mor, which in the Britifh tongue
fignifies the fea ; this being a maritime county. It is
bounded on the fouth, and part of the wed. by Brif-
tol channel; on the north-wed, by Ca'ermarthtnfhire ;
on the north, by Brecknockfhire j and on the ead, by
Monmouth (hire. It extends 48 miles in length from
ead to wed, 27 in breadth from north to fouth, and
is 116 in circumference. It is divided into 10 hun¬
dreds, in which are one city, 7 market-towns, 1 18 pa-
rifhes, about 10,000 houfes, and 58,000 inhabitants.
It is in the diocefe of Llandaff. This county, in the
time of the Romans, was part of the didridt inhabited
by the Silures, and had feveral Roman dations. Thus
Boverton, a few miles to the fouth of Cowbridge, is
fuppofed to be the Bovium of Antoninus; Neath to be
his Nidum ; and Loghor, to the wed of Swanfey, to
be his Leucarum. The principal rivers of this county
are the Rhymny, the Taff, the Ogmore, the Avon,
the Cledaugh, and the Tave. The air, in the fouth
part, towards the fea, is temperate and healthful ; but
the northern part, which is mountainous, is cold and
piercing, full of thick woods, extremely barren, and
thin of inhabitants. The mountains, however, ferve
to feed herds of cattle, and fend forth dreams which
add greatly to the fertility of the other parts of the
county: they have likewife coal and lead-ore. The
fouth part is fo remarkably fertile, pleafant, and po¬
pulous, that it is generally fiyled the garden of Wales;
but it has no manufafture. This county was former¬
ly full of cadlts, molt of which are now fallen to de¬
cay. It has many fmall harbours on the coad for
exporting coals and provifions. Of the former it
fends large quantities both to England and Ireland ;.
but of the latter, to England almod folely, efpecially
butter. It fends two members to parliament, one
for the fit ire, and one f®r the borough of Cardiff the
capital,,
GLAMOUR, or Glam eh., an old term of popu- Glamsur
lar fuperftition in Scotland, denoting a kind of ma- !l
gical mid believed to be railed byforcerers, and which T anvi' f
deluded their fpe&ators with vifions of things which
had no real exidence, altered the appearance of thofe
which really did exid, &c.—The eadern nations have
a fimilar fuperdition, as we may learn from the Ara¬
bian Nights Entertainments and other works of Ori¬
ental fidfion.
GLAND, in anatomy. See Anatomy, n° 128.
GLANDERS. See Farriery, $ xvi.
GLANDORE, a town of Ireland, fituated in the
county of Cork and province of Munder, near the har¬
bour of that name.
G lanbovl*.' Harlour,hx,Xi.?i\.z\\.vio leagues wed of the
Galley-head in thq county oTCork, province of Mun¬
der, N. Lat. 51. 22. W. Lon. 8. 56. Between this
harbour and Rots the coaft continues high and bold,
with only two fmall coves; that to the ead called
Millcove, and that to the wed Cowcove. This harbour
Iks three miles wed of Rofs ; and though fmall, is an
exceeding good one ; near it is a cadle of the fame
name, and on the upper-end is a deep and dangerous
glin, called the Leap. Glandore gives title of earl to
the family of Crofbie.
GLANDORP (Matthias), a learned phyfician,
born in 1595, at Cologn, in which town his father
was a furgeon. After receiving a do&or’s degree at
Padua, and vifiting the principal towns of Italy, he „
fettled at Bremen in 1618, where he pra&ifed phyfic
and furgery with fo much fuccefs, that he was made
phyfician to the republic and to the archbifhop. He
pubhfhed at Bremen, Speculum chirurgorum, Methodus
medendte paronychia, Lratlatus de.polypo narium affectu
graviffmo, and Gazophylacium polypujium fontiviffmo;
which four pieces were collected and pubiifhed, with
his life prefixed, at London, in 410, 1729. Glan-
dorp died young ; and it mud fugged a high opinion
of his abilities, that, notwithdanding the great im¬
provements in all blanches of fcience, his works(hould
be deemed, worthy a republication too years after his
death.
Glandule itewey/ex. See Anatomy, no 100.
GLANS, in anatomy, the tip or button of the pe¬
nis, or that part covered with the prepuce, called alfo
balanus. See Anatomy, p. 739, col. 1.
Gi ans is alfo ufed to denote the tip or extremity
of the clitoris, from its refemblance, both in form
and ufe, to that of the penis. See Anatomy, p. 739,
col. 2.
GLANVIL (Jofeph), a learned and ingenious, but
fanciful and.credulous writer in the 17th century, was.
born at Plymouth in 1636, and bred at Oxford. He
became a great admirer of Mr Baxter, and a zealous
perfon for a commonwealth. After the redoration, he
pubiifhed The vanity of dogmatizing; was chofen a
fellow of the Royal Society ; and, taking orders in
1662, was prefented to the vicarage of Frome-Stlwood
in Somerfctlhire. This fame year he publilhed his
Lux Orientalis; in 1665, his Scepfis Scientifica ; and in
the year following, Some philofophical conjiderations
touching the being°of witches and witchcraft, and other
pieces on the fame fubjeil- In 1660, he publilhed
Plus ultra ; or, The progrefs and advancement of know-
leilgefmee the days of Arifiotle. He likewife publilhed
A
%
G L A L 755 ] G L A
Claris, A feafonable recommendation and defence of reafon ; and
Glalgow. PhUofophla Pia, or A difcourfe of the religious temper
b""“v and tendencies of the experimental philofophy. In 1678
he was made a prebendary of Worcefter, and. died
in 1680.
CLARIS, one of the cantons of Swifferland, is
bounded on the eaft, partly by the Grifons, and part¬
ly by the territory of Sargans ; on the north, by the
bailiwick of Gaiter, and by the lake Wahleftatt;
on the call, by the canton of Schwits; and on the
# fouth, by part of the canton of Uri, and part of the
league of the Grifons. It is a mountainous country,
being entirely within the Alps.
Glaris, a town of Swifferland, capital of the can¬
ton of the fame name, is feated in a plain, at the
foot of high craggy mountains. The ilreets are large,
and the houfes kept in good repair. It has fome pub¬
lic buildings; among which are two churches, one in
the middle of the town, and the other without upon
an eminence. On this eminence there is a cavern,
with grotefque figures formed by the water that drops
therein. The general aflemblies of the country are
held here on the firft Sundays in May, where all the
males above the age of fixteen are obliged to appear.
Both the Calviniils and the Roman Catholics are to¬
lerated in this town, and they have divine fervice by
turns in the fame church. It is feated on the river
Lint, E. Long. 9. 13. N. Lat. 47. 6.
GLASGOW, a large city of Lanerkfhire or Clydef-
dale in Scotland, fituated in W. Long. 4. 30. N. Lat.
55- 5°*
Concerning the foundation of this city we have no
authentic records. The word in the Gaelic language
fignifies a gray fnith; from whence it has been in¬
ferred, that fome fpot in the moft ancient payt of the
city was originally the refidence of fome blackfmith
who had become eminent in his profeffion, fo that the
place went by his name.
1 ■ f In the year 560, a bifhopric is faid to have been
Glafgowj ° founded here by Saint Mungo, or Kentigern, fuppo-
when ’ fed to be the fon of Thamates, daughter of Loth Jung
founded, of the Pifts ; but in what ftate the town at that time
was, is altogether uncertain. Moft probably the priefts
and difciples who attended St Kentigern would con¬
tribute confiderably towards its advancement: the a-
ged and infirm, who were unfit for the purpofes of
war, or fuch as were religioufly inclined, would come
and fettle round the habitation of the holy man, in or¬
der to have the benefit of his prayers; and as a num¬
ber of miracles were faid to have been wrought at his
tomb, the fame caufes would ftill contribute to the
increafe of the town.
Hiftory has not informed us of the name of the
prince who founded and endowed the bifhopric of Glaf-
gow in favour of St Kentigern. But from an abftra6t
of the life of Kentigern (contained in Mr Innes’s Criti¬
cal Effay on the Ancient Inhabitants of Scotland),
which was written in the 12th century, we learn, that
the faint being ill ufed by Marken or Marcus, one of
the kings of the Britons, retired into Wales. On the
invitation of Roderic,- however, one of Marken’s fuc-
ceffors, he returned to Glafgow, and enjoyed the fee
till 601, when he died. He was buried in the church
©f Glafgow, where his monument is ftill to be feen ;
and we find-him marked among the faints in the Ro- Glafgow.
man kalendar, January 13. 578.  v  
The immediate fuccelTors of Kentigern were Bal-
drede and Conwal. The firft eftabliflied a religious
houfe at Inchinnan ; the fecond went into Lothian to
preach to the Saxons; and both of them are ranked as
faints in the Roman kalendar, Baldrede on the 6th of
March 608, and Conwal on the 18th of May 612.
From this time, however, till the my, we have no
diftinft accounts concerning the city or biihopric ofBarb®rit f
Glafgow. We find then, that David I. king of Scot- the people
land made an attempt to retrie ve the people from a >n the time
ftate of grdfs barbarity into which they were fallen, ofDavKl I-
and reftored to the church thofe lands of which (he had
been robbed. The only account we have of the tranf-
a&ions with regard to Glafgow, during that period, is
in the inquifition made by David concerning '%he
church-lands of Glafgow, and is as follows. -“This
church, by the divine appointment, admitted St Ken¬
tigern into the bifhopric, who furnifhed large draughts
of knowledge to thofe thirfting after heavenly things,
&c. But a fraudulent deftroyer, employing his common
wiles, brought in, after a long feries of time, unac¬
countable fcandals into the Cumbrian church. For af¬
ter St Kentigern and many of his fucceffors were re¬
moved to heaven, various difturbances every where ari-
fing, not only deftroyed the church and her pofleffions,
but, wafting the wdiole country, drove the inhabitants
ipto exile. Thefe good men being deftroyed, various
tribes of different nations flocking in from feveral
quarters, poffeffed the forefaid deferted country ; but
being of different origins, and varying from each o-
ther in their language and cuftoms, and not eafily a-
greeing among themfelves, they followed the manners
of the Gentiles, rather than thofe of the true faith.
The inhabitants of which unhappy and abandoned
country, though living like brutes, the Lord, who
choofes that none fhould perilh, vouchfafed to vifit in
mercy,” See.
From the year 1116 to the reformation, the records
of the bi/hopric are tolerably complete. The moft re¬
markable particulars furnifhed by them are the follow-
ing.
In 1136, John Achaius, chofen bilhop of Glafgow
by David I. built and adorned a part of the cathedral,
which he folemnly confecrated on the 9th ofjuly. The
king was prefent at the ceremony; and beftowed on the
church the lands of Perdeyk, now Patrick. This pre¬
late alfo divided the diocefe into the two archdeanries
of Glafgow and Teviotdale ; and eftabliftied the offices
of dean, fubdean, chancellor, treafurer, faqrift, chan-
tor, and fucceffor; and fettled a prebendary upon
each of them, out of the donatives he received from the
king.
In 1174, Joceline, abbot of Melrofe, was defied
bifhop, and confecrateffby Elkilus, bilhop of Lunden
in Denmark, the Pope’s legate for that kingdom, on
the ill of June 1175. He rebuilt the cathedral, or ra¬
ther made an addition to the church already built by 3
John Achaius. He alfo procured a charter from Wil- tQ
liam king of Scotland, erefting Glafgow into a royal a 11
borough, and likewife a charter for a fair to be held borough,
there annually for eight days.
In 1335, John Lindfay, bilhop of Glafgow, was
5 C 2 killed
G L A
Glafgow. killed in an engagement at fea with the Englilh, as he
—v was returning home from Flanders. His fucceffor,
William Rae, built the (tone bridge over the Clyde.
In the time of Matthew Glendoning, who was elected
bilhop in 1387, the great fpire of the church, which
had been built only of "wood, was confumed by light-.
[ 756 1
G L A
part of the ftreet now called the Bridge-gait, but at Glafgow..
that time Fijhers-gate. J
Notwithttanding all this, however, the city of Glaf¬
gow did not for a long time attain the rank among the
other towns of Scotland which it holds at prefent. Ih
1556, it held only the 1 ith place among them, as ap-
ning. The bilhop intended to have built another of pears by queen Mary’s taxation. The introdu&ion
tlone; but was prevented by death, in 1408, from ac-
eomplflhing his purpofe. His fuccefibr, William Lau¬
der, laid the foundation of the veftry of the cathedral,
and built the great tower of ftone as far as the firit
battlement. The great tower of the epifcopal palace
was founded about the year 1437, on which bi(hop Ca¬
meron expended a great deal of money.
of the reformed religion proved for fome time preju¬
dicial to the opulence of the city. The money which
had formerly been expended among the citizens by the
bifhop and his clergy, was now diverted into other
channels : the advantages refulting from the univerlity
were alfo for a Time loll; for as the reformers generally
defpifed human learning, the cpllege was in a manner
In 1447, William Turnbull, a fon of the family of deferted.
a’cTnt ®e(^ru^e in Roxburgh fhire, was chofen bifliop. He in the time of the civil wars, Glafgow fuffered fe- 7
. obtained from king James II. in 1450, a charter eree- verely. To the mifchiefs attending inteftine difcord,®^
' ting the town and the patrimony of the bilhops were added a peftilence and famine; and to completedeftroJied
into a regality. He alfo procured a bull from pope their misfortunes, a violent fire broke out in June 1652, by a fiie.
arid the u:
verfiry
Landed.
Nicholas V. for erefting an univerfity within the .city,
which he endowed, and on which he alfo bellowed
many privileges. He died in 1454, leaving behind
him a moft excellent charadler. The ellablilhment
of the college contributed more than any thing that
had been formerly done towards the enlargement of
the town. Before this time the town feems to have
• Hip. of been inconfiderable. Mr Gibfon * is of opinion, that
Gfojgow, the number of its inhabitants did not exceed 1500.
P- 74- But though the eltablifhment of the univerfity greatly
increafed the number of inhabitants, it in fail dellroyed
Which de ^ freec^om °f the town. Bilhop Turnbull feems to
ftroys the ^ave made a point of it with king James II. that the ei-
freedom of ty of Glafgow, with the bilhops foreft, fhould be erec-
te(j jnto a regality in his favour ; which was accordingly
done at the time above-mentioned ; and this at once
took away all power from the citizens, and transferred it
to the bilhop. As the powers of the bilhop, however,
were reckoned by Turnbull infufficient to convey to the
members of the univerfity all that freedom which he
wilhed to bellow upon them, he therefore obtained
the city.
hich ddtroyed the greatell part of the Saltmarket,
Trongate, and High llreet. The fronts of the houfes
at that time were moltly of wood, fo that they be¬
came an eafy prey to the flames. The fire continued
with great violence for the fpace of 18 hours; by
which a great many of the inhabitants were ruined,
the habitations of almolt toco families being totally
deftroyed. On this account colle&ions were made thro’
different parts of the country; and to prevent fuch ac¬
cidents for the future, the fronts were built with free
Hone, which abounds in the neighbourhood.
By the charter given to bilhop Turnbull in 1450,
the citizens had been deprived of the power of electing
their own magillrates, which was thenceforth exercifed
by the bilhop ; which, however, was not done with¬
out fome refiftance on the part of the inhabitants. Af¬
ter the reformation was introduced into Scotland, we
find this power exercifed by the citizens, the bilhop,
the earl of Lenox, and others. The idea that the town
was a bilhop*s borough, and not a royal free borough,
gave occafion to this unfettled manner of appointing
from the king a-great many privileges for them ; and the magiltracy ; and though, in 1633, were de¬
afterwards he himfelf, with the conlent of his chapter,
granted them many more.
6 The good effe&s of the eftablilhment of the college
Population were very foon obvious in Glafgow. The number of
?fG'ajk°w inhabitants increafed exceedingly; the high ftreet,
elared to be a royal free borough by the parliament, yet
their freedom of eleftion was afterwards dillurbed by
the privy-couneil, by Cromwell, and the duke of York.
But on the 4th of June 1690, the town was declared
free by a charter of William and Mary ; and in confir- Glafgow
by the! uni from the convent of the Black friars, to where thecrofs mation of this charter it was iuferted in the ad of Par'Wil-
‘.riity. is now placed, was very foon filled up ; the ancient liament, dated June 14th the fame year, that theyj;aman(i
road which led to the common being too far diftant
for the conveniency of the new inhabitants, the Gal-
(hould have power to eled their own magillrates as fully Mary,
and freely, in all refpeds, as the city of Edinburgh or
lows-gate began to be built. Soon after, the collegiate/any other royal borough within the kingdom; which
church of the bleffed Mary (now the Tron-church) be¬
ing founded by the citizens, occafioned the Trongate
ftreet to be carried to the weft ward as far as the church.
The reft of the city increafed gradually towards the
freedom of eledion ftill continues.
By the affeffment of the boroughs in 1695, we
the city of Glafgow reckoned the fecond in Scotland
in point of wealth, which place it Hill continues to hold,
bridge, by the building of the Salt market ftreet. The To account for this great increafe of wealth, we mull 9,
borough-roads, and the cattle that grazed on the com- obferve, that for a long time, even before the reftora-®^
mons, were now found infufficient to maintain the in^ tion of Charles II. the inhabitants of Glafgow had yyg^,.^
creafed number of inhabitants ; for which reafon a been in pofleffion of the fale both of raw and refined fu-
greater degree of attention than formerly was paid to gars for the greateft part of Scotland ; they had a pri-
the filhing in the river. Many poor people fubfifted vilege of dtllilling fpirits from their molalfes, free of
themfelves by this occupation; they were incorporated all duty and excife; the herring-filhery was alfo carried
into a fociety; and in order that they might be at hand on to what was at that time thought a very confiderable
to profecute their bufinefs, they built a confiderable extent; they were the only people in Scotland who made
foap ;
5
G L A L 757 1 G L A
e’xfgow. foap; and they fent annually fome hides, linen, &c. to
Briltol, from whence they brought back in exchange,
a little tobacco, fugar, and goods of the manufa&ure
of England, with which they fupplied a conliderable
part of the kingdom. From the year 1707, however,
in which the union between Scotland and England
took place, we may date the profperity of Glafgow,
By the union, the American trade was laid open to the
inhabitants: and fo fenfible were they of their advan¬
tageous fituation, that they began almoft inftantly to
profecute that commerce ; an affiduous application to
which, ever fince, hath greatly contributed to raife the
city to the pitch of affluence and fplendor which it at pre-
ftnt enjoys. The city was now greatly enlarged ; and as
the community were fenfible of the inconvenience that
attended the want of a fufficiency of water in the river
for carrying on, their commerce, they refolved to have
a port of their own nigher the mouth of the river. At
firit, they thought of making their harbour at Dum¬
barton : but as this is a royal borough, the magiilrates
oppofed it ; becaufe they thought that the influx of
fuilors and others, occalioned by the harbour, would be
fo great, that a fcarcity of proviiions would be occa-
Eredtion of fi°ne(h The magiftrates and town-council of Glafgow,
Port-Glaf- therefore, purchafed fome lands on the fouthfide of the
gow. river Clyde for this purpofe; and fo expeditious were
they in making their harbour, and rearing their town,
that in 1710a bailie was appointed for the government
of Port-Glafgow. It is now a very confiderable pariflr,
and lies 2 t miles nigher the mouth of Clyde than Glaf¬
gow.
In 1725, Mr Campbell, the member of parliament
for Glafgow, having given his vote for having the malt-
tax extended over Scotland, a riot enfued among the
lower clafs of people. In this difturbance, Mr Camp¬
bell’s furniture was deftroyed, and fome excifemen were
maltreated for attempting to take an account of the
jr malt. General Wade, who commanded the forces in
Difturbance Scotland, had fent two companies of foldiers, under
about the command of captain Bufliel, to prevent any dif-
cjttife bill, turbance of this kind. Captain Bufliel drew up his
men in the llreet, where the multitude pelted them
with ftones. He firil endeavoured to dffperfe the mob
by firing with powder only : but this expedient failing,
he ordered his men to load their pieces with ball; and,
without the fanttion of the civil authority, command-*
ed them to fire four different ways at opce. By this
difcharge about 20 perfons were killed and wounded ;
which enraged the multitude to fuch a degree, that ha¬
ving procured fome arms, they purfued Bufhel- and
his men to the caftle of Dumbarton, about 14 miles
diftant. General Wade being informedofthis tranfaftion,
affembled a body of forces, and being accompanied by
Duncan Forbes, lord advocate, took pofieffion of the
town: the magiftrates were apprehended and carried
prifoners to Edinburgh; but on an examination before
the lords, their innocence clearly appeared, upon which
they were immediately difimifTed. Bufliell was tried for
murder, convidted, and condemned ; but, inllead of
fuffering the penalties of law, he was indulged with a
pardon, and promoted in the fervice. Mr Campbell pe¬
titioned the Houfe of Commons for an indemni¬
fication of his Ioffes: a bill was paffed in his fa¬
vour j and this, together with fome other expences
incurred in the affair, coft the town 00001. Ster- Glafguw.
ling. >  
During the time of the rebellion in 174;, the < iti-
zens of Giafgow gave proof of their attachment to re¬
volution principles, by railing two battalions, of 600
men each, for the ferviee of government. This piece
of loyalty, however, had like to have coll them dear.
The rebels, in their journey fouth, took a refolution to
plunder and burn the city : which would probably have
been done, had not Mr Cameron of Lochiel threaten¬
ed, in that cafe, to withdraw his clan. A heavy con¬
tribution, however, was laid on. The city was com¬
pelled to pay 50CO1. in money, and 500 1 in goods ;
and on the return of the rebels from England, they
were obliged to furnilh them with 12,000 linen flrirts,
6000 cloth coats, 6000 pairs of ihoes, 6©oo pairs of
hofe, and 6oco bonnets. Thefe goods, with the money
formerly paid them., the expence of raifing and fubfith’ng
the two city-battalions, and the charge of maintaining
the rebel army in free quarters for ten days, coft the
community about 14,000!. fterling ; io,oool. of
which they recovered in 1749, by an application to par¬
liament.
About the year 1750, a very confiderable change i*
took place in the manner of living among the inhabi- Change of
tants of Glafgow. Till this time, an attentive in‘ an ("method;
duftry, and a frugality bordering upon parfimony, 0f iiv;ng.
had been their general charafteriftic; the feverity of
the ancient manners prevailed in its full vigour:
But now, when an extenfive commerce and increafed
manufactures had produced wealth, the ideas of the
people were enlarged, and fchemes of trade and im¬
provement were adopted which people would formerly
have been denominated madmen if they had under¬
taken ; a new ftyle was introduced in living, drefs,
building, and furniture ; wheel-carriages were fet up,
public places of entertainment were frequented, and
an affembly-room, ball-room, and playhoufe, were
built by fubfcription ; and from this time we may
date all the improvements that have taken place, not
only in Glafgow, but all over the weft of Scotland.
The beft method, however, of eftimating the grow¬
ing improvement of any town, is by the frequency
of their applications for afliftance to parliament; we
{hall therefore enumerate the aits of parliament which
have been paffed in favour of the city of Glafgow fince
the year 175°' 1753> an a<^ paffed for repairing Aift? of
feveral roads leading into the city of Glafgow.— In I'arlfament-
1756, an aft for erefting and fupporting a light-in f“v‘,ur
houfe in the ifland of Little Cumray, at the mouththe Clty'
of the Clyde, and for rendering the navigation of
the frith and river more fafe and commodious.—
In 1759, an aft for improving the navigation of
the river Clytie to the city of Glafgow, and for
building a new bridge acrofs the river.—In 1767,
the people of Glafgow having propofed to make
a fmall cut or canal from the frith of Forth to
that of Clyde, for the conveniency of their trade to
the eaftern fide of the ifland, feveral gentlemen at
Edinburgh, and throughout different parts of the
kingdom, propofed that this canal flrould be executed
upon a much larger fcale than what had been origi¬
nally projefted. An aft was accordingly obtained,
and the canal executed in the manner described under.
the
G L A [ 758 ] G L A
Glafgow. tlie article Canal.—In 1770, another aft was obtained
for improving the navigation of the river, building the
bridge,&c. being an amendment ofthe former aft forthefe
purpofes.—In 1771, an aft for making and widening
a pafiage from the Salt-market to St Andrew’s church;
for enlarging and completing the church-yard of that
church, and likewife for building a convenient ex¬
change or fquare in the city ; alfo for amending and
explairiing the former aft relative to the navigation of
the Clyde.—An aft for making and maintaining a
navigable canal and waggon-way from the collieries in
the parilhes of Old and New Monkland, to the city of
Glafgow. This laft- canal, which was undertaken with a
view to reduce the price of coals, has not been at¬
tended with the defired effeft ; but the other improve¬
ments have been produftive of very great advantages.
T4 The moft ancient part of the city Hands on a riiing
eOhe cit00 £rount^ ^ f°un(lation °f the cathedral is 104 feet
higher than the bed of the river; and the defcentfrom
the high ground reaches to about 100 yards below the
college. The reft of the city is built chiefly upon a
plain, bounded fouthward by the Clyde, and north¬
ward by a gentle ridge of hills lying in a parallel di-
xeftion with that river. Thefe grounds till lately con-
fifted of gardens and fields; but are now covering
with buildings, in confequence of the increafing wealth
and population of the city. The ftreets are all clean
and well paved; and feveral of them interfefting one
another at right angles, produce a very agreeable ef¬
feft. The four principal ftreets, croffing one another
in that manner, divide the- city nearly into four equal
parts ; and the different views of them from the crofs,
or centre of interfeftion, have an air of great magnifi¬
cence. The houfes, confifting of four or five floors
in height, are built of hewn ftone, generally in an ex¬
ceeding good tafte, and many of them elegant. The
moft remarkable public buildings are,
Of theca- 1' The Cathedral or High Church, is a magnificent
thedial. building, and its fituation greatly to its advantage, as
it Hands higher than any part of the city. It has been
intended to form a crofs, though the traverfe part has
never been finiihed. The great tower is founded upon
four large maffy pillars, each of them about 30 feet in
circumference. The tower itfelf is 254- feet fquare
within; and is furrounded by a balluftrade, within
which rifes an oftangular fpire terminated by a fane.
The tower upon the weft end is upon the fame level,
but appears not to have.been finifhed, though it is co¬
vered over with lead. In this tower is a very large bell
1 r feet four inches in diameterr The principal entry
was from the weft; the gate 11 feet broad at the bafe,
and 17 feet in height. The weft end of the choir is
now appropriated for a place of divine worftiip; and is
divided from the remaining part , by a ftone partition,
which is inclofed by another ftone-wall parting it from
the nave. It is impoffibte to form an adequate idea of
the awful folemnity of the place occalioned by the lof-
tinefs of the roof and the range of pillars by which the
whole is fupported.
The nave of the church rifes four Heps higher than
the choir; and on the weft fide Hood the organ-loft,
formerly ornamented with a variety of figures, - but
now defaced. The pillars here are done in a better
- tulle than thofe in the choir, and their capitals are or¬
namented with fruits. The arched roof of the altar Glafirc
is fupported by five pillars, over which was a fine ter- v“
race walk, and above it a large window of curious
workmanfhip, but now Ihut up. On the north fide of
the altar is the veftry, being a cube of 28 feet, the
roof arched and vaulted at top, and fupported by one
pillar in the centre of the houfe. Arched pillars from
every angle terminate in the grand pillar, which is 19
feet high. The lower part of the fouth crofs is made
ufe of as a burying place for the clergy of the city ;
and is by much the fineft piece of workmanftnp in the
whole building. It is 55 feet long, 28 broad, and
15 high; arched and vaulted at top, and fupported
by a middle range of pillars, with their capitals highly-
ornamented ; correfponding to which are columns ad-
joining to the walls, which as they rife, fpring into
femi-arches/ and are every where met at acute angles
by their oppofites, and are ornamented with carvings
at the doling and crofling of the lines. At the e«ft
end of the choir you defcend by flights of Heps upon
each fide into paffages which, in former times, were the
principal entries to the burying vault which is imme¬
diately under the nave. It is now made ufe of as a
parifh church for the barony of Glafgow ; and is full
of pillars, fome of them very maffy, which fupport the
arched roof: but it is a very uncomfortable place for
devotion. The fpace under the altar and veftry,
though now made ufe of as a burying-place by the he¬
ritors of the baropy, was formerly, according to tra¬
dition, employed for keeping of the relics; and indeed,
from the beautiful manner in which this place is finilh-
ed, one would imagine that it had not been deftined
for common ufe. Here is fhown the monument of St
Mungo, or Kentigern, with his figure lying in a cum-
bent pofture.
The whole length of the cathedra! iwithin the walls
is 284 feet, its breadth 65 ; the height of the choir,
from the floor to the canopy, 90 feet; the height
of the nave, 85 feet; the height of the middle tower,
220 feet. This fabric was begun by John Achaius in
1123, andconfecrated in 1136; and continued by fuc-
ceeding bilhops till fuch time as it was finiflred in the
manner in which it ftands at prefent. The wealth of
the fee of Glafgow, however, was not fufficient for fo
great an undertaking, fo that they were obliged to have
recourfe to all the churches of Scotland for affiftance
in it.
This venerable edifice was in danger of falling a
viftim to the frenzy of fanaticifm in 1579 ; and owed
its prefervation to the fpirit and good fenfe of the
tradefmen, who, upon hearing the beat of drum for
collefting the workmen appointed to demolilh it, flew
to arms, and declared that the firft man who pulled
down a fingle ftone fhould that moment be buried un¬
der it. •
Near the cathedra! are the ruins of the biftiop’s pa¬
lace or caftle, inclofed with a wall of hewn ftone by
archbimop James Beaton ; the great tower built by
archbiihop Cameron in J426.
2. St Andrew's Church was begun by the commu-
nity in 1739, and finiihed in 1756. It is the fineft 16
piece of modern architefture in the city ; and is built St An-
after the model of St Martin’s in the Fields, London, <^ew’®
whole architedt was the famous Gibbs. The length of dlUr<'h’
1 the
The col¬
lege.
G L A
( 759 1
G L A
GUfgow. the church is 104 feet, and its breadth 66. It has a fine bly-hall; a neat room, 47 feet long, and 34 in_ breadth Glafgow.
arched rocf, well ornamented with figures in ilucco, and
fuftaioed by ftone-columns of the Corinthian order.
Correfpondent to the model, it has a place for the altar
1 the call, in which is a very ancient Venetian
and height, finiihed in a good tafte, though too fmall for "
the city. The town-hall is a very fpacious and lofty
apartment, 52 feet long by 27 broad, and-24 in
height. It is finiihed in a very grand manner; the
dow ; but the altar-place being feated, makes this end ceiling is divided into different compartments well or-
appear to .no great advantage. The fronts of the gal¬
leries and the pulpit are done in mahogany in a very
elegant manner. The fpire by no means correfponds
with the reft of the building ; and, inftead of being an
oroament, difgraces this beautiful fabric. Its height
is 170 feet.
Befides the cathedral (which contains three congre¬
gations) and St Andrew’s church, there is a number
of others, as the College-church, Ram’s-horn, Tron,
Wynd, &c. together with an Englilhjchapel, Highland
namented. In it are full-length portraits of king
James VI. and VII. Charles I. and II. William and
Mary, queen Anne, king George I. II. and III. and
Arcliibald duke of Argyle in his judiciary robes. The
two lalt are by Ramfay. Oppofite to the front of this
building is the exchange-walk, which is well paved with
free Hone, and inclofed from the ftreet by ftone pillars. la
the middle of thisarca is an equeftrian ftatueof king Wil¬
liam III. placed upon a lofty pedeftal, and furrounded
with an iron rail.—In 17$i, the exchange under the
church, feveral feceding meeting-houfes, and others piaxzas was greatly enlarged, by taking down the low-
rorfectaries of various denominations.
3. The College. The front of this building extends
along the call fide of the high ftreet, and is upwards
of 330 feet long. The gate at the entrance is decora¬
ted with nifties, and over it are the king’s arms. The
building confifts of two principal courts or fquares.
The fir ft is 88 feet long and 44 broad. The weft fide
is elevated upon ftone pillars, on which are placed pila-
Iters fupporting the Do; ic entablature, and ornamented
with arches forming a piazza. Above thefe is the
■ part of the town-hall ard affembly-room ; and at the
fame time,-by a tontine fcheme entered into by the
inhabitants, a moft elegant colfee-room was added, with
a fuite of buildings adjoining for the purpofesof a tavern
and hotel, affembly-room, and offices for notaries and
underwriters. The affembly-room, however, being
found to be ft ill too fmall, a fubfeription of above
L. 5000 has been raifed by a fimilar plan of a tontine
for building a new one, which is propofed to be ere’t-
ed in the north corner of one of the new ftreets which
public hail; the afeent to which is by a double flight of join Ingram-ftreet to Arg) le-ftreet.
fteps inclofed by a handfome fton.e balluftrade, upon
the right of which is placed a lion, and on the left an
unicorn, cut in free ftone. The fpire ftands on the
eaft fide, is 135 feet high, and has a very good clock.
Under this is the gateway into the inner and largeft
court, which is 103 feet long and 79 broad. Over the
entry, in a niche, is a ftatue of Mr Zacharias Boyd, who
was abenefadtor to the univerfity. On the eaft fideof the
court is a narrow paffage leading into a handfome ter¬
race walk, gravelled, 122 feet long by 64 feet broad.
This walk is inclofed'to the eaft by an iron pallifade,
in the centre of which is a gate leading into the gar¬
den. This laft confifts of feven acres of ground, laid
put in walks for the recreation of the ftudtnti
5. The Guild-Hall or Merchant's Houfe. This
building is fituated upon the fouth fide of Bridge-
gate ftreet; and is in length 82 feet, in breadth 31
The'great hall, which is the whole length and breadth
of the building, is fo capacious, that it is better adapt¬
ed for the reception of great and numerous aflemblies
than any other in the city. This houfe is adorned with
a very'elegant fpire 200 feet high.
6. The Towns Hoffital is a very, neat building, con-
fifting of two wings and a large front r the length
156 feet, the breadth of the centre 30 feet, and the
depth of the wings 68 feet. Behind the building is an
infirmary 1 27 feet long by 25 feet broad, the afeent to
which is by a flight of fteps. The lower part of this
Town’s ho»
fpitai.
there is alfo a botanic garden. On the fouth fide-of building is appointed for the reception of lunatics,
the walk ftands the library ; a very neat edifice, well The area between the buildings is large, which, with
conftrudtcd for the purpofe intended, and containing a the agreeable open fitiuation of the hofpital on the ri¬
ver, muft condirce to the health of the inhabitants.
7. The Grammar School is on new taken in
grounds to the north-weft of the town, and was built in
ery valuable colle&ion of books. Underneath
preferved in cafes all the Roman inferiptions found on
Graham’s Dike, together with altars and other anti¬
quities colledied from different parts of Scotland.—
Adjoining, there is an obfervatory, well furnifhed with
aftronomical inllruments. The college alfo poffeffes,
by bequeft, the late Dr Hunter's famous anatomical
preparations, library, and rnufeum : .And in the depart-
hall, and fix airy commodious teaching rooms. In this,
fchool there are four claffes, the courfe being four years;
each clafsls carried orv the whole four years by the fame
mafter ; fo that, there being no reftor, each mafter is
ment of natural philofophy, it is furnilhed with an ap- head of the fchool one year in rotation. It is undur
paratus which is univerfally acknowledged to be the
moll extenfive and ufeful in Britain, and which owes
its peifettion to the liberality and unremitting labour
of Mr Anderfon the prefent profeffor of that fcience.
the direction of a committee of the town-council; who
affilted by the profeffors, clergy, and other perfons of
learning, frequently vifit it during the feffion ; and at
an annual examination, prizes of books are diftributed
Town
ffioufe, &c.
4. TA’yoZ/'oeA, or "TowmAorv/e, is a magnificent and to the fcholars according to their refpedtive merits.
extremely elegant building. The front is adorned with
a range of Ionic pilafters; and is elevated on ftrong rufti-
' pillars w ith arches, forming a piazza for merchants
The prefent number of fcho’ars is above 300. —The
building is not yet entirely finiffied ; and the rooms
which are not occupied by the Latin claffes are intend-
and others to fhelter themfelves from the weather when ed for teaching writing, arithmetic, drawing, &c.
met upon buiinefs. One of the apartments was the affem- £. The New Bridge is built in ,
1 elegant maimer. New
ItB-!-
G L A [ 760 ] G L A
Clafeow It is 32 feet wide ; with a commodious foot-way for
T—v  paflVngers, five feet broad on each fide, railed above
the road made for carriages, and paved with free ftone.
This bridge is about 500 feet in length ; and conlifts
of feven arches, the faces of which are wrought in ru-
ftic, with a ftrongblock cornice above. The archesfpring
but a little way above low-watermark ; which, though
it renders the bridge ftronger than if they fprung from
taller piers, diminifhes its beauty. Between every
arch there is a fmall circular one : thefe break the force
of the water when the river rifes to a flood, and add to
the flrength of the whole. The parapet-wall or bread-
work is cut out in the Chinefe tafte ; and the two ends
are finilhed off with a fweep. This bridge was be¬
gun in 1768, and finilhed in 1772.
43 9. The Markets in King's Street are juftly admired,
Markets, as being the' c mpleteft of their kind in Britain. They
&c’ are placed on both fides of the ftreet. That on the eaft
fide, appropriated entirely for butcher-meat, is 112
feet in length, and 67 in breadth. In the centre is a
fpacious gateway, decorated on each fide with coupled
Ionic columns, fet upon their pedeftals, and fupporf-
ing an angular pediment. At the north end is a very
neat hall belonging to the incorporation of butchers, the
front ornamented with ruftics and a pediment. The
markets upon the weft fide of the ftreet confift of three
courts, fet apart for filh, thutton, and cheefe. The whole
of the front is 173 feet, the breadth 46 feet; in the
centre of which, as on the oppofite fide, is a very fpa¬
cious gateway of the Dorick order, fupporting a pedi-
‘ment. This is the entry to the mutton-market. Each
of the other two has a well-proportioned arch faced
with rufticks for their entrance. All thefe markets are
well paved with free-ftone ; have walks all round them)
and are covered over for Ihelter b.y roofs Handing up¬
on ftone piers, under which the different commodities
are expofed to fale. They have likewife pump-wells
within, for cleanlxng away all the filth ; which render
the markets always fweet and agreeable. Thefe mar¬
kets were erefted in 1754.
10 The Herb-Market is neat and commodious ;
and the principal entry is decorated with columns. It
is fituated in the Candleriggs, and is laid out in the
fame manner with the markets in King’s-ftreet.
24 ir. The Guard-Houfe is a very handfome building,
Guard- with a piazza formed by arches, and columns of the
houfe. Ionic order fet upon their pedeftals. It was originally
fituated on the Highftreet, at the corner of the Canole-
riggs ftreet: but has lately been carried near half way
up the Candleriggs, where it occupies the ground on
which the weigh-houfe formerly flood, and o is made
larger and more commodious than it wtft before. An
excellent new weigh houfe has been erected at the head
of the Candleriggs : And at the foot of the Candle¬
riggs, or corner next the Highftreet, where the Guard-
houfe was formerly fituated, a fuperb new hotel has
been built, containing 75 fire-rooms.
The moft remarkable public charities in Glafgow are,
55 I. Muirhead’s or St Nicholas's Hofpital. This was
Public cha- originally appointed to fubfift 12 old men and a chap-
rides. ja;n . kut jts revenues have, from fome unknown
caufes, been loft ; fo that no more of them now remains
than the paltry fum of 1391. 2s. 5d. Scots money,
128 1 of which is annually divided among four old
men, at the rate of 2I. 13 s. 4ft. each.
N° 139-
2. Hutchefon's Hofpital, was founded and endowed Glafgow.
in 1639 by George Hutchefon of Lamb-hill notary- y“—
public, and Mr Thomas Hutchefon his brother who
was bred a preacher, for the maintenance of old men
and orphans. The funds of this hofpital were increa-
fed by James Blair merchant in Glafgow in 1710, and
by fubfequent donations. From the fale of. fome of
their lands which lay convenient for building, and the
rife of the reft, the income is now above L. 1400,
which is diftributed in penfions to old people from L. 3
to L. 20, and in educating about 50 children.
3. The Merchants Houfe likewife diftributes in pen¬
fions and other charities about L. Soo yearly.
4. The Town's Hcfpital, above deferibed, was opened
for the reception of the poor pn the 15th of November
1733. The funds whence this hofpital is fubfifted
are, the general fefiion, the town-council, the trades
houfe and iherchants houfe, the intereft of money be¬
longing to their funds, which are fums that have beea
mortified for the ufe of the houfe. Thefe fupplies, how¬
ever, are found infufficient to defray the expences of the
houfe; for which reafon an affeffment is annually made
upon the inhabitants in the following manner. The
magiftrates nominate 12, 14, or fometimes more gentle¬
men of known integrity and character, who have a
lift laid before them of all the inhabitants in town. This
lift they divide into 16 or 18 columns. Each of thefe
columns contains the names of fuch inhabitants as car¬
ry on trade to a certain extent, or are fuppofed to be
well able to pay the fum affixed to the particular co¬
lumn in which their names are inferted. If it is necef-
fary to raife 5001. for inttance, then each name, in
every feparate column, is valued at as much as the for¬
tunes of the perfons in each particular column are fup¬
pofed to be. If icool. or more is to be railed, it is
only continuing a proportional increafe through the
whole of the columns. The higheft fum that ever
was thus raifed, was 12 s. 6d. upon every thoufand
pounds that each perfon was fuppofed to be worth.
The number of people maintained in this hofpital are
about 620.
5. Wdfon's Charity for the education of boys, * was
founded by George Wilfon, who in 1778 left 3000 1.
for that purpofe. This fund is now confiderably in-
creafed, and gives education and clothing to 48 boys,
who each continues four years, fo that 12 are admit¬
ted annually.
Befides thefe, there are many public fchools for the edu¬
cation of children; as well as many inftitutions of private
focieties for the purpofe of relieving the indigent and
inftrutring youth, fuch as Graham's Society, Buchanan's
Society, the Highland Society, &c. Thefe laft put an¬
nually 20 boys apprentices to trades, and during the
firft three years give them clothing and education.
The univerfity of Glafgow owes its origin, as we 26
have already obferved, to biftrop Turnbull- The infti- Members
tution confifted at firft of a redtor, a dean of faculty,of uru”
a principal who taught theology, and three profeffors ver lty*
. of p'hilofophy ; and, foon after this, the civil and ca¬
non laws were taught by fome clergymen. From the
time of its eftabliftiment in 1450 to the reformation in
1560, the college was chiefly frequented by thofewho
were intended for the church ; its members were all
ecclefiaftics, and its principal fupport was derived from
the church. The reformation brought the univerfity to
the
G t A [ 7®
Okrgow. t!ie verge of deftruftion; mafters, ftudents, and fer-
vants, all forfook it. The magiftrates were fo fenfxble
of the lofs which the community had fuftained by this
defertion, that they endeavoured to rettore it in 1572,
by bellowing upon it conliderable funds, and prefer!-
bing a fet of regulations for its management. Thefe,
however, proved infufficient ; for which reafon king
James VI. erefted it anew, by a charter called the Nova
JEreBio, in 1577, and bellowed upon it the teinds of the
parilh of Go van. The perfons who were to compofe
the new univerfity were, a principal, three profefforsof
philofophy, four lludents burfars, one ceconomus, a
principal's fervant, a janitor, and cook-
Since the year 1577, the funds of the univerlity
have been confiderably increafed by the bounty of
kings and the donations of private perfons. 1 he pro-
feffors have therefore alfo been increafed; fo that at
prefent the univerfity of Glafgow confills of a chan¬
cellor, re&or, dean of faculty, principal, and 14 pro-
feffors (fix of them in the gift of the crown), together
with burfars, &c The archbilhop of Glafgow was
formerly chancellor of the univerfity ex officio ; at pre-
•fent, the chancellor is chofen by the re&or, dean
of faculty, principal, and mailers.
The chancellor, as being the head of the univerfity,
is the fountain of honour, and in his name are all aca¬
demical degrees bellowed. The office of re&or is to
exercife that academical jurifdiftion in difputes among
the lludents themfelves, or between the lludents and
citizens, which is bellowed upon the greater part of the
■univerfities in Europe. He is chofen annually in the
tomitia ; that is, in a meeting in which all the lludents,
as well as the other members of the uiiiveifity, have a
voice. Immediately after his admiffion, he has been in
ufe to choofe certain perfons as his alfelfors and coun-
fellors in his capacity of judge : and, in former periods,
it was cullomary to name the minilters of Glafgow., or
any other gentlemen who had no connexion with the
univerfity ; but, for a great while pall, the reftor has
conllantly named the dean of faculty, the principal,
and mailers, for his affeffors ; and he has always been,
and. Hill is, in the daily practice of judging in the
caufes belonging to him, with the advice of his affef¬
fors. Befides thefe powers as judge, the redlor fum-
mons and prefides in the meetings of the univerfity
for the election of his fucceffor ; and he is likewife in
ufe to call meetings of the profeffors for drawing up ad-
dreffes to the king, electing a member to the general
affembly, and other bufinefs of the like kind.
The dean of faculty has, for his province, the gi¬
ving directions with regard to the courfe of lludies; the
judging, together with the redlor, principal, and pro¬
feffors, of the qualifications of thofe who delire to be
created mailers of arts, dodlots of divinity, &c. ; and
he prefides in meetings which are called by him for
thefe purpofes. He is chofen annually by the reCtor,
principal, and mafters.
The principal and mailers, independent of the rec¬
tor and dean, cdmpofe a meeting in which the princi¬
pal prefides; and as they are the perfons for whofe
behoof chiefly the revenue of the college was eltablilh-
ed, the adminiftration of that revenue is therefore com¬
mitted to them. The revenue arifes from the teinds
of the parilh of Govan, granted by king James VI. in
1557 j from the tcinds of the parilhes of Renfrew
Vol. VII. Part II.
t ] G L A
and Kilbride, granted by the fame monarch in 1617, Otifgsw.
and confirmed by king Charles I. on the 28th of June 1
1630 ; from the teinds of the parilhes of Calder, Old
and New Monkland, conveyed to them by a charter
from Charles II. in 1670 ; from a tack of the arch-
biffioprick; and from ieveral donations conferred by
prirat? perfons.
Th. college of Glafgow, for a very confiderable
time after its ereCtion, followed the mode of public
teaching which is common even to this day in Oxford
and Cambridge, and in many other univerfities through¬
out Europe; that is, each profeffor gave a few lec*
tures every year, gratis, upon the particular fcience
which he profeffed: but, in place of this, the profef¬
fors have, for a great while pall, adopted the mode of
private teaching ; that is, they lefture and examine
two hours every day during the feffion, viz. from the
1 oth of October to the 10th of June; a method which
comes much cheaper to the Undent, as he has it in his
power, if he is attentive, to acquire his education with¬
out being under the rteceffity of employing a tutor*
They have alfo private claffes, in which they teach
one hour per day. The number of lludents who have
attended this college for feveral years pall, has been
upwards of j'oo each feafon. H
The trade of Glafgow is faid to have been firll pro-^ t“je 0f
moted by one Mr William Elphinllone in 1420. This Glafgow.
trade was moll probably the curing and exporting of
falmon ; but the firll authentic document concerning
Glafgow as a trading city is in 1546. Complaints
having been made by Henry VIII. king of England,
that feveral Englilh (hips had been taken and robbed
by veffels belonging to Scotland, an order of council
was iffued, difeharging fuch captures for the future ;
and among other places made mention of in this order
is the city of Glafgow. The trade which at that
time they carried on could not be great. It probably
confilled of a few fmall veffels to France loaded with
pickled falmon ; as this lilhery was, even then, car¬
ried on to a confiderable extent, by Glafgow, Ren¬
frew, and Dumbarton. Between the year 1630 and
1660, a very great degree of attention feems to have
been paid to inland commerce by the inhabitants of
Glafgow. Principal Baillie informs us, that the in-
creafe of Glafgow arifing from this commerce was ex¬
ceedingly great. The exportation of falmon and of
herrings were alfo continued and increafed. In the war
between Britain and Holland during the reign of
Charles II. a privateer was fitted out in Clyde to cruife
againft the Dutch. She was called the Lion of Glaf-
gow, Robert M‘Allan commander; and carried five
pieces of cannon, and 6c hands.
A fpirit of commerce appears to have arifen a-
mong the inhabitants of Glafgow between the year
1660 and 1707. The citizens who diftinguiffied them¬
felves -mod during this period were Walter Gibfoh
and John Anderfon. Gibfon cured and packed in
one year .00 lafts of herrings, which he fent to St
Martin’s in France on board of a Dutch veffel, called
the St Agate, of 43:0 tons burthen ; his returns were
brandy and fait. He was the firft who imported iron
from Stockholm into Clyde. Anderfon is faid to have
been the firft. who ittiported white-wines.
Whatever their trade was at this time, it could
not be confiderable: the ports to which they were
5 D obliged
G L A [ 762 ] G L A
Glafgow. obliged to trade lay all to the eaftward : the circum*
navigation of the illand would therefore prove an al-
moft unfurmountable bar to the commerce of Glafgow;
and of confequence the people on the eaft coaft would
be poffefTed of aim oft all the commerce of Scotland.
The union with England opened a field for commerce
for which the fituation of Glafgow, fo convenient in
refpedt to the Atlantic, was highly advantageous.
Since that time the commerce of the eaft coaft has
declined, and that of the weft increafed to an ama¬
zing . degree. No fooner was the treaty of union
figned, than the inhabitants of Glafgow began to
profecute the trade to Virginia and Maryland ; they
chartered veffels from Whitehaven, fent out cargoes
of goods, and brought back tobacco in return. The
method in which they at firft proceeded in this trade,
was certainly a very prudent one. A fupercargo went
out with every veflel. He bartered his goods for to¬
bacco, until fuch time as he had either fold off his
goods, or procured as much tobacco as was fufficient
to load his veffel. He then immediately fet out on
his return ; and if any of his goods remained unfold,
he brought them home with him. While they con¬
tinued to trade in this way, they were of great advan¬
tage to the country, by the quantity of manufatftures
which they exported ; their own wealth began to in-
creafe; they purchafed (hips of their own ; and, in
1718, the firft veffel of the property of Glafgow crofted
the Atlantic. Their imports of tobacco were now
confiderable, and Glafgow began to be looked upon
as a confiderable port ; the tobacco-trade at the ports
of Briftol, Liverpool, and Whitehaven, was obferved
to dwindle away ; the people of Glafgow began to
fend tobacco, to thefe places, and to underfell the Eng-
lifti even in their own ports. Thus the jealoufy of the
latter was foon excited, and they took every method
in their power to deftroy the trade of Glafgow. The
people of Briftol prefented remonftranees to the com-
miffioners of the cuftoms at London againft the trade
of Glafgow, in (717. To thefe remonftrances the
merchants of Glafgow fent ftich anfwers to the com-
mifiioners as convinced them that the complaints of
the Briftol merchants were without foundation. But in
1721, a moft formidable confederacy was entered into
by almoft all the tobacco-merchants in South Britain
againft the trade of Glafgow. Thofe of London, Li¬
verpool, and Whitehaven, prefented feverally to the
Lords of the Treafury, petitions, arraigning the Glaf¬
gow merchants of frauds in the tobacco trade. To
thefe petitions the Glafgow people gave in replies; and
the Lords of the Treafury, after a full and impartial
hearing, were pleafed to difmifs the caufe with the fol¬
lowing fentenee : “ That the complaints of the mer¬
chants of London, Liverpool, and Whitehaven, were
groiindlefs ; and that they proceeded from a fpirit of
envy, and not from a regard to the intereft of trade,
or of the king’s revenue.”
But the efforts of thefe gentlemen did not flop here.
They brought their complaints into the Houfe of
Commons. Commifiioners were fent to Glafgow in
1722, who gave in their reports to the houfe in 1723.
The merchants fent up diftindt and explicit anfwers to
thefe reports; but fuch was the intereft of their adver-
faries, that thefe aufwers were difregarded. New offi¬
cers were appointed at the ports of Greenock and
Port-Glafgow, whofe private inftrudlions feem to have Glafgow,
been, to ruin the trade if poffible, by putting all ima- ~ /•—-
ginable hardftiips upon it. Hence it languiftied till the
year 1735 ; but after that time it began to revive, tho’
even after its revival it was carried on but (lowly for a
confiderable fpace of time.
At laft, however, the adlive and enterprifing fpirit of
the merchants, feconding the natural advantages of their
fituation, prevailed over all oppofition ; and the Ame¬
rican trade continued to flourifti and increafe until the
year 1775, infomuch that the importation of tobacco
into Clyde that year from the provinces of Virginia,
Maryland, and Carolina, amounted to 57,143 hogs¬
heads. But fince the breacffwith America, this trade
has now fallen greatly off, and very large fums are faid
to remain due to the merchants from that quarter of
the world. lg
With regard to the manufadlures of Glafgow, MrManufac-
Gibfon is of opinion that the commerce to America tures of
firft fuggefted the idea of introducing them, in anyGlaf£0W*
confiderable degree at lead. The firft attempts in this
way were about the year 1725, and their increafe for
feme time was very flow, nor did they begin to be
confidcrable till great encouragement was given by the
legiflature to the linen manufafture in Scotland. The
firft caufes of the fuccefs of this manufa&ure were the
aft of parliament in 1748, whereby the wearing of
French cambrics was prohibited under fevere penalties;
that of 1751, allowing weavers in flax or hemp to fet¬
tle and exercife their trades any where in Scotland
free from, all corporation-dues; and the bounty of
three-halfpence per yard on all linens exported at and
under 18 d. per yard. Since that time a fpirit of ma-
nufafture has been excited among the inhabitants of
Glafgow; and great variety of goods, and in very great
quantity, have been manufaftured. Checks, linen, and
linen and cotton, are manufaftured to a great extent.
Printed linens and cottons were begun to be manufac¬
tured in 1738 ; but they only made garments till 1754>
when handkerchiefs were firft printed.
Incles were firft made here about the year 1732-
The engine-looms ufed at that time were fo inconve¬
nient, and took up fo much time in making the goods,
that the Dutch, who were the only people poffefled of
the large incle-looms, were almoft folely in poffeffion
of this manufafture. Mr Hervey, who began this
branch in Glafgow, was fo fenfible of the difadvanta-
ges under which it laboured, that he went over to Hol¬
land ; and in fpite of the care and attention which the
Dutch took to conceal their methods of manufafturing,
he brought over with him from Haerlem two of their
looms, and one of their workmen. This Dutchman
remained fome years in Glafgow ; but on fome difguft
he went to Manchefter, and inftrufted the people there
in the method of carrying on the manufafture.
In 1757, carpets were begun to be made, and are
now carried on to a confiderable extent. Hunters
cloths, Englifti blankets, and other goods of the fame
kind, are alfo made.
Befides thefe, a great variety of articles are manu¬
faftured at Glafgow, of which our limits will not per¬
mit us to enter into a detail, fuch as foap, refining of
fugar, iron-mongery, brafs, jewellery, glafs both com¬
mon and white, pottery, 8cc. Types for printing are
made in this city by Dr Wilfon and Sons, equal,
3 if-
G L A C 763 ] G L A
Glafgow. If not fuperior, in beauty to any others in Britain.
—v  Printing of books was firft begun here by George An-
derfon about the year 1638. But the^e was no good
printing in Glafgow till the year 1735. when Robert
Urie printed feveral books in a very elegant manner.
The higheft perfeftion, however, to which printing
1 hath yet been carried in this place, oAperhaps in any
other, was by the late Robert and Andrew Foulis,
(who began in the year 1740); as the many correft
and fplendid editions of books printed by them in
different languages fufficiently teftify. Some of their
claffios, it is faid, are held in fuch high efteem abroad,
as to fell nearly at the price of ancient MSS. The
fame gentlemen alfo eftablifhed an academy of paint¬
ing ; but the wealth of Scotland being unequal to the
undertaking, it has been fince given up.
Since the ftagnation of the American trade, already
noticed, the merchants of Glafgow have turned their
attention .more to manufactures, which have of late,
efpecially that of cottons and muflins, increafed in a
very rapid degree, and bid fair for putting the city in
a more flourifhing condition than ever it was before.
The manufaCturing-houfes, the influx of people for
carrying on the manufactures, the means and encourage¬
ment which thefe afford to population, and the wealth
thence derived by individuals as well as accruing to
the community, have all tended lately to increafe,
and are daily increafihg, the extent of the city and
the elegance of the buildings. Befides various im¬
provements in the old ftreets, feveral handfome new
ones as well as new fquares have been added. The
flte of thefe new buildings is the traCl of rifing
ground already mentioned as the north boundary of the
town previous to its late extenfion. The weftern part
of it, which is perfedly level, is occupied by a fpaci-
ous fquare, denominated George’s Square; two fides
of which are built and inhabited, and a third begun.
The grafs plot in the middle is inclofed with a hand¬
fome iron railing. The fquare is deficient in regula¬
rity ; the houfes on the well fide being a ftory higher
than thofe of the eaft ; but in other refpeCts it is very
neat. To the eaft. of this fquare are feveral new
ftreets laid out and paved, and fome of them almoft
Completely built on. The principal, though as yet
the moft incomplete of thofe ftreets, is Ingram Street,
which runs from eaft to weft. From this the others
begin ; fome of them being carried ndrthward up the
hill, others going fouthward and joining the main
ftreet of the town. One of the fineft of thefe crofs
jp ftreets is Hutchefon Street.
The river, The fouth boundary of the city was mentioned to
be the Clyde. Over this river there are two bridges.
One of them, the Old Bridge, built about 400 years
ago by archbifhop Rae, but fince repaired and partly
rebuilt, confifts of eight arches; and conneCls the fub-
urbs of Gorbals, fituated on the oppofite fide of the
river, with the city. The other is the New Bridge,
defcribed above.—On the banks of the river, eaftward,
is the Green; a fpot appropriated to the ufe of the inha¬
bitants, with conveniences for wafhing and drying linens,
and with agreeable and extenfive walks for recreation.
On the fame or fouth fide of the town, weftward,
is the Broomie-law, where the quay is fituated. Till
within thefe few years, the river here and for feveral
miles diftance, was fo (hallow and fo obftru&ed by fhoals, Ghfpew,
as to admit only of fmall craft from Greenock, Port- Giafs-
Glafgow, and the Highlands : but of late it has been * ^
cleared and deepened fo as to admit veflels of confider-
able burden ; and it is intended to make the depth
as nearly equal as pofiible to that of the canal, in
order that the veffels from Ireland and the weft coaft
may not be induced exclufively to afcend the weit
end of the canal and deliver their goods at Canal-bafon,
but may come up Clyde and unload at the Broomie-
law. ' 3S,
The'government of the city of Glafgow is veiled i‘nGovern-
a provoft and three bailies, a dean of guild, deacon-
conveener, and a treafurer, with a common council ofthe’city. °
13 merchants and 12 mechanics. The provoft and
two of the bailies muft, by the fet of the borough, be
eledled from the merchant rank, and the other bailie
from the trades rank, i. e. the mechanics. The pro-
voft .is, from courtefy and cuftom, ftyled lordprovoft.
He is properly lord of the police of the city, prefident
of the community, and is ex officio a juftice of the
peace for both the borough and county. 3r
The revenue of the town arifes from a duty upon all Number of
grain and meal brought into the city (which tax is de-in!labitants*
nominated the ladles); from the rents of lands and
houfes the property of the community; from an impoil
of two pennies Scots upon every Scots pint of ale
or beer brewed, inbrbught, or fold, within the city; from
certain dues payable out of the markets; from the rents
of the feats in churches ; from the dues of cranage at
the quay, at the weigh-houfe, &c. As to the tonnage on
the river, the pontage of the bridge, and ftatute-work;
thefe, making no part of the city revenue, are kept fe-
parate and diftindl under the management of commif-
fioners appointed by aft of parliament.
About the time of the union, the number of inha¬
bitants in Glafgow was reckoned about 14,000. In
1765, when a new divilion of the parilhes took place,
they were eftimated at 28,000. In 1785, when an
accurate furvey was made, the number was about
36,000; befides the fuburbs, containing the Calton,
Gorbals, and Anderfton, reckoned about 1000. Since
that time many new buildings, as above noticed, have
been ere&ed, and the city has become confiderably
more populous, but no exadl eftimate has been made ;
though it is generally thought that the number of in¬
habitants cannot at prefent be computed at much.lefs
than 50,000.'
GLASS, a tranfparent, brittle, fadlitious body, pro¬
duced from fand melted in a ilrong fire with fixed
alkaline falls, lead, flags, &c. till the whole becomes
perfectly clear and fine. The word is formed of the
Latin glajlum, a plant called by the Greeks ifatis, by the
Romans vitrum, by the ancient Britons guadum, and
by the Englilh wead. We find frequent mention of
this plant in ancient writers, particularly Casfar, Vi¬
truvius, Pliny, &c. who relate, that the ancient Bri¬
tons painted or dyed their bodies with glaftum, gua¬
dum, vitrum, &c. i. e. with the blue colour procured
from this plant. And hence, the fa&itious matter we
are fpeaking of came to be called giafs ; as having al¬
ways fomewhat of this bluilhnefs in it. ji
At what time the art of glafs-making was firft in-Hiftoryof
vented, is altogether uncertain. Some imagine it to -l3(s ma*
5 L> 2 havekin2'
G L A [ 764 j G L A
Glafs. have been invented before the flood : but of this we
have no direct proof, though there is no improbabili¬
ty in the fuppofilion ; for we know, that it is almoil
impoffible to excite a very violent fire, fuch as is necef-
fary in metallurgic operations, without vitrifying part
of the bricks or ftones-wherewith the furnace is built.
This indeed might furnifli the firft hints of glafs-ma-
king ; tho’ it is alfo very probable, that fuch imperfect
vitrifications would be obferved a long time before
people thought of making any ufe of them.
Neri traces the antiquity of glafs as far back as the
time of Job. That writer, fpeaking of the value of
wifdom, chap, xxviii. verfe 17. fays, that gold and
crjy?a/cannot equal it. But this word, which Neri will
have to fignify faftitious glafs, is capable of a great
many different interpretations, and properly fignifies
only whatever is beautiful or tranfparent. Dr Merret
will have the art to be as ancient as that of pottery or
the making of bricks, for the reafons already given, viz.
that by all vehement heat, fome imperfect vitrifications
are produced. Of this kind undoubtedly was the fof-
Jile glafs mentioned by Ferant. Imperatpr. to have been
found under-ground where great fires had been. But
it is evident, that fuch imperfeft vitrifications might
have pafled unnoticed for ages ; and confequently we
have no reafon to conclude from thence, that the art
of glafs-making is of fuch high antiquity. "
The Egyptians boaft, that this art was taught them
by their great Hermes. Ariftophanes, Ariftotle, A-
lexander, Aphrodifeus, Lucretius, and St John the
divine, put it out of all doubt that glafs was ufed in
their days. Pliny relates, that it was firft difcovered
accidentally in Syria, at the mouth of the river Belus,
by certain merchants driven thither by a ftorm at fea ;
who being obliged to continue there, and drefs their
victuals by making a fire on the ground, where there
was great plenty of the herb kali; that plant, burn¬
ing to afhes, its falts mixed and incorporated with the
fand, or ftones fit for vitrification, and thus produced
glafs ; and that, this accident being known, the people
of Sidon in that neighbourhood elfayed the work, and
brought glafs into ufe; fince which time the art has
been continually improving. Be this as it will, how¬
ever, the firft glafs-houfes mentioned in hiftory were
eredfed in the city of Tyre, and here was the only
ftaple of the manufadfure for many ages. The fand
which lay on the ftiore for about half a mile round the
mouth of the river Belus was peculiarly adapted to the
making of glafs, as being neat and glittering; and the
wide range of the Tyiian commerce gave an ample
vent for the produdfions of the furnace.
Mr Nixon, in his obfervations on a plate of glafs,
found at Herculaneum, which was deftroyed A. D.
80, on which occafion Pliny loft his life, offers feveral
probable conjedfures, as to the ufes to which fuch
plates might be applied. Such plates, he fuppofes,
might ferve for fpeculay or looking-glaffes; for Pliny, in
fpeaking of Sidon, adds, Jiquidem etiam fpecula excogita-
verat: the reflection of images from thefe ancient fpe¬
cula being effedted by befmearing them behind, or ting¬
ing them through with fome dark colour. Another
ufe in which they might be employed, was for
adorning the walls of their apartments, by way of
wainfcot, to which Pliny is fuppofed to refer by his
■vitrea cameray lib. xxxvi. cap. 25. $ 64. Mr Nixon
farther conjedtures, that thefe glafs plates might be Gbftr.
ufed for windows, as well as the lamina of lapis fpecu- » ", jf,
laris and pheugiies, which were improvements in luxury
mentioned by Seneca, and introduced in his time,
Ep. xc. However, there is no pofitive authority re¬
lating to the ufage of glafs-wmdows earlier than the
clofe of the third century: ManfeJUus-ejl (fays L'ldtan-
tius *), m:ntem t'ffe, qua per oculos ea quit funt oppojita,' opif.
tranfpiciat, quafi per fenejlras lucente vitro aut fpeculari ^>e'‘ caP'
lapide obduHtas.
The firft time we hear of glafs made among the
Romans was in the reign of Tiberius, when Pliny re¬
lates that an artift had his houfe demolifhed for ma-
king glafs malleable, or rather flexible ; though Pe-
tronius Arbiter, and fome odlers, affure us, that the
emperor ordered the artift to be beheaded for his in¬
vention.
It appears, however, that before the conqueft of
Britain by the Romans, glafs-houfes had been eredted
in this ifland, as well as in Gaul, Spain, and Italy.
Hence, in many parts of the country are to be found
annulets of glafs, having a narrow perforation and thick
rim, denominated by the remaining Britons ^/rinea naid-
reedh, or glafs adders, and which were probably in for¬
mer times ufed as amulets by the druids f. It can f See
fcarcely be queftioned that the Britons were fufficient-
ly well verfed in the manufadture of glafs, to form out
of it many more ufeful inftiuments than the glafs beads.
Hiftory indeed allures us, that they did manufadhire a
confiderable quantity of glafs veffels. Thefe,. like their
annulets, were molt probably green, blue, yellow, or
black, and many of them curioufly ftreaked with other
colours. The procefs in the manufadture would be
nearly the fame with that of the Gauls or Spainards.
The fand of their Ihores being reduced to a fufficient
degree of finenefs by art, was mixed with three-fourths
of its weight of their nitre (much the fame with out
kelp), and both were melted together. The metal was
then poured into other veffels, where it was left to-
harden into a mafs, and afterwards replaced in the fur¬
nace, where it became tranfparent in the boiling, and
was afterwards figured by blowing, or modelling in
the lath, into fuch velfels as they wanted.
It is not probable that the arrival of the Romans-
would improve the glafs manufadfure among the Bri¬
tons. The tafte of the Romans at that time was juft:
the reverfe of that of the inhabitants of this ifland. The
former preferred filver and gold to glafs for the com-
pofition of their drinking veflels. They made indeed1
great improvements in their own at Rome, during the
government of Nero. The veffels then formed of this
metal rivalled the bowls of porcelain in their dearnefs^
and equalled the cups of cryftal in their tranfparenc/.
But thefe were by far too coftly for common ufe; and
therefore, in all probability, were never attempted in
Br itain. The glafs commonly made ufe.of by the Ro¬
mans was of a quality greatly inferior; and, from the
fragments which havq been difcovered at the ftations or'
towns of either, appear to have confifted of a thick,
fometimes white, but moftly blue green, metal.
According to venerable Bede, artificers Ikilled in ma¬
king glafs for windows were brought over into Eng¬
land in the year 674, by abbot Benedidt, who were em¬
ployed in glazing the church and monaftery of Were-
inouth. According to others, they were fieft brought
over;-
G L A [ 7% ] G L A
Crfafs. o«r By Wilfrid, bifliop of Worcefter, about the fame
"v time. Till this time the art of making fuch^Ya/r was
unknown in Britain ; though glafs windows did not
begin to be common before the year 1 j8© : till this pe¬
riod they were very fcarce in private houfes, and confi-
dered as a kind of luxury, and as marks of great mag¬
nificence. Italy had them firft, next France, from
whence they came into England.
Venice, for many years, excelled all Europe in the
finenefs of its glajfes; and in the thirteenth century, the
Venetians were the only people that had the fecret of
making cry fial \ooV\ng gla/fes. The great jr/a/r-works
were at Muran, or Murano, a village near the city,
which furniflred all Europe with the finett and largeft
glafn.
The glafs manufa&ure was firft begun in England in
1557: the finer fort was made in .the place called
Crutched Friars, in London ; the fine flint glafs, littje
inferior to that of Venice, was firft made in the Savoy-
houfe, in the Strand, London. This manufadture ap¬
pears to have been much improved in 1635, when it
was carried on with feacoal or pit-coal inftead of wood,
and a monopoly was granted to Sir Robert Manfell,
w ho was allowed to import the fine Venetian glti/fes
for drinking, the art of making which was not brought
to perfedtion before the reign of William III. But the
firft. glafs plates, for looking-gla/fes and coach windows,
were made, 1673, at Lambeth, by the encouragement
of the duke of Buckingham; who, in 1670, introduced
©f the manufadture of fine glafs into England, by means
of Venetian artifts, with amazing fuccefs. So that with¬
in a century paft, the French and Englifti have not on¬
ly come up to, but even furpaffed the Venetians, and
we are now no longer fupplied from abroad.
The French made a confiderable improvement in the
art of glafs, by the invention of a method to caft very
large plates, till then unknown, and fcarce pradfifed yet
by any but themfelves and the Englifli. That- court
applied itfelf with a laudable induftry to cultivate and
improve the glafs manufadlure. A company of glafs-
men was eftabliftied by letters patent; and it was pro¬
vided by an arret, not only that the woiking in glafs
Ihould not derogate any thing from nobility, but even
that none but nobles fhould be allowed to work there-
An extenfive manufadlory of this elegant and valu¬
able branch of commerce was firft eftablifhed in Lan-
oalhire, about the year 1773, through the fpirited ex¬
ertions of a very refpedfable body of proprietors, who
were incorporated by an adl of parliament. From
thofe various difficulties conftantly attendant upon new
undertakings, when they have to contend with power¬
ful foreign eftablilhments, it was for fome time con-
fiderably embarrafi'ed ; but Government, of late, ha¬
ving taken off fome reftridtions that bore hard upon
it, and made fome judicious regulations relative to the
mode of levying the exoife duty, it now bids fair to
rival, if not furpafs, the moft celebrated continental
manufa&ures, both with refpedl to the quality, brilli-
^ anoy, and fize of its productions.
Theory of With regard to the theory of vitrification, we are
vitrificationalmoft totally in the dark. In general, it.feems to be
uncertain, that ftate in which folid bodies are, by the vehement
adtion of fire, ftted for being diffipated or carried off
in vapour. In all vitrifications there is a plentiful eva¬
poration ; and if any folid fubftance is carried off In Glaft.
vapour by the intenfe heat of a burning fpeculum, a -’"'V-—*
vitrification is always obferved previoufly to take place.
The difference, then, between the ftate of fufion and
vitrification of a. folid body we may conceive to be,
that in the former the element of fire aCts upon the
parts of the folid in fuch a manner as only to disjoin
them, and render the fubllance fluid ; but in vitrifica¬
tion the fire not only disjoins the particles, but com¬
bines with them in a latent ftate into a third fubftance y
which, having now as much fire as it can contain, can
receive no further change from that element except
being carried off in vapour.
But though we are unable to effeCf this change up¬
on lolid bodies without a very violent heat, it is other-
wife in the natural proceffes. By what we call cryflal-
li%ationi nature produces more perfeCt glaffes than we
can make with our furnaces. Thefe are called precious
Jlones; but in all trials they difcover the effential pro¬
perties of glafs, and not of Hones. The moft diftin-
guilhing property of glafs is its refilling the force of
tire, fo that this element cannot calcine or change it ae
it does other bodies, but can only melt it, and then
carry it off in vapours. To this laft all the precious
Hones are fubjedt. The diamond (the hardeft and-
moft ponderous of them all) is diffipable in a lefs de¬
gree of heat than what would diffipate common glafs.
Nor can it be any objeftion to this idea, that fome
kinds of glafs are capable of being converted into a
kind of porcelain by a long-continued cementation with
certain materials. This change happens only to thofe
kinds of glafs which are made of alkaline fait and
fand; and Dr Lewis hath Ihown that this change is
produced by the diffipation of the faline principle,
which is the leaft fixed of the two. Glafs, therefore,
we may ftill confider as a fubftance upon which the fire
has no other effect than either to melt or diffipate it -
in vapour.
The other properties of glafs are very remarkable,
fome of which follow.
1. It is one of the moft. elaftic bodies in nature. If Remark*
the force with which glafs-balls ftrike each other be able pro-
reckoned 16, that wherewith they recede by virtue of Per'ks a£
their elafticity will be nearly 15. ^ a
2. When glafs is fuddenly cooled,, it becomes ex¬
ceedingly brittle ; and this brittlenefs is fometimes
attended with very furprifing phenomena. Hollow
bells made of annealed glals, with afmallhoie in them,
will fly to pieces by the heat of the hand only, if the
hole by which the internal and external air communi¬
cate be flopped with a finger. Lately, however, fome surfing*
veffels made of fuch annealed glafs have been difcover- fragility of*
ed, which have the remarkable property of refilling annealed'
very hard ftrokes given from without, though they gkfs.
fhiver to pieces by the (hocks received from the fall of
very light and minute bodies dropped into their cavi¬
ties. Thefe glaffes may be made of any fhape; all
that needs be obferved in making them is, that their
bottom be thicker than their fides. The thicker the
bottom.is, the eafier do the glaffes break. One whofe
bottom is three fingers breadth in thicknefs, flies with
as much eafe at leaft as the thinned glafs. Some of
thefe veffels have been tried with ftrokes of a mallet.
fufficient to drive a nail into wood tolerably hard, and,
have held good without breaking. They have alfo-
3. refift^
G L A r lOS ■] G L A
Gkfs. rtfifted the fnock of feveral heavy bodies let fall into
w»~-v—- cavities, from the height of two or three feet;
as mufket-balls, pieces of iron, or other metal, pyrites,
jalper, wood, bone, &c. But this is not furpriiing,
as other glades of the fame fhape and fize wi!l do the
fame ; but the wonder is, that taking a fhiver of flint
of the fize of a (mall pea, and letting it fall into the
glafs only from the height of three inches, in about
two feconds the glafs flies, and fometimes at the very
moment of ^he (hock ; nay, a bit of flint no larger
than a grain, dropped into feveral glafles fuccellively,
thdxigh it did not immediately break them, yet when
fet by, they all flew in lefs than three quarters of an
hour. Some other bodies produce the fame effedt with
flint; as fapphire, diamond, porcelain, hard temper¬
ed fteel; alfo marbles fuch as boys play with, and like-
wife pearls.
Tbefe experiments were made before the Royal
Society ; and fucceeded equally when the glafles were
held in the hand, when they were refted on a pillow,
put in water, or filled .with water. It is alfo remark¬
able, that the glafles broke upon having their bottoms
(lightly rubbed wath the finger, though fome of them
did not fly till half an hour after the rubbing. If the
glafles are every where extremely thin, they do not
break in thefe circumftances.
Attempts Some have pretended to account for thefe pheno-
to account mena, by faying, that the bodies dropped into the
for it. veflels caufe a concuflion which is ftronger than the
cohefive force of the glafs, and confequently that a
rupture mud enfue. But why does not a ball of iron,
gold, filver, or copper, w’hich are perhaps a thoufand
times heavier than the flint, produce the fame eftedf ?
It is becanfe they are not elaftic. But furely iron is
more elaftic than the end of one’s finger.—-Mr Euler
has endeavoured to account for thefe appearances from
his principles of percuflion. He thinks that this ex¬
periment entirely overthrows the opinion of thofe who
meafure the force of percuffion by the vis viva, or ab-
folute apparent ftrength of the ftroke. According
to his principles, the great hardnefs and angular fi¬
gure of the flint, which makes the fpace of contaft
with the glafs extremely fmall, ought to caufe an im-
preflion on the glafs vaftly greater than lead, or any
other metal; and this may account for the flint’s
breaking the vefl’el, though the bullet, even falling
from a confiderable height, does no damage.—Hollow
cups made of green bottle-glafs, fome of them three
inches thick at the bottom, were inftantly broken by a
fhiver of flint, weighing about twm grains, though they
had refifted the fhock of a mulket-ball from the height
of three feet.
That Mr Euler’s theory cannot be conclufive more
than the other, muft appear evident from a very flight
confideration. It is not by angular bodies alone that
the glafles are broken. The marbles with which chil¬
dren play are round, and yet they have the fame effe&
with the angular flint. Befides, if it was the mere
force of percuflion which broke the glafles^ undoubt¬
edly the frafture would always take place at the very
inftant of the ftroke ; but we have feen, that this did
not happen fometimes till a very confiderable fpace of
time had elapfed. It is evident, therefore, that this
effeft is occafioned by the putting in motion fome
fubtile fluid with which the fubftance of the glafs is
filled; and that the motions of this fluid, when once Glafs*
excited in a particular part of the glafs, foon propagate  v—
themfelves through the whole or greateft part of it, by
which means the cohefive power becomes at laft too
weak to refift them. There can be little doubt that
the fluid juft now mentioned is that of ele&ricity. It
is known to exift in glafs in very great quantity ; and
it alfo is known to be capable of breaking glafles, even
when annealed with the greateft care, if put into too
violent a motion. Probably the cooling of glafs haftily
may make it more eleftrie than is confident with its
cohefive power, fo that it is broken by the lerft in-
creafe of motion in the eledfric fluid by fridlion or
otherwife. This is evidently the cafe when it is bro¬
ken by rubbing with the finger; but why it (hould
alfo break by the there contaft of flint and the other
bodies above mentioned, has not yet been fatisfadtorily
accounted for. g
A moft remarkable phenomenoti alfo is produced in Rotation of
glafs tubes placed in certain circumftances. When thefe glaft-tubes
are laid before a fire in an horizontal pofition, having g^orea
their extremities properly fuppofted, they acquire a
rotatory motion round their axis, and alfo a progref-
five motion towards the fire, even when their fupports
are declining from the fire, fo that the tubes will move
a little way up hill towards the fire. When the pro-
greflive motion of the tubes towards the fire is flopped
by any obftacle, their rotation ftill continues. When
the tubes are placed in a nearly upright pofture, leaning
to the right hand, the motion will be from eaft to weft;
but if they lean to the left hand, their motion will be
from weft to eaft; and the nearer they are placed to the
perfedlly upright pofture, the lefs will the motion be
either way.
If the tube is placed horizontally on a glafs plane,
the fragment, for inftance, of coach window-glafs, in-
ftead of moving towards the fire, it will move from it,
and about its axis in a contrary difedtion to what it
had done before ; nay, it will recede from the fire, and
move a little up-hill when the plane inclines towards
the fire.—Thefe experiments are recorded in the Phi-
lofophical Tranfadfiens *. They fucceeded beft with #
tubes about 20 or 22 inches long, w'hich had in each § 1.
end a pretty ftrong pin fixed in cork for an axis.
The reafon given for thefe phenomena, is the fwdl- 7
ing of the tubes towards the fire by the heat, v .iich ^acraunt
is known to expand all bodies. For, fay the adopters for it.
of this hypothefis, granting the exiftence of fuch a
fw’elling, gravity muft pull the tube down when fup-
ported near its extremities; and a frefh part being ex-
pofed to the fire, it muft alfo fwell out and fall down,
and fo on.— But, without going farther in the expla¬
nation of this hypothefis, it may be here remarked,
that the fundamental principle on which it proceeds is
falfe : for though fire indeed makes bodies expand,
it does not increafe them in weight; and therefore the
fides of the tube, though one of them is expanded by
the fire, muft ftill remain in equililrio ; and hence we
muft conclude, that the caufes of thefe phenomena re¬
main yet to be difeovered.
4. Glafs is lefs dilatable by heat than metalline
fubftances, and folid glafs-flicks are lefs dilatable than
tubes. This was firft difeovered by Col. Roy, in ma- A
king experiments in order to reduce barometers to a vol.ixvii.^’
greater degree of exadtnefs than hath hitherto been p. <63.
found
G L A [7
f Glafs. found prafticable ; and fince his experiments were
**—-*—— ntade, one of the tubes 18 inches long, being compa¬
red with a folid glafs-rod of the fame length, the for¬
mer was found by a pyrometer to expand four times
as much as the other, in a heat approaching to that
Ibid. of boiling oil.—On account of the general quality
vol. kviii. which glafs has of expanding lefs than metal, M. de
P 474* Luc recommends it to be ufed in pendulums : and he
fays it has alfo this good quality, that its expanfions
are always equable, and proportioned to the degrees
of heat ; a quality which is not be found in any other
fubftance yet known.
5/ Glafs appears to be more fit for the condenfa-
tion of vapours than metallic fubftances. An open
glafs tilled with water, in the Jummer-time, will ga¬
ther drops of water on the outfide, jult as far as the
water in the infide reaches ; and a perfon’s breath
blown on it, manifeftly moiftens it. Glafs alfo be¬
comes moitl with dew, when metals do not. See
Dew.
6. A drinking glafs partly filled with water, and
rubbed on the brim with a wet finger, yields mufical
notes, higher or lower as the glafs is more or lefs full;
and will make the liquor frilk and leap. See Har¬
monica.
7. Glafs is pofTeffed of very great electrical virtues.
See Electricity,
Materials Materials for Making of Glass. The materials where-
for glafs. of glafs is made, we have already mentioned to be fait
and fand or Hones.
1. The fait here ufed is procured from a fort of afhes
brought from the Levant, called polverine, or rochetta ;
which alhes are thofe of a fort of water-plant called
• See SaU kali*, cut down in fummer, dried in the fun, and burnt
fala' in heaps, either on the ground, or on iron grates ; the
allies falling into a pit, grow into a hard mafs, or
ftone, fit for ufe. It may alfo be procured from common
kelp, or the alhes of the fucus wfculofus. See Kelp,
and Fucus.
To extraCt the fait, thefe afhes, or polverine, are
powdered and lifted, then put into boiling water, and
there kept till one third of the water be confumed;
the whole being ftirred up from time to time, that
the afnes may incorporate with the fluid, and all its
falls be extracted : then the velfel is filled up with
new water, and boiled over again, till one half be
confumed ; what, remains is a fort of ley, ftrongly im¬
pregnated with fait. This ley, boiled over again in
frelh coppers, thickens in about 24 hours, and Ihoots
its fait ; which, is to be ladled out, as it Ihoots, into
earthen pans, and thence into wooden vats to drain
and dry. This done, it is grofsly pounded, and thus
put in a fort of oven, called calcar, to dry. It may
be added, that there are other plants, befides kali and
fucus, which yield a fait fit for glafs : fuch are the
common way-thiftle, bramble, hops, wormwood, woad,
tobacco, fern, and the whole leguminous tribe, as
peafe, beans, &c.
Pearl-alhes form a leading flux in the manufacture
of glafs, and moftly fupply the place of the Levant-
alhes, the barillas of Spain, and many other kinds,
■which were formerly brought here for making both
glafs and foap. See Pearl-Afhes.
There are other fluxes ufed for different kinds of
glafs,. and for various purpofes, as calcined lead, nitre,
■67 1 G L A
fea-falt, borax, arfenic, fmiths clinkers, and wood-
alhes, containing the earth and lixiviate falls as pro¬
duced by incineration. With regard to thefe feveral
fluxes, we may obferve, in general, that the more
calx of lead, or other metallic earth, enters into the
compofition of any glafs, fo much the more fufible,
foft, coloured, and denfe this glafs is, and reciprocally.
The colours given to glafs by calxes of lead, are
lhades of yellow : on the other hand, glaffes that con¬
tain only faline fluxes partake of the properties of falls;
they are lefs heavy, lefs denfe, harder, whiter, more
brilliant, and more brittle than the former; and glaf-
fes containing both faline and metallic fluxes do alfo
partake of the properties of both thefe fubftances.
Glaffes too faline are eafily fufceptible of alteration by
the action of air and water; efpecially thofe in which
alkalis prevail; and thefe are alfo liable to be injured ,
by acids. Thofe that contain too much borax and
arfenic, though at firft they appear very beautiful,
quickly tarnifli and become opake when expofed to
air. By attending to thefe properties of different
fluxes, phlogiftic or faline, the artift may know how
to adjuft the proportions of thefe to fand, or powdered
flints, for the various kinds of glafs. See the article
Vitrification.
2. The fand or ftone, called by the artifts tar/o, is
the fecond ingredient in glafs, and that which gives it
the body and firmnefs. Thefe ftones, Agricola ob-
ferves, muft be fuch as will fufe ; and of thefe fuch as
are white and tranfparent are beft; „ fo that cryftai
challenges the precedency of all others.
At Venice they chiefly ufe a fort of pebble, found
in the river Tefino, refembling white marble, and cal¬
led cuogolo. Indeed Ant. Neri affures us, that all ftones
which will ftrike lire with fteel, are fit to vitrify: bu-t
Dr Morret Ihows, that there are fome exceptions from
this rule. Flints are admirable; and when calcined,,
powdered, and fearced, make a pure white cryftalline
metal: but the expence of preparing them makes the
mafters of our glafs-houfes fparing of their ufe. Where
proper ftones cannot be fo conveniently had, fand is
ufed. The beft for this purpofe is that which is white,
fmall, and Ihining ; examined by the microfcope, it
appears to be fmall fragments of rock cryftai. For
green glafs, that which is of a foft texture, and more
gritty; it is to be well wafhed, which is all the prepa¬
ration it needs. Gur glafs-houfes are furnilhed with
white fand for their cryftai glaffes from Lynn in Nor¬
folk and Maidftone in Kent, and with the coarfer
for green-glafs from Woolwich.
Some mention a third ingredient in glafs, viz. man-
ganeie, a kind of pfeudo-loadftone, dug up in Germa¬
ny, Italy, and even in Mendip hills in Somerfetlhire.
But the proportion hereof to the reft is very inconfi- .
derable; befide, that it is hot ufed in all glafs. Its
office is to purge off the natural greenifh colour, and
give it fome other tindhire required.
For this putpqfe it ftiould be chofen of a deep co¬
lour, and free from fpecks of a metalline appearance,
or a lighter caft; manganefe requires to be well calcined.
in a hot furnace, and then to undergo a thorough levL
gation. The effedt of manganefe in deftroying the co.
lours of glafs, and hence called the foap of glafs, is ac.
counted for by M. Mon tamy, in his Traite des Couleurs
pour la Petal ure en Email, inthe following manner.
OLA [ 768 ] OLA
Ac rfiarigancfe deitroys the green, olive, and blue colours
of glafs, by adding to them a purple tinge, and by the
mixture producing a blackifli brown colour; and as
blacknefs is can fed merely by an abforption of the rays
of light, the blackilh tinge given to the glafs by the
mixture of colours, prevents the refit ft ion of fo many
rays, and thus renders the glafs lefs coloured than be¬
fore. But the black produced by this fubftance fug¬
ged s an obvious reafon for ufmg it very fparingly in
thofe compofitions of glafs which are required to be
very tranfparent. Nitre or faltpetre is allb ufed with
the fame intention ; for by deftroying in ascertain de¬
gree the phlogifton which gives a ftrong tinge of yel-
iow to glafs prepared with lead as a flux, it ferves to
free it from this coloured tinge; and in faline glaffes,
nitre is requifite in a fmaller proportion to render them
fufficiently tranfparent, as in the cafe of looking-glafs
and other kinds of plates.
Kinds of Glass. The manufaftured glafs now in
ufe may be divided into three general kinds; white
tranfparent glafs, coloured glafs, and common green or
bottle glafs. Of the firft kind there is a great variety;
as the flint glafs, as it is called with us, and the Ger¬
man cryftal glafs, which are applied to the fame ufes;
the glafs for plates for mirrors or looking-glafles; the
glafs for windows and other lights } and the glafs for
phials and fmall veffels. And thefe again differ in the
Jubilances employed as fluxes in forming them, as well
as in the coarfenefs or finenefs of fuch as are ufed for
their body. The flint and cryftal, mirror and heft
window glafs, not only require fuch purity in the
fluxes, as may render it prafticable to free the glafs
perfeftly from all colour; but for the fame reafon
likewife, either the white Lynn fand, calcined flints,
or white pebbles, fhould be ufed. The others do not
demand the fame nicety in the choice of the materials;
•though the fecond kind of window glafs, and the bell
kind of phial, will not be fo clear as they ought, if
either too brown fand, or impure falts, be fuffered to
enter into their compofition.
Of coloured glafs there is a great variety of forts,
differing in their colour or other properties according
to the occafions for which they are wanted. The
differences in the latter kind depend on the accidental
preparation and management of the artifts by whom
they are manufaftured, as will be afterwards ex¬
plained.
Furnace for the Making of Glass. In this manufac¬
ture there are three forts of furnaces ; one called cal¬
car is for the frit; the fecond is for working the
glafs; the third ferves to anneal the glafs, and is cal¬
led the leer. See Plate CCXX.
The calcar refembles an oven ten feet long, feven
feet broad, and two deep : the fuel, which in Britain
is fea coal, is put into a trench on one fide of the fur¬
nace ; and the flame reverberating from the roof upon
the frit calcines it. The glafs-furnace, or working-
furnace, is round, of three yards diameter, and two
high ; or thus proportioned. It is divided into three
parts, each of which is vaulted. The lower part is
properly called the crown, and is made in that form.
Its ufe is to keep a brifk fire, which is never put out.
The mouth is called the bocca. There are feveral holes
in the arch of this crown, through which the flame
paffes into the fecond vault or partition, and reverbe*
N° 140.
rates into the pofrts filled with the ingredients abovs. ©laft,
mentioned. Round the infidea are eight or more pots —v—*
placed, and piling pots on them. The number of pots
is always double that of the boccas or mouths, or of
the number of workmen, that each may have one pot
refined to work out of, and another for metal to refine
in while he woiks out of the other. Through the
working holes the metal is taken out of the pots, and
the pots are put into the furnace; and thefe holes are
flopped with moveable covers made of lute and brick,
to fcreen the workmens eyes from the fcorching flumes.
On each fide of the bocca or mouth is a bocarelia of
little hole, out of which coloured glafs or finer metal
is taken from the piling pot. Above this oven there
is the third oven or leer, about five or fix yards long,
where the veffels or glafs are annealed or cooled :
this part confifts of a tower, belides the leer, into
which the flame afcends from the furnace. The tower
has two mouths, through which the glaffes are put in
with a fork, and fet on the floor or bottom : but they
are drawn out on iron pans, ca’led fraches, through the
leer, to cool by degrees; fo that they are quite cold
by the time they reach the mouth of the leer, which
enters the farofel or room where the glaffes are .to be
flowed.
But the green glafs furnace is fquare ; and at each
angle it has an arch for annealing or cooling glaffes.
The metal is wrought on two oppofite Tides, and on
the other two they have their colours, into which are
made linnet holes for the fire to come from the fur¬
nace to bake the frit, and to difcharge the fmoke.
Fires are made in the arches to anneal the work, f»
that the whole procefs in done in'one furnace.
Thefe furnaces muft not be of brick, but of hard
fandy ftones. In France, they build the outfide of
brick; and the inner part, to bear the fire, is made of a
fort of fuller’s earth, or tobacco-pipe clay, of which
earth they alfo make their melting-pots. In Britain
the pots are made of Sturbridge clay.
Mr Blancourt obferves, that the worft and rougheft
work in this art is the changing the pots when they
are worn out or cracked. In this cafe, the great
working hole muft be uncovered; the faulty pot muft
be taken out with iron hooks and forks, and a new
one muft be fpeedily put in its place, through the
flames, by the hands only. For this work, the man
guards himfelf with a garment made of fkins, in the
fhape of a pantaloon, that covers him all but his eyes,
and is made as wet as pofiible ; the eyes are defended
with a proper tort of glafs.
Injlruments for Making of Glass. The inftru'ments
made ufe of in this work, may be reduced to thefe
that follow. A blowing-pipe, made of iron, about
two feet and a half long, with a wooden handle. An
iron rod to take up the glafs after it is blown, and
to cut off the former. Sciffars to cut the glafs when
it comes off from the firft hollow iron. Shears to cut
and ftiape great glaffes, &c. An iron-ladle, with the
end of the handle cafed with wood, to take the metal
out of the refining pot, to put it into the workmens
pots. A fmall iron-ladle, cafed in the fame manner,
to Ikim the alkalic fait that fwims at top. Shovels,
one like a peel, to take up the great glaffes; another,
like a fire-fhovel, to feed the furnace with coals. A
hooked iron fork, to ftir the matter in the pots. An
iron
GL A S S.
|
^T
y,.
Plate CCXX.
G L A [769] G • L A
iron rake for 'the fame puVpofe, and to ftir the frit.
^ An iron fork, to change or pull the pots out of the
furnace, &c.
Campofitions for White and Cryftal Glass. i. rf'o
make cryjlal glafs, take of the whiteft tarfo, pounded
fmall, and fearced as fine as flour, 200 pounds; of the
fait of polverine 130 pounds; mix them together, and
put them into the furnace called the calcar, firft heat¬
ing it. For an hour keep a moderate fire, and keep
ftirring the materials with a proper rake, that they
may incorporate and calcine together; then increafe the
fire for five hours ; after which take out the matter ;
which being now fufficiently calcined, is called frit.
From the calcar put the frit in a dry place, and cover
it up from the dull for three or four months. Now
to make the glafs or cryftal: take of this cryftal frit,
called alfo bollito; fet it in pots in the furnace, adding
to it a due quantity of magnefia or manganefe : when
the two are fufed, call tlie fluor into fair water, to
clear it of the fait called fandiver; which would other-
wife make the cryftal obfcure and cloudy. This lo¬
tion muft be repeated again and again, as often as
needful, till the cryftal be fully purged ; or this fcum
may be taken off by means of proper ladles. Then
fet it to boil four, five, or fix days; which done, fee
whether it have manganefe enough ; and if it be yet
greenifh, add more manganefe, at difcretion, by little
and little at a time, taking care not to overdofe it, be-
caufe the manganefe inclines it to a blackifli hue.
Then let the metal clarify, till it becomes of a clear
and fliining colour ; which done, it is fit to be blown
or formed into veflels at pleafure.
2. Flint glafs, as it is called by us, is of the fame
general kind with that which in other places is called
cryftal glafs. It has this name from being originally
made with calcined flints, before the ufe of the white
fand was underftood ; and retains the name, though no
flints are now ufed in the compofition of it. This
flint glafs differs from the other, in having lead for its
flux, and white fand for its body ; whereas the fluxes
ufed for the cryftal glafs are falts or arfenic, and the
body confifts of calcined flints or white river pebbles,
tarfo, or fuch ftones. To the white fand and lead a
proper proportion of nitre is a Ided, to burn away the
phlogifton of the lead, and alfo a fmall quantity of
• magnefia ; and in fome works they ufe a proportional
quantity of arfenic to aid the fluxing ingredients. The
molt perfefl kind of flint glafs may be made by fufing
with a very ftrong fire 120 pounds of the white fand,
50 pounds of red lead, 40 pounds of the beft pearl-
afties, 20 pounds of nitre, and five ounces of magnefia.
Another compofition of flint glafs, which is faid to
come nearei to the kind now made, is the following :
120 pounds of fand, 54 pounds of the bell pear! afties,
36 pounds of red-lead, 12 pounds of nitre, and 6 ounces
of magnefia. To either of thefe a pound or two of ar¬
fenic may be added, to increafe the flux of the compo¬
fition. A cheaper compofition of flint glafs may be
made with 120 pounds of white fand, 35 pounds of
the beft pearl-afhes, 40 pounds of red-lead, 13 pounds
‘ of nitre, 6 pounds of arfenic, and 4 ounces of magnefia;
or inftead of the arfenic may be fubftituted 15 pounds
of common fait ; but this will be more brittle than
the other. The cheapeft compofition for the worft
' kind of flint glafs confifts of 120 pounds of white fand,
Vol. VII. Part II.
30 pounds of red-lead, 20 pounds of the beft pearl-
afties, 10 pounds of nitre, 15 pounds of common fait,
and fix pounds of arfenic. The beft German cryftal
glafs is made of 120 pounds of calcined flints or white
fand, 70 pounds of the beft pearl-afhes, <0 pounds of
faltpetre, half a pound of arfenic, and five ounces of
magnefia. And a cheaper compoficion Is formed of
120 pounds of calcined flints or white fand, 46 pounds
of pearl-aihes, 7 pounds of nitre, 6 pounds of arfenic,
and 5 ounces of magnefia.
A glafs much harder than any prepared in the com¬
mon way, may be made by means of borax in the fol¬
lowing method : Take four ounces of borax, and an
ounce of fine fand; reduce both to a fubtile powder,
and melt them together in a large clofe crucible fet in
a wind furnace, keeping up a ftrong fire for half an
hour; then take out the crucible, and when cold brt:ak
it, and there will be found at the bottom a pure hard
glafs capable of cutting common glafs like a diamond.
This experiment, duly varied, fays Dr Shaw, may lead
to feveral ufeful improvements in the- arts of glafs,
enamels, and faftitious gems, and fliows an expeditious
method of making glafs, without any fixed alkali,
which has been generally thought an effential ingre¬
dient in glafs, and it is not yet known whether cal¬
cined cryftal or other fubftances being added to this
•fait inftead of fand, it might not make a glafs ap¬
proaching to the nature of a diamond.
There are three principal kinds of glaffes, diftin-
guiftied by the form or manner of working them; viz.
I. Round glafs, as thofe of our veffels, phials, drinking-
glaffes, &c. II. Table or window-glaf, of which there
are divers kinds; viz. crown-glafs, jealous-glafs, &c.
III. Plate-glafs, or mirror-glafs.
I. Working or Blowing Round Glass. The working
furnace, we have obferved, is round, and has fix boc-
cas or apertures: at one of thefe called the great bocca,
the furnace is heated, and the pots of frit are at this
fet in the furnfce ; two other fmaller holes, called bo-
carellas, ferve to lade or take out the melted metal, at
the end of an iron, to work the glafs. At the other
holes they put in pots of fufible ingredients, to be pre¬
pared, and at laft emptied into the lading-pot.
There are fix pots in each furnace, all made of to¬
bacco-pipe clay, proper to fuftain not only the heat of
the fire, but alfo the effea of the polverine, which pe¬
netrates every thing elfe. There are only two of thefe
pots that work : the reft ferve to prepare the matter
for them. The fire of the furnace is made and kept
up with dry hard wood, caft in without intermiflion at
fix apertures.
When the matter contained in the two pots is fuf¬
ficiently vitrified, they proceed to blow or fafhion it-
For this purpofe the workman dip§his blowing pipe
into the melting-pot; and by turning it about, the
metal flicks to the iron more firmly than turpentine*
This he repeats four times, at each time rolling the
end of his inftrument, with the hot metal thereon, on
a piece of plate-iron ; over which is a veffel of water
which helps to cool, and fo to confolidate and to dif-
pofe that matter to bind more firmly with what is to
be taken next out of the melting pot. But after he has
dipt a fourth time, and the workman perceives there
is metal enough on the pipe, he claps his mouth im¬
mediately to the other end of it, and blows gently
5 E through
G L A [ 77° J G L A
through the iron tube, till the metal lengthens like a
bladder about a foot. Then he rolls it on a marble
Hone a little while to polifh it; and blows a fecond
time, by which he brings it to the Ihape of a globe of
about 18 or 20 inches diameter. Ever)' time he blows
into the pipe, he removes it quickly to his cheek;
othenvife he would be in danger, by often blowing, of
drawing the flame into his mouth: and this globe may
be flattened by returning it to the fire; and brought
into any form by ftamp-irons, which are always ready.
When the glafs is thus blown, it is cut off at the col¬
let or neck; ^which is the narrow part that ftuck to
the iron. The method of performing this is as fol¬
lows : the pipe is relied on an iron bar, clofe by the
collet; then a drop of cold water being laid on the
collet, it will crack about a quarter of an inch, which,
with a flight blow or cut of the (hears, will immediate¬
ly feparate the collet.
After this is done, the operator dips the iron rod
into the melting-pot, by which he extrafts as much
metal as ferves to attract the glafs he has made, to
which he now fixes this rod at the bottom of his work,
oppofite to the opening made by the breaking of the
collet. In this pofition the glafs is carried to the great
bocca or mouth of the oven, to be heated and fcald-
ed ; by which means it is again put into fuch a foft
Hate, that, by the help of an iron inllrument, it can
be pierced, opened, and widened, without breaking.
But the vefiel is not finilhed till it is returned to the
great bocca ; where being again heated thoroughly,
and turned quickly about with a circular motion, it
will open to any fize, by the means of the heat and
motion.
If there remain any fuperfluities, they are cut off
with the (hears; for till the glafs is cool, it remains
in a foft flexible (late. It is therefore taken from the
bocca, and carried to an earthen bench, covered with
brands, which are coals extinguilhed, keeping it turn¬
ing ; becaufe that motion prevents any fettling, and
preferves an evennefs in the face of the glafs, where,
as it cools, it comes to its confiftency; being firft.
cleared from the iron rod by a flight (troke by the
hand of the workman.
If the veffel conceived in the workman’s mind, and
whofe body is already made, requires a foot, or a
handle, or any other member or decoration, he makes
them feparately; .and now eflays to join them with the
help of hot metal, which he takes out of the pots with
his iron-rod: but the glafs is npt brought to its true
hardnefs till it has pafled the leer or annealing oven,
deferibed before.
II. Working or Blowing of Window or ‘Table Glass.
The method of working round glafs, or vefiels of any
fort, is in every particular applicable to the working
of wnndow or table glafs, till the blowing iron has
been dipt the fourth time. But then inftead of round¬
ing it, the workman blows, and fo manages the metal
upon the iron plate, that it extends two or or three
feet in the form of a cylinder. This cylinder is put
again to the fire, and blown a fecond time, and is thus
repeated till it is extended to the dimenfions required,
the fide to which the pipe is fixed diminilhing gradu¬
ally till it ends in a pyramidal form ; fo that, to bring
both ends nearly to the fame diameter, while the gla(s
is thus flexible, he adds a little hot metal ,to the end
oppofite the pipe, and draws it out with a pair of iron
pincers, and immediately cuts off the fame end with
the help of a little cold water, as before.
The cylinder being now open at one end, is carried
back to the bocca; and there, by the help of cold wa¬
ter, it is cut^about eight or ten inches from the iron
pipe or rod ; and the whole length at another place,
by which alfo it is cut off from the iron rod. Then it
is heated gradually on an earthen table, by which it
opens in length ; while the workman," with an iron
tool, alternately lowers and raifes the two halves of the
cylinder; which at lad will open like a (heet of paper,
and fall into the fame flat form in which it ferves for
ufe; in which it is preferred by heating it over again,
cooling it on a table of copper, and hardening it 24
hours in the annealing furnace, to which it is carried
upon forks. In this furnace an hundred tables of
glafs may lie at a time, without injury to each other,
by feparating them into tens, with an iron (hiver be¬
tween, which diminiflies the weight by dividing it,
and keeps the tables flat and even.
Of window or table glafs there are various forts,
made in different places, for the ufe of building.
Thofe mod known among us are given us by the au¬
thor of the Builder’s Dictionary, as follows:
1. Crown, of which, fays Neri, there are two kinds,
diflinguilhed by the places where they’’ are wrought;
viz. Ratcliff crown glafs, which is the bed and cleared,
and was fird made at the Bear-garden, on the Bank-
fide, Southwark, but fince at Ratcliff: of this there
are 24 tables to the cafe, the tables being of a circular
form, about three feet fix inches in diameter. The
other kind, or Lambeth crown glafs, is of a darker
colour than the former, and more inclining to green.
The bed window or crown glafs is made of white
fand 60 pounds, of purified pearl allies 30 pounds, of
faltpetre 15 pounds, of borax one pound, and of ar-
fenic half a pound. If the glafs fliould prove yellow,
magnefia mud be added. A cheaper compofition for
window glafs confiils of 60 pounds of white fand, 25
pounds of unpuritied peail allies, 10 pounds of com¬
mon fait, 5 pounds of nitre, 2 pounds of arfenic, and
one ounce and a half of magnefia. The common
or green window glafs is compofed of 60 pounds
of white fand, 30 pounds of unpurified pearl a(hes, to
pounds of common fait, 2 pounds of arfenic, and two
ounces of magnefia. But a cheaper compofition for
this purpofe confids of 120 pounds of the cheaped
white fand, 30 pounds of unpurified pearl-afties, do
pounds of wood aflies, well burnt and fifted, 20 pounds
of common fait, and 5 pounds of arfenic.
2. French glafs, called alfo Normandy glafs, and for¬
merly Lorraine glafs, becaufe made in thole provinces.
At prefent it is made wholly in the nine glafs-works ;
five whereof are in the fored of Lyons, four in the
county of Eu; the lad at Beaumont near Rouen. It
is of a thinner kind than our crown glafs; and when
laid on a piece of white paper, appears of a dirtyifli
green colour. There are but 25 tables of this to the
cafe.
3. German glafs, is of two kinds, the white and the
green : the fird is of a whitifli colour, but is fubjedl to
thofe fmall curved dreaks obferved in our Newcaflle
glafs, though free from the fpots and blemiflies thereof.
The green, befides its colour, is liable to the fame
dreaks
G L A [ 771 ] G L A
ftreaks as the white; but both of them are ftraighter and
lefs warped than our Newcaftle glafs.
4. Dutch glafs is not much unlike our Newcaftle
glafs either in colour or price. It is frequently much
warped like that* and the tables are but imall.
5. Neivcajlle glafs is that moft ufed in England. It
is of an afh-colour,.and much fubjeft to fpecks, ftreaks,
and other blemifties; and befides is frequently warp¬
ed. Leybourn fays, there are 45 tables to the cafe,
each containing five fuperficial feet: fome fay there
are but 35 tables, and fix feet in each table.
6. Phial glafs is a kind betwixt the flint glafs and
the common bottle or green glafs. The befl: kind
may be prepared with 120 pounds of white find, 50
pounds of unpurified pearl-afhes, io pounds of com¬
mon fait, 5 pounds of arfenic, and 5 ounces of magne-
fia. The compofition for green or common phial glafs
confifts of 120 pounds of the cheapeft. white fand, 80
pounds of wood afhes well burnt and lifted, 20 pounds
of pearl-afhes* 15 pounds of common fait, and 1 pound
of arfenic.
The common bottle or green is formed of fand of
any kind fluxed by the afhes of burnt wood, or of any
parts of vegetables ; to which may be added the fcoria
or clinkers of forges. When the fofteft fand is ufed,
200 pounds of wood afhes will fuffice for 100 pounds
of fand, which are to be ground and mixed together.
The compofition with the clinkers confifts of 170
pounds of wood-afhes,* 100 pounds of fand, and 50
pounds of clinkers or fcor'ue, which are to, be ground
and mixed together. If the clinkers cannot be ground,
they muft be broke into fmall pieces, and mixed with
the other matter without any grinding.
III. Working of Plate or Mirror Glass, i. The
materials of which this glafs is made are much the
fame thofe of other woiks of glafs, viz. an alkali as
fait and fand.
The fait, however, fhould not be that extracted from
polverine or the afhes of the Syrian kali, but that from
barilla, growing about Alicant in Spain. It is very
rare that we can have the barilla pure; the Spaniards
in burning the herb make a pra&ice of mixing another
herb along with it, which alters its quality; or of
adding fand to it to increafe the weight, which is
eafily difcovered if the addition be only made after
the boiling of the afhes, but next to impofiible if made
in the boiling. It is from this adulteration that thofe
threads and other defedls in plate glafs arife. To
prepare the fait, they clean it well of all foreign mat¬
ters; pound or grind it with a kind of mill, and finally
fift it pretty fine.
Pearl-afhes, properly purified, will furnifh the alkali
fait requifite for this purpofe ; but it will be neceffary
to add borax or common fait, in order to facilitate the
fufion, and prevent the glafs from ftiffening in that
degree of heat in which it is to be wrought into plates.
For purifying the pearl-afhes, diffolve them in four
times their weight of boiling water, in a pot of call
iron, always kept clean from ruft. Let the folution
be removed into a clean tub, and remain there 24 hours
or longer. Having decanted the clear part of the
fluid from the dregs or fediment, put it again in the
iron pot, and evaporate the water till the falls are left
perfectly dry. Preferve them in ftone-jars, well fecu-
red from air and moifture.
Pearl-afhes may alfo be purified in the higheft de- Glafa
gree, fo as to be proper for the manufafture of the V"0
moft tranfparent glafs, by pulverizing three pounds of
the beft pearl-afhes with fix ounces of faltpetre in a
glafs or marble mortar, till they are well mixed; and
then putting part of the mixture into a large crucible,
and expofing it in a furnace to a ftrong heat. When
this is red-hot, throw in the reft gradually ; and wheii
the whole is red hot, pour it out on a moiftened ftone
or marble, and put it into an earthen or clean iron pot,
with ten pints of water ; heat it over the fire till
the falls be entirely melted; let it then ftand to cool,
and filter it through paper in a pewter cullender.
When it is filtered, put the fluid again into the pot,
and evaporate the fait to drynefs, which will then be
as white as fnow; the nitre having burnt all the phlo-
giftic matter that remained in the pearl-afhes after their
former calcination.
As to the fand, it is to be lifted and wafhed till
fuch time as the water come off very clear; and when
it is well dried again, they mix it with the fait, paf-
fing the mixture through another fieve. This done,
they lay them in the annealing furnace for about two
hours; in which time the matter becomes very light
and white : in this ftate they are called frit or fritta;
and are to be laid up in a dry clean place, to give
them time to incorporate : they lie here for at leaft a
year.
When they would employ this frit, they lay it for
fome hours in the furnace, adding to fome the frag¬
ments or fhards of old and ill made glaffes; taking
care firft to calcine the fhards by heating them red-
hot in the furnace, and thus cafting them into cold
water. To the mixture muft likewife be added man-
ganefe, to promote the fufion and purification.
The beft compofition for looking-glafs plates confifts
of 60 pounds of white fand cleanfed, 25 pounds of
purified pearl-afhes, 15 pounds of faltpetre, and 7
pounds of borax. If a yellow tinge fhould affeft the
glafs, a fmall proportion of magnefia, mixed with an
equal quantity of arfenic, fhould be added. An ounce
of the magnefia may be firft tried; and if this proves
infufficient, the quantity fhould be increafed.
A cheaper compofition for looking-glafs plate con •
fills of 60 pounds of the white-fand, 20 pounds of
pearl-afhes, 10 pounds of common fait, 7 pounds of
nitre, 2 pounds of arfenic, and 1 pound of borax. The
matter of which the glaffes are made at the famous
manufacture of St Gobin in France, is a compofition
of folder and of a very white fand, which are care¬
fully cleaned of all heterogeneous bodies ; afterwards
wafhed for feveral times, and dried fo as to be pulve¬
rized in a mill, confifting of many peftles, which are
moved by horfes. When this is done, the fand is fift-
ed through filk fieves and dried.
The matter thus far prepared is equally fit for plate-
glafs, to be formed either for blowing or by cafting.
The largeft glaffes at St Gobin are run; the middle-
fized and fmall ones are blown.
2. Blowing the plates. The workhoufes, furnaces,
&c. ufed in the making of this kind of plate-glafs, are
the fame, except that they are fmaller, and that the
carquaiffes are difpofed in a large covered gallery, over
againft the furnace, as thofe in the following article,
to which the reader is referred.
5 E 3
After
G L A r 77
After the materials are vitrified by the heat of £be
fire, and the glafs is fufficiently refined, the workmaa,
dips in his blowing-iron, fix feet long, and two inches
in diameter, (harpened at the end which is put in the
mouth, and widened at the other, that the matter may
adhere to it. By this means he takes up a fmall ball
of matter, which Hicks to the end of the tube by con-
ftantly turning it. He then blows into the tube, that
the air may fvvell the annexed ball; and carrying it
over a bucket of water, which is placed on a fupport
at the height of about four feet, he fprinkles the end
of the tube to which the matter adheres, with -water,
Hill turning it, that by this cooling the matter may
coalefce with the tube, and be fit for fuftaining a
greater weight. He dips the tube again into the fame
pot, and proceeds as before ; and dipping it in the pot
a third time, he takes it out, loaded with matter, in
the fhape of a pear, about ten inches in diameter, and
a foot long, and cools it at the bucket; at the fame
time blowing into the tube, and with the afliilance of
a labourer, giving it a balancing motion, he caufifs the
matter to lengthen ; which, by repeating this opera¬
tion feveral times, affumes the form of a cylinder, ter¬
minating like a ball at the bottom, and in a point at
the top. The affiftant is then placed on a ftool three
feet and a half high ; and on this ftool there are two
upright pieces of timber, with a crofs beam of the
fame, for fupporting the glafs and tube, which are
kept in an oblique poiition by the affiftant, that the
mafter workman may with a punchion let in a wooden
handle, and with a mallet make a hole in the mafs :
tliis hole is drilled at the centre of the ball that termi¬
nates the cylinder, jind is about an inch in diameter.
When the glafs is pierced, the defefts of it are per¬
ceived ; if it is tolerably perfetf, the workman lays
the tube horizontally on a little iron treffel, placed on
the fupport of the aperture of the furnace. Having
expofed it to the heat for about half a quarter of an
hour, he takes it away, and with a pair of long and
broad fhears, extremely fiiarp at the end, widens the
glafs, by inlinuating the ffiears into the hole made
with the punchion, whilft the affiftant, mounted on the
ftool, turns it round, till at laft the opening is fo large
as to make a perfect cylinder at bottom. When this
is done, the workman lays his glafs upon the treffels
at the mouth of the furnace to heat it: he then gives
it to his affiftant on the ftool, and with large ffiears
cuts the mafs of matter up to half its height. There
is at the mouth of the furnace an iron tool called
■which is now heating, that it may unite and coalefce
with the glafs juft cut, and perform the office which
the tube did before it was feparated from the glafs.
This pontil is a piece of iron fix feet long, and in the
form of a cane or tube, having at the end of it a fmall
iron bar, a foot long, laid equally upon the long one,
and making w ith it a T.' This little bar is full of the
matter of the glafs, about four inches thick. This
red-hot pontil is prefented to the diameter of the
glafs, which coalefces immediately with the matter
round the pontil, fo as to fupport the glafs for the
following operation. When this is done, they fepa-
rate the tube from the glafs, by ftriking a few blows
with a chiffel upon the end of the tube which has been
cooled; fo that the glafs breaks direftly, and makes
this reparation, the tube being difeharged of the glafs
6
2 ] G L A
now adhering to the pontil. They next prefent to the
furnace the pontil of the glafs, laying it on the treflel
to- hear, and redden the end of that glafs, that the
workman may open it with his ffiears, as he has al¬
ready opened one end of it, to complete the cylinder;
the affiftant holding it on his ftool as before. For the
laft time, they put the pontil on the treffel, that the
glafs may become red-hot, and the workman cuts it
quite open wdth his ffiears, right over-againft the fore-
mentioned cut; this he does as before, taking care that
both cuts are in the fame line. In the mean time,
the man who looks after the carquauffes comes to re¬
receive the glafs upon an iron (hovel two feet and a
half long w-ithout the handle, and two feet wide, with
a fmall border of an inch and a Half to the right and
left, and towards the handle of the (hovel. Upon
this the glafs is laid, flattening it a little with a fmall
(lick a foot and a half long, fo that the cut of the
glafs is turned upwards. They feparate the glafs from
the pontil, by ftriking a few gentle blows between the
two with a chiffd. The glafs is then removed to the
mouth of the hot carquaiii’e, where it becomes red-hot
gradually ; the wmrkman, with an iron tool fix feet
long, and widened at the end in form of a club at cards
four inches long, and two inches wide on each fide,
very Jlat, and not half an inch thick, gradually lifts
up the cut part of the glafs to unfold it out of its form,
of a flattened cylinder, and re nder it fmooth, by turn¬
ing it down upon the hearth of the carquaiffe. The
tool already deferibed being infinuated within the cy¬
linder, performs this operation by being puffied hard
againft all the parts of the glafs. When the glafs is thus
made quite fmooth, it is puffied to the bottom of the
carquaiffe or, annealing furnace with a fmall iron raker,
and ranged there with a little iron hook. When the
carquaiffe is full, it is (topped and cemented as in the
cafe of run glaffes, and the glafs remains there for a
fortnight to be annealed ; after which time they are
taken out to be poliffied. A workman can make but
one glafs in an hour, and he works and refts for fix
hours alternately.
Such was the method formerly made ufe of for blow¬
ing plate-glafs, looking-glaffes, &c.; but the work¬
men, by this method, could never exceed 50 inches in.
length, and a proportional breadth, becaufe what were
larger were always found to warp, which prevented
them from rcfle&ing the obje&s regularly, and wanted
fubilance to bear the neceffary grinding. Thefe im¬
perfections have been remedied by the following inven¬
tion of the Sieur Abraham Thevart, in France, about
the year i688.-_
3. Cajilng or Running of Large Mirror- Glass Plates.
The furnace is of a very .large dimenfion, enviro¬
ned with feveral ovens, or annealing furnaces, called
carquaijfcs, befides others for making of frit and cal¬
cining old pieces of glafs. This furnace, before it
is fit to run glafs, cofts 35001. It feldom lads above
three years, and even in that time it muft be refitted
every fix months. It takes fix months to rebuild it, and
three mouths to refit it. The melting pots are as big as
large hogffieads, and containabout 2000 weight of metal.
If one of them burfls in the furnace, the lofsof the mat¬
ter and time amounts to 250 1. The materials in thefe
pots are the fame as deferibed before. When the furnace
is red hot, thefe materials are put ia at three different
ttinaes.
Glsfs.
Plate
CCXX.
G L A f 773 ] G L A
tidies, becaufe that helps the fufion ; and in 24. hours
they are vitrified, refined, fettled, and fit for cafting. A
is the bocca, or mouth of the furnace ; B is the ci-
flern that conveys the liquid glafs it receives out of the
melting-pots in the furnace to the cafting table. Thefe
citterns are filled in the furnace, and remain therein fix
hours after they are filled ; and then are hooked out;
by the means of a large iron chain, guided by a pully,
placed upon a carriage with four wheels marked C, by
two men. This carriage has no middle piece ; fo that
when it has brought the ciftern to the cafting-table D,
they flip off the bottom of the ciftern, and out rufhes
a torrent of flaming matter upon the table : this mat¬
ter is confined to certain dimenfions by the iron rulers
EE, which are moveable, retain the fluid matter, and
determine the width of the glafs ; while a man, with
the roller F refting on the edge of the iron rulers, re¬
ft uceth it as it cools to an equal thicknefs, which is
done in the fpace of a minute. This table is fupport-
ed on a wooden frame, with truftles for the convenience
of moving to the annealing furnace; into which, ftrew-
ed with fand, the new plate is fhoved, where it will
harden in about 10 days.
What is moft furprifing throughout the whole of
this operation, is the quicknefs and addrefs where¬
with fuch mafly cifterns, filled with a flaming matter,
are taken out of the furnace, conveyed to the table,
and poured therein, the glafs fpread, &c. The whole
is inconceivable to fuch as have not been eye-witriefles
of that furprifing manufadlure.
As fall as the cifterns are emptied,' they carry them
back to the furnace and take frelh ones, which they
empty as before. This they continue to do fo long
as there are any full cifterns ; laying as many plates
in each carquaifle as it will hold, and ftopping them
up with doors of baked earth, and every chink with
cement, as foon as they are full, to let them anneal,
and cool again, which requires about 14. days.
The firft running being difpatched, they prepare
another, by filling the cifterns anew from the matter
in the pots; and after the fecond, a third; and even
a fourth time, till the melting-pots are quite empty.
The cifterns at each running fticuld remain at leaft
fix hours in the furnace to whiten; and when the firft
annealing furnace is full, the cafting-table is to be car¬
ried to another. It-need not here be obferved, that
the carquaiffes, or annealing furnaces, muft firft have
been heated to the degree proper for them. It may
be obferved, that the oven-full, or the quantity of
matter commonly prepared, fupplies the running of 18
glaffes, which is performed in 18 hours, being an hour
for each glafs. The workmen work fix hours, and
are then relieved by others.
When the pots are emptied, they take them out, as
well as the cifterns, to fqrape ofiF v*hat glafs remains,
which otherwife would grow green by continuance of
fire, and fpoil the glafles. They are not filled again
in lefs than 36 hours, fo that they put the matter in¬
to the furnace, and begin to run it every 54 hours.
The manner of heating the large furnaces is very An¬
gular ; the two tifors, or perfons employed for that
purpofe, in their Ihirts, run fwiftly round the furnace
without making the leaft flop : as they run along, they
take two billets, or pieces of wood, which are cut for
the purpofe ; thefe they throw into the firft tiffart;
and continuing their courfe, do the fame for the fe¬
cond. This they hold without interruption for fix
hours fucceflively ; after which they are relieved by
others, Sec. It is furprifing that two fuch fmall pieces of
wood, and which are confumed in an inftant, fhould
keep the furnace to the proper degree of heat ; which
is fuch, that a large bar of iron, laid at one of the
mouths of the furnace, becomes red-hot in lefs than
half a minute.
The glafs, when taken out of the melting-furnace,
needs nothing farther but to be ground, pqlifhed, and
foliated.
4. Grinding and Polijhing of Plate- Glass. Glafs is made
tranfparent by fire ; but it receives its luftre by the
fkill and labour of the grinder and polifher; the for,
mer of whom takes it rough out of the hands of the
maker.
in order to grind plate-glafs, they lay it hori¬
zontally upon a flat ftone table made of a very fine¬
grained free-ftone ; and for its greater fecurity they pla-
Tier it dnwn with lime or ftucco ; for otherwife the force
of the workmen, or the motion of the wheel with which
they grind it, would move it about.
This ftone table is fupported by a ftrong frame A,
made of wood, wbh a ledge quite round its edges, ri¬
ling about tw’o inches higher chan the glafs. Upon
this glafs to be ground is laid another rough glafs not
above half fo big, and fo loofe as to Hide upon it; but
cemented to a wooden plank, to guard it from the in-'
jury it muft otherwife receive from the feraping of the
wheel to which this plank is faftened, and from the
weights laid upon it to promote the grinding or triture
of the glafies. The whole is covered with a wheel B,
made of hard light wood, about fix inches in diameter,
by pulling of which backwards and forwards alternate¬
ly, and fometimes turning it round, the workmen,
who always ftand oppofite to each other, produce a
conftant attrition between the two glatfes, and bring
them to what degree of fmoothnefs they pieafe, by firlt
pouring in water and coarfe fand ; after that, a finer
fort of fand, as the work advanceth, till at laft they
muft pour in the powder of fmalt. As the upper or in¬
cumbent glafs polifhes and grows fmoother, it muft be
taken away, and another from time to time put in its
'Placf- 
This engine is called a mill by the artifts, and is ufed
only in the largeft-fized glaifes; for in the grinding of
the leffer glafles, they are content to work without a
wheel, and to have only four wooden handles faftened,
to the four corners of the ftone which loads the upper
plank, by which they work it about.
When the grinder has done his part, who finds it
very difficult to bring the glafs to an exaft plainnefs, it
is turned over to the poliiher ; who, with the fine pow¬
der of tripoli ftone or emery, brings it to a perfect
evennefs and luftre. The initrument made ufe of in
this branch is a board, c c, furniftted with a felt, and
a fmall roller, which the workman moves by means of
a double handle at both ends. The artift, in working
this roller, is afftfted with a wooden hoop or fpring to,
the end of which it is fixed : for the fpring, by cou-
ftantly bringing the roller back to the fame points, fa¬
cilitates the adtion of the workman’s arm.
Colouring of Glass. That the colours given to glafa
may have .their full beauty, it muiT be obferved, thas
everi
Gla/t-.
Plate
Ccxsu
G L A [ 774 1 G L A
every pot when new, and firft ufed, leaves a foulnefs
in the glafs from its own earthy parts; fo that a co¬
loured glafs made in a new pot can never be bright or
perfe&ly fine. For this reafon, the larger of thefe,
when new, may be glazed with white glafs ; but the
fecond time of ufing the pots lofe this foulnefs. The
glazing may be done by reducing the glafs to powder,
and moiftening the infide of the pot with water; while
it is yet moift, put in fome of the powdered glafs, and
(hake it about, till the whole inner furface of the pot
be covered by as much as will adhere to it, in Confe-
quence of the moifture. Throw out the redundant part
of the powdered glafs ; and the pot being dry, fet it
in a furnace fufficiently hot to vitrify the glafs adhering
to it, and let it continue there fome time; after which,
care muft be taken to let it cool gradually. Thofe
pots which have ferved for one colour muft not be ufed
for another ; for the remainder of the old matter will
fpoil the colour of the new. The colours muft be very
carefully calcined to a proper degree ; for if they are
calcined either too much or too little, they never do
well; the proper proportion, as to quantity, muft alfo
carefully be regarded, and the furnaces muft be fed
with dry hard wood. And all the prodfeffes fucceed
much the better if the colour be ufed dividedly, that
is, a part of it in the frit, and the reft in the melted
metal.
A hard glafs, proper for receiving colours, may be
prepared by pulverifing 12 pounds of the belt land,
cleanfed by wafhing in a glafs or flint mortar, and mix¬
ing feven pounds of pearl-afties* or any fixed alkaline
fait, purified with nitre, one pound of falt-petre, and
half a pound of borax, and ppUnding them together.
A glafs lefs hard may be prepared of twelve pounds
of white fand cleanfed, feven pounds of pearl-alhes
purified with faltpetre, one pound of nitre, half a
pound of borax, and four ounces of arfenic, prepared
as before.
Amethyjl coloured. See Purple below, and the article
Amethyst.
Balas-colour. Put into a pot cryftal frit, thrice
walhed in water ; tinge this with manganefe, prepared
into a clear purple ; to this add alumen cativum, fift-
ed fine, in fmall quantities, and at feveral times: this
will make the glafs grow yellowilh, and a little reddilh,
but not blackilh, and always diffipates the manganefe.
The laft time you add manganefe give no more of the
alumen cativum, unlefs the colour be too full. Thus will
the glafs be exactly of the colour of the balas-ruby. See
Ruby Glass.
'The common black colour. The glafs makers take
©Id broken glafs of different colours, grind it to
powder, and add to it, by different parcels, a fufficient
quantity of a mixture of two parts zaffar and one part
manganefe : when well purified, they work it into vef-
fels, &c.
Glafs beads are coloured with manganefe only.
Black velvet colour. To give this deep and fine colour
to glafs, take of cryftalline and pulverine frit, of each
2o pounds ; of calx of lead and tin four pounds; fet all
together in a pot in the furnace, well heated; when
the glafs is formed and pure, take fteel well calcined
and powdered, fcales of iron that fly off from the
fmith’s anvil, of each an equal quantity ; powder and
feiix them well; then put fix ounces of this powder to
4
the above defcribed metal while in fufion; mix the
whole thoroughly together, and let them all boil
ftrongly together ; then let it ftand in fufion r 2 hours
to purify, and after this work it. It will be a moft ele¬
gant velvet black.
There is another way of doing this, which alfo pro¬
duces a very fair black. It is this : take a hundred
weight of rochetta frit, add to this two pounds of tar*
tar and fix pounds of manganefe, both in fine powder;
mix them well, and put them to the metal while in
fufion, at different times, in feveral parcels ; let it
ftand in fufion after this for four days, and then
work it.
A glafs perfectly black may alfo be formed to ten
pounds of either of the compofitions for hard glafs
above defcribed, one ounce of zaffer, fix drams of
manganefe, and an equal quantity of iron ftrongly cal¬
cined.
Blue colour. A full blue may be made by adding
fix drams of zaffer and two drams of manganefe to
ten pounds of either of the compofitions for hard glafs,
defcribed above. For a very cool or pure blue glafs,
half an ounce of calcined copper may be ufed inftead of
the manganefe, and the proportion of zaffer diminiftied
by one half. Glafs refembling fapphire may be made
with ten pounds of either of the compofitions for hard
glafs, three drams and one fcruple of zaffer, and one
dram of the calx cajjii, or precipitation of gold by tin;
or inftead of this latter ingredient, two drams and two
fcruples of manganefe. Or a fapphire-coloured glafs
may be made by mixing with any quantity of the hard
glafs one eighth of its weight of fmalt. For a beautiful
blue glafs produced from the calx of regulus of cobalt,
fee Chemistry, n° 1299.
Venetian brown, with gold fpangles, commonly called
the philofopher’s Jlone, may be prepared in the following
manner: take of the fecond compofition for hard glafs
above defcribed, and of the compofition for pafte, of
each five pounds, and of highly calcined iron an ounce;
mix them well, and fufe them till the iron be perfectly
vitrified, and has tinged the glafs of a deep tranfparent
yellow brown colour. Powder this glafs, and add to
it two pounds of powdered glafs of antimony; grind
them together, and thus mix them well. Take part
of this mixture, and rub into it 80 or 100 leaves of the
counterfeit leaf gold called Dutch gold; and when
the parts of the gold feem fufficiently divided, mix the
powder containing it with the other part of the glafs.
Fufe the whole with a moderate heat till the powder
run into a vitreous mafs, fit to be wrought into any of
the figures or veffels into which it is ufually formed ;
but avoid a perfedl liquefaction, becaufe that in a
fhort time deftroys the equal diffufion of the fpangles,-
and vitrifies, at leaft in part, the matter of which they
are compofed; converting the whole into a kind of
tranfparent olive-coloured glafs. This kind of glafs
is ufed for a great variety of toys and ornaments
with us, who at prefent procure it from the Vene¬
tians.
Chalcedony. A mixture of feveral ingredients with
the common matter of glafs, will make it reprefent the
femi-opake gems, the jafpers, agates, chalcedonies, &c.
The way of making thefe feems to be the fame
with the method of making marbled paper, by feveral
colours diffolved in feveral liquors, which are fuch as
G L A
Glafs. will not readily mix with one another when put in-
—v—- to water, before they are cait upon the paper which
is to be coloured. There are feveral ways of making
thefe varioufly coloured glaffes, but the bell is the fol¬
lowing.
Dilfolve four ounces of fine leaf filver in a glafs vef-
fel in ftrong aquafortis; Hop up the veffel, and fet it
afide.—In another veffel, diffolve five ounces of quick-
filver in a pound of aquafortis, and fet this afide.—
In another gafs veffel, diffolve in a pound of aquafortis
three ounces of fine filver, firft calcined in this manner:
amalgamate the.filver with mercury, mix the amalga-
gam with twice its weight of common fait well puri¬
fied, put the mixture in an open fire in a crucible, that
the mercury may fly off, and the filver be left in form
of powder. Mix this powder with an equal quantity
of common fait well purified, and calcine this for fix
hours in a ftrong fire; when cold, walh off the fait by
repeated boilings in common water, and then put the
filver into the aquafortis. Set this folution alfo afide.
—In another veffel, diffolve in a pound of aquafortis
three ounces of fal ammoniac; pour off the folution, and
diffolve in it a quarter of an ounce of gold. Set this
alfo afide.—In another veffel, diffolve three ounces of
fal ammoniac in a pound of aquafortis ; then put into
the folution cinnabar, crocus martis, ultramarine, and
ferretto of Spain, of each half an ounce. Set this alfo
afide.—In another veffel, diffolve in a pound of aqua¬
fortis three ounces of fal ammoniac; then put into it
crocus martis made with vinegar, calcined tin, zaffer,
arid cinnabar, of each half an ounce ; let each of thefe
be powdered very fine, and put gently into the aqua¬
fortis. Set this alfo a'ide. — In another veffel, diffolve
three ounces of fal ammoniac in a pound of aquafortis,
and add to it brafs calcined with brimftoneybrafs thrice
calcined, manganefe, and fcales of iron which fall from
the fmith’s anvil, of each half an ounce ; let each be
well powdered, and put gently into the veffel. Then,
fet this alfo afide.— In another veffel, diffolve two oun¬
ces of fal ammoniac in a pound of aquafortis, and put
to it verdigreafe an ounce, red lead, crude antimony,
and the caput mortuum of vitriol, of each half an
ounce; put thefe well powdered leifurely into the vef¬
fel, and fet this alfo afide.—In another veffel, diffolve
two ounces of fal ammoniac in a pound of aquafortis,
and add orpiment, white arfenic, painters lake, of each,
half an ounce.
Keep the above nine veffels in a moderate heat for
15 days, ftiaking them well at times. After this pour
all the matters from thefe veffels into one large veffel,
well luted at its bottom; let this Hand fix days, ftiaking
it at times ; and then fet it in a very gentle heat, and
evaporate all the liquor, and there will remain a powder
of a purpliih green.
When this is to be_wrought, put into a pot very
clear metal, made of broken cryftalline and white glafs
that has been ufed ; for with the virghufrit,. or fuch
as has never been wrought, the chalcedony can never
be made, as the colours do not ftick to it, but are
confumed by the frit. To every pot of 20 pounds of
this metal put two or three ounces of this powder at
three feveral times ; incorporate the powder well with
the glafs; and let .it remain an hour between each time
of putting in the powders. After all are in, let it
Hand 24 hours ; then let the glafs.be well mixed, and
G L A
take an affay of it, which will be found of a yellowifli
blue ; return this many times into the furnace ; when
it begins to grow cold, it will fhow many waves of dif¬
ferent colours very beautifuly. Then take tartar eight
ounces, foot of the chimney two ounces, crocus mar¬
tis made with brimftone, half an ounce; let thefe be
well powdered and mixed, and put them by degrees
into the glafs at fix times, waiting a little while be¬
tween each putting in. When the whole is put in, let
the glafs boil and fettle for 24 hours ; then make a
little glafs body of it; which put in the furnace many
times, and fee if the glafs be enough, and whether it
have on the outfide veins of blue, green, red, yellow,
and other colours, and have, befide thefe veins, waves
like thofe of -the chalcedonies, jafpers, and oriental
agates, and if the body kept within looks as red as
fire.
When it is found to anfwer thus, it is perfeft, and
may be worked into toys and veffels, which will al¬
ways be beautifully variegated : thefe muft be well an¬
nealed, which adds much to the beauty of their veins.
Maffes of this may be polifhed at the lapidary’s wheel
as natural ftones, and appear very beautiful. If in
the working' the matter grow tranfparent, the work
muft be flopped, and more tartar, foot, and crocus mar¬
tis muft be put to it, which will give it again the ne-
ceffary body and opacity, without which it does not
fhow the colours well.
Chryfolite colour may be made of ten pounds of either
of the compofitions for hard glafs defcribed above, and
fix drams of calcined iron.
Red cornelian colour may bo. formed by adding one
pound of glafs of antimony, two ounces of the calci¬
ned vitriol called fcarlet ochre, and one dram of ,manga->
nefe or magnefia, to two pounds of either of the com-
politions for hard glafs. The glafs of antimony and
magnefia are firft fufed with the other glafs, and then
powdere'd-andground with the fcarlet ochre: the whole,
mixture is afterwards fufed with a gentle heat till all .
the ingredients are incorporated. A glafs refembling,
the white cornelian may be made of two pounds of ei¬
ther of the compofitions for hard glafs, and two drams-
of yellow ochre well waftred, and one ounce of calcined,
bones:. grind them together, and fufe them with a.
gentle heat..
Emerald colour.. See Green below.
Garnet colour. To give this colour to glafs, the work¬
men take the following method. They take equal
quantities of cryftal and rochetta frit, and to every
hundred weight of this mixture they add a pound of
manganele and an ounce of prepared zaffer: thefe are
to be powdered feparately, then mixed and added by
degrees to the frit while in the furnace. Great care;
is to be taken to mix the manganefe and zaffer very
perfectly ;. and when the matter has flood 24 hours in.
fufion, it may be worked.
Glafs of this kind may be made by adding one pound
of glafs of antimony, one dram of-manganefe, and the
fame quantity of the precipitate of gold by tin, to
two pounds, of, either of the compofitions for hard
glafs; or the precipitate of gold may be omitted, if
the quantities of th§ glafs of antimony and manganefe
be doubled.
Gold colour. This colour may be produced by ta¬
king ten pounds of either of the compofitions for hard.
[ ns 1
G L A [ 7'
£lafs, omiting the faltpetre ; and for every pound ad¬
ding an ounce of calcined borax, or, if this quantity
doth not render the glafs fufficiently fufible, two oun¬
ces; ten ounces of led tartar of the deepeft colour;
two ounces of magnefia ; and two drams of charcoal
of fallow, or any other foft kind. Precipitates of fil-
ver baked on glafs will ftain it yellow, and likewife
give a yellow colour on being mixed and melted
with 40 or 50 times their weight of vitreous compo-
fitions : the precipitate from aquafortis by fixed alkali
fcems to anfwer belt. Yellow glaffes may alfo be ob¬
tained with certain preparations of iron, particularly
with Pruffian blue. But Dr Lewis obferves, that the
colour does not conftantly fucceed, nor approach to
the high colour of gold, with filver or with iron. The
neareft imitations of gold which he has been able to
produce have been effedted with antimony and lead.
Equal parts of the glafs of antimony, of flint calcined
and powdered, and of minium, formed a glafs of a
high yellow ; and with two parts of glafs of antimony,
two of minium, and three of powdered flint, the co¬
lour approached ftill more to that of gold. The laft
compofition exhibited a multitude of fmall fparkles in-
terfperfed throughout its whole fubftance, which gave
it a beautiful appearance in the mafs, but were really
imperfeftions, owing to a'ir-bubbl'es.
Neri dirccls, for a gold-yellow colour, one part of
red tartar and the fame quantity of manganefe, to be
mixed with a hundred parts of frit. But Kunckel ob¬
ferves, that thefe proportions are faulty; that one part,
or one and a quarter, of manganefe, is fufficient for a
hundred of frit; but that fix parts of tartar are hardly
enough, unlefs the tartar is of a dark red colour, almoft
blackilh; and that he found it expedient to add to
the tartar about a fourth of its weight of powdered
charcoal. He adds, that the glafs fwells up very much
in melting, and that it muft be left unftirred, and work¬
ed as it Hands in fufion. Mr Samuel More, in repeat¬
ing and varying this procefs in order to render the co¬
lour more perfeft, found that the manganefe is entirely
uneflential to the gold colour; and that the tartar is
no otherwife of ufe than in virtue of the coaly matter
to which it is in part reduced by the fire, the phlo-
giflon or inflammable part of the coal appearing in fe-
veral experiments to be the dirett tinging fubftance.
Mr Pot alfo obferves, that common coals give a yel¬
low colour to glafs; that different coaly matters differ
in their tinging power; that caput mortuum of foot
and lamp black anfwer better than common charcoal;
and that the fparkling coal, which remains in the retort
after the reftification of the thick empyreumatic ani¬
mal oils, is one of the moft adlive of thefe preparations.
This preparation, he fays, powdered, and then burnt
again a little in a clofe veffel, is excellent for tinging
glafs, and gives yellow, brown, reddifh, or blackifh
colours, according to its quantity ; but the frit muft
not be very hard of fufion, for in this cafe the ftrong
fire will dcftroy the colouring fubftance before the
glafs melts: and he has found the following compofi-
tions to be nearly the beft ; viz. fand two parts, al¬
kali three parts; or fadd two, alkali three, calcined
borax one; or fand two, alkali two, calcined borax
one: and though faltpetre is hardly ufed at all, or
very fparingly, for yellow glaffes, as it too much
volatilizes the colouring fubft&nce; yet here for the moft
N°140.
6 ] G L A
part a certain proportion of it, eafily determined by Glafi.
trial, is very neceffary ; for without it the concentra- ——y—»
ted colouring matter is apt to make the glafs too dark,
and even of an opake pitchy blacknefs. It does not
certainly appear that there is any material diverfity in
the effedts of different coals, the difference being pro¬
bably owing to the different quantities of the inflam¬
mable matter which they contain; fo that a little more
fhall be required of one kind than of another for pro¬
ducing the fame degree of colour in the glafs. Nor
does the foftnefs or fufibility of the frit appear to be
in any refpedt neceffary.
Gold-coloured fpangles may be diffufed through the
fubftance of glafs, by mixing the yellow talcs with
powdered glafs, and bringing the mixture into fufion.
Green. This colour may be imparted to glafs by
adding three ounces of copper precipitated from aqua¬
fortis, and two ’drams ot precipitated iron to nine
pounds of either of the compofitions for hard glafs.
The fineft method of giving this beautiful colour to
glafs is this: Take five pounds of cryftalline metal that
has been paffed feveral times through water, and the
fame quantity of the common white metal of polve-
rine, four pounds of common polverine frit, and three
pounds of red lead; mix the red-lead well with the frit,
and then put all into a pot in a furnace. In a few
hours the whole mafs will be well purified : then call
the whole into water, and feparate and take out the
lead ; then return the metal into the pot, and let it
Hand a day longer in fufion ; then put in the powder
of the refiduum of the vitriol of copper, and a very
little crocus martis, there will be produced a moit
lively and elegant green, icarce inferior to that of the
oriental emerald. There are many ways of giving a
green to glafs, but all are greatly inferior to this.—
To make a fea-green, the fineft cryftalline glafs only
muft be ufed, and no manganefe muft be added at firll
to the metal. The cryftal frit muft be melted thus
alone ; and the fait, which fwims like oil on its top,
muft be taken off with an iron ladle very carefully.
Then to a pot of twenty pound of this metal add fix
ounces of calcined brais, and a fourth part of the
quantity of powdered zaft'er: this powder muft be
well mixed, and put into the glafs at three times; it
will make the metal fwell at firft, and all muft be tho¬
roughly mixed in the pot. After it has flood in fu¬
fion three hours, take out a little for a proof: if it be
too pale, add more of the powder. Twenty-four hours
after the mixing the powder the whole will be ready
to work ; but muft be well ftirred together from the
bottom, left the colour ftrould be deeptit there, and the
metal at the top lefs coloured, or even quite colourlefs.
Some ufe for this purpofe half cryftal frit and half
rochetta frit, but the colour is much the fineft when
all cryftal frit is ufed.
Lapis lazuli colour. See Lapis Lazuli.
Opal colour. See Opal.
Purple of a deep and bright colour may be produced
by adding to ten pounds of either of the compofitions
for hard glafs, above deferibed, fix drams of zaffer and
one dram of gold precipitated by tin ; or to the fame
quantity of either compofition one ounce of manga-
nefe and half an ounce of zaffer. The colour of ame-
thyft may be imitated in this way.
Red. A blood-red glafs may be made in the fol¬
lowing
G L A
lowing manner : Put fix pounds of glafs of lead, and
“ ten pounds of common glafs, into a pot glazed with
white glafs. When the whole is boiled and refined,
add by fmall quantities, and at fmall diflances of time,
copper calcined to a rednefs as much as on repeated
proofs is found fufficient: then add tartar in powder
by fmall quantities at a time, till the glafs is become
t 777 ]
G L A
€,ommerct
•/Arts,
P-
dram of gold duly prepared will tinge ten pounds of Glafs.
glafs. _    
This procefs was foon after brought to perfection by
Kunckel; who fays, that one part of the precipitate is
fufficient to give a ruby colour to 1280 parts of glafs,
and a fenfible rednefs to upwards of 1900 parts} but
that the fuccefs is by no means conftant. Kunckel
red as blood ; and continue adding one or other of alfo mentions.a purple-gold powder, refembling that
the ingredients till the colour is quite perfeCt,
Ruby. The way to give the true fine red of the ruby,
with a fair tranfparence, to glafs, is as follows: Calcine
in earthen veffels gold dilfolved in aqua-regia} the men-
ftruum being evaporated by diftillation, more aqua re¬
gia added, and the abltraCtion repeated five or fix
times, till it becomes a red powder. This operation
will require many days in a hot furnace. When the
powder is of a proper colour, take it out: and when
it is to be ufed, melt the fineft cryftal glafs, and pu¬
rify it by often calling it into water; and then add, by
fmall quantities, enough of this red powder to give it
the true colour of a ruby, with an elegant and perfeCt
tranfparence.
The procefs of tinging glafs and enamels by prepa¬
rations of gold was firft attempted about the beginning
of the laft century. Libavius, in one of his trafts in-
titled Alchymia, printed in 1606, conjectures that the
colour of the ruby proceeds from gold, and that gold
of Neri; which he obtained by infpilfating folution of
gold to drynefs; abftra&ing from it freffi aqua-regia
three or four times, till the matter appears like oil;
then precipitating with ftrong alkaline ley, and walhing
the precipitate with water. By dilfolving this powder
in fpirit of fait and precipitating again, it becomes, he
fays, extremely fair; and in this ftate he directs it to
be mixed with a due proportion of Venice glafs.
Orfchal, in a treatife intitled Solfine Vejle, gives the
following procefs for producing a very fine ruby. He
direfts the purple precipitate made by tin to be ground
with fix times its quantity of Venice glafs into a very
fine powder, and this compound to be very carefully
mingled with the frit or vitreous compofition to be
tijiged. His frit eonfiftsof equal parts of borax, nitre,
and fixed alkaline fait, and four times as much calcined
flint as of each of the falts ; but he gives no directions
as to the proportion of the gold precipitate or mode of
fufion. Hellot deferibes a preparation, which, mixed
difiblved and btought to rednefs might be made to with Venice glafs, was found to give a beautiful purple
communicate a like colour to factitious gems and
glafs. On this principle Neri, in his Art of Glafs,
dated in 1611, gives the procefs above recited. Glau-
enamel. This preparation confifts of equal parts of
folution of gold and of folution of zinc in aqua-regia
mixed together, with the addition of a volatile fait pre¬
ber in 1648 publiihed a method of producing a red pared from fal ammoniac by quicklime, in fufficient
colour by gold, in a matter which is of the vitreous  *■-
kind, though not perfeCt glafs. For this purpofe he
ground powdered flint or fand with four times its
weight of fixed alkaline fait: this mixture melts in a
moderately ftrong fire, and when cold looks like glafs,
but expofed to the air runs into a liquid ftate. On
adding this liquor to folution of gold in aqua-regia, the
quantity to precipitate the two metals. The precipi¬
tate is then gradually heated till it acquires a violet
colour. However, though a purple or red colour, ap¬
proaching to that of ruby, may, by the methods above
recited, be baked on glafs or enamels, and introduced
into the mafs by fufion, the way of equally diffufing
fuch a colour through a quantity of fluid glafs is itiiL,
gold and flint precipitate together in form of a yellow fays Dr Lewis, a fecret. The following procefs for
powder, which by calcination becomes purple. By. making the ruby glafs was communicated to Dr Lewi*
mixing this powder with three or four times its weight by an artift, who aferibed it to Kunckel. The gold
of the alkaline folution of flint, drying the mixture,
and melting it in a ftrong fire for an hour, a mafs is
obtained of a tranfparent ruby colour, and of a vitre¬
ous appearance; which neverthelefs is foluble in water,
or by the moifture of the air, on account of the redund¬
ance of the fait. The honourable Mr Boyle, in a
work publifhed in 1680, mentions an experiment in
which a like colour was introduced into glafs without
fufion ; for having kept a mixture of gold and mercury
in digeftion for fome months, the fire was at laft im¬
moderately increafed, fo that the glafs burit with a
violent explofisn ; and the lower part of the glafs was
found tinged throughout of a tranfparent red colour,
hardly to be equalled by that of rubies.
About the fame time Caffius is faid to have difeover-
ed the precipitation of gold by tin, and that glafs.
might be tinged of a ruby colour by melting it with
this precipitate ; though he does not appear, fays Dr
Lewis, from his treatife De Auro, to have been the
■difeoverer of either. He describes the preparation
of the precipitate and its ufe; but gives no account
of the manner of employing it, only that he fays one and one pound of well calcined horn, ivory,
Vol. VII. Part II. 5 F
is dire&ed to be diflblved in a mixture of one part of
fpirit of fait and three of aquafortis, and the tin in a
mixture of one part of the former of thefe acids with
two of the latter. The folution of gold being pro-
pe ly diluted with water, the folution of tin is added,
and the mixture left to Hand till the purple mat¬
ter has fettled to the bottom. The colourlefs liquor
is then poured off, and the, purple fediment, while'
moift and not very thick, is thoroughly mixed with
powdered flint or land. This mixture is well ground
with powdered nitre, tartar, borax, and ari'enic, and
the compound melted with a fuitable fire. The pro¬
portions of the ingredients are 2560 parts of fand, 384
of nitre, 240 of tartar, 240 of borax, 28 of arfenic,
5 of tin, and 5 of gold.
Topaz, colour. Glafs refembling this ftoqe may be
made by pulverizing ten pounds of either of the com-
pofitions for hard glafs with an equal quantity of the
gold-coloured glafs, and fufing them together.
Whit? opake and femitranfparent gla(s may be made of
ten pounds of either of the compolitions for hard glafs
.r_„n l___ -•—— bone 4
G L A [ 778 1 G L A
Glafa. or an opake whitenefs may be giver to glafs by adding
'V”— one pound of very white arfenic to ten pounds of flint
glafs. Let them be well powdered and mixed by
grinding them together, and then fufed with a mode¬
rate heat till they are thoroughly incorporated. A
glafs of this kind is made in large quantities at a ma-
nufafture near London ; and ufed not only for differ¬
ent kinds of veffels, but as a white ground for enamel
in dial-plates and fnufF-boxes, which do not require
finifhing with much fire, becaufe it becomes very white
and fufible with a moderate heat.
Tellow. See Gold colour above.
Painting in Glass- The ancient manner of painting
in glafs was very fimple : it confided in the mere ar¬
rangement of pieces of glafs of different colours in fome
fort of fymmetry, and conftiiuted what is now called
Mofaic work. See Mosaic.
In procefs of time they came to attempt more re¬
gular defigns, and alfo to reprefent figures heightened
with all their fhades: yet they proceeded no farther
than the contours of the figures in black with water¬
colours, and hatching the draperies after the fame
manner on glaffes of the colour of the objeft they defign-
ed to paint. For the carnation, they ufed glafs of a
bright red colour ; and upon this they drew the prin¬
cipal lineaments of the face, &c. with black.
At length, the tafte for this fort of painting im¬
proving confiderably, and the art being found applicable
to the adorning of churches, bafilics, &c. they found
out means of incorporating the colours in the glafs it-
felf, by heating them in the fire to a proper degree ;
having firft laid on the colours, ri, French painter at
Marfeilles is faid to have given the firft notion of this
improvement, upon going to Rome under the ponti¬
ficate of Julius II. ; but Albert Durer and Lucas of
Leyden were the firft that carried it to any height.
This art, however, has frequently met with much
interruption, and fometimes been almoft totally loft ;
of which Mr Walpole gives us the following account,
in his Anecdotes of Painting in England.
“ The firft interruption given to it was by the refor¬
mation, which banilhed the art out of churches ; yet
it was in fome meafure kept up in the efcutcheons of
the nobility and gentry in the windows of their feats.
Towards the end of queen Elizabeth’s reign it was
omitted even there ; yet the praftice did not entirely
ceafe. The chapel of our Lady at Warwick was or¬
namented anew by Robert Dudley earl of Leicefter,
and his countefs, and the cipher of the glafs painter’s
name yet remains, with the date 1574: and in fome
of the chapels at Oxford the art again appears, dating
itfelf in 1622, by the hand of no contemptible matter.
“ I could fupply even this gap of 48 years by many
dates on Flemilh glafs: but nobody ever fuppofed that
the fecret was loft fo early as the reign of James I. and
that it has not perifhed fince will be evident from the
following feries, reaching to the prefent hour.
“ The portraits in the windows of the library at All
Souls, Oxford. In the chapel at Queen’s College
there are twelve windows dated 1518. P. C. a ci¬
pher on the painted glafs in the chapel at Warwick,
1574. The windows at Wadham-college : the draw¬
ing pretty good, and the colours fine, by Bernard
Van Linge, 1622. In the chapel at Lincoln’s Inn,
a window, with the name Bernard, 1623. This was
probably the preceding Van Linge. In the church of G!afs.
St Leonard, Shoreditch, two windows by Baptifta —-y—■
Sutton, 1634. The windows in the chapel atUniverfity-
college, Hen. Giiespinxit, 1687. At Chrift-church,
Ifaac Oliver, aged 84, 1700. Window in Merton-
chapel, William Price, 1700. Windows at Queen’s
New-college, and Maunlin, by William Price, the fon,
now living, whofe colours are fine, whofe drawing is
good, and whofe tafte in ornaments and mofaic is far
fuperior to any of his predecefibrs ; is equal to the an¬
tique, to the good Italian mafters, and only furpaffed
by his own Angular modefty.
“ It may not be unwelcome to the curious reader to
fee fome anecdotes of the revival of tafte for painted
glafs in England. Price, as we have faid, was the only
painter in that ftyle for many years in England. Af¬
terwards one Rowell, a plumber at Reading, did fome
things, particularly for the late Henry earl of Pem¬
broke; but Rowell’s colours'foon vaniftied. At la ft
he found out a very durable and beautiful red; but he
died in a year or two, and the fecret with him. A man
at Birmingham began the fame art in 1756 or 1757,
and fitted up a window for Lord Lyttelton, in the
church of Hagely ; but foon broke. A little after
him, one Peckitt at York began the fame bufinefs, and
has made good proficiency. A few lovers of that art
colle&ed fome difperfed panes from ancient buildings,
particularly the late Lord Cobham, who eretfted a Go¬
thic temple at Stowe, and filled it with arms of the
old nobility, &c. About the year 1753, one Afciotti,
an Italian, who had married a Flemifh woman, brought
a parcel of painted glafs from Flanders, and fold it for
a few gunieas to the honourable Mr Bateman, of Old
Windfor. Upon that I fent Afciotti again to Flan¬
ders, who brought me 450 pieces, for which, including
the expence of his journey, I paid him 36 guineas.
His wife made more journeys for the fame purpofe ;
and fold her cargoes to one Palmer, a glazier in St
Martin’s-lane, who immediately railed the price to
one, two, or five guineas for a fingle piece, and fitted
up entire windows with them, and with mofaics of
plain glafs of different colours. In 1761, Paterfon,
an auSiioneer at Effex-houfe in the Strand, exhibited
the two firft auftions of painted glafs, imported in
like manner from Flanders. All this manufa&ure
confifted in rounds of feripture-ftories, ftained in black,
and yellow, or in fmall figures of black and white ;
birds and flowers in colours, and Flemilh coats of
arms.”
The colours ufed in painting or ftaining of glafs are
very different from thofe ufed in painting either in wai¬
ter or oil colours.
For black, take feales of iron, one ounce ; feales of
copper, one ounce; jet, half an ounce: reduce them
to powder, and mix them. For blue, take powder
of blue, one pound; fal nitre, half a pound; mix
them and grind them well together. For carnation,,
take red chalk, eight ounces; iron feales, and litharge
of filver, of each two ounces; gum arabic, half an
ounce ; diffolve in water ; grind all together for half an
hour as ftiff as you can ; then put it in a glafs and
ftir it well, and let it ftand to fettle fourteen days.
For green, take red lead,, one pound ; feales of cop¬
per, one pound; and flint, five pounds : divide them
into three parts; and add to them as much fal nitre ;,
put
OLA r 779 1 G L A
put them into a crucible, and melt them with a ftrong
fire ; and when it is cold, powder it, and grind it on
a porphyry. For gold colour, take filver, an ounce ;
antimony, half an ounce; melt them in a crucible ;
then pound the mafs to powder, and grind it on
a copper plate ; add to it yellow ochre, or brick-duft
calcined again, fifteen ounces; and grind them well
together with water. For purple, take minium, one
pound; brown ftone, one pound 5 white flint, five
pounds : divide them into three parts, and add to them
as much fal nitre as one of the parts; calcine, melt, and
grind it as you did the green. For red, take jet, four
ounces ; litharge of filver, two ounces; red chalk,
one ounce; powder them fine, and mix them. For
white, take jet, two parts; white flint, ground on a
glafs very fine, one part; mix them. For yellow,
take Spanilh brown, ten parts; leaf-filver, one part;
antimony, half a part 5 put all into a crucible, and
calcine them well.
In the windows of ancient churches, See. there are
to be feen the moft beautiful and vivid colours imagin¬
able, which far exceed any of thofe ufed by the mo¬
derns, not fo much becaufe the fecret of making thofe
colours is entirely loft, as that the moderns will not
go to the charge of them, nor be at the neceflary
pains, by reafon that this fort of painting is not now
fo much in efteem as formerly. Thofe beautiful
works which were made in the glafs-houfes were of
two kinds.
In fome, the colour was diffufed through the whole
fubftance of the glafs. In others, which were the
more common, the colour was only on one fide, fcarce
penetrating within the fubftance above one-third of a
line ; though this was more or lefs according to the
nature of the colour, the yellow being always found
to enter the deepeft. Thefe laft, though not fo ftrong
and beautiful as the former, were of more advantage
to the workmen, by reafon that on the fame glafs,
though already coloured, they could fhow other kinds
of colours where there was occafion to embroider dra¬
peries, enrich them with foliages, or reprefent other
ornaments of gold, filver, &c.
In order to this, they made ufe of-emery, grinding
or wearing down the furface of the glafs till fuch
time as they were got through the colour to the clear
glafs. This done, they applied the proper colours on
the other fide of the glafs. By thefe means, the new
colours were hindered from running and mixing with
the former, when they expo^d the glaffes to the fire,
as will appear hereafter.
When indeed the ornaments were to appear white,
the glafs was only bated ofjts colour with emery,
without tinging the place with any colour at all; and
this was the manner by which they wrought their
lights and heightenings on all kinds of'colour.
The firft thing to be done, in order to paint or ftain
glafs, in the modern way, is to defign, and even co¬
lour the whole fubjeft on paper. Then they choofe
fuch pieces of glafs as are clear, even, and fmooth,
and proper to receive the feveral parts ; and proceed to
diftribute the defign itfelf, or papers it is drawn on,
into pieces fuitable to thofe of the glafs; always taking
care that the glafies may join in the contours of the
figures and the folds of the draperiers ; that the carna¬
tions, and other finer parts, may not be impaired by
the lead with which the pieces are to be joined toge¬
ther. The diftribution being made, they mark all the
glafies as well as papers, that they may be known again:
which done, applying every part of the defign upon
the glafs intended for it, they copy or transfer the
defign upon this glafs with the black colour diluted in
gum-water, by tracing and following all the lines and
ftrokes as they appear through the glafs with the point
of a pencil.
When thefe ftrokes are well dried, which will hap¬
pen in about two days, the work being only in black
and white, they give a flight wafti over with urine,
gum arabic, and a little black; and repeat it feveral
times, according as the (hades are defired to be height¬
ened ; with this precaution, never to apply a new wafli
till the former is fufficiently dried.
This done, the lights and rifings are given by rub¬
bing off the colour in the refpe&ive places with a
wooden point, or the handle of the pencil.
As to the other colours above mentioned, they are
ufed with-gum-water, much as in painting in minia¬
ture ; taking care to apply them lightly, for fear of
effacing the outlines of the defign ; or even, for the
greater fecurity, to apply them on the other fide;
efpecially yellow, which is very pernicious to the
other colours, by blending therewith. And here
too, as in pieces of black and white, particular re¬
gard muft always be had not to lay colour on colour,
or lay on a new lay, till fuch time as the former are
well dried.
It may be added, that the yellow is the only colour
that penetrates through the glafs, and incorporates
therewith by the fire ; the reft, and particularly the
blue, which is very difficult to ufe, remaining on the
furface, or at lead entering very little. When the
painting of all the pieces is finiftied, they are carried to
the furnace or oven to anneal or bake the colours.
The furnace here ufed is fmall, built of brick,
from 18 to 30 inches fquare. At fix inches from the
bottom is an aperture to put in the fuel and main¬
tain the fire. Over this aperture is a grate made of
three fquare bars of iron, which traverfe the furnace,
and divide it into two parts. Two inches above this
partition is another little aperture, through which
they take out pieces to examine how the co&ion goes
forward. On the grate is placed a fquare earthen
pan, fix or feven inches deep, and five or fix inches
lefs every way than the perimeter of the furnace.
On the one fide hereof is a little aperture, through
which to make trials, placed diredlly oppolite to that
of the furnaces deftined for the fame end. In this pan
are the pieces of glafs to be placed in the following
manner : Firft, the bottom of the pan is covered with
three ftrata or layers of quicklime pulverifed; thofe
ftrata being feparated by two others of old broken
glafs, the defign whereof is to fecure the painted glafs
from the too intenfe heat of the fire. This done, the
glaffes are laid horizontally on the laft or uppermoft
layer of lime.
The firft row of glafs they cover over with a layer
of the fame powder an inch deep; and over this they
lay another range of glaffes, and thus alternately till
the pan is quite full; taking care that the whole heap
always end with a layer of the lime-powder.
The pan being thus prepared, they cover up the
5 F 2 furnace
G L A L 780 ] G L A
furnace with tiles, on a fquare table of earthen ware,
clofely luted all round; only leaving five little aper¬
tures, one at each corner, and another in the middle,
to ferve as chimneys. Things thus difpofed, there re¬
mains nothing but to give the fire to the work. The
fire for the firft two hours muft be very moderate, and
muft be increafed in proportion as the coAion advances,
for the fpace of ten or twelve hours; in which time
it is ufually completed. At laft the fire, which at
firft was charcoal, is to be of dry wood, fo that the
flame covers the whole pan, and even iffues out at the
chimneys.
During the laft hours, they make effays, from time
to time, by taking out pieces laid for the purpofe
through the little aperture of the furnace and pan,
to fee whether the yellow be perfect, and the other
colours in good order. When the annealing is thought
fufficient, they proceed with great hade to extinguilh
the fire, which otherwife would foon burn the colours,
and break the glaffes.
Glass-BoIIs, which are circular or otherwife fhaped
hollow veficls of glafs, may be coloured within, fo as to
imitate the femipellucid gems. The method of do¬
ing it is this : make a ftrong folution of ichthyocolla,
or ifinglafs, in common water, by boiling; pour a
quantity of this while warm into the hollow of a white
glafs veffel; ftiake it thoroughly about, that all the
lides may be wetted, and then pour off the reft of the
moifture. Immediately after this, throw in red-lead,
fliake it and turn it about, throw it into many places
with a tube, and the moifture will make it ftick and
run in waves and pretty figures. Then throw in fome
of the painter’s blue fmalt, and make' it run in waves
in the ball as the red-lead ; then do the fame with ver-
degris, next with orpiment, then with red lake, all well
ground; always calling in the colours in different
places, and turning the glafs, that the moifture with¬
in may run them into the "waves. Then take fine
plafter of Paris, and put a quantity of it into the ball;
ihake it alfo nimbly about; this will every where ftick
firmly to the glafs, and give it a ftrong inner coat,
keeping all the colours on very fairly and ftrongly.
Thefe are fet on frames of carved wood, and much
efteemed as ornaments in many places..
Glass-Drops. See Rupert's drops.
Engraving on Glass. See Chemistry, n° 2d 857.
Foliating of Glass. See Foliating and Looking-
glafs.
Gilding of Glass. See Gilding.
Impreffions of antique Gems taken in Glass. See Gems.
Glass of Lead, a glafs made with the addition of a
large quantity of lead, of great ufe in the art of making
counterfeit gems. The method of making it is this:
Put a large quantity of lead into a potter’s kiln, and
keep it in a ftate of fufion with a moderate fire, till it
is calcined to a grey loofe powder ; then fpread it in
the kiln, and give it a greater heat, continually ftirring
it to keep it from running into lumps ; continue this
fbveral hours, till the powder become of a fair yellow ;
then take it out, and fift it fine : this is called calcined
had. Take of this calcined lead x 5 pounds, and cry-
Italline or other frit 12 pounds; mix thefe as well as
gpffible together ; put them into a pot, and fet them
in the furnace for ten hours; then call the whole,
which will be aow perfedtly melted, into water; fepa-
rate the loofe lead from it, and return the metal into Glafe.
the pot; and after Handing in fufion 12 hours more, v”“
it will be fit to work. It is very tender and brittle,
and muft be worked with great care, taking it flowly
out of the pot, and continually wetting the marble it
is wrought upon.
It is well known that cerufs or white lead, mi¬
nium, litharge, and all the other preparations and cal¬
ces ot lead, are ealily fufed by a moderate fire, and
formed into a tranfparent glafs of a deep yellow colour.
But this glafs is lb penetrating and powerful a flux,
that it is neceffary to give it a greater confiftence, in
order to render it fit for ufe. With this view, two
parts of calx of lead, e. g. minium, and one part of
land or powdered flints, may be put into a crucible of
refradtory clay, and baked into a compaft body. Let
this crucible, well clofed with a luted lid, be placed in
a melting furnace, and gradually heated for an hour
or an hour and a half; and afterwards let the heat be
increafed fo as to obtain a complete fufion, and con¬
tinued in that ftate for the fame time: let the crucible
remain to cool in the furnace; and when it is broken,
a very tranfparent yellow-coloured glafs will be found
in it. Some add nitre and common fait to the above
mixture, becaufe thefe falls promote the fufion and
the more equal diftribution of the fand. This glafs of
lead has a confiderable fpecific gravity, and its loweft
part is always the heavielt. It is an important flux in
the affays of ores to facilitate their fcorifications.
Glais of lead is capable of all the colours of the
gems in very great perfection. The methods of gi¬
ving them are thefe : for green, take polverine frit 20
pounds, lead calcined 16 pounds; lift both the pow¬
ders very fine ; then melt them into a glafs, feparating
the unmixed lead, by plunging the mafs in water ; af¬
ter this return it into the pot, and add brafs thrice
calcined fix ounces, and one penny -weight of crocus
martis made with vinegar ; put this in at fix diffe¬
rent times, always carefully mixing it together ;Tet it
finally fettle an hour, then mix it together, and take a
proof of it; when the colour is right, let it Hand eight
hours, and then work it. If initead of the calcined
brafs the fame quantity of the caput mortuum of the
vitriolum veneris be ufed, the green is yet much finer.
For topaz-colour, take cryftal frit 15 pounds, cal¬
cined lead 12 pounds ; mix them well together, by
fifting the powders through a fine fieve ; then fet them
in a furnace not too hot, and feparate the fuperfluous
unmixed lead, by calling, the whole into water ; repeat
this twice : then add half gold yellow glafs, and let
them incorporate and purify, and they will be of the
true and exa£l colour of*the oriental topazes.
For fea-green, take cryftal frit 16 pounds, calcined
lead 10 pounds ; mix and fift them together, and fet
them in a pot in a furnace; in 12 hours the whole will
be melted ; then call it into water, and feparate it
from the loofe lead ; put them into the furnace again
for eight hours ; then fepat ate the loofe lead by walk¬
ing a fecond time, and return it to the pot for eight
hours more.
Mufcovy Glass. See Mica.
Painting, on Glafs by means of Prints. See Back-
painting.
GLASS-Porcelain, the name given by many to a mo¬
dem invention - of imitating the china-ware with glafs.
The
G L A [ 7S1 1 G L A
The method given by Mr Reaumur, who was the firft
that carried the attempt to any degree of perfcdtion,
is fhortly this : The glafs-vefl'els to be converted into
porcelain are to be put into a large earthen veffel, fuch
as the common fine earthen dilhes are baked in, or in¬
to fufficiently large crucibles ; the vefiels are to be fill¬
ed with a mixture of fine white fand, and of fine gyp-
fum or plafter-ftone burnt into what is called plafter
of Pans, and all the interftices are to be filled up with
the fame powder, fo that the glafs vefiels may no where
touch either one another, or the fides of the veflelthey
are baked in. The vefiel is to be then covered down
and luted, and the fire does the reft of the work ; for
this is only to be put into a common potter’s furnace,
and when it has ftood there the ufual time of the ba¬
king the other vefiels.. it is to be taken out, and the
whole contents will be found no longer glafs, but con¬
verted into a white opake fubftance, which is a very
elegent porcelain, and has ahnoft the properties of that
of China.
The powder which has ferved once will do again as
well as frelh, and that for a great many times : nay, it
feems ever fo often. The caufe of this transformation,
fays Maequer, is probably that the vitriolic acid of the
gypfum quits its bafis of calcareous earth, and unites
with the alkaline fait and faline earth of the glafs, with
which it forms a kind of fait or felenites, different from
the calcareous felenites, by the interpofition of which
matter the glafs acquires the qualities of porcelain.
See further on this fubjedl the article Chemistry,
n° 591—594.
Glass-Pots, the veflels in the glafs trade ufed for
melting the glafs. Thofe for the white glafs works are
made of a tobacco-pipe clay, brought from the Ifle of
Wight, which is firft well wafted, then calcined, and
afterwards ground to a fine powder in a mill; which
being mixt with water, is then trod with the bare feet
ti!l it is of a proper confiftence to mould with the
hands into the proper fhape of the vefiels. When
thefe are thus made, they are afterwards annealed over
the furnace. Thofe for the green glafs work are made
of the nonfuch, and another fort of clay from Stafford-
ftiire ; they make thefe fo large as to hold three or four
hundred weight of metal. And befides thefe, they
have a fmall fort called piling-pots, which they fet upun
the larger, and which contain a finer and more nice
metal fit for the niceft works.
The clay that is ufed for this purpofe ffiould be of
the pureit and moil refradtory kind, and well cleanfed
from all fandy, ferruginous, and pyritous matters ; and
to this it will be proper to add ground crucibles, white
fand, calcined flints duly levigated, or a certain propor¬
tion of the fame clay baked, and pounded not very
finely. The quantity of baked clay that ought to be
mixed with the crude clay, to prevent the pots from
cracking when dried, or expofed to a great heat, is not
abfdlutely determined, but depends on the quality of the
crude clay, which is more or lefs fat. M. D’Antic,
in a memoir on this fubjedl, propofes the following
method of afeertaining it: the burnt and crude clay,
being mixed in different proportions, fhould be formed
into cakes, one inch thick, and four inches long and
wide. Let thefe cakes be flowly dried, and e/pofed
to a violent heat, till they become as hard and as much
contracted as pofiible, and in- this ftate be examined ;
and the cake, he fays, which has fuffered a diminution
of its bulk equal only to an eighteenth part, is made of
the beft proportions. He obferves, in general, that
moft clays require that the proportion of the burnt
fhould be to the freih as four to five.
Tin Glass, the fame with Brfmuth. See the ar¬
ticle Bismuth? alfo Chemistry, N1 1250.
V°J]eh of Glass ufed in Chemical Experiments. See
Chemistry, n° 556.
Glasses are diftinguilhed, with regard to their form,
ufe, &c. into various kinds, as, drinking glaffes, optical-
glaffes, looking-glaffes, burning-glaffes, &c.
Drinking Glasses, are fimple vefiels of common glafs
or cryftal, ufually made in form of an inverted cone.
Each glafs confifts of three parts, viz. the calyx or
bowl, the bottom, and the foot; which are all wrought
or blown feparately.
Nothing can be more dexterous and expeditious than
the manner wherein thefe parts are all blown ; two of
them opened, and all three joined together. An idea
is only to be had thereof, by feeing them actually at
work.
The glaffes chiefly ufed in England are made of the
afhes of fetn ; cryftal glaffes being lefs frequent in ufe.
The exceeding brittlenefs of this commodity, notwith-
ftanding the eafy rate of each glafs, renders the con-
fumption thereof very confiderable. For the method
of gilding the edges of drinking-glaffes, fee Gilding
on Enamel and Glafs.
Optical-Glasses. See Optics,
The improvements hitherto made in telefcopes by
means of combining lenfes made of different kinds of
glafs, though very great, are yet by no means adequate
to the expedlations that might reafonably be formed
if opticians could fall on any method of obtaining pieces
of glafs fufficiently large for purfuing the advantages
of Mr Dollond’s difeovery. Unfortunately, however,
though the board of longitude have offered a confidei-
able reward for bringing this art to the requifite per¬
fection, no attempt of any confequence has hitherto •
been made. Mr Keir is of opinion, that the accom-
plilhment of this is by no means an eafy talk ; as it re¬
quires not only a competent knowledge of the proper¬
ties of glafs fitteftfor the purpofe (the faults not being
evidentto common infpedtion),but a confiderable degree
of chemical knowledge is alfo neeeffary in order to in¬
vent a compoiition by which thefe faults may be avoid¬
ed; and laftly, a kind of dexterity in the execution of
the work, which can only be acquired by practice. Our
author, however, thinks, that if the fubjedt were more
generally utfderftood, and the difficulties more fully
pointed out, for which purpofe he makes the following
remarks, the end might be more eafily accompliflied.
1. The rays of light palling through a glafs lens or
prifm, or through any other medium of unequal thick-
nefs, are refra&ed ; but not in an equal manner, the
blue, violet, &c. being more refradted than the red.
2. Hence it happens, that the rays of light, when
refradted by a common lens, do not all unite in one fo¬
cus, but in reality form as many different foci as there
are colours ; and hence arife the prifmatic colours, or
irifes, which appear towards the borders of the image
formed by the common convex lenfes, and which ren¬
der the vifion extremely indiftind.
3. The indiftinctnefs of vifion produced by this caufe,,
which--.
G L A [ 782 ] G L A
Glafs. which is fenfible in tekfcopes of a fmall aperture, in-
'■""v 11 creafes in fo great a proportion, viz. as the cubes of the
diameters, that it feemed impoffible to inereafe the .
power of dioptric telefcopes greatly, without extending
them to a very inconvenient length, unlefs this confu-
fion of colours could be corre&ed.
4 ItwasknownthatdifFerenttranfparehtbodiespoffeff-
ed different degrees of refradtive power ; and, until Mr
Dollond difcovered the contrary, it was fuppofed, that
the refraftions of the coloured rays were always in a
determinate ratio to one anothero On this fuppofition
it feemed impoffible to corredl the faults of reffa&ing
telefcopes : for it was fuppofed, that if the difperfion of
light produced by a convex lens were countera&ed by
another lens or medium of a concave form, the re¬
fraction would be totally deftroyed ; and this indeed
would be the cafe, if the two mediums were made of
the fame matter ; and from fome experiments made by
Sir Ifaac Newton, this was fuppofed to be adlually the
cafe in all fubftances whatever.
5. From confidering that the eyes of animals are
formed of mediums of different colours, it occurred firft
to Mr David Gregory, the celebrated profeffor of aftro-
nomy at Oxford, and then to Mr Euler, that, by a
combination of mediums which had different refradtive
powers, it might be poffible to remedy the imperfec¬
tions of dioptric telefcopes. It does not, however, ap¬
pear, that either of thefe gentlemen underftood the true
principle on which thefe phenomena depend. Mr Euler
executed his idea by forming a compound objedt lens
from two glafs lenfes with water interpofed, but his at¬
tempt was not attended with fuccefs. Mr Dollond,
however, was led by fome arguments adduced by Mr
Klingefternia, to repeat one of Sir Ifaac Newton’s ex¬
periments, and which had induced even that great phi-
lofopher himfelf to fuppofe that the improvement after¬
wards executed by Mr Dollond was impoffible. This
experiment was made by Sir Ifaac Newton, by placing
a glafs prifm within a prifmatic veffel filled with water,
in fuch a manner that the rays of light which were re¬
fracted by the glafs prifm fhould pafs through and be
refradted in a contrary diredtion by the water prifm.
In this manner the refradtion of the light was entirely
deftroyed. But when Mr Dollond repeated the ex¬
periment, he found, that, contrary to his own expecta¬
tions, when the angles of the two prifms were fo pro¬
portioned that they counteracted each other’s mean re¬
fradtion, then colours appeared ; and on the other
hand, when they were fo proportioned that the difper¬
fion of the coloured rays was counteracted, the mean re¬
fradtion (till fubfilted ; which evidently proved, that the
mean refradtive and difperiive powers of glafs and wa¬
ter were not proportional to one another.
6. To apply this to the propofed improvement, Mr
Dollond examined feveral kinds of glafs. Crown-glafs
was found to polfefs the fmalleit difperfive power in
proportion to its refradtion ; while flint-glafs poffeffed
the greateft difperfive power in proportion to its re¬
fradtion, which was alfo very great. On comparing
thefe two exadtly together, he found, that a wedge of
white flint glafs whofe angle was about 25 degrees, and
another of crown-glafs whofe angle was 29 degrees,
refradted very nearly alike. He found alfo, that, when
the wedges were ground to fuch angles, the refrac¬
tion produced by the fiint-glafs was to that produced
by the crown-glafs nearly as two to three, the refrac- Glafs.
ted light was then free from colour. On meafuring the 1—\r"
generalrefradting powers of thefe two glafles, he found,
that in flint-glafs, the fine of incidence of the rays was
to the fine of mean refradtion as 1 to 1.583 ; and that,
in crown-glafs, the fine of incidence was to the fine of
mean refradtion as 1 to 1-53.
The methods of determining the different refradtive
powers of glafs are given under the article Optics.
Here we {hall only obferve, that two kinds of glafs are
neceflary for the conftrudtion of achromatic telefcopes;
one of which fhall poffefs as fmall, and the other as
great, difperfive powers, relative to their mean refradting
powers, as can be procured. The difference of glaffes
in this refpedt depends on the quality of the ingre¬
dients employed in their compofition. Crown-glafs,
which is compofed of fand melted by means of the
afhes of fea-weeds, barilla, or kelp, both which fluxes
are known to confift of vegetable earth, alkali, and
neutral fait, is found to give the fmallett difperfive
power. Plate glafs, which confills of fand melted by
means of fixed vegetable alkali, with little or no vege¬
table earth, gives a greater difperfive power; but both
thefe give much lefs than flint glafs, vvhich confifts of
fand melted by means of minium and fixed alkali. It
appears, therefore, that the difperfion of the rays is
greateft when minium, or probably other metallic cal¬
ces, are made ufe of; and that alkalies give a greater
power of difperfion than vegetable or other earths. Mr
Zieher of Peterfburgh, however, informs us that he
has made a kind of glafs, much fuperior in this refpedt
to flint glafs; but it does not as yet appear whe¬
ther it be more fit for optical purpofes than that
commonly made ufe of. There feems no difficulty
in augmenting the difperfive power, as that is found
to depend on the quantity of minium or other flux :
but thus we unfortunately increafe alfo the capi¬
tal fault to which flint glafs and all compofitions of
that kind are fubjedt; namely, the being fubjedt to
veins or fmall threads running through it. By thefe,
even when fo fmall as to be imperceptible to the naked
eye, the rays which fall on them are diverted from their
proper diredlion, and thereby render the images confu-
fed. This is owing to^he greater denfity of the veins,
as appears by their image being received on white pa¬
per, when the glafs is held between the paper and the
fun or a candle, at a proper diftance. The rays of
light being then made to converge by the fuperior den¬
fity of the veins, their images will appear as bright lines
bordered with obfcure edges on the paper. Flint-glafs
is fo much fubjedt to this kind of imperfedtion, that it
is with difficulty the opticians can pick out pieces of
the fize commonly ufed from a large quantity of the
glafs. It is farther to be regretted, that the minium
which produces the greatell difperfive power, is like-,
wife the very fubftance which renders flint glafs much
more fubjedt to thefe imperfedtions than any other.
The reafon is, that the fand and earthy matters mix
uniformly in fufion; and, having not only a confiderable
degree of affinity towards each other, but alfo being
not much different from each other, they are not apt to
feparate. On the other hand, when fuch an heavy
fubftance as minium is added to thefe earthy fubftances,
though it has a pretty ftrong tendency to unite with the
earthy fubftances, it has none with the fixed alkali, which
5 «
G L A [ 783 ] G L A
is another ingredient in this glafs. Hence fome parts of
the glafs will contain more metallic matter than the reft;
particularly that near the bottom of the pot, which is fo
full of large veins as to be applied only to the making
of warts of little value. The veins in this cafe are
formed by the defcent of the minium to the bottom,
which in its paifage forms threads or veins by dragging
other parts of the glafs along with them.
The correction of this fault appears therefore to be
very difficult. M. Macquer informs us, that he had
in vain tried to remove it by very long fufion and a
fierce fire ; which indeed others have found by expe¬
rience not to correCt, but to augment the evil. Mr
Keir is of opinion that fome new compofition muit be
difcovered, which, along with a fufficient refraCtive power,
fhould poffefs a greater uniformity of texture; but he
is likewife of opinion, that fcarce any alteration in this
refpeCt could be made without injuring the colour of
the glafs. For optical purpofes, however, our author
does not think that an alteration in the colour of the
ingredients would be very detrimental. “lam con¬
vinced (fays he), that glafles fenfibly tinged with co¬
lour, might tranfmit as much or more light than the
beft flint-glafs. For the colourlefs appearance of flint-
glafs is an optical deception. The minium gives it a
eonfiderable tinge of yellow, and the alkali inclines it
to a bluifh caft, befides the colour ariling from a
greater or lefs impurity of the materials; fo that the
glafs would afitually be very fenfibly coloured, unlefs
by the addition of manganefe, which is known to give
a purplifh red. Thus the other tinges are counterac¬
ted, but not effaced or deftroyed as has been frequent¬
ly imagined. By the mixture of the three principal
colours, red, yellow, and blue, more or lefs exaCtly
counterpoifed, a'certain dark ftiade is introduced, in
which, as not any one of the colours predominates, no
coloured tinge appears, but the effeft is merely a di¬
minution of the tranfparency of the glafs, which, how¬
ever, is too fmall for ordinary obfervation.” Mr Keir
is even of opinion, that a certain tinge of yellow would
in many cafes be of fervice, becaufe it would exclude
fome of the blue rays, which being molt refrangible
are moft injurious to the diftinCtnefs of vifion.
Very confiderable difficulties, however, muft arife
in attempting improvements of this kind ; as the expe¬
riments muft all be tried on a very large fcale. This
is not only attended with a very heavy expence in itfelf
on account of the quantity of materials employed, but
from the heavy duty of excife which is rigoroufly ex¬
acted whether the glafs be manufactured into faleable
articles or not. It is obferved in the manufacture of
every kind of glafs, that the glafs in the middle of the
area or tranfverfe feCtion of a pot is much purer and
freer from veins and other imperfections than the part
which is near the fides, and that the glafs at the bot¬
tom is the worft of all. Confequently it is chiefly in
large pots, fuch as are ufed in manufactures, that there
is a probability of fuccefs. Very fine and beautiful
glaffes, called pajle and artificial gems, may be made in
fmaller pots or crucibles; but this glafs is fuffered to
cool and fubfide in the veffel, by which means the con¬
tiguous parts are more uniform in their texture than
can be expeCted in a piece of glafs taken out of the pot
while hot in the common way, by making it adhere
and twill round an iron rod or pipe. But although
the method of allowing the glafs to cool in the pots is Glaf>,
very advantageous for the purpofes of the jeweller, it
is by no means applicable to thofe of the optician. bm v
Glafs cooled in that gradual manner, fuffers fome de- v
gree of cryftallization or peculiar arrangement of its
parts ; the coniequence of which is, that the rays of
light undergo certain reftaCtions independent on the
form of the glafs, which greatly affeCt the diftinCtnefs
of vifion in teiefcopes.
Mufical Glasses. See Harmonica.
Looking Glass. See Looking Glafs, Mirror, and
Foliating.
Burning Glass. See Burning Glafs.
Weather Glass. See Barometer.
Cupping Glass. See Surgery.
Hour Glass.- See Hour Glafs.
Watch Glass. See Watch.
Glass-Wort. See Salsola.
GLASTONBURY", a town of Somerfetfhire in
England ; feated in W. Long. 2. 46. N. Lat. 51. 15.
— It is noted for a famous abbey, fome magnificent
ruins of which are ftill remaining ; but they are every
day diminifhing for the fake of the itones. However,
the curious ftruCture called the Abbot's kitchen is ftill
pretty entire, and is of a very unuluul contrivance.
The monks pretend that it was the refidence of Jofepb
of Arimathea, and of St Patrick ; but for this affer-
tion they produce no good authority. The king of •
the Weft Saxons ere&ed a church here, which he and
the fucceeding kings enriched to fuch a degree, that
the abbot lived like a prince, had the title of lord, and
fat among the barons in parliament; and no perfon, not
even a bifhop or prince, durft fet foot on the ifle of
Avalon, in which the abbey ftands, without his leave.
The revenue of the abbey was above 40,0001. per ann.
befides feven parks well ftocked with deer. The laft ab¬
bot (Richard Whiting), who had 100 monks, and 300
domeftics, was hanged in his pontificals, with two of
his monks, on the Tor, a high hill in the neighbour¬
hood, for refufing to take the oath of fupremacy to-
Henry VIII. and furrender his abbey when required.
Edgar and many other Saxon kings were buried here
and, as fome will have it, Arthur the Britilh king. Every
cottage here has part of a pillar, a door, or a windovr
of this fabric ; of which there ftill remain the ruins of
the choir, the middle tower, and chapels. The walls
that remain of the abbey are overgrown with ivy, and
the afpeCt of the whole is both melancholy and vene¬
rable. Here are two parifh churches. This town,,
while under the proteftion of its abbots, was a parlia¬
mentary borough, but it loft that and its privilege of a
corporation; the latter of which was, however, reftored
by queen Anne, who granted it a new charter for a
mayor and burgeffes. The only manufactory here i»
ftockings, but the chief fupport of the place is the re¬
fort of people to fee the ruins of the abbey. The.
George inn here was formerly called the Abbot's Inn f
becaufe it was a receptacle for the ftrollers that came in
pilgrimage to the abbey. At a little diftance from the
old church and facing the monk’s church-yard are two.
remarkable pyramids, with infcrrptions, that are in
characters unintelligible, and an image in bilhops veft-
ments.—The ftory of the Glaftonbury thorn, and of ita
budding always upon Chriftmas-day, is well known i
however, that circumftance is falfe ; though if the win¬
ter
G L A [ 784 ] G L A
ter is mild, it always buds about the latter end of De¬
cember, but later if the weather is fevere.
GLATZ, a handfome and ftrong town of Bohe¬
mia, and capital of a county of the fame name. It is
feated on the river Neifle; and has ftrong fortifications,
with a caftle built upon a mountain. The county was
ceded to the king of Pruflia by the queen of Hungary
In 1742 ; and is about 45 miles in length, and 25 in
breadth. It has mines of pit-coal, filver, and iron ;
good quarries, plenty of cattie, and fine fprings of mi¬
neral water. The town is fituated in E. Long. 15. 16.
N. Lat. 50. 2$.
GLAUBER (John Rhodolphus), a celebrated Ger¬
man chemift, who flourilhed about the year 1646. He
wrote a great number of different treatifes on chemi-
ftry, fome of which have been tranflated into Latin and
French. All his works have been collected into one vo¬
lume, intitled, Giauberus concentratus, which has been
tranflated into Englifh, and was printed at London, in
folio, in 1689.
Glauber’s Salts. See Chemistry Index.
GLAUCOMA, in medicine andfurgery, the name
of a difeafe in the eye, wherein the cryftalline humour
is turned of a bluifti or greenilh colour, and its tranf-
parency hereby diminilhed.—The word comes from
yKxijv.or, cajitis, “ fea green, fliy-coloured, or greydh.”
Thofe in whom this diforder is forming, difeover it
hence, that all obje&s appear to them as thro’ a cloud
or mift; when entirely formed, the vifual rays are all
intercepted, and nothing is feen at all.
It is reckoned incurable, when inveterate, and in
aged perfons ; and even under other circumftances, is
very difficult of cure, externals proving of little fervice.
The internals beft fuited to it, are thofe ufed in the
gutta ferena. Jul. Csefar Claudinus, Conful. 74. gives
a rerpedy for the glaucoma.
The glaucoma is uiually diftinguiftied from the ca¬
taract or fuffufion, in this, that in the cataraft the
whitenefs appears in the pupil, very near the cornea;
but it ihows deeper in the glaucoma.
Some late French authors, however, maintain the
cataract and gloucoma to be one and the fame difeafe.
According to them, the cataradt is not a filth, or pel¬
licle, formed before the pupil, as had always been
imagined; but an infpiffation or induration of the
humour itfelf, whereby its tranfparency is prevented ;
which brings the cataradt to the glaucoma. Accord¬
ing to Mr Sharp, the glaucoma of the ancient Greeks
is the prefent cataradt; but M. St Yves fays it is a
cataradt accompanied with a gutta ferena. See Sur-
GERY.
GLAUCUS, a marine god, or deity of the fea.
There are a great many fabulous accounts of this divi¬
nity : but the poetical hiftory of him is, that before
his deification, he was a fiftierman of the town of An-
thedon, who having one day taken a confiderable num¬
ber of fifties, which he laid upon the bank, on a fudden
perceived, that thefe fifties, having touched a kind of
herb that grew on the ftiore, received new ttrength,
and leaped again into the fea ; upon the fight of which
extraordinary accident, he was tempted to tatle of the
herb himfelf, and prefently leaped into the fea after
them, where he was metamorphofed into a Triton, and
became one of the fea-gods.
GLAUX, in botany : A genus of the monogynia
K° 140.
order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants; and Glazier,
in the natural method ranking under the 17th order, Ca~ Glazing.
lycanthema. The calyx is monophyllous; there is no '—"■v—“■
corolla: the capfule is unilocular, quinquevalved, and
pentafpermous.
GLAZIER, an artificer who works in glafs.—The
principal part of a glazier’s bufinefs confifts in fitting
panes of glafs to the falhes and window-frames of hou-
fes, pictures, &c. and in cleaning the fame.
GLAZING, the crufting over earthen ware by a
vitreous fubftancc, the bafis of which is lead. See
Glass of Lead.
The workers of common earthen ware, however,
are not at the trouble of thus previoufiy making a
pure glafs of lead. Their ufual compofition for glazing
their ware is formed oCwhite fand4o pounds, of red lead
20 pounds, of pearl-afties 20 pounds, and of common
fait 12 pounds. Powder the fand by grinding iti and
then add it to the other ingredients and grind them to¬
gether : after which calcine them for fome time with
a moderate heat, and when the mixture is cold, pound
it to powder ; and when wanted for ufe temper it with
water. The proportion of thefe ingredients may be
occafionally varied The ware, after being turned on
the wheel and dried in the open air, is covered over
with the above compofition by means of a brufh ; and
when fet in the furnace the violent heat foon reduces
it to a perfedt glafs, covering the whole internal and
external furface of the veffel.
We may obferve, however, in general, that lead
ought to be excluded from the compofition of glazings,
and other fluxes fubftituted in its ftead. A tranfpa-
rent glazing may be prepared without lead by calcining
40 pounds of white fand, 25 pounds of pearl-aihes, and
15 pounds of common fait; and,proceeding as before:
and a more perfedf tranfparent glazing may be made
of fand 40 pounds, of woood-afhes perfe&ly burnt 50
pounds, of pearl-alhes 10 pounds, and of common fait
12 pounds. The following recipes are taken for the
mott part from Kunckel, who fays, that they are the
true glazings ufed at Delft and other Dutch manu¬
factories.
Black is made of eight parts of red-lead, iron-
filings three, copper-afhes three, and zaffer two mea-
fures. This when melted will make a brown-black ;
and if you want it blacker, add more zaffer to it.
Blue is thus prepared : Take lead-a(hes or red-lead
one pound, clear-fand or powdered flints two pounds,
common fait two pounds, white calcined tartar one
pound, Venice or other glafs half a pound, zaffer half
a pound ; mix them well together and melt them for
feveral times, quenching them always in cold water.
If you would have it fine and good, it will be pro¬
per to put the mixture into a glafs furnace for a day
or two.
Another blue glazing may be formed of one pound
of tartar, a quarter of a pound of red-lead, half an
ounce of zaff’er, and a quarter of a pound of powdered
flints, which are to be fufed and managed as in the laft
recipe. Or, take two pounds of calcined lead and tin,
add five pounds of common fait, five pounds of pow¬
dered flints, and of zaffer, tartar, and Venetian glafs,
each one pound. Calcine and fufe the mixture as be¬
fore. Or, again, take of red-lead one part, of fand
three parts, and of zaffer one part. For a violet blue
1 gla-
OLA [ 73> 1 G L A
Glafs. glazing, take four ounces of tartar, two ounces of red-
■—Y'—- lead, five ounces of powdered flints, and half a dram
of manganefe.
Brown is made of red lead and flints of each 14
paits, and of manganefe two parts fufed; or of red-
lead 12 parts, and manganefe one part fufed. A brown
glazing, to be laid on a white ground, may be made
of manganefe two parts, and of red-lead and white-
glafs of each one part, twice fufed.
FleJlj-coloured is made of 12 parts of lead afhes, and
one of white-glafs.
Gold-coloured. Take of litharge three parts, of fand
or calcined flint one part ; pound and mix thefe very
well together, then run them into a yellow glafs with
a llrong fire. Pound this glafs, and grind it into a
fubtile powder, which moiften with a well faturated
folution of filrer ; make it into a pafte, which put in¬
to a crucible, and cover it with a cover. Give at firft
a gentle degree of fire} then increafe it, and continue
it till you have a glafs, which will be green. Pound
this glafs again, and grind it to a fine powder; moilten
this powder with fome beer, fo that by means of an
hair pencil you may apply it upon the veflels or any
piece of earthen ware. The veflels that are painted or
covered over with this glazing muft be fii ft well heated,
then put under a muffle; and as foon as the glafs runs,
you muft fmoak them, by holding them over burning
vegetables, and take out the veflels. Mr Heinfins of
Peterftmrgh, who fent this receipt to the Royal Society,
ufes the words affare debes fumum, which is rendered
fmoak them, in the Tranfaftions. Phil. Tranf. N. 465.
$6.
Kunckel gives feveral preparations for a gold-co¬
loured yellow glazing. This may be produced by fil¬
ling a mixture of three parts of red-lead, two parts of
antimony, and one part of faffron of Mars ; by again
melting the powdered mafs, and repeating the opera¬
tion four times, or by fufing four or five times a com-
pofition of red lead and antimony of each an ounce,
and of fcales of iron half an ounce 5 or by calcining
and fufing together eight parts of red-lead, fix parts of
flints, one part of yellow ochre, one part of antimony,
and one part of white glafs. A tranfparent gold-
coloured glazing may (be obtained by twice fufing
red-lead and white-flints, of each 12 parts, and of
filings of iron one part.
Green may be prepared of eight parts of litharge or
red-lead, eight parts of Venice glafs, four parts of
brafs-duft or filings of copper; or of ten parts of li¬
tharge, twelve of flint or pebble, and one of as ujlum
or copper-afties,—A fine green glazing may be pro¬
duced by fufing one part of the Bohemian granate,
one part of filings of copper, one part of red-lead, and
one part of Venetian glafs ; or by fufing one part of
white glafs, the fame quantity of red-lead, and alfo of
filings of copper ; powdering the mafs, and adding
one part of Bohemian granate to two parts of this pow¬
der. A fine green may be obtained by mixing and
grinding together any of the yellow glazings with
equal quantities of the blue glazings; and all the fhades
and teints of green will be had by varying the propor¬
tion of the one to the other, and by the choice of the
kind of yellow and blue.
Sea-green is made of five pounds of lead-afties, one
pound of tin-alhes, three pounds of flint, three quar-
V01.. VII. Part II.
ters of a pound of fait, half a pound of tartar, and half
a pound of copper-duft.
Iron-colour is prepared of 15 parts of lead-allies or
red-lead, 14 of white-fand or flints, and five of cal¬
cined copper. This mixture is to be calcined and
fufed.
_ Liver-colour is prepared of 12 parts of litharge,
eight of fait, fix of pebble or flint, and one of manga¬
nefe.
Purple-brown confifts of lead-allies 15 parts, clean
fand or powdered flints 18 parts, manganefe one part,
and white glafs 15 meafures, to which fome add one
meafure of zaffer.
Red is made of antimony three pounds, litharge or
red lead three, and ruft of iron one; grind them to a
fine powder. Or, take two pounds of antimony, three
of red-lead, and one of calcined faffron of Mars, and
proceed as before.
White. The white glazing for common ware is
made of 40 pounds of clear fand, 75 pounds of litharge
or lead-allies, 26 of pot-allies, and 10 pounds of fait:
thefe are three times melted into a cake, quenching
it each time in clear cold water. Or it may be made
of 50 pounds of clean fand, 70 of lead-allies, 30 of
wood-alhes, and 12 of fait.
For a fine white: Take two pounds of lead and one
of tin ; calcine them to allies: of this take two parts,
calcined flint, white fand, or broken white glafs, one
part, and fait one part; mix them well together and
melt them into a cake for ufe. The trouble of cal¬
cining the tin and lead may be prevented by procu.*
ring them in a proper ftate.
A very fine white glazing may be obtained by cal¬
cining two parts of lead and one part of tin ; and
taking one part of this mafs, and of flints and com¬
mon fait of each one part, and fufing the mixture.
A white glazing may be alfo prepared by mixing
100 pounds of mafticot, 60 pounds of red lead, 20
pounds of calcined tin or putty, and 10 pounds of
common fait, and calcining and powdering the mix¬
ture feveral times.
Yellow is prepared of red-lead three pounds; cal¬
cined antimony and tin of each two pounds; or, ac¬
cording to fome, of equal quantities of the three in¬
gredients. Thefe muft be melted into a cake, them
ground fine; and this operation Repeated feveral times:
or it may be made of 15 parts of lead-ore, three part*
of litharge of filver, and 15 parts of fand.—A fine
yellow glazing may be procured by mixing five parts
of red-lead, two parts of powdered brick, one part of
fand, one part of the white glazings, and two parts of
antimony, calcining the mixture and then fufing it.
Or, take four parts of white-glafs, one part of anti¬
mony, three parts of red-lead, and one part of iron-
fcales, and fufe the mixture; or fufe 16 parts of flints,
one part of iron-filings, and 24 parts of litharge. A
light yellow glazing may be produced with ten parts
of red-lead, three parts of antimony, and three of
glafs, and two paits of calcined tin. See Gold-colour,
above.—A citron yellow is made of fix parts of 1 d-
lead, feven parts of fine red brick-duft, and two parts
of antimony. This mixture muft be calcined day and
night for the fpace of four days, in the afh-hole of a
glafs-houfe furnace, and at laft urged to fufion.
For the glazing of Delft-ware, Porcelain, Stone-
5 G ware.
G L E [ 7S6 1 GEE
dead ware, &c. fee the articles Porcelain,
II and Pottery.
GJeditfia. Romans had a method of glazing their earthen
veffels, which in many refpe&s appears to have been
fuperior to ours. The common brown glazing eafdy
fcales off, cracks, and in a fhort time becomes dis¬
agreeable to the eye. Befides, it is very eafily de-
ftroyed by acids ; nor can veffels glazed in this man¬
ner be even employed to hold water, without part of
ft oozing through their pores. Lead is alfo very de-
ftruftive to the human body ; and if acid* are unwa¬
rily put into veffels glazed mth lead, the liquors will
receive a very dangerous impregnation from the me¬
tal. The Roman glazing, which is yet to be feen
upon urns dug up in feveral places, appears to have
been made of fome kind of varnilh ; and Pliny gives
us a hint that it was made of bitumen. He tells us
that it never loil its beauty, and that at length it be¬
came cuftomary to glaze our llatues in this manner.
As this varniih funk deep into the fubftance of the
ware, it was not fubjeft to thofe cracks and flaws which
disfigure our veffels; and as it was not liable to be
corroded by acids, it could not be fabjeft to any of
the accidents which may enfue from the ufe of veffels
glazed with lead.
GLEAD, or Glade, a name ufed in the northern
parts of the kingdom for the kite. See Falco-
GLEAM is popularly ufed for a ray or beam of
light. Among falconers a hawk is faid to gleam when
ihc cafts or throws up filth from the gorge.
GLEANING, the aft of gathering or picking up
the ears of corn left behind after the field has been
reaped and the crop carried home. By the cuftoms
of fome countries, particularly thofe of Melun and
Eftampes, all farmers and others are forbid, either by
themfelves or fervants, to put any cattle into the fields,
or prevent the gleaning in any manner whatever for
the fpace of 24 hours after the carrying off the corn,
under penalty of confifcation.
GLEBE, among miners, fignifies a piece of earth
iti which is contained fome mineral ore.
Glebe, in law, the land belonging to a parifli-
church befides the tithes.
GLECHOMA, Ground-ivy: A genus of the
gymnofpermia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs
of plants ; and in the natural method ranking under
the 42d order, Verticillatte. Each pair of the antherae
come together in the form of a crofs ; the calyx' is
quinquefid. There are three fpecies; the moft re¬
markable ofwhich is the hederacea, or common ground-
ivy, which is fo well known that it requires no defcrip-
tion. Many virtues were formerly attributed to this
plant, which it is now found not to be poffeffed of.
Some, however, it has. The leaves are thrown into
the vat with ale to clarify it and give it a flavour. Ale
thus prepared is often drank as an antifcorbutic. The
expreffed juice mixed with a little wine, and applied
morning and evening, deftroys the white fpecks upon
horfes eyes. The plants that grow near it do not
flourifh. It is faid to be hurtful to horfes if they eat
much of it. Sheep eat it, horfes are not fond of it-;
cows, goats, and fwine, refufe it.
GLEDITSIA, triple-thorned acacia, or Ao-
vuy-locuji: A genus of the diceoia order, belonging
%o the polygamia clafs of plantsand in the natural
method ranking under the 33d order, Lomentacea. The Gkditfla*
hermaphrodite calyx is quadrifid; the corolla tetrape- •—-’V’“ad
talous ; the ilamina fix, one piftil and legumen. The
male calyx is triphyllous ; the corolla tripetalous,
with fix ftamina.. The female calyx is pentaphyllous;
the corolio pentapetalous; one piitil and legumen.
There are two fpeoies.
1. The triacanthos, a native of Virginia and Penfyl-
vania, is of an upright growth, and its trunk is guard¬
ed by thorns of three or four inches in length in a re¬
markable manner. Thefe thorns have alfo others co¬
ming out of their fides at nearly right angles: Their
colour is red. 'The branches are fmooth, and of a
white colour. Thefe are .likewife armed with red
thorns, that are proportionally fmaller: they are of
feveral direftions, and at the ends of the branches of¬
ten (land Angle. The young (hoots of the preceding
fummer are perfeftly fmooth, of a reddifli green, and
retain their leaves often until the middle of November.
Although there is a peculiar oddity in the nature and.
pofition of the fpines, yet the leaves conftitute the
greateft beauty of thefe trees: they are doubly pin¬
nated, and of a delightful (hining green. The pin¬
nated leaves, that form the duplication, do not always
Hand oppofite by pairs on the middle rib ; the pinnae
of which they are compofed are fmall and numerous ;
no lefs than 10 or 11 pair belong to each of them;
and as no lefs than four or five pair of fmall leaves are
arranged along the middle rib, the whole compound
leaf confifts often of more than 2CO pinnae of this fine
green colour : They fit clofe, and fpread open in fine
weather ; though during bad weather they will droop,
and their upper furfaces nearly join, as if in a deeping
date. The flowers are produced from the fides of the
young branches in July : They are a greeniflt catkin,
and make little (how ; though many are fucceeded by
pods, that have a wonderful effeft ; for thefe are ex¬
ceedingly large, more than a foot, fometimes a foot
and a half in length, and two inches in breadth, and
of a nut-brown colour when ripe; fo that the effeft
they occafion, when hanging on the fides of the
branches, may eafily be gueffed.— There is a variety
of this fpecies, with fewer thorns, fmaller leaves, and
oval pods. It has nearly the refemblance, of the o-
ther; though the thorns being not fo frequent, and the
pods being fmaller, each containing only one feed, this
fort lofes that fingular effeft which the other produces
by them.
Thefe trees are eafily propagated. We receive the
feeds from America in the fpring, which keep well in
the pods, and are for the moft part good. They ge¬
nerally arrive in February; and, as foon as poffible
after, they (hould be fown in a vvell-fheltered warm
border of light fandy earth. If no border is to be
found that is naturally fo, it may be improved by ap¬
plying drift fand, and making it fine. The feeds
(hould be fown about half an inch deep; and they
will for the moft part come up the firft (pring. If the
fummer (hould prove dry, they muft be conftantly wa¬
tered ; and if (hade could be afforded them in the heat
of the'day, they would make ftronger plants by the,-
autumn. A careful attention to this article is pecu¬
liarly requifite; for as the ends of the branches are
often killed, if the young plant has not made fome.
prqgrefs, it wdi be liable to be wholly deftroycd by
OLE [ 787 1 G L I
"Gleet, (lie winter’s froft, without protection: And this ren- of the valley are a number of ftone erodes, fome of Glenoidee
feJh4** ^ers the ^ow'ng t^ie fce^s ‘n a warm border, under an which are curioufly carved, but without any inferip- ..jj.
hedge, in a well fheltered place neceffary; for there tions. In the north-weft corner of the cemetery be- G f
thefe ftirubs will endure our winters, even when feed- longing to the cathedral ftands a round tower, 95
lings, and fo will require no farther trouble; nay,
though the tops thould be nipped, they will (hoot out
again lower, and will foon overcome it. It will be
proper to let them remain two years in the feed-bed
before they are planted out in the nurfery. The fpring
is the heft time for the work. Their diftances thould
be one foot by two ; the rows thould be dug between
every winter; and, being weeded in fummer, here
they may remain, with no other particular care, until
feet high, and 15 in diameter ; and in the cemetery of
a fmall church, on the fouth fide of the river, near
the great lake, called the Rhefeart church, are fume
tombs, with Irith inferiptions, belonging to the
O’Tools. In a perpendicular projecting rock on the
fouth fide of the great lake, 30 yards above the fur-
face of the water, is the celebrated bed of St Kevin,
hewn out of the rock, exceedingly difficult of accefs and
terrible in profpeCt. Among!! the ruins have been dif-
fthey are fet out to remain. Thefe trees are late in covered a number of ftones, curioufly carved, and con-
the fpring before they exhibit their leaves, but keep taining inferiptions in the Latin, Greek, and Iriih
fhooting long in the autumn. languages. As this city was in , a valley, furrounded
2. The other fpecies is the inermis, the ftem of on all fides, except the eaft, by high, barren, and in-
which is unarmed or without thorns. It is a native of acceffible mountains, the artificial roads leading there-
Scuth America, and in this country requires to be to are by no means the leaft curious part of the
kept in a ftove.
GLEET, in medicine, the flux of a thin limpid
humour from the urethra. See the Index fubjoined to
Medicine.
GLENDALAGH, otherwife called the Seven
Rhurches, anciently a celebrated town of . Ireland,
fituated five miles north weft of Rothdrum, in the
•county of Wicklow, and province of Leinfter. The
Eame fignifies “ the valley of the two lakes.” In
this valley, furrounded by high and almoft inaccef-
ble mountains, St Kevin or Cavan, called alfo St
Coemgene, about the middle of the 6th century, found¬
ed a monaftery, which in a fhort time from the fanc-
tity of its founder was much reforted to, and at
length became a bifhoprick and a religious city. St
Kevin died 3d June 618, aged 120; and on that
day annually numbers of perfons flock to the Seven
Churches to celebrate the feftival of that venerated
feint. During the middle ages the city of Glen-
dalagh, called by Hovedon Epifcopatus Biflagnienjis,
was held in great efteem, and received feveral valuable
donations and privileges, its epifcopal jurifdiftion ex¬
tending to the walls of Dublin,—About the middle
of the 12th century, on fome account or other, it
mains; the principal is that leading into the county
of Kildare through Glendafon. This road for near
two miles is yet perfedl, compofed of ftones placed on
their edges, making a firm and durable pavement, a-
bout 10 feet broad. At a fmall diftance from St Ke¬
vin’s bed, on the fame fide of the mountain, are to be
feen the ruins of a fmall ftone building called Saint Kel¬
vin's cell.
, GLENOIDES, the name of two cavities, or fmal!
depreffions, in the inferior part of the firft vertebra of
the neck.
GLICAS, or Glycas, (Michael), a Greek hifto-
rian about the middle of the 15th century, lived in
Sicily, and wrote Annals of what pafled from the crea¬
tion of the world to the death of Alexis Comnenus,
in 1118. Leunclavius added to it a fifth part, which
carries it down to the taking of Conftantinople. Gli-
cas was alfo the author of feveral ufeful and curious
letters.
GLIMMER, or Glist. See Mjca.
GLINUS, in botany: A genus of the pentagynia
order, belonging to the decandria clafs of plants ; and
in the natural method ranking under the 22d clafs,
Carjophyllei. The calyx is pentaphyllous ; there is no
much negle&ed by the clergy ; and became, inftead of corolla ; the neftarium is Compofed of bifid briftles; the
a holy city, a den of thieves, wherefore Cardinal Pa-
piro, in 1214, united it to the fee of Dublin, which n-
nion was confirmed by king John. The O’Tools, chiefs
of Firthuathal, however, by the affiftance of the Pope,
continued long after this period to eletft bilhops and
abbots to Glendalagh, though they had neither reve¬
nues or authority, beyond the diftridt of Tuathal,
which was the weftern part of the county of Wicklow ;
tn confequence of which the city was fuffered to decay,
and had become nearly a defart, in 1497* when Dem¬
capfule is quinqueangular, quinquelocular, quinqueval-
ved, and polyfpermous.
GLIRES, the name of Linnaeus’s fourth order of
mammalia. See Zoology.
GLISSON (Francis), a learned Englifti phyfician
in the 17th century, was educated at Cambridge, and
was made regius profeflbr of that univerfity. In 1634
he was admitted a fellow of the college of phyficians in
London. During the civil wars, he pradtifed phyfic
at Colchefter, and afterwards fettled in London. He
nis White, the laft titular bilhop, furrendered his right greatly improved phyfic by his anatomical difledtions
in the cathedral church of St Patrick, Dublin. From
the ruins of this ancient city Hill remaining, it ap¬
pears to have been a place of confequence, and to have
contained feven churches and religious houfes; fmall
indeed, but built in a neat elegant ftyle, in imitation
and obfervations, and made feveral new difeoveries of
Angular ufe towards eftablifhing a rational pradtice. He
wrote, v. De rachitide, &c. 2. De lymphaduBis nuper
repertis ; with the Anatomica prolegomena, fS5 Anatomia
hepatis. 3. De naturae fiubjlantia energetica; feu de via
of the Greek architecture : the cathedral, the walls of vita naturae, ejufque tribusprimis facultatilus, &c. quarto,
which are yet Handing, was dedicated to St Peter and 4. Traci at us de ventriculo Lf mtejlinis, &c. The world
•St Paul. South of the cathedral ftands a fmall church is obliged to him for the capfula communis, or vagina
tfoofed with ftone, nearly entire ; and in feveral parts porta.
■3 5 G 3
GLISTER,
G L O l 788 ] G L O
Gliftcr GLISTER, in furgery. See Clyster.
Globe GLOBED, in botany : A genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the monandria clafs of plants. The
corolla is equal and trifid ; the calyx trifid above ; the
capfule trilocular, with many feeds.
GLOBE, in geometry, a round or fpherical body
more ufually called afphere. See Sphere.
Globe, is more particularly ufed for an artificial
fphere of metal, plafter, paper, or other matter ; on
vhofe convex furface is drawn a map, or reprefenta-
tion either of the earth or heavens, with the feveral
circles conceived thereon. See Geography.
Globes are of two kinds, terrejhrial and celejlial; each
of very confiderable ufe, the one in aftronomy, and the
Other in geography, for performing many of the opera¬
tions thereof in an eafy obvious manner, fo as to be
conceived without any knowledge of the mathematical
grounds of thofe arts.
The fundamental parts, common to both globes, are
an axis, reprefenting that of the world; and a fpherical
fhell, or cover, which makes the body of the globe, on
the external furface of which the reprefentation is
drawn. See Axis, Pole, &c.
Globes, we have obferved, are made of different ma¬
terials, viz. filver, brafs, paper, plafter, &c. Thofe
commonly ufed are of. plafter and paper: The con-
ftruftion whereof is as follows :
ConJlruElion of Globes.—A wooden axis is provided,
fomewhat lefs than the intended diameter of the globe;
and into the extremes hereof two iron wires are driven
for poles : this axis is to be the beam, or bafts of the
Vvhole ftru&ure.
On the axis are applied two fpherical or rather
hemifpherical caps, formed on a kind of w’ooden mould
-r block.—Thefe caps confift of pafteboard, or pa¬
yer, laid one lay after another, on the mould, to the
thicknefs of a crown-piece ; after which, having flood
to dry and embody, making an incifion along the
middle, the two caps thus parted are flipped off the
mould.
They remain now to be applied on the poles of the
axis, as before they were on thofe of the mould : and
to fix them in their new place, the two edges are fewed
together with pack-thread, &c.
The rudiment s of the globe thus laid, they proceed
to ftrengthen and make it fmooth and regular. In
order to this, the two poles are hafped in a metalline
lemicircle of the fize intended ; and a kind of plafter,
made of whiting, w’ater, and glue, heated, melted, and
incorporated together, is daubed all over the paper-
furface. In proportion as the plafter is applied, the
ball is turned round in the femicircle, the edge where¬
of pares off whatever is fuperfluous and beyond the
due dimenfion, leaving the reft adhering in places
that are fhort of it. After fuch application of plafter,
the ball ftands to dry ; which done, it is put again in
the femiuircle, and frefli matter applied: thus they
continue alternately to apply the compofition, and
dry it, till fuch time as the ball every where accurate¬
ly touches the femicircle in which ftate it is perfectly
fmooth, regular, firm, See.
The ball thus finifhed, it remains to pafte the map
or defeription thereon: in order to this, the map is
projefited in feveral gores, or guffets; all which join
accurately on the fpherical furface, and cover the
whole ball. To direct the application of thefe gores, Globe. 1
lines are drawn by a femicircle on the furface of the
ball, dividing it into a number of equal parts' corre-
fponding to thofe of the gores, and fubdividing thofe
again anfwerably to the lines and divifionsof the gores.
The papers thus pafted on, theie remains nothing
but to colour and illuminate the globe ; and to var-
nilh it, the better to refill dull, moifture, See. The
globe itfelf thus finilhed, they hang it in a brafs me¬
ridian, with an hour-circle, and a quadrant of altitude ;
and thus fit it into a wood horizon.
To deferibe the gores, or gujfets, for the globes. In
Chambers’s Dictionary, the following method is di¬
rected.
“ 1 • From the given diameter of the globe, find a piate
right line AB, fig. 1. equal to the circumference of aCCXXt. I
great circle, and divide it into twelve equal parts.
2. Through the feveral points of diviiion, 1, 2, 3,4,
See. with the interval of ten of them, deferibe arches
mutually interfeCting each other in D and E ; thefe
figures or pieces duly palled or joined together will
make the whole furface of the globe.
3. Divide each part of the right line AB into 30
equal parts, fo that the whole line AB, reprefenting
the periphery of the equator, may be divided into
360 degrees.
4. From the poles D and E, fig. 2. with the interval
of 234- deg. defer ibe arches a b; thefe will be twelfth-
parts of the polar circles.
5. After the like manner, from the fame poles D
and E, with the interval of 66~4- deg. reckoned from
the equator, deferibe arches c d; thefe will be twelfth-
parts of the tropics.
6. Through the degree of the equator e, correfpond-
iiig to the right afeenfion of any given liar, and the
poles D and E, draw an arch of a circle ; and taking
in the cempafles the complement of the declination from
the pole D, deferibe an arch interfeCting it in i: thk
point i will be the place of that liar.
7. All the liars of a conllellation being thus laid
down, the figure of the conftellation is to be drawn ac¬
cording to Bayer, Hevelius, or Flamftcad.
8. Laftly, after the fame manner are the declina¬
tions and right afeenfions of each degree of the eclip¬
tic ^ to be determined.
9. The furface of the globe thus projected on a
plane is to be engraven on copper, to fave the trouble
of doing this over again for each globe.
ic. A ball, in the mean time, is to be prepared of
paper, plafter, &c. as before directed, and of the
intended diameter of the globe ; on this, by means of
a femicircle and ftyle, is the equator to be drawn ; and
through every 30th degree a meridian. The ball
thus divided into twelve parts, correfponding to the
fegments before projected, the latter are to be cut fi orm
the printed paper, and pafted on the ball.
11. Nothing now remains but to hang the globe as-
before in a brafen meridian and wooden horifon; to
which may be added a quadrant of altitude made of
brafs, and divided in the fame manner as the ecliptic
and equator.
If the declinations and right afeenfions of the liars
be not given, but the longitudes and latitudes in lieu
thereof, the furface of the globe is to be projected af¬
ter the fame manner as before; except that, in this
cafe,.
G L O [ 7S9 1 G L O
Globe, cafe, D and E, fig. 2. are the poles of the ecliptic, and
—v— f h the ecliptic itfelf; and that the polar circles and
tropics, with the equator g d, and the parallels thereof,
are to be determined from their declinations.
M. De La Lande, in his AJlronomie 1771, Tom. 3.
p. 736, relates the following methods. “ To con-
ftruft celeftial and terreftrial globes, gores muft be
engraved, which are a kind of proje&ion, or inclofure
of the globe (fig. 3.) fimilar to what is now to be ex¬
plained. Th£ length PC of the axis of this curve is
equal to a quarter of the circumference of the globe ;
the intervals of the parallels on the axis PC are all
equal, the radii of the circles KDI which reprefent
the parallels are equal to the cotangents of the lati¬
tudes, and the arches of each, as DI, are nearly equal to
the number of the degrees of the breadth of the gore
(which is ufually 30°) multiplied by the fine of the
latitude: thus, there will be found no intricacy in
tracing them ; but the difficulty proceeds from the
variation found in the trial of the gores when palling
them on the globe, and of the quantity that mull be
taken from the paper, lefs on the fides than in the
middle; (becaufe the fides are longer) to apply it ex¬
actly to the fpace that k ffiould cover.
“ The method ufed among workmen to delineate
the gores, and which is defcribed by Mr Bion (Ufage
des Globes, Tome 5.) and by Mr Robert de Vaugendy
in the 7th volume of the Encyclopedie is little geome¬
trical, but yet is fufficient in praftice. Draw on the
paper a line AC, equal to the chord of 150, to make the
half breadth of the gore; and a perpendicular PC,
equal to three times the chord of 30°, to make the
half length: for thefe papers, the dimenfions of
which will be equal to the chords, become equal to
the arxs themfelves when they are palled on the
globe. Divide the height CP into 9 parts, if the
parallels are to be drawn in every io°; divide alfo
the quadrant BE into 9 equal parts through each
divifion point of the quadrant as G; and through the
conefponding point D of the right line CP draw the
perpendiculars HGF and DF, the meeting of which
in F gives one of the points of the curve BEP, which
will terminate the circumference of the gore. When
a fufficient number of points are thus found, trace the
outline PIB with a curved rule. By this conlli udtion
are given the gore breadths, which are on the
globe, in the ratio of the cofines of the latitudes;
fuppofing thefe breadths taken perpendicular to CD,
which is not very exa£t, but it is impoffible to pre-
fcribe a rigid operation fufficient to make a plane
which fhall cover a curved furface, and that on a
right line AB {hall make lines PA, PC, PB, equal
anjong themfelves, as they ought to be on the globe.
To defcribe the circle KDI which is at 30° from the
equator : there muft be taken above D a point
which ffiall be diftant from it the value of the tangent
of 6o°, taken out either from the tables, or on a cir¬
cle equal to the circumference of the globe to be tra¬
ced ; this point will ferve as a centre for the parallel
DI, which ffiould pafs through the point D, for it is
fuppofed equal to that of a cone circumfcribing the
globe, and which would touch at the point D.
“ The meridians may be traced to every 10 degrees,
by dividing each parallel, as KI, into three parts at the
points L and M, and drawing from the pole P, through
3
all thefe divifion points, curves, which reprefent the ia- Globe
termediate meridians between PA and PBf(as BR and (1 t
SP, fig. 4 ). The ecliptic AQ^may be defcribed by G’obule. ^
means of the known declination from different points ^
of the equator that may be found in a table ; for io°,
it is 3° 58'; for 20°, 70 5o'=BQj ' for 30°, ii° 29',
&e.”
It is obferved in general, that the paper on which
charts are printed, fuch as the cdlomlier, ffiortens itfelf
tt Part or a line is fix inches upon an average, when
it is dried after printing; this inconvenience muft there¬
fore be corredled in the engraving of the gores : if
notwithftanding that, the gores are found too ffiort,
it muft be remedied by taking from the furface of the
ball a little of the white with which it is covered ;
thereby making the dimenfions fuitable to the gore
as it was printed. But what is fingular is, that in
drawing the gore, moiftened with the pafte to apply
on the globe, the axis GH lengthens, and the fide
AK ftiortens, in fuch a manner, that neither the
length of the fide ACK nor that of the axis GEH
of the gore are exa&ly equal to the quarter of the
circumference of the globe, when compared to the fi¬
gure on the copper, or to the numbered Tides ffiown in-
fig. 4. Mr Bonne having made feveral experiments on
the dimenfions that gores take after they had been parted
ready to apply to the globe, and particularly with the
paper namedthat he made ufe of for a globe of one
foot in diameter, found that it was neceffary to give to
the gores, on the copper, the dimenfions ffiown in fig. 4.
Suppofing that the radius of the globe contained 720
parts, the half breadth of the gore is AGzriSSr^
the diflance AC for the parallel of 10 degrees taken
on the right line LM is 1 28.4, the fmall deviation from
the parallel of xo degrees in the middle of the gore
ED is 4, the line ABN is right, the radius of the paral¬
lel of io° or of the circle CEF is 4083, and fo of the
others as marked in the figure. The fmall circular
cap which is placed under H, has its radius 253 in-
ftead of 247, which it would have if the fine of 20a
had been the radius of it.
For the ufes, &c. of the globes, fee Geograph*
and Astronomy, with the Plates there referred to.
Globe-Animal. See Animalcule, nc 29.
GLOBR-Fifb. See Ostracion.
GLOBULARIA, Globular blue'daisy: A ge¬
nus of the monogynia order, belonging to the tetran-
dria clafs of plants; and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 48th order, Aggregates. The common
calyx is imbricated the proper one tubulated infe¬
rior ; the upper lip of the florets bipartite, the under
one tripartite ; the receptacle paleaceous. There are
feveral fpecies; but only one is commonly to be met
with in our gardens, viz. the vulgaris, or common
blue daify. It hath broad thick radical leaves three
parted at the ends, upright ftalks from about fix to
10 or 12 inches high garniffied with fpear-ffiaped
leaves, and the top crowned by a globular head of
fine blue flowers compofed of many florets in one cup.
It flowers in June, and mak.es a good appearance; but
thrives beft in a moift ffiady fituation. it is propaga¬
ted by parting the roots in September.
GLOBULE, a diminutive of globe, frequently
ufed by phyficians in fpeaking of the red particles of
the blood. See Blood.
GLQ>
G- L 0 r 790 ] G L O
_Gl«eeft«r. OLOCESTER, the capital of GlocefteHhtre in
! » ■ England, 101 miles from London. It is an ancient
city ; and by Antoninus is called Chvum, or Ghvum,
which Cambden thinks was formed from the Britilh
Caer- Glowe, fignifying “ a fair city.” It was one of the
28 cities built by the Britons before the arrival of the
Romans, By the Romans it was made one of their co¬
lonies, and in the eighth century it was efteemed one
of the nobleft cities in the kingdom. It has fuffered
eonfiderably by fire at different periods. It Hands upon
a hill; and from the middle of the city, where the four
principal ftreets meet, there is a defcent every way,
v'hich makes it not only clean and healthy, but adds to
the beauty of the place. Forging of iron feems to have
been its manufactory fo early as the time of William
the Conqueror. King Henry VIII. made it the fee of
a biihop, with a dean and fix prebends. Its caftle,
which was eredted in the time of William the Conque¬
ror, is very much decayed : part of it is leafed out by
the crown; and the reft ferves for a prifon, one of the
bell in England. In its cathedral, which is an ancient
but magnificent fabric, and has a tower reckoned
one of the molt curious pieces of architecture in Eng¬
land, are the tombs of Robert duke of Normandy,
fon to William the Conqueror, and of Edward II. and
„ there is a whilpering-piace like to that of St Paul’s at
London. In the chapter-houfe lies Strongbow who
conquered Ireland. There are r 2 chapels in it,
with the arms and monuments of many great per-
fons. King John made it a borough to be go¬
verned by two bailife. Henry III. who was crowned
here, made it a corporation. By its prefent charter
from Charles I. it is governed by a fteward, who is ge¬
nerally a nobleman; a mayor; a recorder; 12 aldermen,
out of whom the mayor is chofen; a town-clerk ; 2
fheriffs, chofen yearly out of 26 common councilmen;
a fword bearer ; and four ferjeants at mace. Here are
12 incorporated trading companies, whofe mailers at¬
tend the mayor on all public occafions, &c. Bcfides
the cathedral, there are five parifti churches in this
city ; which is likewife well provided with hofpitals,
particularly an infirmary upon the plan of thofe at
London, Winchefter, Bath, &c. Here is a good Hone-
bridge over the river Severn, with a quay, wharf, and
cuftomhoufe; but moll of its bufinefs is engrofled by
Briftol. King Edward I. held a parliament here in
1272, wherein fome good laws were made, now called the
Statutes of Glocejler; and he erefted a gate on the fouth
fide of the abbey, Hill called by his name, though al-
moft demolilhed in the civil wars. King Richard II,
alfo held a parliament here : and king Richard III. in
confideration of his having (before his acceffion to the
crown) borne the title of Duke of Glocejlert added the
two adjacent hundreds of Dudfton and King’s Barton
to it, gave it his fwprd and cap of maintenance, and
■made it a county of itfelf by the name of the county
of the city of Glocejler. But after the reftoration the
"hundreds were taken away by a£t of parliament, and
the walls pulled down ; becaufe the city ftiut the gates
againft Charles I. when he befieged it in 1643 » ^7
which, though the fiege was raifed Ry the earl of Ef-
fex, it had fuffered 20,0001. damage, having 241
Iioufes dellroyed, which reduced it fo much that it
lias fcarce recovered its former fize and grandeur. Be¬
fore that time it had 1 x parifti churches, but fix of
them were then demoliftied. Here are abundance of Glbceter*
croffes, and ftatues of the Englifti kings, fome of whom fi1*1-6-
kept their Chriftmas here; feveral market-houfes fup-'
ported with pillars; and large remains of monafteries,
wftiich were once fo numerous, that it gave occafion to
the monkifti proverb, As fure as God is in Glocejler.
Here is-a barley market; and a hall for the affizes, call¬
ed the Its chief manufacture is pins. In
this branch it is aftonifhing the number of people who
are employed, there being at lead 14 or 15 different
proceffes. Under the bridge is a water engine to fup-
ply the town, and it is ferved with it alfo from Ro¬
bin Hood’s well, to which is a fine walk from the
city. Camden fays, that the famous Roman way,
caWti ErminJlreet> which begins at St David’s in Pern*
brokeihire, and reaches to Southampton, paffes through
this city. Sudmead in the neighbourhood is noted for
horfe-races. The markets here are on Wednefday and
Sunday; and fairs April 5th, July 5th, September
28th, and November 28th, the latter chiefly for fab
hog*. Here is a charity-fchool for above 80 children,
of whom above 70 are alfo cloathed ; and a well en¬
dowed blue-coat fchool. The city fends two members
to parliament. The duke of Glocefter is next brother
to George III.
GLOCESTERSHIRE, a county of England,
is bounded on the weft by Monmouthfliire and Here-
fordftiire, on the north by Worcefterlhire, on the call
by Oxfordfliire and Warwickfhire, and on the fouth
by Wiltfhire and part of Somerfetftiire. It is fixty
miles in length, twenty-fix in breadth, and one hun¬
dred and fixty in circumference ; containing 1,100,000
acres, 26,760 houfes, 162,560 inhabitants, 290- pa-
rifties, 140 are impropriations, 1229 villages, 2 cities,
and 28 market-towns. It fends only 8 members to
parliament, 6 for three towns, viz. Glocefter, Tewkef-
bury, and Cirencefter ; and 2 for the county. Its ma¬
nufactures are woollen cloths of various kinds, mens
hats, leather, pens, paper, bar-iron, edge-tools, nails,
wire, tinned-plates, brafs, &c.: and of the principal ar¬
ticles of commerce of the county, it exports cheefe
8000 tons; bacon, grain, cyder, 5000I. worth; perry,
filh, 40001. worth, &c. It lies in the diocefe that
takes its name from the captital, and in the Oxford
circuit. The air of the county is very wholefome, but
the face of it is very different in different parts: for
the eaftern partis hilly, and is called Cottefwold; the
weftern woody, and called the Forejl of Dean; and the
reft is a fruitful valley, through which runs the river Se¬
vern. This river is in fome places between two and
three miles broad ; and its courfe through the country,
including its windings, is not lefs than feventy miles.
The tide of flood, called the Boar, rifesvery high, apd
is very impetuous. It is remarkable, that the greateft
tides are one year at the full moon, and. the other at
the new ; one year the night-tides, and the next the
day. This river affords a noble conveyance for goods
and merchandife of all forts to and from the county ;
but it is watered by feveral others, as the Wye, the
Avon, the Ifis, the Leden, the Frome, the Stroud,
and Windrufti, befides leffer ftreams, all abounding
with filh, the Severn in particular with falmon, con¬
ger-eels, and lampreys. The foil is in general very
fertile, though pretty much diverfified, yielding plen»
ty of corn, pafture, fruit, and wood. In the hilly
part
G L O [ 791 ] © L O
GJbcefler- part of the county, or Cottefwold, the air is fliarper
f[lire than in the lowlands ; and the foil, though not fo fit
Gio aw ^or £ra*n’ P’oduces excellent pafiure for iheep ; fo that
k . of the four hundred thoufand that are computed to be
kept in the county, the greater part are fed here. Of
thefe fheep the wool is exceeding fine ; and hence it is
that this (hire is fo eminent for its manufafture of
cloth, of which fifty thoufand pieces are faid to have
been made yearly, before the pra&ice of clandeftinely
exporting Englilh wool became fo common. In the
vale, or Ipwer part of the county, through which the
Severn paffes, the air and foil are very different from
thofe of the Cottefwold: for the former is much warmer,
and the latter richer, yielding the moft luxuriant paftures;
in confequence of which, numerous herds of black cat¬
tle are kept, and great quantities of that excellent
cheefe, for which it is fo much celebrated, made in it.
The remaining part of the county, called the Forejl
of Dean, was formerly almoft entirely over-run with
wood, and extended 20 miles in length and 10 in
breadth. It was then a neft of robbers, efpecially to¬
wards the Severn ; but now it contains many towns
and villages, confiffing chiefly of miners, employed in
the coal-pits, or in digging for or forging iron-ore,
with both wdiich the foteft abounds. Thefe miners
have their particular laws, cuftoms, courts, and judges;
and the king, as in all royal forefts, has a fwain-mote
for the prefervation of the vert and venifon. This fo-
reft was anciently, and is Hill, noted for its oaks, which
thrive here furprifingly ; but as there is a prodigious
confumption of wood in the forges, it is continually
dwindling away. A navigable canal is made from
Stroud to Framilode, forming a jun&ion between the
Severn and Thames. Its chalybeat fprings are :
St Anthony’s well, in Abbenhall parifli; at Barrow and
Maredon, in Bodington parifli; at Afli-Church, near
Tewkefbury ; at Dumbleton, near Winchcomb ; at
jEafington, near Durfley ; and at Cheltenham. Its an¬
cient fortifications attributed to the Romans, Saxons,
or Danes, are at Abfton and Wick, and at Dointon,
Dixton, Addlefthorp, Knole, Over Upton, Hanham,
Bodingcon, and Bourton on the Water.
GLOCH1DION,in botany: Agenusof the fynge-
nefia order, belonging to the monoecia clafs of plants.
There is no calyx ; the corolla confifts of fix egg-
Ihaped concave petals; the ftamina are three very fmall
inconfpicuous filaments; the antherse cylindric and
eredt; the female flowers have no calyx ; the corolla is
parted into fix ; the pericarpium is a depreffed roundifh
capfule with fix cells; the feeds are roundifli and fo-
litary.
GLOGAW, a ftrong and confiderable town of
Germany, in Silefia, and capital of a duchy of the
fame name. It is not very large, but is well fortified
on the fide of Poland. It has-a handfbme caftle, with
a tower, in which feveral counftllors were condemned
by Duke John, in 1498, to perifli with hunger. Be-
fides the Papiils, there are a great number of Prote-
ftants and Jews. It ivas taken by affault, by the king
of Pruflia, in 1741, and the garrifon made prifoners.
After the peace in 1742, the king of Pruffia.fettled
the fupreme court of juftice here, it being, next to
Brellaw, the moll populous place in Silefia. It is
feated on t}ie fiver Oder, in E. Long. 15. 13. N. Lat.
5^49-
Glogaw tAe Less, a town of Silefia, in the du¬
chy of Opelen, now in pofl'effion of the king of Pruf-
fia. It is two miles S. E. of great Glogaw, and 45
N. W. of Breflaw. E. Lon. i6i 15. N. Lat. 51. 38.
GLORIA Patri, among ecclefiallical writers. See
Doxologv.
GLORIOSA, Superb lily: A genus of the mono-
gynia order, belonging to the hexandria clafs of plants;,
and in the natural method ranking under the
11th order, Sarmentacea. The corolla is hexapeta-
lous, undulated, and reflefted ; the ftyle oblique.
There is but one fpecies, a native of Malabar. It
hath a thick, flefhy, tuberous root, fending forth
from its centre declinated round flalks growing eight
or ten feet long, and garnifhed with very long narrow
leaves running out into a point, terminated by a long
tendril. From the upper part of the (talks proceed
large flame-coloured drooping flowers, confiding of
fix widely fpreading reflexed petals. It flowers in
June and July; and is of admirable beauty, whence its
name oi Gloriofa, or Superb Lily—This plant being a
native of a very warm climate, requires the protection
of a hot-houfe' in this country. The flower-ftalks
(hoot forth in March or April; which being long and
trailing, mull have tall Hicks placed for their fupport.
The plants are propagated by offsets, which are pro¬
duced in tolerable plenty, and may be fcparated any
time after the llalks decay, or in fpring before new
ones arife.
GLORY, renown or celebrity. The love of re¬
nown, or defire of fame and reputation, appears to
be one of. the principal fprings of adtion in hu¬
man fociety. Glory therefore is not to be con¬
temned, as fome of the ancient philofophers affedl-
ed to teach: bnt it imports us to regulate our pur-
fuit after it by the didlates of reafon ; and if the pub--
lie approbation will not follow us in that courfe, we
mull leave her behind. We ought to have our judge¬
ments well inllrudted as to what adlions are truly glo¬
rious ; and to remember, that in every important en-
terprife, as Seneca obferves, Retie fatti feciffe merces eft}
officii frutlus- ipfum ojfficium ejl: “ The reward of a thing
well done, is to have done it ; the fruit of a good of¬
fice is the office itfelf.” Thofe who by other methods
fcatter their names into many mouths, flrow they rather -
hunt after a great reputation than a good one, and
their reward is oftener infamy than fame.
Men generally, and almolt inllindtively, affix glory
only to fuch adlions as have been produced by an in¬
nate defire for public good; and we meafure it by that
degree of influence which any tiring done has upon the
common, happinefs.
If the adlions of the hero condudl fooneft to glory
and with the greateft fplendor, and if the vidlorious
general is fo great after a fignal engagement; it is be-
caufe the fervice he has done is for the moment, and
for all ; and becaufe we think, without refledling, that
he has faved our, habitations, our wealth, and our chil¬
dren, and every thing that attaches us to life. If the
man of fcience, who in his lludy has difeovered and
calculated the motions of the heavenly bodies, who in
his alembics has unveiled-fome of thefecrets of nature,
or who has exhibited to mankind a new art, rifes to
fame with lefs noife ; it is becaufe the utility which
he procures is more widely diffufed, and is often of,
lef&-
Glegaw
G L O
lefs fervice to the prefent than to fucceeding genera¬
tions.
The confequences, therefore, of thefe two advan¬
tages are as oppofite as the caufes are different; and
while the benefits procured by the warrior appear to
have no more influence, and while his glory becomes
obfcure, that of a celebrat 'dwriter or inventor ftill in-
creafes, and is more and more enlarged. His works
every day bring back his name to that age which ufes
them, and thus ftill add to his celebrity and fame.
. This pofthumous fame indeed has been decried by fome
Writers. In particular, the author of the Religion of
Nature delineated has treated it as highly irrational and
abfurd. “ In reality (fays he) the man is not known
ever the more to pofterity, becaufe his name is tranf-
mitted to them : He doth not live, becaufe his name
does. When it is faid, Julius Caefar fubdued Gaul,
conquered Pompey, &c. it is the fame thing as to fay,
the conqueror of Pompey was Julius Ccefar ; i. e. C as far
and the conqueror of Pompey is the fame thing ; Ctefar
is as much known by one defignation as by the other.
The amount then is only this, that the conqueror of
Pompey conquered Pompey ; or fomebody conquered
Pompey ; or rather, fince Pompey is as little known
now as Caefar, fomebody conquered fomebody. Such
a poor bufinefs is this boafted immortality ! and fuch
is the thing called glory among us ! To difcerning men
this fame is mere air, and what theydefpife if not flrun.”
But furely it were to confider too curioufly (as Ho¬
ratio fays to Hamlet) to confider thus. For (as the
elegant author of Fitzofborne’s Letters obferves) altho’
fame with pofterity fhould be, in the ftrict analyfis of
it, no other than what is here defcribed, a mere uninte-
refting propofition, amounting to nothing more than
that fomebody afted meritorioufly ; yet it would not
neccffarily follow, that true philo fophy would banifh
the defire of it from the human breaft : for this pafiion
may be (as moft certain it is) wifely implanted in our
fpecies, notwithftanding thecorrefpondingobjedt (hould
in reality be very different from what it appears in ima¬
gination. Do not many of our moft refined and even
contemplative pleafures owe their exiftence to our mif-
takes ? It is but extending fome of our fenfes to a high¬
er degree of acutenefs than we now poffefs them, to
make the faireft views of nature, or the nobleft pro-
dmftions of art, appear horrid and deformed. 'To fee
things as they truly and in themfelves are, would" not
always, perhaps, be of advantage to us in the intellec¬
tual world, any more than in the natural. But, after
all, who fhall certainly affure us, that the pleafure of
virtuous fame dies with its poffeffor, and reaches not to
a farther fcene of exiftence ? There is nothing, it fhould
feem, either abfurd or unphilofophical in fuppofing it
poffible at leaft, that the praifes of the good and the judi¬
cious, the fweeteft mufic to an honeft ear in this world,
may be echoed back to the manfions of the next; that
the poet’s defcription of fame may be literally true,
and though Ihe walks upon earth, ftie may yet lift her
head into heaven.
To be convinced of the great advantage of cherifh-
ing this high regard to pofterity, this noble defire of
an after-life in the breath of others, one need only
look back upon the hiftory of the ancient Greeks
and Romans. For what other principle was it which
produced that exalted ftrain of virtue in thofe days,
.N° 140.
G L O
that may well ferve, "n too many refpe&s, as a model Glof*
to thefe ? Was it not the confentiens laus bonorum, the in- I-
corrupta vox bene judicantium (as Tully calls it), “ the Gloflb-
concurrent approbation of the good, the uncorrupted Petra~
applaufe of the wife,” that animated their moft gene- ’
rous purfuits?
In (hort, can it be reafonable to extinguifh a paflion
which nature has univerfally lighted up in the human
breaft, and which we conftantly find to burn with moll
ftrength and brightnefs in the nobleft and beft-formed
bofoms ? Accordingly revelation is fo far from endea¬
vouring to eradicate the feed which nature has thus
deeply planted, that Ihe rather feems, on the contrary,
to cherilh and forward its growth. To be exalted
with honour^ and to be had in everlaftlng remembrance^
are in the number of thofe encouragements which the
Jewifti difpenfation offered to the virtuous; and the per-
fon from whom the facred Author of the Chriftian fyf-
tem received his birth, is herfelf reprefented as rejoicing
that all generations Jhould call her blejfed.
GLOSS, a comment on the text of any author, to
explain his fenfe more fully and at large, whether in
the fame language or any other. See the article
Commentary.—The word, according to fome, comes
from the Greek yxuo-crat “ tongue;” the office of aglojs
being to explain the text, as that of the tongue is to
difcover the mind.
Gloss is likewife ufed for a literal tranflation, or an
interpretation of an author in another language word
for word.
Gloss is alfo ufed in matters of commerce, &c. for
the luftre of a filk, fluff, or the like.
GLOSSARY, a fort .of diftionary, explaining the
obfcure and antiquated terms in fome old author;
fuch are Du Cange’s Latin and Greek Gloffaries,
Spelman’s Gloffary, and Rennet’s Gloffary an the end
of his Parochial Antiquities.
GLOSSOPETRA, or glottopetra, in natural
hiftory, a kind of extraneous foffil, fomewhat in form
of a ferpent’s tongue ; frequently found in the ifland
of Malta and divers other parts. See Plate CC.
The vulgar notion is, that they are the tongues of
ferpents petrified; and hence their name, which is a
compound of yxa<ra-at “ tongue,” and “ ftone.”
Hence alfo their traditionary virtue in curing the bites
of ferpents. The general opinion of naturalifts is,
that they are the teeth of fifties, left at land by the
waters of the deluge, and fince petrified.
The feveral fizes of the teeth of the fame fpecies,
and thofe of the feveral different fpecies of ftiarks, af¬
ford a vaft variety of thefe foffil fubftances. Their
ufual colours are black, bluifli, whitifh, yellowifli, or
brown ; and in ftiape they ufually approach to a trian¬
gular figure. Some of them are Ample; others are
tricufpidate, having a fmall point on each fide of the
large one : many of them are quite ftraight ; but they
are frequently found crooked, and bent in all direc¬
tions ; many of them are ferrated on their edges, and
others have them plain ; fome are undulated on their
edges, and (lightly ferrated on thefe undulations. They
differ alfo in fize as much as in figure; the larger be¬
ing four or five inches long, and the fmaller lefs than
a quarter of an inch.
They are moft ufually found with us in the ftrata of
blue clay, though fometimes alfo in other fubftances,
and
[ 792 1
G L O [ 793 ] G L Q
Glottis and are frequent in the clay-pits of Richmond and
Glover ot^er P^aces- They are very frequent alfo in Ger-
°ver’ many, but no where fo plentiful as in the ifland of
Malta.
The Germans attribute many virtues to thefe foffil
teeth ; they call them cordials, fudoritics, and alexi-
pharmics: and the people of Malta, where they are
extremely plentiful, hang them about their childrens
necks to promote dentition. They ntay poflibly be of
as much fervice this way as an anodyne necklace ; and
if fufpended in fuch a manner that the child can get
them to its mouth, may, by their hardnefs and fmooth-
nefs, be of the fame ufe as a piece of coral.
GLOTTIS, in anatomy, the narrow flit at the
upper part of the afpera arteria, which is covered by
the epiglottis when we hold our breath and when we
fwallow. The glottis, by its dilatation and contrac¬
tion, modulates the voice. See Anatomy, n° 116.
GLOVE, a covering for the hand and wrift.
Gloves, with refpeef to commerce, are diftinguiflied
into leathern-gloves, filk-gloves, thread-gloves, cotton-
gloves, worfted-gloves, See. Leathern gloves are made
of chamois, kid, lamb, doe, elk, buff, &c. Gloves
now pay a duty to the king, which increafes according
to their value.
To throw the glove, was a practice or ceremony
very ufual among our forefathers; being the challenge
whereby another was defied to Angle combat.—It is
ftill retained at the coronation of our kings ; when
the king’s champion caffs his glove in Weftminfter-
hall. See Champion.
Favyn fuppofes the cuftom to have arifen from the
eaftern nations, who in all their fales and deliveries of
lands, goods, &c. ufed to give the purchafer their
glove by way of livery or inveftiture. To this effedl
he quotes Ruth iv. 7. where the Chaldee paraphrafe
calls glove, what the common verfion tenders by /hoe.
He adds, that the Rabbins interpret by glove, that
paffage in the cviiith Pfalm, In Idameam extendam
calcmmentum meum, “ Over Edom will I call out my
Ihoe.”—Accordingly, among us, he who took up the
glove, declared thereby his acceptance of the chal¬
lenge ; and as a part of the ceremony, continues Fa¬
vyn, took the glove off his own right hand, and caff
it upon the ground, to be taken up by the challenger.
This had the force of a mutual engagement; on each
fide, to meet at the time and place which L aid be
. appointed by the king, parliament, or judges.—r-The
fame author afferts, that the cuftom which ftill obtains
of bldfing gloves in the coronation of the kings of
France, is a remain of the eaftern practice of giving
poffeffion with the glove, 1. xvi. p. 1017, &c.
Anciently it was prohibited thp judges to -wear
gloves on the bench. And at prefent in the ftables of
■ moft princes, it is not fafe going in without pulling
off the gloves.
GLOVER (Richard), the author of Leonidas and
feveral other efteemed works, was the fon of Richard
Glover a Hamburgh merchant in London, and was
born in St MartinVlane in the year 1712. He very
early ftiowed a ftrong propenfity to and genius for
poetry ; and while at fchool, he wrote, amongft other
-pieces, a poem to the memory of Sir Ifaac Newton,
prefixed to the view of that incomparable author’s
^philofophy, publilhed in^to, in 1728, by his intimate
-VouVII. Part II.
friend Dr Pemberton. But though poffcffed of talents Glover,
which were calculated to excel in the literary world, ■“ r~mm
he was content to devote his attention to commerce, and
at a proper period commenced a Hamburgh merchant.
He ftill, however, cultivated literature, and affociated
with thofe who were eminent in fcience. One of his
earlieft friends was Matthew Green, the ingenious but
obfeure author of fome admirable poems, which in
1737, after his death, were collefled and publifhed by
Mr Glover. In 1737, Mr Glover married Mifs Nunn,
with whom he received a handfome fortune ; and in
the fame month publifhed Leonidas, a poem in qtp,
which in this and the next year paffed through three
editions. This poem was inferibed to Lord Cobham ;
and on its firft appearance was received by the world
with great approbation, though it has fince been un¬
accountably neglefL-. Lord Lyttelton, in a popular
publication called Common Senfe, and in a poem ad-
dreffed to the author, praifed it in the warmed terms;
and Dr Pemberton publifhed, Obfervations on Poetry,
efpecially epic, occafioned by the late poem upon Leoni¬
das, 1738, i2mo, merely with a view to point out its
beauties. In 1739, Mr Glover publifhed “ London,
or the Progrefs of Commerce”, 410 ; and a ballad in-
titled, Plofier’s Ghoft. Both thefe pieces feem to have
been written with a view to incite the public to refent
the mifbehaviour of the Spaniards ; and the letter had
a very confiderable effeft.—The political diffenfions at
this period raged with great violence, and more efpe¬
cially in the metropolis; and at different meetings of
the livery on thofe occafions, Mr Glover was always
called to the chair, and acquitted himfelf in a very able
manner, his conduA being patriotic and his fpeeches
mafterly. His talents for public fpeaking, his know¬
ledge of political affairs, and his information concern¬
ing trade and commerce, foon afterwards pointed him
out to the merchants of London as a proper perfon to
conduft their application to parliament on the fubjedt
of the negledl of their trade. He accepted the office;
and in fumming up the evidence gave very ftriking
proofs of his oratorical powers. This fpeech was pro¬
nounced Jan. 5-7. 1742-
In the year 1744 died the Duchefs of Marlborough,
and'by her will left to Mr Glover and Mr Mallet 5001
each, to write the'Hillory of the.Duke of Marlbo¬
rough’s Life. This bequeft, however, never took place.
•It is fuppofed that Mr Glover very early renounced his
fhare of it ; and Mallet, though he continued to talk,
of performing the talk almofl as long as he lived, L
now known never to have made the It:, ft progrefs in it.
About this period Mr Glover withdrew a good deft
from public notice, and lived a life of retirement. He
had been unfuecefsful in hk bufinefs ; and with a very
laudable delicacy had preferred an obicure retreat te
popular obftrvation, until his affairs fliould put on a
more profperous appearance. He had been honoured
with the attention of Frederic Prince of Wales, who
once prefented him with a complete fet of the Claflics,
.-elegantly bound ; and, on his abfenting himfelf for
fome time on account of the embarraffment in his cir-
cumfiances, fent hkn, it is faid, 5001. ^ The prince
died in March 1751 ; and in May following Mr Glo¬
ver was once more drawn from his retreat, by the im¬
portunity of his friends, and flood candidate for the
place of. chamberlain of . London. It unfortunately
,5 H Tap-
G L O [ 794 ] G L O«
Glover, happened that he did not declare himfelf until moft of
Tl' » " the livery had engaged their votes ; by which means
he loft his eleftion.
In 1753* Mr Glover produced at Drury-lane his tra¬
gedy of Boadicea; which was adted nine nights, in the
month of December. It had the advantage of the
performance of Mr Garrick, Mr Moflbp, Mrs Cibber,
and Mrs Pritchard. From the prologue it feems to
have been patronized by the author’s friends in the
city ; and Dr Pemberton wrote a pamphlet to recom¬
mend it.—In 1761, Mr Glover publilhed Medea, a
tragedy written on the Greek model; but it was not
afied until 1 767, when it appeared for the firft time
on the ftage at Drury-lane for Mrs Yates’s benefit.
At the acceffion of his prefent majefty, he appears to
have furmounted the difficulties of his fituation. In
the parliament which was then I’t-led, he was chofen
member for Weymouth, and continued to fit as fuch
Until the diffolution of it. He, about this time, in-
tertfted himfelf about India affairs, at one of Mr Sul¬
livan’s ele&ions; and in a fpeech introduced the fable
of the man, horfe, and bear; and drew this conclufion,
that, whenever merchants made ufe of armed forces to
maintain their trade, it would end in their deftruftion.
In 1770, the poem of Leonidas requiring a new
edition, it was republifhed in two volumes iz.mo, cor-
refted throughout, and extended from nine books to
twelve. It had alfo feveral new charafters added, be-
fides placing the old ones in new fituations. The im¬
provements made in it were very confiderable ; but we
believe the public ctiriofity, at this period, was not fuf-
frciently alive to recompenfe the pains beftowed on this
once popular performance. The calamities arifing from
the wounds given to public credit, in June 1772, by
the failure of the bank of Douglas, Heron, and Co. in
Scotland, occafioned Mr Glover’s taking a very a&ive
art iir the fettling thofe complicated concerns, and in
opping the diftrefs then fo univerfally felt. In Fe¬
bruary 1774, he called the annuitants of that banking-
houfe together, at the King’s Arms tavern, and laid
propofals before them for the fecurity of their de¬
mands, with which they were fully fatisxied. He alfo
undertook to manage the interefts of the merchants
and traders of London concerned in the trade to Ger
many and Holland, and of the dealers in foreign linens,
in their application to parliament in May 1774. Both
the fpeeches made on thefe occafious were publi/hed in
a pamphlet in that year. In the fucceeding year
he engaged on behalf of the Weft-India merchants
in their application to parliament, and examined
the witneffes and fummed up the evidence in the
fame mafterly mariner he had done on former occa-
fions. For the afliftance he afforded the merchants in
this bufinefs, he was complimented by them with a
fervice of plate, of the value of 3001. The fpeech
which he delivered in the houfe was in the fame year
printed. This, we Relieve, was the laft opportunity he
had of difplaying his oratorical talents in public. Ha¬
ving now arrived at a period of life which demanded a
jecefs from bufinefs, Mr Glover retired to eafe and in-
•dependence, and wore out the remainder of his days
with dignity and with honour. It is probable that
he ftill continued his attention to his mufe, as we are
informed that, befides an epic poem of confiderable
length, he has left feme tragedies and comedies behind
him in manufeript. After experiencing for fome time Glow
the infirmities of age, he departed this life 25th No- [}
vember 2785; leaving behind him a moft eftimable Giuc»
chara&er as a man, a citizen, and a writer. *
GLOW worm, in zoology. See Lamptris.
GLUCKSTADT, a ftrong and confiderable town
of Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and duchy
of Holfteiu, with a ftrong caftle, and fubjeft to Den¬
mark. It is feated on the river Elbe, near its mouth;
. E. Long. 9. 15. N. Lat. 52. 53.
GLUE, among artificers, a tenacious vifeid matter,
which ferves as a cement to bind or connett things to¬
gether.
Glues are of different kinds, according to the vari¬
ous ufes they are defigned fo*, as the common glue,
glove-glue, and parchment-glue ; whereof the two laft
are more properly called Jizc.
The common or ftroag glue is chiefly ufed by car¬
penters, joiners, cabinet-makers, &c. It is made of
Ikins of animals, as oxen, cows, calves, fheep, &c. ; and
the older the creature is, the better is the glue made of
its hide. Indeed whole Ikins are but rarely ufed for
this purpofe, but only the fliavings, parings, or feraps
of them ; or the feet-finews, &c. That made of whole
/kins, however, is undoubtedly the heft ; as that made
of finews is the very word.
The Method of Making Glue. In making glue ©f
parings, they firft fteep them two or three days in wa¬
ter : then, waffling them well out, they boil them to
the confiftence of a thick jelly; which they pafs, while
hot, through ozier-balkets, to feparate the impurities
from it; and then let it (land fome time, to purify it
further: when all the filth and ordures are fettled to
the bottom of the-veffel, they melt and boil it a fe-
cond time. They next pour it into flat frames or
moulds; whence it is taken out pretty hard and folid,
and cut into fquare pieces or cakes. They after¬
wards dry it in the wind, in a fort of coarfe net; and
at laft ftring it, to finifti its drying.
The glue made of finews, feet, &c. is managed af¬
ter the fame manner; only with this difference, that they
bone and fcour the feet, and do not lay them to fteep.
Of this commodity there is a very great exporta¬
tion from England; the Englifh glue being univer¬
fally allowed to be the beft in Europe, partly from
the excellency of the materials, and partly from the
fltill of the manufafturers. Next to this is the Flanders
glue. In both countries it is made by.the tanners
from fragments of good Ikins dried with much care.
In France it is a feparate trade : and the glue-makers
pick up their materials as they can, from the feveral
dealers in Ikins, and boiling thefe with cow-heels make
their glue ; which as they purchafe every thing, muft
render it dear, as well as of an inferior quality. The
duty on exportation is tenpence, and on importation
three {hillings and tenpence, on every hundred weight.
The beft glue is that which is made from the {kin
of the oldeft beaft, efpecially if a bull’s hide is ufed.
Experience likewife fhows that glue is confiderably
improved in quality by keeping after it is made; and
the fureft way to try its goodnefs is to lay a piece to
fteep three or four days, and if it fwell confiderably
without melting, and when taken out refumes its
former drynefs, it is excellent.
A glue that will hold againft fire or water, it is
laid*
*
G L U
I 795 1
G L If
Olae faid, may be made thus : Mix a handful of quicklime
. H with four ounces of linfeed oil: boil them to a good
l ^ thicknefs; then fpread it on tin-plates in the (hade,
and it will become exceeding hard, but may be eafly
diflblved over a fire, as glue, and will efFe& the bufi-
nefs to admiration.
Neumann obferves, that glue difiblved in a folution
of lapis calaminaris in fpirit of nitre, and afterwards
infpifiated, fo'rms an extremely llippery tenacious mafs,
which might be of ufe for entangling flies, caterpil¬
lars, and other infers, if it was not too expenfive.
Method of Preparing and UJing Glue. Set a quart
of water on the fire, then put in about half a pound
of good glue, and boil them gently together till the
glue be entirely diflblved and of a due confiftence.
When glue is to be ufed, it muft be made thoroughly
hot; after which, with a bruih dipped in it, befmear
the faces of the joints as quick as pofliBle : then clap¬
ping them together,'Aide or rub them lengthwife one
upon another, two or three times, to fettle them clofe;
and fo let them Hand till they are dry and firm.—Mr
Boyle gives a receipt for preparing a fine ftrong glue
from ifinglafs in the following manner: Steep the ifin-
glafs for 24 hours in common brandy. When the
menftruum has opened and mollified the ifinglafs, they
muft be gently boiled together, and kept itirring till
they appear well mixed, and till a drop thereof, fuf-
fered to cool, turns into a ftrong jelly. Then ftrain
it, whilft hot, through a clean linen cloth into a veflel
to be kept clofe flopped. A gentle heat fuffices
to diflblve this glue into a tranfparent and almoft co-
lourlefs fluid, but very ftrong ; fo that pieces of wood
glued together with it will feparate elfewhere rather
than in the place where they are joined. See Isin¬
glass.
GLUME (gluma), among botanifts, a fpecies of
calyx, confiding of two or three membranous valves,
which are often pellucid at the edges. This kind of
calyx belongs to the grafles^
GLUT, among falconers, the flimy fubftance that
lies in a hawk’s paunch.
GLUTA, in botany; a genus of the pentandria
order, belonging to the gynandria clafs of plants. The
calyx is campanulated and deciduous; there are five
petals glued below to the column of the germ; and the
filaments infeited on the top of the column, on which
alfo the germen fits.
GLUTaEUS, a name common to three mufcles
whofe office it is to extend the thigh. See Anatomy,
Table of the Mufclet.
GLUTTON, in zoology. See Mu stela.
GLUTTONY, a voracity of appetite, or a pro-
penfity to gormandizing.
There is a morbid fort ef gluttony, called fames ca-
nina, “ dog-like appetite,” which fometimes occurs,
and renders the perfon feized with it an objeft of pity
and of cure as in other difeafes : (fee Bulimy.) — But
profefled habitual gluttons may be reckoned amongft
the monftersof nature, and deemed in a manner puniih-
able for endeavouring to bring a dearth or famine into
the places where they live. For which reafon, people
think king James I. was in the right, when a man being
prefented to him that could eat a whole ftieep at one
meal* he alked “ What he could do more thafi another
man ?” and being artfwered “ He could not do fo much,** Oluttorty,
faid, “ Hang him then; for it is unfit a man ihould live G1ycme-
that eats fo much as twenty men, and cannot do fo ^ ^
much as one.”
The emperor Clodius Albinus would devour more
apples at once than a buftiel would hold. He would
eat 500 figs to his breakfaft, too peaches, to melons,
20 pound weight of grapes, 100 gnat-fnappers, and
400 oyfters. “ Fye Upon him (faith Lipfius) ; God E^'
keepfuch a curfe from the earth.” _ ' ^
One of our Daniih kings named Hardikmte was ft> *
great a glutton, that a hiftorian calls him Bacca de Porco*
“ Swine’s-mouth.” His tables were covered four times
a-day with the moft coftly viands that either the air,
fea, or land, could furnilh : and as he lived he died;
for, revelling and caroufing at a wedding-banquet at
Lambeth, he fell down dead. His death was fo wel¬
come to his fubjefts, that they celebrated the day with
fports aud paftimes, calling it Hock-tide, which fignifies
fcorn and contempt. With this king ended the reign;
of the Danes in England.
One Phagon, under the reign of the emperor Aureiia-
nus, at one meal, eat a whole boar, 100 loaves.of bread,
a ftieep, a pig, and drank above three gallons of wine.
We are told by Fuller*, that one Nicholas Wood, * Wortbksg
of Harrifon in Kent, eat a whole ftieep of 16 s. price p. 86.
at one meal, raw; at another time, 30 dozen of pigeons.
At Sir William Sidley’s, in the fame county, he eat
as much vi&uals as would have fufficed 30 men. At
Lord Wotton’s manfion-houfe in Kent, he devoured
at one dinner 84 rabbits; which, by computation, at
half a rabbit a man, would have ferved 168 men. He
eat to his breakfaft 18 yards of black pudding. He*
devoured a whole hog at one fitting down ; and after"
it, being accommodated with fruit, he eat three pecks
of damofins.
A counfellor at law, whofe name was Mallet,
well known in the reign of Charles I. eat at one time
an ordinary provided in Weftminfter for 30 men at
twelve-pence a piece. Flis pra&ice not being fufficient
to fupply him with better fort of meat, he fed generally
on offals, ox-livers, hearts, &c. He lived to almoft
60 years of age, and for the feven laft years of his life
eat as moderately as other men. A narrative of his
Life was publiihed.
GLYCINE, KNOBBED-ROOTED LIQUORICE-VETCH t
A genus of the decandria order, belonging to the dia-
delphia clafs of plants; and in the natural method
ranking under the 32d order, Papilionacea. The calyx
is bilabiate ; the carina of the corolla turning back the
vexillum with its point. There is but one fpecies com¬
monly cultivated in our gardens, w'z. the frutefcens,
or Carolina kidney-bean tree. This hath flirubby
climbing ftalks, twining round any fupport, 15 or 20
feet high, adorned with pinnated leaves of three pair
of follicles terminated by an odd one, and from the
axillas clufters of large bluifh-purple flowers, fucceeded /
by long pods like thofe of the climbing kidney'-bean.
It flowers in June and July, but the feeds do not ripen
in this country. It is eafily propagated, either by feed*
imported from America, where it is native, or by layers-
—The ftalks and roots of the abrus, another fpecies of
glycine, which grows in Egypt and the Indies, are very
fweet to the tafte. Herman affirms;, that the juice ob-
5 H 2 tained
G L Y
L 796 1
G M E
GTyelrrhi tained from them by decoftion is little inferior to li-
t ZA‘ quorice; whence its name of wild-liquorice in thole patts
v * of America where it is native.
GLYCIRRHIZA, Liquorice: A genus of the
decandria order, belonging to the diadelphia elafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
32d order, PaptUon'acea. The calyx is bilabiate ; the
upper lip tripartite, and the under one entire; the le-
gumen ovate and comprelfed. There are two
Species. 1. The glabra, or common liquorice, hath
a long, thick, creeping root, linking feveral feet deep
into the ground ; upright, firm, herbaceous llalks an¬
nually, three or four feet high, garnilhed with winged
leaves of four or five pair of oval lobes, terminated by
an odd one ; and from the axilias ereft fpikes of pale
blue flowers in July, fucceeded by Ihort fmooth pods.
The root of this is the ufeful part, which is replete
with a fweet, balfamie, pectoral juice, much ufed in
all compositions for coughs and diforders of the llomach.
2. The echinata, or prickly-poded liquorice, is nearly
like the common fort, only the feed-pods are prickly.
Both thefe fpecies are very hardy perennials ; but the
firll is the fort commonly cultivated for ufe, its roots
being fuller of juice and fweeter than the other. The
roots are perennial; but the ttalks rife in fpring and
decay in autumn.
Propagation anil culture. Their propagation is effec¬
ted by cuttings of the fmall roots ilfiiing from the fides
of the main ones near the furface of the earth, dividing
them into lengths of fix or eight inches, each having
one or more good buds or eyes; and the proper ftafon
for procuring the fets for planting is any time in open
weather from October till March, though from the
middle of February till the middle of March is rather
the moft fuccefsful feafon for planting. An open fitu-
ation is the moll fuitable for a plantation of thefe
plants. Particular regard Ihould alfo be had to the
foil: it ought to be of a light loofe temperature, and
three or four feet deep if poflible; for the roots of the
Liquorice will arrive at that depth and more, and the
longer the roots the more valuable they are for fale
by weight.
Having fixed on the ground, let it be trenched three
fpades deep, if the depth of proper foil will admit;
then having your fets ready, proceed to plant them by
line and dibble, planting the fets a foot diftanCe in
each row; putting them perpendicular into the ground,
with the tops about an inch under the furface; and let
the rows be a foot and a half afunder; though the
London gardeners feldom allow more than twelve
inches between row and row. Thefe gardeners alfo fow
a crop of onions on the fame ground the firil year;
which, as the onions toot but flender, and fpread but
little at top, may be done without any detriment to
the liquorice, or to the onions, as it does not rife
above ten or twelve inches high the firft fummer;
obferving to keep the ground clean from weeds during
that'feafon by hoeing. If there is a crop of onions,
ufe the fmall hoe, cutting out the onions to four or
five inches dillance, clearing away fuch as grow imme¬
diately clofe to the liquorice plants; and when the
onions are gathered, give the ground a thorough hoe¬
ing with a large hoe, to loofen the furface and de¬
ll roy all weeds effedlually ; and in autumn cut down the
decayed ftalks of the liquorice, and nothing more is
neceffary to be done till fpring; when, in February Glycirrhi-
or March, give a flight digging between the rows; za*
during fpring and fummer, keep down all weeds by II _
broad-hoeing ; and in autumn, when the ftalks are in Gmehn-
a decaying Hate, cut them down to the furface of the
earth.
In three years after planting, the roots of the li¬
quorice will be fit to take up: and the proper feafon’
for this is, any time from the beginning of November
till February ; for it Ihould neither be taken up before
the ftalks are fully decayed, nor deferred till late in
fpring, otherwife the roots will be apt to fhrivel and
diminiftrin weight. In taking them up, the fmall fide-
roots are trimmed off, and the bell divided into lengths
for frefti fets, and the main iiots are tied in bundles
ready for fale. It is of advantage to fell them as foon
as poflible after they are taken up, before they lofe
much of their weight.. They are fold to the druggifts
from about twenty to thirty or forty (hillings per hun¬
dred weight; and an acre of ground has produced three
thoufand and upwards, which has been fold for more
than fixty pounds : but the price is commonly in pro¬
portion to the goodnefs of the roots.
Ufes. The common liquorice is cultivated in moft
countries of Europe for the fake of its root. That which
is cultivated in Britain is preferable to fnch as comes
from abroad ; this lad being generally mouldy, which
this root is very apt to become, unlefs kept in a dry
place. The powder of liquorice ufually fold is often
mingled with flour, and probably tint often with fub-
itances not quite fo wholefome : the belt fort is of a
brownifh yellow colour (the fine pale yellow being ge¬
nerally fophillicated), and of a very rich fweet tafte,
much more agrc-eable than that of the frefh root. Li¬
quorice is almoft the only fweet that quenches third ;
whence it was called by the Greeks adipfon. Galen
takes notice, that it was employed in this intention in
hydropic cafes, to prevent the neceffity of drinking.
Mr Fuller, in his Medicina Gymnaji'ua, recommends
this root as a very ufeful pedloral; and fays it excel¬
lently foftens acrimonious humours, at the fame time
that it proves gently detergent; and this account is
warranted by experience. An extrail is dire&ed to
be made from it in the (hops; but this preparation is
chiefly brought from abroad, though the foreign ex-
tradl is not equal to fuch as is made with proper cate
among ourfelves.
GLYPH, in ftulptureand architedlure, denotes any
canal or cavity ufed as ah ornament.
GMELIN (Dr Sarpuel), profeffor at Tubingen,
and afterwards membei of the Imperial Academy of
Sciences at St Peterfbtrrgh, commenced his travels in
June 1768 ; and having traverfed the provinces of Mof-
cow, Voronetz, New Ruflia, Azof, Cafan, and Aftra-
can, he vilited, in 1770 and 1771, the different har¬
bours of the Cafpian, and examined with peculiar at¬
tention thofe parts of the Perfian provinces which bor¬
der upon that fea, of which he has given a ciicum-
ftantial account in the three volumes of his travels al¬
ready publifhed. Actuated by a zeal for extending his
obfervations, he attempted to pafs through the weftern
provinces of Perfia, which are in a perpetual (late of
warfare, and infefted by -numerous banditti. Upon
this expedition, he quitted, in April 1772, Einzillee-,
a finall trading place in Ghilau, upon the fouthern
fliorc
Gmelina,
Gnaphali-
G N A [ 797 ] G N 0
more of the Cafpian ; and, on account of many diffi¬
culties and dangers, did not, until Dec. 2. 1773, reach
Sallian, a town fituated upon the mouth of the river
Koor. Thence he proceeded to Baku and Kuba, in
the province of Shirvan, where he met with a friendly
reception from All Feth Khan, the fovereign of that
diftridh After he had been joined by 20 Uralian
Coffacks, and when he was only four days journey
from the Ruffian fortre's Kiflar, he and his companions
were, on the 5th of February 1774, arrelled by order
of Ufmei Khan, a petty Tartar prince, through whofe
territories he was obliged to pafs. Ufmei urged as a
pretence for this arrelt, that 30 years ago feveral fa¬
milies had efcaped from his dominions, and had found an
afy.lum in the Ruffian territories ; adding, that Gme
lin ffiould not be releafed until thefe families were re-
itored. The profeffor was removed from prifon to
prifon ; and at length, wearied out with continued
perfecutions, he expired, July 27th, at Achmet-
Kent, a vilkge of Mount Caucafus. His death
was occafioned partly by vexation for the lofs of
feveral papers and colled ions, and partly by diforders
contraded from the fatigues of his long journey. Some
of his papers had been fent to Kiflar during his im-
prifonment, and the others were not without great
difficulty refcued from the hands of the barbarian who
had detained him in captivity. The arrangement of
thefe papers, which will form a fourth volume of his
travels, was at firft configned to the cave of Gulden-
ftaedt, but upon his death has been transferred to the
learned Pallas.
GMELINA, in botany: A genus of the angio-
fpermia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of
plants i and in the natural method ranking under the
40th order, Perfomta The calyx is nearly quadriden-
tated ; the corolla campanulated or bell-lhaped ; there
are two bipartite and two fimple anthers;; the fruit is
a plum mith a bilocular kernel.
GNAPHAL1UM, cudweed, goldy locks, e-
ternal flower, &c.: A genus of the polygamia
fuperflua order, belonging to the fyngenelia clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
49th order, Coinpojita. The receptacle is naked ; the
pappus feathered; the calyx imbricated, with the
marginal feales round!Ih, parched, and coloured. There
are 41 fpecies; the moil remarkable of which are,
1. The margaritaceum, or pearly white eternal flower,
hath creeping, very fpreading roots, crowned with
broad, fpear-ffiaped, white, hoary leaves; herbaceous
thick, woolly ftalks, a foot and an half high, branch¬
ing outward, garniflied with long, acute-pointed, white,
woolly leaves, and terminated by a corymbofe duller
cf yellowiffi flowers, which appear in June and J[uly,
and are very ornamental. 2. The plantaginifolium,
hath large woolly radical leaves, decumbent running
roots, and herbaceous fimple ftalks, riling fix or eight
inches high, terminated by a corymbus of white
flowers in June, July, &c. 3. The ftechas, hath a
fhrubby flalk, dividing into {lender branches three feet
long, terminated by corymbofe clufters of yellow
floweis, appearing in May and June. 4. The orien-
tale, or oriental goldilocks, hath three varieties, with
yellow, gold coloured, and white filvery flowers. They
have fhrubby ftalks, rifing two or three f?et high.
5. The odoratiffimum, or fweet-feented eternal flower,
hath fluubby winged {talks, branching irregularly a Gnat
yard high, with corymbofe cinders of bright yellow li
flowers, changing to a dark yellow. 6. The arboreum, Gn*mon‘,
or tree gnaphalium, hath a woody Item, branching four • — -
or five feet high, narrow feffile leaves, with revolute
borders, fmooth qn their upper fide, and roundifh
bunches of pale yellow-flowers. The fivlt three forts
are hardy, and will thrive in any foil or fituation. The
two firft increafe exceedingly by their roots ; and the
third is eafily propagated by flips. The fourth, fifth,
and fixth forts are fomewhat tender; and therefore
fhould be kept in pots, to be fheltered in a green-houfe
or garden frame in winter. Others may be planted in
the full ground, in a dry and warm fituation, efpeci-
ally the oriental kind and varieties, and likewife the
fweet-feented kind ; for thefe two fpecies will ftruggle
tolerably through an ordinary winter, and make a pret¬
ty appearance during the fummer-months. All thefe .
are propagated by flips or cuttings of their fhoots.—
The flowers of all thefe fpecies are remarkable for re¬
taining their beauty for years, if carefully gathered in =
a dry day, foon after they are blown.
GNAT, in zoology. See Cul-ex.
GNESNA, a large and ftrong town of Great Po¬
land, of which it is capital, and in the palatinate of
Califli, with an archbifhop’s fee, whofe prelate is pri¬
mate of Poland, and viceroy during the vacancy of the
throne. It was the firft town built in the kingdom,
and formerly more confiderable than at prefent. E.
Long. 18. 20. N. Lat. 52. 28.
GNETUM, in botany ; a genus of the adelphia-
order, belonging to the nionoecia clafs of plants. The
amentum of the male is a fingle fcalej there is no co¬
rolla, and but one filament with a pair of anthe-
rse. The calyx of the female is of the fame form ;
there is no corolla ; the ftyle with the fligma is trifid;
the fruit a menofpermous plum.
GNIDIA, in botany; a genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the o&andria clafs of plants. The
calyx is funnel-fhaped and quadrifid, with four petals
inferted into it; there is one feed fomewhat refembling
a berry.
GNOMES, Gnomi, certain imaginary beings, who,
according to the cabbalifts, inhabit the inner parts of
the earth. They are fuppofed fmall in ftature, and the
guardians of quarries, mines, &c. See Fairy.
GNOMON, in dialling, the ftyle, pin, or cock of
a dial, which by its fhadow fhowsthe hour of the day.
The gnomon of every dial reprefents the axis of the
world:. (See Dial ahd Dialling.)—The word is
Greek, "v, which literally implies fomething that
makes a thing known; by reafon that the ftyle or pin
indicates or makes the hour known.
Gnomon, in aftronomy, a ftyle eredled perpendicu¬
lar to the horizon, in order to find the altitude of the
fun. Thus, in the right-angled triangle ABC are gi- Phte
ven, AB the length of the ftyle, BC the length of its CCXXW
fhadow, and'the right angle ABC. Hence, making*
CB the radius, we have this analogy for finding the
angle ACB, the fun’s altitude, viz; BC : AB : : ra¬
dius: tangent of the angle C.
By means of a gnomon, the fun’s meridian altitude,
and confequently the latitude of the place, may be
found more exactly than with the fmaller quadrants.
See Quadrant.
4 *
G N O [ 798 ] G N o
Gnom*n By the (ame inftrument the height of any objedl GH
Gaiftic wiay be found : for as I>F, the didance of the obfer-
l--- ver’s eye from the gnomon, is to DE, the height of the
ftyle ; fo is FR, the diftance of the obferver’s eye from
the objedt, to GH, its height.
See further on the ufes arid application of Gnomons,
the aiticle Geography, no' 49—53.
Gnomon of a Globe ; the index ot the hour-circle.
GNOMONICS, the art of dialling. See Dialling.
GNOSTTCS, ancient heretics, famous from the firft
rife of Chrih inity, principally in the eaft,
It appears from feveral paflages of th e facred writ¬
ings, particularly x John ii. 18. 1 Tim. vi. 20. and
Col. ii. 8. that many perfons were infe&ed with the
gnoftic herefy in the iirft century ; though the fedt did
not render itfelf confpicuous, either for number or re¬
putation, before the time of Adrian, when fome wri¬
ters erroneoufly date its rife.
The name is formed of the Latin gtiofiicus, and that
of the Greek y/an*-®- “ knowing,” of “ I
know;” and was adopted by thofe of this fetl, as if
they were the only perfons who had the true know¬
ledge of Chriftianity. Accordingly, they looked
on all other Chriftians as fimple, ignorant, and bar¬
barous perfons, who explained and interpreted the fa¬
cred writings in a too low, literal, and unedifying lig-
nification.
At firft the Gnoftics were only the philofophers and
wits of thofe times, who formed for themfelves a pe¬
culiar fyftem of theology, agreeable to the philofophy
of Pythagoras and Plato ; to which they accommoda¬
ted all their interpretations of fcripture. But
Gnostics afterwards became agenerical name, com¬
prehending divers fefts and parties of heretics, who rofe
in the firft centuries, and who, though they differed
among themfelves as to circumftances, yet all agreed in
fome common principles. They were fuch as corrup¬
ted the dottrine of the gofpel by a profane mixture of
the tenets of the oriental philofophy, concerning the
origin of evil and the creation of the world, with its
divine truths. Such were the Valentinians, Simonians,
Carpocratians, Nicolaitans, &c,
Gnostics was fometimes alfo more particularly at¬
tributed to the fucceffors of the firft Nicolaitans and
Carpocratians, in the fecond century, upon their lay¬
ing afide the names of the firft authors. Such as would
be thoroughly acquainted with all their doftrines, re¬
veries, and vifions, may confult St Irenaeus, Tertullian,
Clemens Alexandrinus, Origen, and St Epiphanius;
particularly the firft of thefe wHters, who relates their
fentiments at large, and confutes them at the fame time:
indeed, he dwells more exprefsly on the Valentinians
than any other fort of Gnoftics; but he fhows the ge¬
neral principles whereon all their miftaken opinions
were founded, and the method they followed in ex¬
plaining fcripture. He accufes them with introducing
into religion certain vain and ridiculous genealogies, i.e.
a kind of divine proceffions or emanations, which had
no other foundation but in their own wild imagination.
In effedl, the Gnoftics confefled, that thefe asons or
. emanations were no where exprefsly delivered in the fa¬
cred writings; but infifted at the fame time, that Jefus
Chrift had intimated them in parables to fuch as could
underftand him. They built their theology not only
•n the gofpels and the epiftles of St Paul, but alfo on
the law of Mofes and the prophets. Thefe laft laws Gnoftic*.
were peculiarly ferviceable to them, on account of the “Y"""’*-
allegories and allufions with which they abound, which
are capable of different interpretations: Though their
dodlrine, concerning the creation of the world by one
or more inferior beings of an evil or imperfedl nature,
led them to deny the divine authority of the books of
the Old Teftament, which contradhfted this idle fic¬
tion, and filled them with an abhorrence of Mofes and*
the religion he taught; alleging, that he was a&uated
by the malignant author of this world, who confulted
his own glory and authority, and not the real advan¬
tage of men. Their perfuafion that evil refided in mat¬
ter, as its centre and fource, made them treat the body
with contempt, difcourage marriage, and rejeft the
dodtrine of the refurreftion of the body and its re-union
with the immortal fpirit. Their notion, that malevo¬
lent genii prelided in nature, and occafioned difeafes
and calamities, wars, and defolations, induced them to
apply themfelves to the ftudy of magic, in order to wea¬
ken the powers or fufpend the influence of their malig¬
nant agents.
The Gnoftics confidered Jefus Chrift as the Son of
God, and confequently inferior to the Father, who
came into the world for the refcue and happinefs of mi-
ferable mortals, oppreffed by matter and evil beings :
but they rejefted our Lord’s humanity, on the prin¬
ciple that every thing corporeal is effentially and in-
trinfically evil; and therefore the greateft part of
them denied the reality of his fufferings. They
fet a great value on the beginning of the gofpel of St
John, where they fancied they faw a great deal of their
teons or emanations under the JVord, the Life, the
Lights &c. They divided all nature into three kinds
of beings, viz. hylicy or material; pfychic, or animal.;
pneumatic, or fpiritual. On the like principle tbey
alfo diftingui filed three forts of men ; material, animal)
and fpiritual. The firft, who were material, and inca¬
pable of knowledge, Inevitably periftied, both foul and
body ; the third, fuch as the Gnoftics themfelves pre¬
tended to be, were all certainly faved ; the pfychic, or
animal, who were the middle between the other two,
were capable either of being faved or damned, accord¬
ing to their good or evil a&ions.
With regard to their moral doftrines and conduft,
they were much divided. The greateft part of thisfeft
adopted very auftere rules of life, recommended rigo¬
rous abftinence, and prefcribed fevere bodily mortifica¬
tions, with a view of purifying and exalting the mind. v
However, fome maintained, that there was no moral
difference in human a&ions; and thus, confounding
right with wrong, they gave a loofe rein to all the paf-
fions, and afl’erted the innocence of following blindly
all their motions, and of living by their tumultuous
dilates. They fupported their opinions and pra&ice
by various authorities : fome referred to fiftitious and
apocryphal writings of Adam, Abraham, Zoroafter,
Chrift, and his apoftles; others boafted, that they had
deduced their fentiments from fecret dodfi ines of Chrift
concealed from the vulgar; others affirmed, that the
arrived at fuperior degrees of wifdom by an innate ^
gour of mind ; and others afferted, that they were in-
ftru&ed in thefe myfterious parts of theological fcience
by Theudas, a difciple of St Paul, and by Matthias,
one of the friends of our Lord. The tenets of the
ancient
GOA [ 799 1 GOA
-GnofHcs ancient Gnoftics were revived in Spain, in the fourth
li century, by a fe£t called the Prifallianifts.
, Goa' The appellation Gnqftic fometimes alfo occurs in a
w—y——< fenfe, in the ancient ecclefiaftical writers, and
particularly Clemens Alexandrinus, who, in the perfon
of his Gnoftic, defcribes the charafters and qualities of
a perfect Chriftian. This point he labours in the fe-
venth book of his Stromata, wMJe he {hows, that none
blit the Gnoftic, or learned perfon, has any true reli¬
gion. He affirms, that were it poffible for the know¬
ledge of God to be feparated from,eternal falvation, the
Gnoftic would make no fcruple to choofe the know¬
ledge ; and that if God would promife him impunity
in doing of any thing he has once fpoken againft, or of¬
fer him heaven on thofe terms, he would never alter a
whit of his meafures. In this fenfe the father ufes
Gnoftics, in oppofition to the heretics of-the fame
name ; affirming, that the true Gnoftic is grown old in
the ftudy of the holy fcripture ; and that he -preferves
the orthodox do&rine of the apoftlesandof the church;
whereas the falfe Gnoftic abandons all the apoftolical
traditions, as imagining himfelf wifer than the apoftles.
At length the name Gnojlic, which originally was the
moft glorious, became infamous, by the idle opinions
and difiblute lives of the perfons who bore it.
GNU, or Gnou, in Zoology. See Capra, n°xiii.
GOA, a large and ftrong town of Afia, in the pe-
ninfula on this fide the Ganges, and on the Malabar
coaft. It was taken by the Portuguefe in 1508, and
is the chief town of all their fettlements on this fide
the Cape of Good Hope. It (lands in an ifland of the
fame name, about 12 miles in length,and fix in breadth;
and the city is built on the north fide of it, having the
qonveniency of a fine fait-water river,- capable of re¬
ceiving {hips of the greateft burden, where they lie
within a mile of the town. The banks of the river
are beautified with a great number of handfome ftruc-
tures; fuch as churches, caftles, and gentlemens houfes.
The air within the town is unwholefome, for which
reafon it' is not fo well inhabited now as it was for¬
merly. The viceroy’s palace-is a noble building ; and
{lands at a fmall diftance from the river, over one of
the gates of the city, which leads to a fpacioys ftreet,
terminated by a beautiful church.' This city contains
a great number of handfome churches, convents, and
cloifters, with a {lately large hofpital; all well endow¬
ed, and kept in good repair. The market-place takes
up an acrcof ground ; and in the (hops about it may
be had the produce of Europe, China, Bengal, and
other countries of lefs note. Every church has a fe.t
*■ of bells, fome of which are continually ringing.
There are a great many Indian converts; but they
generally retain fome of their old cuftoms, parti¬
cularly they cannot be brought to eat beef. The
clergy are very numerous* and illiterate; but the
churches are finely embelliffied, and have great num- Goa
bers of images. In one of thefe churches, dedicated to II
Bon Jefus, is the chapel of St Francifco de Xaviere, Roat‘
whofe tomb it contains : this chapel is a moft fuperb
and magnificent place ; the tomb of the faint is entire¬
ly of fine black marble, brought from Lilbon ; on the
four fides of it the principal aftions of the life of the
Saint are moft elegantly carved in baflb relievo ; thefe
repreffffT his converting the different nations to the
Catholic faith : the figures are done to the life, and
moft admirably executed: it extends to the top in a
pyramidical form, which terminates with a coronet of
mother-of-pearl. On the fides of this chapel are ex¬
cellent paintings, done by Italian mafters; the fubje&s
chiefly from fcripture. This tomb, and the chapel ap¬
pertaining to it, muft have coft an immenfe fum of mo¬
ney ; the Portuguefe juftly efteem it the greateft rarity
in the place. The houfes are large, and make a fine
{hew ; but within they are but poorly furniffied. The
inhabitants are contented with greens, fruits, and
roots ; which, with a little bread, rice, and fifti, is
their principal diet, though they have hogs and fowls
in plenty. The river’s mouth is defended by feveral
forts and batteries, well planted with large cannon on
both fides ; and there are feveral other forts in different
places.
Goa is the refidence of a captain-general, who lives
in great fplendor. He is alfo commander in chief of
all the Portuguefe forces in the Eaft Indies. They*
have here two regiments of European infantry, three
legions of fepoys, three troops of native light horfe,
and a militia ; in all about five thoufand men. Goa
is at prefent 00 the decline, and in little or no eftima-
tion with the country powers ; indeed their bigotry
and fuperftitious attachment to their faith is fo gene¬
ral, that the inhabitants, formerly populous, are now
reduced to a few thinly inhabited villages; the chief
part of w’hom have been baptized : for they will not
fuffer any Muffulman or Gentoo to live within the
precindls of the city ; and thefe few are unable to car¬
ry on the hull) an dry or manufa&ures of the co\mtry..
The court of Portugal is obliged to fend out annually
a very large fum of money, to defray the eurreat ex-
pences of the government; which money is generally
{wallowed up by the convents and foldiery.
There was formerly an inquifition at this place, but
it is now aboliffied ; the building ftill remains, and by
its -black outfide appears a fit emblem of the cruel and
bloody tran fait ions that paflfed within its walls ! Pro-
vifions are to be had at this place in great plenty and
perfeilion. E. Long. 74. o. N. Lat. 15. 31.
GOAL. See Gaol.
GOAT, in zoology. See Capra.
GoAx’s-iforn/, in botany. See Tragopogon.
GoAT-Suc£er, in ornithology. Sec Caprimulgcs.
END OF THE SEVENTH VOLUME.
ERRATA.
Page 638, col. 2. margin. T
643, col. 1, 2. margin, f For piate CCX]ft rcad piate ccx>
045, col. x. margin. I
653, col. 1. J
652, col. 2. margin. For Plate CCX. fig. 1. read Plate CCXI. fig. t.
660, col. 1. For Plate CCX. fig. 2. read Plate CCXI. fig. 1.
660, col. 2. line 22. from bottom. For fig. 1. read fig. 2.
661, col. 2. line 14. For fig. 1. read fig. 2.
DIRECTIONS Fok placing the PLATES of VOL.VII.
Part I.
Plate
CLXXXIV. to face
CLXXXV.
CLXXXVI.
CLXXXVII.
CLXXXVIII.
CLXXXIX.
CXC.
CXCI.
CXC II.
CXCIIL
CXCIV.
CXCV.
CXCVI.
CXCVII.
CXCVIII.
CXCIX.
CC. 1
CCI. I
Page
37
40
169
172
192
196
280
292
316
349
364
366
368
Plate
CCII. to face
CCI II.
CCLV.
CCV.
CCVI.
CCVlI.
ccyiii.
cefx. ?
ccx. 5
CCXI.
CCXII.
CCXIII.
CCXIV.
CCXV..
CCXVI.
CCXVII.
CCXVIII.
CCXIX.
CCXX.
CCXXI.
v. 5
Part II.
Page
44®
49 2
568
524
543
561
588
650
657
662
663
668
672
677
768
792
[In all, 38 Plates.]
'",7
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